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JA310114-002 ISBN 0-88487-500-8 Printed in Germany
ii Operational Procedures (Rev Q407)

PREFACE_______________________
As the world moves toward a single standard for international pilot licensing, many nations have
adopted the syllabi and regulations of the “Joint Aviation Requirements-Flight Crew Licensing"
(JAR-FCL), the licensing agency of the Joint Aviation Authorities (JAA).
Though training and licensing requirements of individual national aviation authorities are similar in
content and scope to the JAA curriculum, individuals who wish to train for JAA licences need
access to study materials which have been specifically designed to meet the requirements of the
JAA licensing system. The volumes in this series aim to cover the subject matter tested in the
JAA ATPL ground examinations as set forth in the ATPL training syllabus, contained in the JAA
publication, “JAR-FCL 1 (Aeroplanes)”.
The JAA regulations specify that all those who wish to obtain a JAA ATPL must study with a
flying training organisation (FTO) which has been granted approval by a JAA-authorised national
aviation authority to deliver JAA ATPL training. While the formal responsibility to prepare you for
both the skill tests and the ground examinations lies with the FTO, these Jeppesen manuals will
provide a comprehensive and necessary background for your formal training.
Jeppesen is acknowledged as the world's leading supplier of flight information services, and
provides a full range of print and electronic flight information services, including navigation data,
computerised flight planning, aviation software products, aviation weather services, maintenance
information, and pilot training systems and supplies. Jeppesen counts among its customer base
all US airlines and the majority of international airlines worldwide. It also serves the large general
and business aviation markets. These manuals enable you to draw on Jeppesen’s vast
experience as an acknowledged expert in the development and publication of pilot training
materials.
We at Jeppesen wish you success in your flying and training, and we are confident that your
study of these manuals will be of great value in preparing for the JAA ATPL ground examinations.
The next three pages contain a list and content description of all the volumes in the ATPL series.
Operational Procedures (Rev Q407) iii

ATPL Series
Meteorology (JAR Ref 050)
• The Atmosphere • Air Masses and Fronts
• Wind • Pressure System
• Thermodynamics • Climatology
• Clouds and Fog • Flight Hazards
• Precipitation • Meteorological Information
General Navigation (JAR Ref 061)

• Basics of Navigation • Dead Reckoning Navigation
• Magnetism • In-Flight Navigation
• Compasses • Inertial Navigation Systems
• Charts
Radio Navigation (JAR Ref 062)

• Radio Aids • Basic Radar Principles
• Self-contained and • Area Navigation Systems
External-Referenced • Basic Radio Propagation Theory
Navigation Systems
Airframes and Systems (JAR Ref 021 01)

• Fuselage • Hydraulics
• Windows • Pneumatic Systems
• Wings • Air Conditioning System
• Stabilising Surfaces • Pressurisation
• Landing Gear • De-Ice / Anti-Ice Systems
• Flight Controls • Fuel Systems
Powerplant (JAR Ref 021 03)

• Piston Engine • Engine Systems
• Turbine Engine • Auxiliary Power Unit (APU)
• Engine Construction
Electrics (JAR Ref 021 02)

• Direct Current • Generator / Alternator
• Alternating Current • Semiconductors
• Batteries • Circuits
• Magnetism
iv Operational Procedures (Rev Q407)

Instrumentation (JAR Ref 022)
• Flight Instruments
• Automatic Flight Control Systems
• Warning and Recording Equipment
• Powerplant and System Monitoring Instruments
Principles of Flight (JAR Ref 080)

• Laws and Definitions • Boundary Layer
• Aerofoil Airflow • High Speed Flight
• Aeroplane Airflow • Stability
• Lift Coefficient • Flying Controls
• Total Drag • Adverse Weather Conditions
• Ground Effect • Propellers
• Stall • Operating Limitations
• CLMAX Augmentation • Flight Mechanics
• Lift Coefficient and Speed
Performance (JAR Ref 032)

• Single-Engine Aeroplanes – Not certified under JAR/FAR 25
(Performance Class B)
• Multi-Engine Aeroplanes – Not certified under JAR/FAR 25
(Performance Class B)
• Aeroplanes certified under JAR/FAR 25 (Performance Class A)
Mass and Balance (JAR Ref 031)

• Definition and Terminology
• Limits
• Loading
• Centre of Gravity
Flight Planning (JAR Ref 033)

• Flight Plan for Cross-Country • Meteorological Messages
Flights • Point of Equal Time
• ICAO ATC Flight Planning • Point of Safe Return
• IFR (Airways) Flight Planning • Medium Range Jet Transport
• Jeppesen Airway Manual Planning
Air Law (JAR Ref 010)

• International Agreements • Air Traffic Services
and Organisations • Aerodromes
• Annex 8 – Airworthiness of • Facilitation
Aircraft • Search and Rescue
• Annex 7 – Aircraft Nationality • Security
and Registration Marks • Aircraft Accident Investigation
• Annex 1 – Licensing • JAR-FCL
• Rules of the Air • National Law
• Procedures for Air Navigation
Operational Procedures (Rev Q407) v

Human Performance and
Limitations (JAR Ref 040)
• Human Factors
• Aviation Physiology and Health Maintenance
• Aviation Psychology
Operational Procedures (JAR Ref 070)

• Operator • Low Visibility Operations
• Air Operations Certificate • Special Operational Procedures
• Flight Operations and Hazards
• Aerodrome Operating Minima • Transoceanic and Polar Flight
Communications (JAR Ref 090)

• Definitions • Distress and Urgency
• General Operation Procedures Procedures
• Relevant Weather Information • Aerodrome Control
• Communication Failure • Approach Control
• VHF Propagation • Area Control
• Allocation of Frequencies
vi Operational Procedures (Rev Q407)

Table of Contents
CHAPTER 1
Definitions
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 1-1

Terms........................................................................................................................................................... 1-1
CHAPTER 2
The Operator and the Air Operations Certificate
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 2-1

Certification .................................................................................................................................................. 2-1
Operator....................................................................................................................................................... 2-1
General Rules for Certification ..................................................................................................................... 2-1
Conditions to be Met for Issue ..................................................................................................................... 2-2
Variation and Validity of an AOC.................................................................................................................. 2-2
Quality System............................................................................................................................................. 2-2
Responsibilities ............................................................................................................................................ 2-2
Operator Responsibilities ............................................................................................................................. 2-3
Familiarity with Rules and Regulations ........................................................................................................ 2-3
Responsibilities for Flight Operations........................................................................................................... 2-3
Operator Responsibilities ............................................................................................................................. 2-4
Concerning Passengers............................................................................................................................... 2-4
Carriage of Passengers and Cargo.............................................................................................................. 2-4
Special Considerations for Special Passenger Categories .......................................................................... 2-4
Persons on the Flight Deck .......................................................................................................................... 2-4
Safety Concerns .......................................................................................................................................... 2-5
Documents................................................................................................................................................... 2-5
Flight Documents ......................................................................................................................................... 2-5
Documentation to be Kept on the Ground.................................................................................................... 2-6
Preservation of Documents.......................................................................................................................... 2-6
Commercial Practices and Associated Rules............................................................................................... 2-8
Leasing ........................................................................................................................................................ 2-8
Leasing of Aeroplanes between JAA Operators .......................................................................................... 2-9
Leasing of Aeroplanes between a JAA Operator and Any Body Other Than a JAA Operator ..................... 2-9
Leasing of Aeroplanes at Short Notice....................................................................................................... 2-10
Aeroplane Maintenance ............................................................................................................................. 2-10
CHAPTER 3
Flights Operations
The Operations Manual (OM) ...................................................................................................................... 3-1

Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 3-1
Content ........................................................................................................................................................ 3-1
Acceptability................................................................................................................................................. 3-1
Usability ....................................................................................................................................................... 3-2
Procedures................................................................................................................................................... 3-3
Taxiing of Aircraft ......................................................................................................................................... 3-3
Minimum Equipment List (MEL) ................................................................................................................... 3-3
Master MEL (MMEL) .................................................................................................................................... 3-3
Flight Preparation......................................................................................................................................... 3-4
Documentation............................................................................................................................................. 3-4
Operational Flight Planning.......................................................................................................................... 3-4
Passenger Briefings ..................................................................................................................................... 3-5
Passenger Seat Belts................................................................................................................................... 3-5
Smoking on Board Aeroplanes .................................................................................................................... 3-5
Refuelling with Passengers on Board .......................................................................................................... 3-5
Oxygen Supply............................................................................................................................................. 3-5
Aeroplane Flight Crew.................................................................................................................................. 3-6
General ........................................................................................................................................................ 3-6
Operational Procedures (Rev Q407) vii

Table of Contents
CHAPTER 3 (continued)
Commander/Pilot in Command .................................................................................................................... 3-6

Duties........................................................................................................................................................... 3-7
Co-pilot......................................................................................................................................................... 3-7
Cruise Relief Crew ....................................................................................................................................... 3-7
Flight Engineer (System Panel Operator) .................................................................................................... 3-7
Flight Navigator ............................................................................................................................................ 3-7
Pilot Proficiency Checks............................................................................................................................... 3-8
Line Checks ................................................................................................................................................. 3-8
Emergency and Safety Equipment............................................................................................................... 3-8
Training and Checking ................................................................................................................................. 3-8
Duty Stations................................................................................................................................................ 3-8
Flight Operations Officer/Flight Dispatcher (FOPSO/FDO) .......................................................................... 3-9
In-Flight Operational Instructions ................................................................................................................. 3-9
Journey Log ................................................................................................................................................. 3-9
Aircraft Flight Manual ................................................................................................................................. 3-10
CHAPTER 4
Operational Planning
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 4-1

Alternate Aerodromes .................................................................................................................................. 4-1
Take-Off Alternate........................................................................................................................................ 4-1
Destination Alternate.................................................................................................................................... 4-2
All Aeroplanes .............................................................................................................................................. 4-2
Propeller-Driven Aeroplanes ........................................................................................................................ 4-2
Aeroplanes equipped with Turbo-jet Engines............................................................................................... 4-3
Weather Conditions...................................................................................................................................... 4-4
VMC ............................................................................................................................................................. 4-4
VMC JAR OPS Criteria ................................................................................................................................ 4-5
Selection of the Route.................................................................................................................................. 4-5
Criteria ......................................................................................................................................................... 4-5
Adequate Aerodromes ................................................................................................................................. 4-5
ETOPS......................................................................................................................................................... 4-6
Performance Class A ................................................................................................................................... 4-6
Performance Class B or C ........................................................................................................................... 4-6
Ditching Considerations ............................................................................................................................... 4-7
Landing Requirements ................................................................................................................................. 4-7
Performance Class A ................................................................................................................................... 4-7
Performance Class B and C......................................................................................................................... 4-7
Minimum Time Routes ................................................................................................................................. 4-7
Commander’s Considerations ...................................................................................................................... 4-8
Filing the ATS Flight Plan (FPL)................................................................................................................... 4-8
Flights Subject to Air Traffic Flow Management (ATFM).............................................................................. 4-9
Flights into Oceanic Airspace....................................................................................................................... 4-9
viii Operational Procedures (Rev Q407)

Table of Contents
CHAPTER 5
The Aeroplane
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 5-1

Basic Requirements ..................................................................................................................................... 5-1
Internal Doors and Curtains ......................................................................................................................... 5-1
First Aid Kits................................................................................................................................................. 5-2
Hand-Held Fire Extinguishers ...................................................................................................................... 5-2
Break-in Markings ........................................................................................................................................ 5-3
Cockpit Voice Recorders (CVRs)................................................................................................................. 5-3
Data Recorded............................................................................................................................................. 5-4
CVRs – Operation, Construction and Installation......................................................................................... 5-4
Flight Data Recorders (FDRs)...................................................................................................................... 5-5
Parameters Recorded .................................................................................................................................. 5-5
Data Link Communications .......................................................................................................................... 5-5
Recording Duration ...................................................................................................................................... 5-5
Construction and Installation........................................................................................................................ 5-6
Operation of FDRS ...................................................................................................................................... 5-6
Combination Recorders ............................................................................................................................... 5-6
Flight Recorder Records .............................................................................................................................. 5-6
Equipment for Compliance with Flight Rules................................................................................................ 5-6
Controlled VFR Flights ................................................................................................................................. 5-6
Compliance with IFR .................................................................................................................................... 5-7
Standby Horizon .......................................................................................................................................... 5-7
Night Operations .......................................................................................................................................... 5-8
Flights Over Water ....................................................................................................................................... 5-8
Long Range Flights ...................................................................................................................................... 5-9
Remote Areas .............................................................................................................................................. 5-9
Weather Radar............................................................................................................................................. 5-9
Radiation Monitoring Indicator ................................................................................................................... 5-10
Machmeter ................................................................................................................................................. 5-10
Ground Proximity Warning System (GPWS).............................................................................................. 5-10
Communications Equipment ...................................................................................................................... 5-10
Internal Communications ........................................................................................................................... 5-11
Audio Selector Panel (ASP) ....................................................................................................................... 5-11
Navigation Equipment ................................................................................................................................ 5-11
Instrument Procedures............................................................................................................................... 5-11
Installation.................................................................................................................................................. 5-12
Electrical Circuit Fusing.............................................................................................................................. 5-12
Windshield Wipers ..................................................................................................................................... 5-12
Emergency and Survival Equipment .......................................................................................................... 5-12
Performance and Operating Limitations..................................................................................................... 5-12
Factors Affecting Aeroplane Performance ................................................................................................. 5-12
Mass Limitations ........................................................................................................................................ 5-12
Take-Off ..................................................................................................................................................... 5-13
Enroute — One Power-Unit Inoperative..................................................................................................... 5-13
Enroute — Two Power-Units Inoperative ................................................................................................... 5-13
Landing ...................................................................................................................................................... 5-13
Aeroplane Performance Operating Limitations .......................................................................................... 5-13
Operational Procedures (Rev Q407) ix

Table of Contents
CHAPTER 6
Operating the Aeroplane
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 6-1

Performance Considerations – Enroute ....................................................................................................... 6-1
Performance Class A – One Engine Inoperative.......................................................................................... 6-1
Compliance .................................................................................................................................................. 6-2
Performance Class A – Aeroplanes with Three or More Engines, Two Engines Inoperative ....................... 6-3
Performance Class B – Multi-Engine Aeroplanes ........................................................................................ 6-4
Performance Class B – Single-Engine Aeroplanes ...................................................................................... 6-4
Performance Class C – All Engines Operating ............................................................................................ 6-4
Performance Class C – One Engine Inoperative.......................................................................................... 6-4
Performance Class C – Aeroplanes with Three or More Engines, Two Engines Inoperative....................... 6-5
Selection of Cruising Speed and Altitude ..................................................................................................... 6-5
Endurance.................................................................................................................................................... 6-5
Maximum Range .......................................................................................................................................... 6-5
Shortest Time............................................................................................................................................... 6-6
CHAPTER 7
Aerodrome Operating Minima
and Low Visibility Operations
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 7-1

Aircraft Categorisation.................................................................................................................................. 7-1
Terminology ................................................................................................................................................. 7-2
Take-Off Minima........................................................................................................................................... 7-3
General ........................................................................................................................................................ 7-3
Visual Reference.......................................................................................................................................... 7-3
Required RVR/Visibility ................................................................................................................................ 7-3
Non-Precision Approach System Minima..................................................................................................... 7-5
Minimum Descent Height ............................................................................................................................. 7-5
Required RVR .............................................................................................................................................. 7-6
Precision Approach - Category I Operations ................................................................................................ 7-7
General ........................................................................................................................................................ 7-7
Decision Height ............................................................................................................................................ 7-7
Required RVR .............................................................................................................................................. 7-8
Single Pilot Operations................................................................................................................................. 7-8
Precision Approach - Category II Operations ............................................................................................... 7-9
General ........................................................................................................................................................ 7-9
Decision Height ............................................................................................................................................ 7-9
Required RVR ............................................................................................................................................ 7-10
Precision Approach - Category III Operations ............................................................................................ 7-10
General ...................................................................................................................................................... 7-10
Category IIIA Operations............................................................................................................................ 7-10
Category IIIB Operations............................................................................................................................ 7-10
Category IIIC Operations ........................................................................................................................... 7-10
Decision Height .......................................................................................................................................... 7-10
No Decision Height Operations .................................................................................................................. 7-11
Visual Reference........................................................................................................................................ 7-11
Required RVR ............................................................................................................................................ 7-11
Circling ....................................................................................................................................................... 7-12
Visual Approach ......................................................................................................................................... 7-12
Conversion of Reported Meteorological Visibility to RVR........................................................................... 7-12
Low Visibility Operations ............................................................................................................................ 7-12
General Operating Rules ........................................................................................................................... 7-12
LV Take-off ................................................................................................................................................ 7-12
x Operational Procedures (Rev Q407)

Table of Contents
Aerodrome Considerations ........................................................................................................................ 7-13

Operating Procedures ................................................................................................................................ 7-13
Minimum Equipment .................................................................................................................................. 7-13
Commencement and Continuation of Approach ........................................................................................ 7-13
Controlling RVR ......................................................................................................................................... 7-13
Special VFR ............................................................................................................................................... 7-14
CHAPTER 8
Special Operational Procedures and Hazards
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 8-1

Ice and Other Contaminants ........................................................................................................................ 8-1
Icing ............................................................................................................................................................. 8-1
Ice Removal ................................................................................................................................................. 8-2
De-Icing on the Ground................................................................................................................................ 8-2
De-Icing/Anti-Icing Fluids ............................................................................................................................. 8-3
Holdover Times............................................................................................................................................ 8-3
Fire and Smoke............................................................................................................................................ 8-4
Fire............................................................................................................................................................... 8-4
Carburettor Fire............................................................................................................................................ 8-4
Engine Fire................................................................................................................................................... 8-4
Hand Fire Extinguishers............................................................................................................................... 8-5
Class of Fires ............................................................................................................................................... 8-6
Fire Detection............................................................................................................................................... 8-6
Brake Overheat............................................................................................................................................ 8-6
Crash Axes and Crowbars ........................................................................................................................... 8-6
Smoke ......................................................................................................................................................... 8-6
Smoke in the Cargo Compartment............................................................................................................... 8-6
Security Requirements................................................................................................................................. 8-7
Training Programmes................................................................................................................................... 8-7
Aeroplane Search Procedure Checklist ....................................................................................................... 8-7
Reporting Acts of Unlawful Interference....................................................................................................... 8-7
Aeroplane Search Procedure Checklist ....................................................................................................... 8-7
Flight Crew Compartment Security .............................................................................................................. 8-7
Weapons...................................................................................................................................................... 8-7
Unlawful Interference – Annex 2 .................................................................................................................. 8-7
Procedures If the Aircraft Is Unable To Notify an ATS Unit.......................................................................... 8-8
Annex 14 - Isolated Aircraft Parking Position ............................................................................................... 8-8
Annex 17 - Response to Acts of Unlawful Interference ................................................................................ 8-8
Annex 17 - Bomb Threats ............................................................................................................................ 8-9
Fuel Jettisoning System ............................................................................................................................. 8-10
Fuel Jettisoning Procedures....................................................................................................................... 8-10
Pressurisation Failure ................................................................................................................................ 8-11
Windshear and Microburst Definitions and the Meteorological Background .............................................. 8-13
Low Altitude Windshear ............................................................................................................................. 8-13
Meteorological Features............................................................................................................................. 8-13
Thunderstorms........................................................................................................................................... 8-13
Frontal Passage......................................................................................................................................... 8-14
Inversions................................................................................................................................................... 8-14
Turbulent Boundary Layer.......................................................................................................................... 8-14
Topographical Windshear .......................................................................................................................... 8-14
The Effects of Windshear on an Aircraft in Flight ....................................................................................... 8-15
Summary.................................................................................................................................................... 8-16
Techniques to Counter the Effects of Windshear....................................................................................... 8-16
Wake Turbulence....................................................................................................................................... 8-18
Aircraft Wake Vortex Characteristics ......................................................................................................... 8-18
Wake Vortex Avoidance – Advice to Pilots ................................................................................................ 8-18
Wake Turbulence Spacing ......................................................................................................................... 8-19
Wake Turbulence Spacing Minima – Displaced Landing Threshold .......................................................... 8-20
Operational Procedures (Rev Q407) xi

Table of Contents
Wake Turbulence Spacing Minima – Opposite Direction ........................................................................... 8-20

Wake Turbulence Spacing Minima – Crossing and Parallel Runways ....................................................... 8-20
Wake Turbulence Spacing Minima – Intermediate Approach .................................................................... 8-20
Transport of Dangerous Goods by Air........................................................................................................ 8-21
Terminology ............................................................................................................................................... 8-21
Dangerous Goods Categories.................................................................................................................... 8-24
Requirements............................................................................................................................................. 8-24
Dangerous Goods on an Aeroplane for Operating Reasons...................................................................... 8-24
Loading Restrictions................................................................................................................................... 8-24
Cargo Compartments................................................................................................................................. 8-25
Packing and Labelling ................................................................................................................................ 8-25
Information for Passengers and Other Persons ......................................................................................... 8-25
Information to Crew Members .................................................................................................................... 8-25
Information to the Commander................................................................................................................... 8-25
Information in the Event of an Aeroplane Incident or Accident................................................................... 8-25
Contaminated Runways ............................................................................................................................. 8-26
Terminology ............................................................................................................................................... 8-26
Aquaplaning (Hydroplaning)....................................................................................................................... 8-26
Stationary Tyre........................................................................................................................................... 8-27
Recommendations ..................................................................................................................................... 8-27
Wheel Braking on Wet Runways................................................................................................................ 8-28
Interpretation .............................................................................................................................................. 8-28
Snow, Slush, or Ice on a Runway .............................................................................................................. 8-28
SNOWTAM ................................................................................................................................................ 8-29
Bird Hazard Reduction ............................................................................................................................... 8-31
Bird Hazards and Strikes ........................................................................................................................... 8-31
IBIS ............................................................................................................................................................ 8-31
Noise Abatement Procedures .................................................................................................................... 8-32
Noise Preferential Runways ....................................................................................................................... 8-32
Noise Preferential Routes .......................................................................................................................... 8-33
Noise Abatement Departure Procedure 1 (NADP1) ................................................................................... 8-34
Noise Abatement Departure Procedure 2 (NADP2) ................................................................................... 8-35
Noise Abatement on Approach .................................................................................................................. 8-36
Stabilised Approach ................................................................................................................................... 8-36
CHAPTER 9
TRANSOCEANIC AND POLAR FLIGHT
Operational Approval and Aircraft System Requirements for Flight in the NAT MNPS Airspace ................. 9-1
Minimum Navigation Performance Specification Airspace (MNPSA) ........................................................... 9-1
RVSM........................................................................................................................................................... 9-2
Abbreviations ............................................................................................................................................... 9-2
General ........................................................................................................................................................ 9-3
Emergency Locator Transmitters (ELT) ....................................................................................................... 9-3
Navigation Requirements for Unrestricted MNPS Airspace Operations....................................................... 9-3
Longitudinal Navigation................................................................................................................................ 9-3
Lateral Navigation ........................................................................................................................................ 9-3
Routes for Aircraft with Only One LRNS ...................................................................................................... 9-4
Routes for Aircraft with Short-Range Navigation Equipment Only ............................................................... 9-4
Special Arrangements for the Penetration of MNPS Airspace by Non-MNPS Approved Aircraft................. 9-4
Equipment Required For Operations at RVSM Levels ................................................................................. 9-4
Special Arrangements for Non-RVSM Approved Aircraft ............................................................................. 9-5
Climb/Descent through RVSM Levels .......................................................................................................... 9-5
Operation at RVSM Levels........................................................................................................................... 9-5
xii Operational Procedures (Rev Q407)

Table of Contents
CHAPTER 10
The Organised Track System (OTS)
General ...................................................................................................................................................... 10-1

Mach Number Technique........................................................................................................................... 10-1
Description of Terms .................................................................................................................................. 10-1
Objective .................................................................................................................................................... 10-1
Procedures in NAT Oceanic Airspace........................................................................................................ 10-1
Procedure after Leaving Oceanic Airspace................................................................................................ 10-2
Construction of the Organised Track System (OTS).................................................................................. 10-2
The NAT Track Message ........................................................................................................................... 10-2
NAT Track Message Content..................................................................................................................... 10-2
Periods of Validity ...................................................................................................................................... 10-3
OTS Changeover Period............................................................................................................................ 10-3
CHAPTER 11
The Polar Track Structure (PTS)
General ...................................................................................................................................................... 11-1

Abbreviated Clearances............................................................................................................................. 11-1
Abbreviated Position Reports..................................................................................................................... 11-1
Polar Track Structure (PTS)....................................................................................................................... 11-2
CHAPTER 12
Other Routes and Route Structures Within or Adjacent to NAT MNPS Airspace
General ...................................................................................................................................................... 12-1

Other Routes within NAT MNPS Airspace ................................................................................................. 12-1
Route Structures Adjacent to NAT MNPS Airspace ................................................................................... 12-1
Irish/UK Domestic Route Structures .......................................................................................................... 12-1
North American Routes (NARs) ................................................................................................................. 12-1
Routes Between North America and the Caribbean Area .......................................................................... 12-2
Shannon Oceanic Transition Area (SOTA) ................................................................................................ 12-2
Brest Oceanic Transition Area (BOTA) ...................................................................................................... 12-2
CHAPTER 13
Flight Planning for NAT Routes
Preferred Route Messages (PRMS) .......................................................................................................... 13-1

Flight Plan Requirements........................................................................................................................... 13-1
Routings..................................................................................................................................................... 13-1
Flight Levels............................................................................................................................................... 13-2
Appropriate Direction Levels ...................................................................................................................... 13-2
ATC Flight Plans ........................................................................................................................................ 13-2
Filing .......................................................................................................................................................... 13-2
Approved Flights ........................................................................................................................................ 13-2
Mach Number and Speed .......................................................................................................................... 13-2
Flights Planning on the Organised Track System ...................................................................................... 13-2
Flights Planning on Random Route Segments at/or South of 70°N ........................................................... 13-3
Flights Planning on a Generally Eastbound or Westbound Direction
on Random Route Segments North of 70°N........................................................................................... 13-3
Flights Planning on Random Routes in a Generally Northbound or Southbound Direction ....................... 13-3
Flights Planning on the Polar Track Structure (PTS) ................................................................................. 13-3
Flights Planning to Operate Without HF Communications ......................................................................... 13-3
Operational Procedures (Rev Q407) xiii

Table of Contents
CHAPTER 14
Oceanic ATC Clearances
General ...................................................................................................................................................... 14-1

Performance Limitation .............................................................................................................................. 14-1
Clearance Delivery..................................................................................................................................... 14-1
Critical Failure ............................................................................................................................................ 14-1
ETA at OCA Boundary ............................................................................................................................... 14-1
Different Route ........................................................................................................................................... 14-2
Clearance Elements................................................................................................................................... 14-2
Clearance Not Received ............................................................................................................................ 14-2
Contents of Clearances.............................................................................................................................. 14-3
Oceanic Clearances for Flights Intending To Operate Within the NAT Region and
Subsequently Enter the EUR or NAM Regions....................................................................................... 14-3
Oceanic Clearances for Random Flights Intending To Operate Within the NAT Region and
Subsequently Enter Regions Other Than NAM or EUR ......................................................................... 14-3
Oceanic Flights Originating From the CAR or SAM Regions and Entering NAT MNPS Airspace
via the New York OCA............................................................................................................................ 14-4
Errors Associated With Oceanic Clearances ............................................................................................. 14-4
Waypoint Insertion Errors........................................................................................................................... 14-4
ATC System Loop Error ............................................................................................................................. 14-4
CHAPTER 15
Communications and Position Reporting Procedures
HF Communications................................................................................................................................... 15-1
VHF Communications ................................................................................................................................ 15-1
Time and Place of Position Reports ........................................................................................................... 15-1
Contents of Position Reports ..................................................................................................................... 15-1
Standard Message Types .......................................................................................................................... 15-2
Addressing of Position Reports .................................................................................................................. 15-2
“When Able Higher” (WAH) Reports .......................................................................................................... 15-2
Meteorological Reports .............................................................................................................................. 15-3
SELCAL ..................................................................................................................................................... 15-3
General Purpose VHF Communications (GP/VHF).................................................................................... 15-3
Data Link Communications ........................................................................................................................ 15-4
HF Communications Failure....................................................................................................................... 15-4
General ...................................................................................................................................................... 15-4
Communications Failure Prior to Entering NAT Region ............................................................................. 15-4
Communications Failure after Entering NAT Region.................................................................................. 15-5
Procedure .................................................................................................................................................. 15-5
Operation of Transponders ........................................................................................................................ 15-5
Airborne Collision Avoidance Systems (ACAS) ......................................................................................... 15-5
xiv Operational Procedures (Rev Q407)

Table of Contents
CHAPTER 16
MNPS Flight Operation and Navigation Procedures
Flight Operation ......................................................................................................................................... 16-1

Importance of Accurate Time ..................................................................................................................... 16-1
The Use of the Master Document .............................................................................................................. 16-1
GPS Operational Control Restrictions........................................................................................................ 16-2
Effects of Satellite Availability .................................................................................................................... 16-2
Flight Plan Check ....................................................................................................................................... 16-2
In Flight Procedures ................................................................................................................................... 16-2
ATC Oceanic Clearance ............................................................................................................................ 16-2
Navigation Procedures............................................................................................................................... 16-3
Entering the MNPS Airspace and Reaching an Oceanic Waypoint ........................................................... 16-3
Approaching Landfall ................................................................................................................................. 16-3
Avoiding Confusion between Magnetic and True Track Reference ........................................................... 16-3
Navigation in the Areas of Compass Unreliability ...................................................................................... 16-3
CHAPTER 17
Grid Navigation
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................ 17-1

Grid and Plotting on a Polar Chart ............................................................................................................. 17-1
Gyros and Inertial Systems ........................................................................................................................ 17-4
Precession ................................................................................................................................................. 17-4
Types of Gyro ............................................................................................................................................ 17-5
Space (or Free) Gyro ................................................................................................................................. 17-5
Tied (or Displacement) Gyro ...................................................................................................................... 17-5
Earth Gyro.................................................................................................................................................. 17-5
Rate Gyro................................................................................................................................................... 17-5
Rate Integrating Gyro................................................................................................................................. 17-5
Solid State (Ring Laser) Gyro .................................................................................................................... 17-5
Gyro Wander.............................................................................................................................................. 17-5
Real Wander .............................................................................................................................................. 17-5
Apparent Wander ....................................................................................................................................... 17-6
Horizontal Axis Gyro .................................................................................................................................. 17-6
Transport Wander ...................................................................................................................................... 17-7
Examples of Gyro Wander ......................................................................................................................... 17-7
CHAPTER 18
Procedures in the Event of Navigation System Degradation or Failure
General ...................................................................................................................................................... 18-1

Detection of Failures .................................................................................................................................. 18-1
Methods of Determining which System is Faulty........................................................................................ 18-1
Guidance on What Constitutes a Failed System........................................................................................ 18-2
GPS Satellite Fault Detection Outage ........................................................................................................ 18-2
Partial or Complete Loss of Navigation/FMS Capability by Aircraft Having State Approval for
Unrestricted Operations in MNPS Airspace............................................................................................ 18-2
Monitoring .................................................................................................................................................. 18-3
Complete Failure of Navigation Systems Computer .................................................................................. 18-3
Operational Procedures (Rev Q407) xv

Table of Contents
CHAPTER 19
Regional Supplementary Procedures
Doc 7030/4: North Atlantic (NAT) and European (EUR) Supps
North Atlantic (NAT) Region....................................................................................................................... 19-1

Introduction ................................................................................................................................................ 19-1
MNPS Specifications.................................................................................................................................. 19-1
Flight Planning ........................................................................................................................................... 19-1
Separation of Aircraft ................................................................................................................................. 19-1
Lateral Separation...................................................................................................................................... 19-1
Longitudinal Separation ............................................................................................................................. 19-2
Western Atlantic Route System (WATRS) ................................................................................................. 19-2
Operations Not Meeting the MNPS Airspace Except the WATRS ............................................................. 19-2
European (EUR) Region ............................................................................................................................ 19-3
Submission of Flight Plans ......................................................................................................................... 19-3
8.33 KHz Spacing ...................................................................................................................................... 19-3
Separation of Aircraft ................................................................................................................................. 19-3
Longitudinal Separation ............................................................................................................................. 19-3
Transfer of Radar Control .......................................................................................................................... 19-3
CHAPTER 20
In-Flight Contingencies
Emergency and Precautionary Landings ................................................................................................... 20-1

General ...................................................................................................................................................... 20-1
Ditching ...................................................................................................................................................... 20-1
Precautionary Landing ............................................................................................................................... 20-2
Passenger Briefing..................................................................................................................................... 20-2
Evacuation ................................................................................................................................................. 20-2
North Atlantic Procedures .......................................................................................................................... 20-3
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................ 20-3
General Procedures ................................................................................................................................... 20-3
Special Procedures .................................................................................................................................... 20-3
Wake Turbulence ....................................................................................................................................... 20-4
TCAS Alerts and Warnings ........................................................................................................................ 20-4
xvi Operational Procedures (Rev Q407)

We would like to thank and acknowledge:
For photographs and assistance
Page 1-9 Mr. Ashley Gibb
INTRODUCTION
The examinable subject Operational Procedures encompasses aspects of Air Law, Airworthiness
of Aircraft, requirements for the Issue of an Air Operators Certificate, and emergency procedures
as laid down in Annex 6 to the Chicago Convention and JAR OPS-1.
The Standards and Recommended Practices (SARPs) of Annex 6 (part 1) are applicable to
Operators authorised to carry out international commercial air transportation operations (both
scheduled and non-scheduled).
The pre-amble to JAR OPS-1 states that it has been issued with no national variants, hence it
may not contain all the information some authorities and organisations would like to see in the
document. As with all JARs, it is a ‘living’ document and is subject to frequent amendment and
updating. For this reason, the Learning objectives (LOs) for this subject are general rather than
specific in requiring the student to memorise the content of JAR OPS-1.
Annex 6 lays down the SARPs for Aircraft Operations and the student will be familiar with some
of the content from the study of Air Law.
Additional material is based on the current version 9 of the North Atlantic MNPS Operations
Manual, and from JAR 25 – Large Aeroplanes.
This text is based on JAR OPS-1 including amendment 5 dated March 2003. It is emphasised
that this text is not for use as a reference for operational procedures, only for examination
preparation. For matters relating to regulation, the reader must use a current version of the
document, amended to the current amendment state.
The Learning Objectives for 070 Operational Procedures require the student to familiarise
themselves with the definitions used in the reference documents, reproduced below.
TERMS
Aerial work
An aircraft operation in which an aircraft is used for specialised services such as agriculture,
construction, photography, surveying, observation and patrol, search and rescue, aerial
advertisement, etc.
Operational Procedures (Rev Q407) 1-1

Chapter 1 Definitions
Aerodrome
A defined area on land or water (including any buildings, installations, and equipment) intended
for use either wholly or in part for the arrival, departure, and surface movement of aircraft.
Aerodrome operating minima

The limits of usability of an aerodrome for:
¾ Take-off, expressed in terms of runway visual range and/or visibility and, if

necessary, cloud conditions;
¾ Landing in precision approach and landing operations, expressed in terms of visibility
and/or runway visual range and decision altitude/height (DA/H) as appropriate to the
category of the operation; and
¾ Landing in non-precision approach and landing operations, expressed in terms of
visibility and/or runway visual range, minimum descent altitude/height (MDA/H) and, if
necessary, cloud conditions.
Aeroplane
A power-driven heavier-than-air aircraft, deriving its lift in flight chiefly from aerodynamic reactions
on surfaces which remain fixed under given conditions of flight.
Aircraft
Any machine that can derive support in the atmosphere from the reactions of the air other than
the reactions of the air against the Earth’s surface.
Aircraft operating manual

A manual acceptable to the State of the Operator, containing normal, abnormal and emergency
procedures, checklists, limitations, performance information, details of the aircraft systems and
other material relevant to the operation of the aircraft. The aircraft operating manual is part of the
operations manual.
Air operator certificate (AOC)

A certificate authorising an operator to carry out specified commercial air transport operations.
Alternate aerodrome
The aerodrome an aircraft proceeds to when it becomes either impossible or inadvisable to
proceed to, or to land at, the aerodrome of intended landing. Alternate aerodromes include the
following:
Take-off alternate
An alternate aerodrome at which an aircraft can land, if necessary shortly after take-off
and it is not possible to use the aerodrome of departure.
Enroute alternate
An aerodrome at which an aircraft is able to land after experiencing an abnormal or
emergency condition while enroute.
ETOPS enroute alternate

A suitable and appropriate alternate aerodrome at which an aeroplane is able to land
after experiencing an engine shut-down or other abnormal or emergency condition while
enroute in an ETOPS operation.
1-2 Operational Procedures (Rev Q407)

Definitions Chapter 1
Destination alternate
An alternate aerodrome that an aircraft may proceed to if it becomes either impossible or
inadvisable to land at the intended aerodrome.
Note: The aerodrome that a flight departs from may also be an enroute or a destination
alternate aerodrome for that flight.
Approved by the Authority (JAR)

Approval given by a JAA regulatory National Aviation Authority for compliance with the approved
standard or procedure.
Approved Standard (JAR)

A manufacturing/design/maintenance/quality standard approved by the Authority.
Cabin attendant
A crewmember who performs, in the interest of safety of passengers, duties assigned by the
operator or the pilot-in-command of the aircraft, but who shall not act as a flight crewmember.
Commercial air transport operation

An aircraft operation involving the transport of passengers, cargo, or mail for remuneration or
hire.
Configuration deviation list (CDL)

A list established by the organisation responsible for the type design with the approval of the
State of Design which identifies any external parts of an aircraft type which may be missing at the
commencement of a flight , and contains, where necessary, any information on associated
operating limitations and performance correction.
Crewmember
A person assigned by an operator to duty on all aircraft during flight time.
Cruising level
A level maintained during a significant portion of a flight.
Dangerous goods
Articles or substances capable of posing significant risk to health, safety, or property when
transported by air.
Decision altitude (DA) or decision height (DH)

A specified altitude or height, during a precision approach, at which a missed approach must be
initiated if the required visual reference to continue the approach has not been established.
Decision altitude (DA) is referenced to mean sea level, and decision height (DH) is referenced to
the threshold elevation.

Decision Point
Decision: Missed Approach
Decision Height (DH) Decision: Land

Runway
The required visual reference means that section of the visual aids or of the approach area which
must be in view for sufficient time for the pilot to assess the aircraft position and rate of change of
position, in relation to the desired flight path. In Category III operations with a decision height, the
required visual reference is that specified for the particular procedure and operation.
For convenience, when using both expressions, they may be written in the form “decision
altitude/height” and abbreviated DA/H.
Emergency locator transmitter (ELT)

Generic term describing equipment that broadcasts distinctive signals on designated frequencies
and, depending on application, may either sense a crash and operate automatically or be
manually activated. An ELT may be any of the following:
Automatic fixed ELT (ELT (AF))

An ELT permanently attached to an aircraft.
Automatic portable ELT (ELT (AP))

An ELT, rigidly attached to an aircraft, but readily removable from the aircraft after a
crash.
Automatically deployable ELT (ELT (AD))

An ELT rigidly attached to an aircraft, and deployed automatically in response to a crash.
Also possible is manual deployment.
Survival ELT (ELT(S))

An ELT, removable from an aircraft and stowed, facilitates its ready use in an emergency
and activated by survivors. Automatic activation may apply.
Flight crewmember
A licensed crewmember charged with duties essential to the operation of an aircraft during flight
time.
Flight duty period

The total time from the moment a flight crewmember commences duty, immediately subsequent
to a rest period and prior to making a flight or a series of flights, to the moment the flight
crewmember is relieved of all duties having completed such flight or series of flights.

Flight manual
A manual, associated with the certificate of airworthiness, containing limitations to consider the
aircraft airworthy, and instructions and information necessary to the flight crewmembers for the
safe operation of the aircraft.
Flight plan
Specified information provided to air traffic services units, relative to an intended flight or portion
of a flight of an aircraft.
Flight recorder
Any type of recorder installed in the aircraft for complementing accident/incident investigation.
Flight time
The total time from the moment an aircraft first moves under its own power for taking off until the
moment it comes to rest at the end of the flight. Flight time as defined here is synonymous with
the term “block to block” time or “chock to chock” time in general usage, measured from the time
an aircraft moves from the loading point until it stops at the unloading point.
General aviation operation

An aircraft operation other than a commercial air transport operation or an aerial work operation.
Human Factors principles

Principles which apply to aeronautical design, certification, training, operations, and maintenance
and which seek safe interface between the human and other system components by proper
consideration to human performance.
Human performance
Human capabilities and limitations affecting the safety and efficiency of aeronautical operations.
Instrument approach and landing operations

Instrument approach and landing operations using instrument approach procedures are classified
as follows:
Non-precision approach and landing operations

An instrument approach and landing which does not utilise electronic glide path
guidance.
Precision approach and landing operations

An instrument approach and landing using precision azimuth and glide path guidance
with minima as determined by the category of operation.

Categories of precision approach and landing operations:
Category I (CAT I) operation

A precision instrument approach and landing with a decision height not lower than 60 m
(200 ft) and with either a visibility not less than 800 m or a runway visual range not less
than 550 m.
Category II (CAT II) operation

A precision instrument approach and landing with a decision height lower than 60 m (200
ft), but not lower than 30 m (100 ft), and a runway visual range not less than 350 m.
Category IIIA (CAT IIIA) operation

A precision instrument approach and landing with:
¾ a decision height lower than 30 m (100 ft) or no decision height, and

¾ a runway visual range not less than 200 m.
Category IIIB (CAT IIIB) operation

A precision instrument approach and landing with:
¾ a decision height lower than 15 m (50 ft) or no decision height, and

¾ a runway visual range less than 200 m but not less than 50 m.
Category IIIC (CAT IIIC) operation

A precision instrument approach and landing with no decision height and no runway
visual range limitations.
Instrument meteorological conditions (IMC)

Meteorological conditions expressed in terms of visibility, distance from cloud, and ceiling, less
than the minima specified for visual meteorological conditions.
Large aeroplane
An aeroplane of a maximum certificated take-off mass of over 5700 kg.
Maintenance
Tasks required ensuring the continued airworthiness of an aircraft including any one or
combination of overhaul, repair, inspection, replacement, modification, or defect rectification.
Master minimum equipment list (MMEL)

A list established for a particular aircraft type by the organisation responsible for the type design
with the approval of the State of Design containing items, one or more of which is permitted as
unserviceable at the commencement of a flight. The MMEL may be associated with special
operating conditions, limitations, or procedures.
Maximum mass
Maximum certificated take-off mass.

Minimum descent altitude (MDA) or minimum descent height (MDH)

A specified altitude or height in a non-precision approach or circling approach below which
descent must not be made without the required visual reference.
Missed Approach
Point (MAPt) Decision: Missed Approach
Minimum Descent
Height (MDH) Decision: Land
Runway
Minimum equipment list (MEL)

A list providing for the operation of aircraft, subject to specified conditions, with particular
equipment inoperative, prepared by an operator in conformity with, or more restrictive than, the
MMEL established for the aircraft type.
Night
The hours between the end of evening civil twilight and the beginning of morning civil twilight or
such other period between sunset and sunrise, as prescribed by the appropriate authority.
Note: Civil twilight ends in the evening when the centre of the sun’s disc is 6 degrees below the
horizon and begins in the morning when the centre of the sun’s disc is 6 degrees below the
horizon.
Obstacle clearance altitude (OCA) or obstacle clearance height (OCH)

The lowest altitude, or the lowest height, above the elevation of the relevant runway threshold or
the aerodrome elevation, as applicable, for establishing compliance with appropriate obstacle
clearance criteria.
Operational control
The exercise of authority over the initiation, continuation, diversion, or termination of a flight in the
interest of the safety of the aircraft and the regularity and efficiency of the flight.
Operational flight plan

The operator’s plan for the safe conduct of the flight based on considerations of aeroplane
performance, other operating limitations and relevant expected conditions on the route to be
followed and at the relevant aerodromes.
Operations manual
A manual containing procedures, instructions, and guidance for use by operational personnel in
the execution of their duties.
Operator
A person, organisation, or enterprise engaged in or offering to engage in an aircraft operation.
Pilot-in-command
The pilot responsible for the operation and safety of the aircraft during flight time.

Pre-flight Inspection (JAR)

The inspection carried out before flight to ensure that the aeroplane is fitted for the intended flight.
It does not include any rectification of faults.
Pressure-altitude
An atmospheric pressure expressed in terms of altitude, which corresponds to that pressure in
the Standard Atmosphere.
Psychoactive substances
These include alcohol, opioids, cannabinoids, sedatives and hypnotics, cocaine, other psycho
stimulants (excluding coffee and tobacco), hallucinogens, and volatile solvents.
Required navigation performance (RNP)

A statement of the navigation performance necessary for operation within a defined airspace.
Navigation performance and requirements are defined for a particular RNP type and/or
application.
Rest period
Any period on the ground during which the operator relieves a flight crewmember of all duties.
RNP type
A containment value expressed as a distance in nautical miles from the intended position within
which flights are at least 95 per cent of the total flying time.
For example, RNP 4 represents a navigation accuracy of plus or minus 7.4 km (4 nm) on a 95 per
cent containment basis.
Runway visual range (RVR)

The range over which the pilot of an aircraft on the centre line of a runway can see the runway
surface markings or the lights delineating the runway or identifying its centre line.
Small aeroplane
An aeroplane with a maximum certificated take-off mass of 5700 kg or less.
State of Registry
The State on whose register the aircraft is entered.
State of the Operator

The State in which the operators principal place of business is located or, if there is no such place
of business, the operator’s permanent residence.

Synthetic flight trainer

Any one of the following three types of apparatus in which flight conditions are simulated on the
ground:
Flight simulator
Provides an accurate representation of the flight deck of a particular aircraft type to the
extent that the mechanical, electrical, etc., aircraft systems control functions, the normal
environment of flight crewmembers, and the performance and flight characteristics of that
type of aircraft are realistically simulated.
A full motion Boeing 737-200 simulator Inside a Boeing 737 NG simulator

Flight procedures trainer

Provides a realistic flight deck environment, and which simulates instrument responses,
simple control functions of mechanical, electrical, electronic, etc., aircraft systems, and
the performance and flight characteristics of aircraft of a particular class.
Paper procedures trainer
Basic instrument flight trainer

Equipped with appropriate instruments, and simulates the flight deck environment of an
aircraft in flight in instrument flight conditions.
Visual meteorological conditions (VMC)

Meteorological conditions expressed in terms of visibility, and distance from clouds.


Page 2-10
Page 2-11
INTRODUCTION
Operational procedures is based upon ICAO Annex 6 Part 1, International Commercial Air
Transportation - Aeroplanes. JAR-OPS 1 regulates further operators whose place of business is
in a JAA state, but it does not apply to military, customs and police operations, aerial work,
parachuting, or firefighting from aeroplanes.
CERTIFICATION
OPERATOR
Before conducting a commercial aviation operation, the operator (see definition) requires
approval and possession of an Air Operators Certificate (AOC). The national authority in
accordance with JAR-OPS 1 approves a JAA operator, whereas a non-JAA operator is approved
under regulations in force in the State of the operator.
GENERAL RULES FOR CERTIFICATION

Aircraft for use in commercial air transportation can only operate in accordance with the terms
and conditions of an AOC. An operator may hold only one AOC and, therefore, is subject to the
regulation of only one authority.
The principal place of operation (main operating base) must be in the state where the AOC is
issued. The operator must satisfy the state issuing the AOC that the operator is capable of
running a safe operation. Normally, the aircraft used by an operator are registered in the state
issuing the AOC, but approval for alternative arrangements is possible with another state. The
operator must allow the authorising authority access to the company, its records, and personnel
for assessing compliance with the terms of the AOC.
The authority requires confirmation that the maintenance of the aircraft meets the requirements of
Annex 8 (ICAO operators) or JAR 145 (JAA Operators).
If the operator is found as not compliant with all the requirements, the AOC can be varied,
suspended, or revoked depending upon the severity of the non-compliance.

Chapter 2 The Operator and the Operations Certificate
Before granting an AOC, the authority looks closely at the organisation and management of the
operation and assesses the suitability of the established organisation to run the operation. As well
as assessing the level of supervision required and provided, the authority requires an acceptable
person, holding a managerial post, be nominated as the accountable manager who has corporate
authority to ensure that the operation is properly financed and meets the standards of the
authority. Persons are also to be nominated for management and supervision of the following:
¾ Flight Operations
¾ Maintenance
¾ Crew Training
¾ Ground Operations
For small operations, one person may hold a combination of some of the above posts.
Required of the operators is the production of an Operations Manual, and the authority must
receive a copy to ensure that all operations are carried out in accordance with the manual. The
aircraft used must be fully equipped and properly maintained for the role, and the crews are to be
fully trained. A main operating base is to be established and maintained with facilities to meet the
needs of the operation.
CONDITIONS TO BE MET FOR ISSUE

VARIATION AND VALIDITY OF AN AOC
In order for an AOC to be issued or re-validated (re issued), the aircraft used must have valid
Certificates of Airworthiness (C of A) as per Annex 8. It is normal for the C of A to be issued by
the State of Registry of the aircraft and where this is not the case, in the case of a JAA operator,
a C of A as per JAR 21 issued by another JAA State is perfectly acceptable. In determining the
continuing airworthiness of an aeroplane, compliance with the maintenance schedule for the
aeroplane is essential.
JAR 21 – Certification Procedures for Aircraft and Related Products and Parts (EASA part 21)
The operator must show that the organisation remains as originally certificated, and that any
changes were only in accordance with those previously notified to the authority.
QUALITY SYSTEM
Periodic inspection by the authority achieves a demonstration of compliance with the terms of an
AOC. However, this is often time consuming, disruptive to the operation, and costly. Providing the
operator establishes a quality system approved by the authority, it is sufficient to have a periodic
audit of the quality system.
Within the quality system, a quality assurance programme must be established, and a quality
manager appointed to oversee the system. In complex operations (e.g. British Airways), two
managers may be appointed, one for flight operations and another for maintenance. The JAA
recommended quality system is based on EN ISO 9000. All JAA approved maintenance
organisations must have a quality system approved under JAR 145. Where an AOC holder
contracts out the maintenance of the aircraft, it is sufficient for the maintenance agency to show
JAR 145 approval without further audit of the organisation’s quality system.
RESPONSIBILITIES
OPERATOR RESPONSIBILITIES
The Operator runs the operation (has operational control), and is responsible for day-to-day
control over any flights conducted under the terms of the AOC. The Operator produces the
Operations Manual detailing all aspects of the operation, primarily for the guidance of personnel
running the operation.

The Operator and the Operations Certificate Chapter 2
The organisation certifies that all personnel involved in the ground and airborne aspects of the
operation are fully trained in their particular duties, and are aware of their responsibilities.
Crewmembers, other than flight or cabin crew, who may be carried on aeroplanes require proper
training (security guards, etc.).
Operations and Training Manuals detail the responsibilities and training. The Operations Manual
also contains procedures and instructions for each type of aeroplane operated, including
checklists for normal and abnormal flight conditions.
FAMILIARITY WITH RULES AND REGULATIONS

Operators must ensure that all employees (aircrew and ground crew) know that they are to
comply with the laws of the state in which they operate. Flight crews must be familiar with the
rules and regulations applicable to the airspace within which they operate. Commanders are to
have on board the aircraft all the essential information concerning Search and Rescue (SAR) and
the SAR services in the areas where they are flying.
RESPONSIBILITIES FOR FLIGHT OPERATIONS

It is the Operator’s responsibility to ensure that crewmembers do not engage in any activity
except those applicable to the safe operation of the aeroplane during the critical phases of flight.
Due to the nature of the operations involving the safety of members of the public, Operators must
specify that Air Traffic Control services are to be used whenever available. They must also
ensure that published instrument departures and approach procedures are also used.
The Operator must also ensure that all the aerodromes for use in flight operations are adequate
for the purpose. These include departure and destination aerodromes and all scheduled take-off,
enroute, and destination alternate aerodromes. For the use of ad hoc diversion aerodromes for
use as ‘bolt holes’ in an emergency, it is to remain the responsibility of the Commander at the
time of the emergency to decide whether or not to use the aerodrome.
For the nominated aerodromes, the Operator must calculate and publish aerodrome operating
minima (AOM). See page 7-1 for further details on establishing aerodrome operating minima.
If there is an ATC clearance offered which is different from the published procedures, the
Operator authorises the Commander to use personal discretion after consideration of the
obstacle clearance criteria required. Where an Operator wants amended procedures for use by
aircraft under operational control, use such procedures only when approved by the State in which
the aerodrome is located.
The operator is also responsible for establishing minimum flight altitudes, the method of
calculation must be approved by the State of the Operator, but needs to consider the following
factors:-
¾ accuracy with which the position of the aeroplane can be determined

¾ altimeter accuracy
¾ characteristics of terrain
¾ probability of encountering unfavourable weather conditions (e.g. severe turbulence)
¾ possible chart inaccuracies
¾ airspace restrictions
Whatever figure might be calculated it shall not be less than the minimum flight altitude set by the
State flown over.

OPERATOR RESPONSIBILITIES
CONCERNING PASSENGERS
The seating configuration of the aircraft must be such that passengers sit in positions where, in
the event of an emergency, their presence does not hinder evacuation from the aircraft. Whilst
‘check-in’ baggage is stowed in the hold of the aircraft, hand baggage, or ‘walk-on’ baggage, may
be carried into the passenger cabin if stowed properly in dedicated stowages, so as not to cause
injury or damage, and not to obstruct aisles and exits.
Before taxiing, carry out take-off and landing checks, ensuring unobstructed exits and escape
paths, and proper stowing of all hand baggage. Likewise, properly stow all galley equipment.
CARRIAGE OF PASSENGERS AND CARGO

Passengers are only to be accommodated in parts of the aeroplane specifically designed for the
seating of passengers. The Commander may permit a passenger temporary access to other parts
of the aeroplane to take action for the safety of the aeroplane, persons, animals, and goods on
board or to the cargo areas of the aeroplane if such areas are designed for access in flight. The
Operator must implement procedures to ensure that no persons are hiding on board the
aeroplane. Likewise, procedures are to be established making sure that no unauthorised cargo is
loaded on to the aeroplane.
SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR SPECIAL PASSENGER CATEGORIES

In order to make sure that people with injuries or
disabilities that affect movement (persons with
reduced mobility – PRMs) and babies are carried
with as little disruption as possible, operators must
establish procedures for seating such persons so
as not to hinder emergency egress from the
aircraft, and for their evacuation in the event of an
emergency. Inform the Commander when carrying
such passengers.
Likewise, when carrying certain categories of

passengers subject to judicial deportation, give
notification to the Commander that such
passengers are on board. These include:
Over wing emergency exits (Metroliner)
¾ Inadmissible passengers: Passengers refused the right of entry into a destination state
and are being returned to the state of departure;
¾ Deportees: Passengers judicially deported from a state under due process of law;
¾ Persons in custody: Passengers under police arrest, restrained or free.
PERSONS ON THE FLIGHT DECK

Access to the flight deck is to be strictly controlled and ultimately only the Commander has the
right to admit a person other than constituted flight crew to the flight deck during flight time.
Occasionally, persons who are not crewmembers may be admitted to the flight deck, but these
are limited to persons whose duty, as defined in the Operations Manual and representatives of
the authority responsible for licensing, certification, or inspection, require temporary access to the
flight deck. If the flight deck has an access door, the door must lock from the inside.

SAFETY CONCERNS
The safety of the passengers and crew are of the utmost importance and as such, operators must
establish and maintain flight safety and accident prevention programmes. The Operator must
have measures in place ensuring that no-one acts in a reckless or negligent manner,
endangering an aeroplane.
The use of portable electronic devices on board an aeroplane that can interfere with the
aeroplane systems is prohibited.
Nobody is permitted to enter an aeroplane or be in an aeroplane when under the influence of

alcohol or drugs, to such an extent that the presence of that person endangers the aeroplane or
its occupants.
The ultimate authority on board during flight time is the Commander, and the Operator empowers
the Commander in accordance with the Law of the State of Registration and the State of the
Operator accordingly. Those on board must obey all lawful commands given by the Commander
for the safety of the aeroplane. Where the Commander’s commands are not complied with, or
must be forcefully imposed, the person failing to obey the Commander is subject to prosecution in
the State of Destination or in any State in which the Commander elects to land the aeroplane for
that purpose.
DOCUMENTS
FLIGHT DOCUMENTS
International agreements require proper documentation of aircraft engaged in scheduled and non-
scheduled commercial aviation to prove the status of the aeroplane and crew and also the
airworthiness of the aeroplane.
The Authority granting the AOC may demand inspection of the documents and the Operator is to
make them available immediately or within a reasonable period. Carry these documents on all
flights, including:
¾ The Certificate of Registration

¾ The Certificate of Airworthiness
¾ The original copy of the Noise Certificate (if applicable to the type and mark of aircraft)
¾ The original or a copy of the AOC
¾ The Aircraft Radio Licence
¾ The original, or a copy, of the third party liability Insurance Certificate
To enable the crew to carry out their duty and for reference when required, the following manuals
(or extracts from manuals) must be carried on all flights:
¾ Parts of the Operations Manual containing the duties of the crew

¾ Parts of the Operations Manual pertaining to the conduct of the flight
¾ The current aeroplane flight manual, unless the Authority has agreed that the Operations
Manual contains all that is necessary for that aeroplane

The Operator must not conduct the flight without certain documents and forms applicable to that
particular flight on board. Representatives of the Authority may inspect these at any time or the
Commander may be requested to make them available for inspection within a reasonable period.
The documents are:
¾ A copy of the Operational Flight Plan

¾ The aeroplane technical log
¾ Details of the filed ATS flight plan
¾ Appropriate NOTAM/AIS briefing material
¾ Appropriate meteorological information
¾ Mass and balance documentation
¾ Notification of special categories of passengers (such as security personnel if not
carried as crew, PRMs and inadmissible passengers, deportees and persons in
custody)
¾ Notification of special loads including written particulars for the Commander of
dangerous goods
¾ Maps and charts, etc.
¾ Other documentation that any of the States involved in the flight may require
¾ Forms required for reporting purposes.
It is not necessary for all of the documents above to be in paper form. They can be on electronic
media or in any method, providing accessibility, usability, and assuring reliability.
DOCUMENTATION TO BE KEPT ON THE GROUND

Kept on the ground are certain documents or copies of documents for the duration of a flight or a
series of flights. If there is a need to carry such documents in the air, they are to be carried in a
fireproof container. These include:
¾ A copy of the operational flight plan

¾ Copies of the relevant parts of the technical log
¾ Route specific NOTAM if edited by the Operator
¾ Mass and balance documentation
¾ Specific loads notification
PRESERVATION OF DOCUMENTS
The Operator must preserve the original documents relating to aircraft for the stated retention
period, even if the aircraft is scrapped or sold. Crewmembers must retain certain documents
(logbooks, licence, documentation, etc.) and make them available to new operators in the event
that the crewmember changes employment to another operator.
Below is a copy of JAR-OPS retention of documents requirements. Students are expected to be

able to remember the following retention periods. An operator shall ensure that the following
information/documentation is stored in an acceptable form, accessible to the Authority, for the
periods shown in the Tables below:-

PREPARATION AND EXECUTION OF THE FLIGHT
Operational Flight Plan 3 months

Aeroplane Technical Log 24 months after the
date of the last entry
NOTAM/AIS briefing documentation if edited by 3 months
the operator
Mass and balance documentation 3 months
Notification of special loads including written 3 months
information to the commander about dangerous goods
REPORTS
Journey log 3 months

Flight report(s) for recording details of any occurrence, as
prescribed in JAR-OPS 1.420, or any event which the 3 months
commander deems necessary to report/record
Reports on exceedances of duty and/or reducing rest periods 3 months
FLIGHT CREW RECORDS
Flight, Duty and Rest time 15 months

As long as the flight
crew member is
Licence exercising the privileges
of the licence for the
operator
Conversion training and checking 3 years
Command course (including checking) 3 years
Recurrent training and checking 3 years
Training and checking to operate in either pilot’s seat 3 years
Recent experience 15 months
Route and aerodrome competence 3 years
Training and qualification for specific operations when 3 years
required by JAR-OPS (e.g. ETOPS CATII/III operations)
Dangerous Goods training as appropriate 3 years

CABIN CREW RECORDS

Flight, Duty and Rest Time 15 Months
Initial training, conversion and differences training (including As long as the cabin
checking) crew member is
employed by the
operator
Until 12 months after
the cabin crew member
Recurrent training and refresher (including checking) has left the employ of
the operator
Dangerous Goods training as appropriate 3 years
RECORDS FOR OTHER OPERATIONS PERSONNEL

Training/qualification records of other personnel for whom an Last 2 training records
approved training programme is required by JAR-OPS
OTHER RECORDS
Until 12 months after

the crew member has
Records on cosmic and solar radiation dosage
left the employ of the
operator
Quality System records 5 years
Dangerous Goods Transport Document 3 months after
completion of the flight
Dangerous Goods Acceptance Checklist 3 months after
completion of the flight
COMMERCIAL PRACTICES AND ASSOCIATED RULES

LEASING
Given the cost of new aeroplanes, it is becoming less likely that small or medium sized operators
can afford to buy new aeroplanes. Many new aeroplanes are purchased from the manufacturer
by merchant banks who then lease the aircraft to the operator. Occasionally, the manufacturer
leases the aircraft to the operator.
In any event, the process of leasing an aeroplane owned by an organisation in one state leasing it
to an operator in another state, may incur legal problems if something goes wrong. Equally, the
requirements of an AOC assume that the aircraft operated by an operator are registered in the
State of the Operator. With a leasing arrangement this may not be the case.
The long term leasing arrangements are arranged by lawyers and attorneys mindful of the
relevant legislation. However, situations often arise where an operator needs an aeroplane
quickly to replace an unserviceable one, or to meet a temporary surge in demand for seats. In
this case, short term leasing arrangements are permitted with certain restrictions.

The learning objectives require the student to have knowledge of the practice and terminology of
leasing of aeroplanes. The reference for leasing is JAR-OPS. Terms used in JAR-OPS 1.165
have the following meaning:
Dry lease When operating the aeroplane under the AOC of the lessee (the
company borrowing the aeroplane)
Wet lease When operating the aeroplane under the AOC of the lessor
(company who lend the aircraft out)
JAA operator An operator certificated under JAR-OPS Part 1 by one of the
JAA Member States.
Lease In The process of 'borrowing' an aeroplane
Lease Out The process of 'lending' an aeroplane
LEASING OF AEROPLANES BETWEEN JAA OPERATORS

Wet lease-out
If a JAA operator retains all functions and responsibilities prescribed in Subpart C of JAR-
OPS when providing an aeroplane and complete crew to another JAA Operator, then that
operator remains the operator of the aeroplane.
All leases except wet lease-out

Any leasing activity other than the wet lease out described above, requires approval of
the appropriate JAA authority.
LEASING OF AEROPLANES BETWEEN A JAA OPERATOR AND ANY BODY OTHER

THAN A JAA OPERATOR
Dry lease-in
A JAA operator may not dry lease-in an aeroplane from any entity other than a JAA
operator, unless approved by the Authority. Any conditions that are part of this approval
must be included in the lease agreement. The JAA operator shall ensure that, with regard
to aeroplanes that are dry leased-in, any differences from the prescribed instrument,
navigation, communication and safety equipment are notified to, and are acceptable to,
the Authority.
Wet lease-in
A JAA operator shall not wet lease-in an aeroplane from a body other than a JAA
operator without the approval of the Authority. The JAA operator shall ensure that, with
regard to aeroplanes that are wet leased-in:
¾ The safety standards of the lessor with respect to maintenance and operation are
equivalent to the JAR regulations
¾ The lessor is an operator holding an AOC issued by a State which is a signatory
to the Chicago Convention
¾ The aeroplane has a standard Certificate of Airworthiness issued in accordance
with ICAO Annex 8. Standard Certificates of Airworthiness issued by a JAA
Member State other than the State responsible for issue the AOC will be
accepted when issued in accordance with JAR 21, and
¾ Any JAA requirement made applicable by the lessee's Authority is complied with.

Dry lease-out
A JAA operator may dry lease-out an aeroplane for the purpose of commercial air
transportation to any operator of a State which is signatory to the Chicago Convention. In
this case, the JAA Authority exempts the JAA operator from the relevant provisions of
JAR-OPS Part 1. Further, after the foreign regulatory authority accepts responsibility in
writing for surveillance of the maintenance and operation of the aeroplane(s), the
aeroplane(s) will be removed from the JAA operator's AOC. Part of the leasing
agreement is the maintainence at the aeroplane(s) according to an approved
maintenance programme.
A South African Airbus A330 but, on closer inspection………….
LEASING OF AEROPLANES AT SHORT NOTICE

In circumstances where a JAA operator faces an immediate, urgent,
and unforeseen need for a replacement aeroplane, the required
approval may be deemed as given, provided that the lessor is an operator holding an AOC issued
by a State which is a signatory to the Chicago Convention, the lease-in period does not exceed 5
consecutive days, and the Authority is immediately notified of the use of this provision.
AEROPLANE MAINTENANCE
The Operator is responsible for ensuring that any aeroplane used for international commercial
aviation fits the purpose. This means the aircraft must be maintained to an appropriate standard,
and that after servicing it is released to service in accordance with the approved procedures.
To meet the requirements for a JAA Operator, the aircraft must be maintained in accordance with
JAR 145 by an organisation approved under JAR 145. The pre-flight inspections do not require
carrying out by a JAR 145 approved organisation (i.e. the airline itself may employ personnel to
carry out the pre-flight inspections rather than use the contracted maintenance organisation). The
standards for maintenance are laid down in JAR 145 for a JAA Operator, and in accordance with
Authority approved schedules based on the manufacturer’s recommended maintenance schedule
for non-JAA operators. Failure to maintain the aeroplanes accordingly, results in the
suspension/withdrawal of the AOC.
If a JAA Operator chooses to have the aeroplanes maintained by a non JAR 145 maintenance
organisation, the Operator’s quality system must include the maintenance of the aircraft including
audit arrangements and inspections of aircraft during maintenance. The quality system may also
require that all engineers engaged in maintenance of the Operator’s aircraft be licensed in
accordance with ICAO or JAR 145 procedures.

If the JAA Operator chooses a JAR 145-approved organisation for maintenance, the
requirements for JAR 145 approval include the provision of a quality system, which the Operator
can rely on. In either case, the Operator must provide an Operator’s Maintenance Management
Exposition (exposition – a detailed explanation), which explains the maintenance process and
defines who in the organisation is responsible for maintenance.
The Operator must also produce a maintenance programme, must include details of the servicing
to be carried out and the frequency of inspections, and the servicing cycle.
Because the technology used in aircraft and aircraft maintenance is progressing faster than the
regulatory process, the use of alternative means of compliance with the requirements of JAR 145
regarding maintenance is recognised by the Authority. Such technology when approved may be
used instead of the specified procedures. The process of determining the acceptability of such
technology is defined as the Equivalent Safety Case.
Prior to flight the pilot-in-command shall check the servicing record to ensure that airworthiness
directives have been complied, check any known but acceptable defects and that the aircraft has
sufficient hours remaining for the flight before any further scheduled maintenance. Finally check
that there is a current maintenance release.
Maintenance records shall be kept for a minimum period of 90 days after the unit to which they
refer, has been permanently withdrawn from service.
The detailed maintenance records, to show that all requirements for the signing of a maintenance
release have been met, shall be kept for a minimum period of one year, after the signing of the
maintenance release.



Page 3-8
THE OPERATIONS MANUAL (OM)

INTRODUCTION
Each operator is autonomous and is required by the Authority to regulate the duties of the
employees engaged in the operation. The duties of personnel are specified in the OM, but it also
contains in detail operational policies, instructions, procedures, and other information in order that
operations personnel can perform their duties to a satisfactory standard.
ICAO permits the OM to be prepared in the language of the State of the Operator, but the JAA
requires the OM for a JAA Operator to be in English. However, approval may be sought for parts
or even the entire OM to be prepared in the language of a JAA State. Such approval is limited in
duration.
CONTENT
The OM must conform to the standards laid down in Annex 6 or JAR OPS (for a JAA Operator).
The material contained should be original (i.e. produced by the Operator) but where included
material is extracted from or copied from other documents or sources, a statement of the fact
must also be included. The Operator remains responsible for the accuracy of any included
material in the OM, regardless of the source of the material. The OM for a JAA Operator is to be
produced in four parts:
¾ Part A – General/Basic
¾ Part B – Aeroplane Operating Matters – Type related
¾ Part C – Route and Aerodrome Instructions and Information
¾ Part D – Training
ACCEPTABILITY
The OM must be approved by the Authority. To this end, standardisation is the key to an
acceptable document. IEM (interpretative and explanatory material) to JAR OPS 1.1045 lays
down the recommended structure of an acceptable OM. This follows the ICAO model in Annex 6.
The LOs require the student to list the contents of the OM.

Chapter 3 Flight Operations
Part A contains the following:
0 – Administration and Control of the OM

1 – Organisation and Responsibilities
2 – Operational Control and Supervision
3 – Quality System
4 – Crew Composition
5 – Qualification Requirement
6 – Crew Health Precautions
7 – Flight Time Limitation
8 – Operating Procedures
9 – Dangerous Goods and Weapons
10 – Security
11 – Handling of Incidents and Occurrences
12 – Rules of the Air
Part B contains the following:
0 – General Information and Units of Measurement

1 – Limitations
2 – Normal Procedures
3 – Abnormal and Emergency Procedures
4 – Performance
5 – Flight Planning
6 – Mass and Balance
7 – Loading
8 – Configuration Deviation List (CDL)
9 – Minimum Equipment List (MEL)
10 – Survival and Emergency Equipment including Oxygen
11 – Emergency Evacuation Procedure
12 – Aeroplane Systems
Part C contains details of the routes flown by scheduled operations and details of the aerodromes
used including take-off, enroute and destination alternative aerodromes. It also contains as much
information concerning the services and facilities available along the route and details of agents
and organisations contracted or affiliated for use in a diversion situation.
Part D includes the following:
1 – Training Syllabi and Checking Programmes - General

2 – Training Syllabi and Checking
3 – Procedures
4 – Documentation and Storage
USABILITY
The OM is not just a regulatory requirement. It is meant as a working document and a reference
for the operations personnel at work. Selective parts, carried in the aeroplane, assist the
Commander in the decision making process and to detail procedures for use in abnormal
circumstances.
As the employment market in commercial aviation is volatile, operators must standardise the
paragraph numbering in OMs so that new employees can readily equate data from the new
employer’s OM to that of their previous employer. Likewise, certain procedures appear at the
discretion of the Operator (e.g. Flight Time Limitation) whereas in practice these are strictly
regulated and the published procedures must comply exactly with the approved Authority
procedures.
Flight Operations Chapter 3
PROCEDURES
TAXIING OF AIRCRAFT
Occasions occur when aircraft must be moved on the ground. Whilst it is always desirable to
have a pilot at the controls, this may not always be possible. Ground engineers may, if approved
by the Operator, taxi aircraft on the ground. In this situation, the person at the controls must be:
¾ Authorised by the Operator (or agent)

¾ Fully competent to taxi the aeroplane
¾ Qualified to use the aircraft radio
¾ Have received instruction from a qualified person regarding:
1. The aerodrome layout
2. Traffic routes
3. Aerodrome signs, markings and lights
4. ATC signals and instructions including RTF phraseology and procedures
5. The operational standards for safe movement of aircraft on the ground
MINIMUM EQUIPMENT LIST (MEL)

Part B of the OM contains the MEL. The purpose of the MEL (compiled by the Operator) is to
enable the Commander (who is the sole authority for determining if a flight can commence) to
determine whether a flight may commence or continue in the event of an equipment or system
failure. Aircraft are complex machines and many of the aircraft systems are duplicated, have
redundancy or are desirable rather than essential with regard to the basic flying capability of the
aeroplane.
Clearly, unless given special approval by the Authority, an aeroplane should be fully serviceable
prior to any flight. In practice this is an exception. Because of the complex nature of the machine
and the inclusion of equipment that is there only for the comfort of passengers and crew, it may
be operationally desirable to fly the aircraft with minor unserviceabilities of such equipment rather
than leave the aircraft sitting on the ground for ages waiting for spare parts. For instance, an
unserviceable TV screen may be no more than an inconvenience for a passenger, whereas a
faulty seat belt is unacceptable.
The MEL specifies all the aircraft systems required for the safe operation of the aircraft until the
replacement or repair of the specific items. In many instances, the ability to continue the
operation may be circumstance dependent.
The MEL for a type or variant must be approved by the Authority and must not be a direct copy of
other MELs.
MASTER MEL (MMEL)

The manufacturer of the aeroplane produces the MMEL with the intention of assisting the
Operator in producing the MEL. The MMEL is applicable to the specific type of aeroplane and
also to any variant within the type (e.g. the Boeing 727 – 400 series). The MMEL is not for use as
an MEL by an Operator.

FLIGHT PREPARATION
DOCUMENTATION
Before commencing any flight, the Commander must be satisfied that the aeroplane is fit and the
flight is properly planned (the Rules of the Air require the proper planning of each flight). Specific
documentation (retained for three months) is to be prepared and properly certified confirming that:
¾ The aeroplane is airworthy

¾ The necessary equipment (instruments and systems) is installed and adequate for the
flight
¾ A maintenance release has been issued for the aeroplane
¾ The mass of the aeroplane and the centre of gravity (CofG) location are such that the
flight can be conducted safely taking into account the flight conditions expected
¾ Any load carried is properly distributed and safely secured
¾ The aircraft operating limits have been checked and can be complied with
¾ The operational flight plan procedure has been complied with
OPERATIONAL FLIGHT PLANNING

For all scheduled and non-scheduled operations, detailed operational flight plans (OFP) are
drawn up specific to the individual flight to be undertaken. Do not confuse the OFP with the ATS
FPL, which is submitted purely for ATC clearance of the flight. The Dispatch department normally
prepares the OFP and may be presented to the crew as a briefing folder containing the necessary
information.
The specified procedure for making an OFP is in Part B(5) of the OM. The OFP also forms a
record of the flight for use as the journey log (see the Journey Log heading).
According to JAR OPS the content of the OFP is to include:
1. The aeroplane registration, type and variant

2. Date of the flight
3. Flight identification (schedule number or RTF Callsign)
4. Names of the flight crewmembers (pilots and flight engineer (if required)) and their
duties and assignments
5. Place of departure and time of departure (actual off blocks time; take off time);
6. Place of arrival and planned arrival time
7. Type of operation (ETOPS, VFR, ferry flight, etc.)
8. Route and route segments with waypoints, distances, times, and required tracks,
etc.
9. Planned cruising speed and times between waypoints, etc.
10. Safe altitudes and minimum levels
11. Fuel calculations (including ‘howgozit’)
12. Fuel on board when starting engines
13. Alternate aerodromes for destination (and take-off; en route as required)
14. Initial ATS clearance when issued, and subsequent re-clearance
15. In-flight re-planning calculations
16. Relevant meteorological information

PASSENGER BRIEFINGS
Given to all passengers is a briefing before take-off covering the safety and emergency
procedures followed. The traditional briefing is given by the cabin crew but modern technology is
permitting its replacement with an audio-video tape presentation. The briefing is to contain
instructions concerning smoking, seat positions for take-off and landing, emergency exits, floor
lighting and markings, stowage of hand baggage, use of portable electronic devices, and the
location of the safety brief card. The briefing includes a demonstration of the use of the seat belts,
the oxygen equipment and the location and use of the life preservers.
PASSENGER SEAT BELTS

Passengers must be seated and seat belts fastened for take-off and landing when turbulence is
encountered, and in an emergency or whenever the Commander considers it necessary.
SMOKING ON BOARD AEROPLANES

Many states now have strict regulations prohibiting smoking tobacco products in public places.
The prohibition extends to airport buildings and aeroplanes registered in that State, and leased
aeroplanes operated by an Operator whose AOC is issued by the State. Where registering or
certifying States do permit smoking, the Commander of the aircraft must ensure that smoking is
not allowed whenever he/she deems necessary for safety, while the aeroplane is on the ground
(unless specifically permitted by the OM), outside designated smoking areas, in cargo
compartments, and in the cabin where the supplying of oxygen is occuring.
Failure of passengers to comply with the Commander’s lawful orders in respect of smoking
results in prosecution by the Authority when the the aircraft lands.
REFUELLING WITH PASSENGERS ON BOARD

An aircraft may be refuelled with passengers on board providing qualified personnel attend the
aircraft and are able to direct an immediate evacuation by the most expeditious and practical
means, and maintain two-way communications via the aircraft intercom system between the
refuelling crew and the attending personnel. This procedure may not apply when fuel other than
kerosene is used (e.g. Avgas).
OXYGEN SUPPLY
Modern aeroplanes fly at altitudes where the partial pressure of oxygen is insufficient to support
life. For this reason, aeroplanes are pressurised to a much lower altitude where the normal
mixture of gasses and the atmospheric pressure is life supporting. A pressurisation system,
designed for this purpose, makes this possible.

In the event of a pressurisation failure (for whatever reason) supplemental oxygen must be
supplied to crew and passengers until the aeroplane reaches an altitude where the composition
of the gasses in the atmosphere is life-supporting.
The Operator must ensure that a flight in a pressurised aeroplane does not commence without a
sufficient supply of stored oxygen for all the crew and passengers for the period when (for
whatever reason) the cabin atmospheric pressure is below 700 hPa (mb) (above approximately
10 000 ft AMSL).
If conducting the flight at altitudes above 25 000 ft (376 hPa) or at altitudes below 25 000 ft and
the aircraft cannot descend to 13 000 ft (625 hPa) in 4 minutes, there must be at least 10 minutes
of oxygen supplied for the occupants of the passenger compartment.
For flights in non-pressurised (or partially

pressurised) aircraft where the cabin altitude
may exceed 10 000 ft (700 hPa), the flight
must not commence unless the Operator
ensures that the flight carries sufficient stored
oxygen for all crewmembers and 10% of the
passengers for any period exceeding 30
minutes when the cabin pressure is between
700 hPa (10 000 ft) and 625 hPa (13 000 ft),
and all the crew and passengers for any
period when the cabin pressure is below 625
hPa (13 000 ft).
DC6 flight crew oxygen supply
Crewmembers must use breathing oxygen continuously whenever circumstances requiring the
use of oxygen exist. For flights above 25 000 ft, the Operator must fit the flight deck with quick-
don oxygen masks.
AEROPLANE FLIGHT CREW

GENERAL
The Certificate of Airworthiness (CofA) for an aeroplane or the Aeroplane Flight Manual (AFM)
specifies the required flight crew. The crewmembers must hold the appropriate licence and
complete the necessary CRM training for appointment of flight crew. The Operator may include
other flight crewmembers in the required crew providing the OM details the duties of those flight
crewmembers. The minimum crew for IFR operations at night is two pilots. Single pilot operations
under IFR or at night is allowed in accordance with JAR-OPS Subpart N Appendix 2 to 1.940.
COMMANDER/PILOT IN COMMAND
Until recently, the office of Pilot-in-Command (PIC) was synonymous with Commander. However,
with the introduction of cruise relief crews and the sharing of the responsibility of the role of PIC,
especially on long-haul operations, the title Commander is more formal and many of the
responsibilities once assumed by the PIC are now the sole concern of the Commander.
JAR OPS states that one pilot qualified as PIC is to be appointed as Commander. The definition
of PIC remains that of the pilot responsible for the safety of the aircraft during flight time. In
reality, the PIC sits in the left hand seat of the flight deck (right hand seat on a helicopter) and
operates the controls of the aeroplane for take-off and landing. The PIC may delegate the duty to
the co-pilot (if qualified) whilst he/she is absent from the flight deck for comfort reasons. The
Operator confers the status of both PIC and Commander. There can be only one Commander, as
on a ship, and the regulations require that the nominated post-holder is a pilot.
To qualify for appointment as Commander and PIC, the pilot requires knowledge of the operation,
the routes flown, and the aerodromes intended for use. JAR OPS requires that the route
knowledge qualification has a validity of 12 months. Additionally, JAR OPS requires an appointee
as Commander to have completed a command course and have passed an operator proficiency
check whilst acting as Commander.
To act as PIC a pilot must complete at least three take-offs and landings in an aeroplane of the
same type within the preceding 90 days.
DUTIES
Annex 6 specifies the duties of the PIC. In this context, PIC is synonymous with Commander.
JAR OPS states that the duties of the flight crew are to be detailed in the OM. ICAO requires the
PIC to be responsible for the operation and safety of the aeroplane and for the safety of all
persons on board during flight time. The PIC must also ensure that all checklists are completed.
The PIC must also notify the nearest appropriate authority by the quickest means of any accident
involving the aeroplane resulting in serious injury or death of any person or substantial damage to
the aeroplane or property.
At the end of the flight the PIC is responsible for notifying the Operator of any aircraft defects
(known or suspected). The PIC is also to complete the journey log book or the general
declaration (if required by the State of Destination).
If the aircraft is subject to Unlawful Interference, the Commander is, on landing, to submit a
report without delay to the appropriate local authority.
In the event that for Safety Reasons or in an Emergency, the Rules of the Air or local
procedures/regulations are violated when taking the necessary action, the Commander is to
make a report to the authority of the State over which the violation occurred. Submit the report
without delay (within 10 days) and send a copy to the Authority of the State of the Operator.
CO-PILOT
The status of co-pilot is conferred by the Operator. For appointment as co-pilot, a pilot must serve
as PIC or co-pilot at the controls of an aeroplane of the same type in the preceding 90 days, or
otherwise demonstrate competence to act as co-pilot.
CRUISE RELIEF CREW

To relieve the Commander, a pilot must hold a valid ATPL(A) and be type rated on the aircraft
type flown. The pilot must also have the same route qualifications as the Commander. To relieve
the co-pilot, the minimum requirement is that a pilot must hold a valid CPL/IR and be type rated,
without the requirement to demonstrate competence at take-off and landing. Where this is met,
the relief co-pilot may operate as co-pilot only in the cruise and not below FL200. The recent
experience (90 day rule) is not necessary for a cruise relief co-pilot.
FLIGHT ENGINEER (SYSTEM PANEL OPERATOR)

When incorporating a flight engineer’s station in the design of the aeroplane, the flight crew must
include a licensed system panel operator (flight engineer). If another flight crewmember can
perform the duty (without interfering with that flight crewmember’s duty), the requirement for a
flight engineer may be dispensed with.
FLIGHT NAVIGATOR
If the State of the Operator considers it necessary for the safe navigation of the aeroplane, a
licensed flight navigator is included in the flight crew.

PILOT PROFICIENCY CHECKS

The Operator must check the pilots as proficient in piloting technique, handling of emergency
situations, and the ability to comply with IFR (if conducting the operation under IFR). There are
two conflicting requirements in this respect:
Annex 6: Requires two proficiency checks within a period of 12 months, providing there
is a minimum period of four months between checks.
JAR OPS: States that the period of validity of an operator proficiency check is 6 months
in addition to the remainder of the month of issue. If satisfactorily checked within the final
3 months of a period of validity the new period of validity extends for 6 months from the
expiry date of the previous check.
Note: Flight simulators, such as the Boeing 737-200 simulator (below) may be used
where approved.
LINE CHECKS
JAR OPS requires the Operator to ensure that each flight crewmember demonstrate competence
on normal line operations as per the OM. The period of validity of a line check is 12 months.
When line-checked within the final three months of a period of validity, the new period of validity
extends for 12 months from the expiry date of the previous period of validity.
EMERGENCY AND SAFETY EQUIPMENT

TRAINING AND CHECKING
JAR OPS requires the operator to ensure that each flight crewmember undergoes training and
checking on the location and use of all emergency and safety equipment carried in the aeroplane.
The same rules for validity as line checks apply.
DUTY STATIONS
The OM for JAR OPS, and Annex 6 for ICAO specify when flight crewmembers should be at their
duty stations. All detailed operating flight crewmembers (excluding cruise relief crew) should be at
their stations on the flight deck for take-off and landing. Whilst in the cruise enroute, detailed flight
crewmembers (including cruise relief crew when required) are to remain at their duty stations
except when absence is required in the discharge of their duty, or for comfort needs.

All operating flight crewmembers must be strapped into their seats using the appropriate harness.
If the use of a shoulder harness interferes with the performance of duty, dispense the use of the
shoulder harness.
FLIGHT OPERATIONS OFFICER /FLIGHT DISPATCHER (FOPSO/FDO)

Annex 6 specifies the duties of the Flight Operations Officer/Flight Dispatcher. The FOO/FDO is
the link between the flight crew and the operator. The FOO/FDO is responsible for ground
supervision of the flight. The FOO/FDO has a means of communication (satcom/fax or HF RTF)
with the flight crew when they are airborne. This network is commonly called the company
frequency. Alternative means of communication is available for phone patch (via ARINC for
example). Duties specified in Annex 6 include:
¾ Assisting the Commander/PIC with in-flight preparation and the provision of information
¾ Assisting the Commander/PIC in preparing the OFP and the ATS FPL. The FOO signs
and files (submit) the ATS FPL
¾ Passing information to the Commander/PIC whilst in flight concerning flight safety
¾ Initiating the procedures detailed in the OM concerning emergencies and diversion to an
undeclared alternate aerodrome.
Any action taken by the FOpsO/FDO is not to conflict with actions/procedures established by
ATC; the meteorological service, or the communications service.
IN-FLIGHT OPERATIONAL INSTRUCTIONS

If for any reason the Operator wishes to change the route, destination, or alternate aerodromes
for a flight that is already airborne, the requested change is to be co-ordinated by the ATS
authorities involved before passing instructions to the flight crew. If for any reason the co-
ordination is not possible, the Commander/PIC is responsible for obtaining the necessary ATC
clearance.
JOURNEY LOG
The Commander is responsible for completing the journey log. Whilst only applicable to the
current flight, retain the journey logs for 3 months to provide a record of the operation. Complete
the log in ink or indelible pencil (which cannot be erased or altered), a complete record of the
flight. Many Operators provide a pre-formatted form for the journey log, whist others include the
log as part of the flight information and briefing package prepared by the FOpsO/FDO before the
flight.
The British Airways briefing system, called Sword, consists of a folder full of fan-fold material.
Each flight crewmember has an individual copy.
The ICAO recommendation for the journey log content is:
¾ Aeroplane nationality and registration

¾ Date
¾ Names of the crew and duty assignment
¾ Point and time of departure
¾ Point and time of arrival
¾ Flight duration
¾ Type of flight (scheduled or non scheduled)
¾ Incidents and observations (if any)
¾ Signature of the Commander

AIRCRAFT FLIGHT MANUAL (AFM)

A flight manual shall be made available clearly identifying which aircraft type and version it
applies to. NB. The AFM may well form part of the Operations Manual.
The AFM must include the following:-
¾ Operating limitations
• Loading limitations
• Airspeed limitations
• Powerplant limitations
• Equipment and system limitations
• Flight crew limitations (minimum number)
¾ Operating information
• Normal procedures
• Non-Normal or Abnormal procedures
• Emergency procedures
• Handling information
• Least-risk bomb location


Page 4-7 Virgin Atlantic Airways with special thanks to Mr. J. Jasper of
Virgin Atlantic’s Cabin Crew Training, Horley.
INTRODUCTION
The Operator must make sure that the aeroplane is fit for the task. The Commander must also be
satisfied that the aeroplane is loaded properly and that the equipment and fuel are sufficient for
the flight. The FOpsO/FDO carries out the majority of the tasks necessary at the pre-flight
planning stage. If the schedule is an established one, this is largely repetitious, perhaps on a day
to day basis or even for multiple repetitions per day. Certainly, the ATS FPL is a repetitive FPL
(RPL), and when activating the RPL for the next flight, the ATS authority informs the
FOpsO/FDO.
One aspect of the operation that may change on a flight-by-flight basis is the requirement for fuel.
Meteorological conditions, ATS route availability, and availability of alternate aerodromes require
the addition of more or less fuel to the basic route requirement. Annex 6 specifies the carrying of
additional fuel for different types of aeroplanes and the nomination requirement for an alternate
destination aerodrome. The criteria for deciding if it is necessary for an alternate destination
aerodrome are below.
ALTERNATE AERODROMES
Things can go wrong and they often do!
When flying under IFR an Operator must specify an alternative course of action to follow in the
event that, for whatever reason, the chosen destination aerodrome is not available. The alternate
aerodrome is the aerodrome specified in the alternate plan (colloquially the alternate). The need
for an alternate aerodrome can occur at any time during the flight for technical reasons, whereas
operational reasons usually force a change of destination. For the three phases of the flight,
departure, enroute, and arrival, alternates must be nominated.
TAKE-OFF ALTERNATE
An aerodrome shall not be selected as a take-off alternate unless the weather reports and or
forecasts indicate that, during a period commencing 1 hour before until 1 hour after the ETA at
the aerodrome, the landing conditions will be at or above the applicable landing minima required
for the operation, i.e. Precision, Non-precision and/or Circling approaches.

Chapter 4 Operational Planning
The criteria for the choice of a Take-off alternate location are:
Aeroplanes with two engines either:
Not more than 1 hour flying time at the one engine out cruise speed; or,
A maximum of 2 hours at the one engine out cruise speed, or the approved ETOPS diversion
time, whichever is less.
Aeroplanes with three or more engines:
Not more than 2 hours flying distance at the one engine out cruise speed.
DESTINATION ALTERNATE
An operator must select at least one destination alternate for each IFR flight unless both:
1. The duration of the planned flight from take-off to landing does not exceed 6 hours.
Two separate runways are available at the destination and meteorological conditions
prevailing are such that for the period from one hour before until one hour after the
expected time of arrival at destination, the approach from the relevant minimum sector
altitude and the landing can be made in VMC, or:
2. The destination is isolated and no adequate destination alternate exists.
An operator must select two destination alternates when:
1. During a period commencing 1 hour before and ending 1 hour after the estimated time
of arrival at the destination weather conditions are below the applicable planning
minima
2. When no meteorological information is available
ALL AEROPLANES
The basic rule is that a flight shall not commence unless the aeroplane carries sufficient fuel and
oil to ensure that it can safely complete the flight. In calculating this amount of fuel, allow for the
actual and expected meteorological conditions and any forecast delays. Additionally, carry a
reserve to cover unforeseen circumstances.
The requirements are specified in two categories: propeller driven aircraft and turbo jet aircraft.
PROPELLER-DRIVEN AEROPLANES
Two cases are considered, where an alternate is required, and the other, where it is not required.
In both situations, carry sufficient fuel to accommodate the flight and the alternate course of
action.
When a destination alternate aerodrome is required, either:
1. Fly to the aerodrome planned for the flight, then to the most critical (in terms of fuel
consumption) alternate aerodrome, plus a period of 45 minutes;
[Total fuel = Route fuel + worst case diversion fuel + 45 minutes]
Or

Operational Planning Chapter 4
2. Fly to the alternate aerodrome via any predetermined point, and then for 45 minutes,
provided that this is not less than the amount required to fly to the planned destination
aerodrome, plus the lesser of:
a. 45 minutes plus 15% of the flight time planned to be spent at the cruising level(s),
[Total fuel = Route fuel + 45 minutes + 15% of cruise fuel];
b. Two hours
[Total fuel = Route fuel + 2 hrs]
When a destination alternate aerodrome is not required:
1. Fly to the aerodrome planned for the flight, plus a period of 45 minutes
[Total fuel = Route fuel + 45 minutes]
Or
2. Fly to the aerodrome planned for the flight, plus the lesser of the following:
a. 45 minutes plus 15% of the flight time planned to be spent at the cruising level(s),
[Total fuel = Route fuel + 45 minutes + 15% of cruise fuel]
b. Two hours
[Total fuel = Route fuel + 2 hrs]
AEROPLANES EQUIPPED WITH TURBO-JET ENGINES

Consider the same two cases concerning the alternative course of action. Carry sufficient fuel to
allow the aeroplane:
When a destination alternate aerodrome is required, either:
1. Fly to and make an approach and a missed approach, at the planned destination, and
then to fly to the nominated destination alternate, and then fly for 30 minutes at holding
speed at 450 m (1500 ft) over the alternate (using ISA conditions), and then make an
approach and landing. An additional amount of fuel is also required to provide for any
increased consumption due to any potential contingencies specified by the operator to
the satisfaction of the State of the Operator.
[Total fuel = Route fuel + diversion fuel + 30 minutes holding fuel + additional
contingency]
Or
2. Fly to the alternate aerodrome via any predetermined point plus 30 minutes holding at
450 m (1500 ft) above the alternate aerodrome, provision made for additional fuel
sufficient to provide for any increased consumption on the occurrence of any of the
potential contingencies. The fuel carried cannot be less than the amount of fuel required
to fly to the aerodrome planned for the flight plus two hours at normal cruise
consumption.
[Total fuel = Route fuel + 30 minutes holding fuel + additional contingency fuel, or
[Total fuel = Route fuel + 2 hours]
Whichever is greater

When a destination alternate aerodrome is not required:
1. Fly to the planned destination and additionally to fly 30 minutes at holding speed at 450
m (1500 ft) above the planned aerodrome (ISA conditions); and have an additional
amount of contingency fuel.
[Total fuel = Route fuel + 30 minutes holding fuel + additional contingency]
Or
2. Fly to the planned destination aerodrome and remain airborne for two hours at normal
cruise consumption.
[Total fuel = Route fuel + 2 hours cruising fuel]
If necessary, a flight may be re-planned to another aerodrome, if the requirements of the above
can be met from the point where the flight is re-planned.
WEATHER CONDITIONS
Conducted flights are under IFR or VFR (see Air Law notes for detailed explanation of the flight
rules). Flight under VFR, by definition, can only be elected when the meteorological conditions
are VMC. Part of a route may be flown under VFR if the forecast indicates that VMC exists for
that part of the route.
VMC — ICAO Annex 2 (Rules of the Air) defines VMC as follows:
Airspace A, B, C, D & E F G
Class (Note 3) Above 900 m (3000 ft) At and below 900 m
AMSL or above 300 m (3000 ft) AMSL or 300 m
(1000 ft) above terrain, (1000 ft) above terrain
whichever is higher whichever is higher
Distance 1500 m horizontally Clear of cloud and
From Cloud 300 m (1000 ft) vertically in sight of the surface
Flight 8 km at and above 3050 m (10 000 ft) 5 km (Note 2)
Visibility AMSL
5 km below 3050 m (10 000 ft) AMSLA
(Note 1)
Notes:
1. When the height of the transition altitude is lower than 3050 m (10 000 ft) AMSL, use
FL100 in lieu of 10 000 ft.
2. When the ATS authority prescribe:
a) Lower flight visibilities to 1500 m may be permitted for flights operating:
1) At speeds that, in the prevailing visibility, give adequate opportunity to observe
other traffic or any obstacles in time to avoid collision, or
2) In circumstances in which the probability of encounters with other traffic is
normally low (e.g. in areas of low volume traffic and for aerial work at low
levels).
b) Helicopters may be permitted to operate in less than 1500 m flight visibility, if
manoeuvred at a speed that gives adequate opportunity to observe other traffic or
any obstacles in time to avoid collision
3. The inclusion of VMC minima for Class A airspace does not imply permitted VFR in
Class A airspace.
Table 1 - ICAO VMC Criteria

VMC JAR OPS Criteria

Appendix 1 to JAR OPS 1.465 defines the minimum visibilities for VFR operations as follows:
F G
Airspace At and below 900 m
B CDE Above 900 m (3000 ft) AMSL or
Class above 300 m (1000 ft) above (3000 ft) AMSL or 300 m (1000 ft)
terrain, whichever is higher above terrain whichever is higher
Distance Clear 1500 m horizontally Clear of cloud and

of
From Cloud Cloud 300 m (1000 ft) vertically in sight of the surface
Flight 8 km at and above 3050 m (10 000 ft) AMSL

5 km (Note 2)
Visibility 5 km below 3050 m (10 000 ft) AMSLA (Note 1)
Notes:
1. When the height of the transition altitude is lower than 3050 m (10 000 ft) AMSL, FL 100 should be used in lieu
of 10 000 ft.
2. Cat A and B aeroplanes may be operated in flight visibilities down to 3000m provided the appropriate ATS
authority permits use of a flight visibility less than 5 km and the circumstances are such that the probability of
encounters with other traffic is low, and the IAS is 140 kt or less.
Table 2 - JAR OPS VMC Criteria
The main difference is that JAR-OPS applies a lower standard for Class B than ICAO, and makes
no mention of VMC criteria for Class A. The student is advised to use caution when answering
questions concerning VMC in the Operational Procedures examination in this respect.
SELECTION OF THE ROUTE

CRITERIA
Whilst the routes flown as part of the operation are usually dictated by economic considerations
(people want to go there, traditional links, industry, etc.), the operator must ensure the use of only
those routes along which adequate facilities and services exist. At the departure and destination
aerodromes, ground facilities and services must be adequate to meet the requirements of the
aeroplane, passengers, and crew. These should include meteorological services, etc.
The performance and equipment of the type of aeroplane chosen for the route must be adequate
to cope with meteorological conditions, minimum altitudes, and navigation requirements
(including maps and charts). The requirements of ETOPS (extended twin-engine operations) with
regard to the proximity of adequate aerodromes, and the requirements for suitable landing
surfaces for single engine aircraft must be complied with.
Additionally, any restrictions, requirements, or regulations imposed by the authorities of the states
to be over-flown must be complied with.
ADEQUATE AERODROMES
The regulations require the aerodromes used to be adequate. Broadly speaking, any aerodrome
which the operator considers satisfactory is adequate. However, a satisfactory aerodrome is one
which the topography and runway layout allows the performance requirements of the aeroplane
to be met. The aerodrome also has to be properly equipped (ancillary services, ATS, lighting,
communications, weather reporting, navaids, and emergency services).
Additionally, for an aerodrome to be considered adequate for ETOPS, ATC must be available and
at least one let down aid (ground radar would suffice) for an instrument approach must be
available.

ETOPS
The use of large twin-engine aeroplanes for long haul services (B777, 767, A330, etc.) requires
special procedures to cope with the situation following the failure of an engine. Whilst these
aeroplanes have complex and very powerful engines, the simple fact is that if one engine fails on
a four-engine aeroplane there are three left, whereas for a two engine aeroplane, there is only
one left, and if that stops it is a disaster.
The Airbus A330 is now one of the many types to have gained ETOPS approval
Before permitting such extended range operations (i.e. transatlantic) the aeroplane requires
certification that it can function adequately on the one remaining engine. In addition, the
possibility of a failure due to normal operation requires reduction to virtually nil. This requires
advanced engine and component design and exhaustive fatigue testing to determine the exact
life of parts, etc. Added to this, strict quality procedures are needed to ensure that standards of
maintenance and manufacture are adhered to. To cover any unforeseen events, the engines
have staggered life, requiring one of the engines to have not less than half its maintenance life
remaining at any time.
The route is then chosen to make sure that in the event of a failure, the aeroplane can land within
specified distances or times as determined for each aeroplane by the performance class.
The operator must determine the speed maintained with one engine inoperative assuming: ISA
conditions, level flight, maximum continuous thrust from the remaining engine, and aeroplane
mass from worst-case calculation.
MAXIMUM DISTANCE FROM AN AERODROME WITHOUT ETOPS APPROVAL
PERFORMANCE CLASS A
For Perf A aeroplanes with passenger seating of 20 or more or MTOM of 45 360 kg or more, do
not fly the aeroplane further than 60 minutes flying time at the one-engine-out speed calculated
as above, from an adequate aerodrome.
For other Perf A aeroplanes, 120 minutes (180 minutes for certain types of turbojet aircraft if
approved by the authority).
PERFORMANCE CLASS B OR C
For Perf B and C aeroplanes, 120 minutes at the one-engine-out speed or 300 nm whichever is
less.

DITCHING CONSIDERATIONS
Part of the design and testing
procedures for aeroplanes is to
determine the type’s ditching
characteristics. This is done
using computer modelling and
accurately scaled models in
large tanks. Once determined,
the ditching characteristics are
compared with the established
requirements for airworthiness.
Aeroplanes which do not comply with the requirements and which have approved passenger
seating of more than 30 are not to be flown more than 120 minutes at cruising speed or 400 nm
(whichever is less), from land suitable for making an emergency landing.
LANDING REQUIREMENTS
The operator must make sure that the destination aerodrome is adequate. This includes
assessing the landing distance, determined by performance class. However, for all classes, it is
thought that the pilot crosses the threshold of the landing runway (screen height) at 50 ft. This
may be modified for larger aeroplanes and reflected in higher minimum eye height for visual
approach slope indicators (VASIs and PAPIs).
The Operator is to ensure that at the ETA, the mass of the aircraft allows it to come to a halt after
landing safely on the runway within the landing distance available (LDA)
PERFORMANCE CLASS A
For turbojet aircraft, this should be achieved within 60% of the LDA
For turboprop aircraft, this should be achieved within 70%. of the LDA
If the runway is forecast to be wet, the LDA is at least 115% of the landing distance required.
PERFORMANCE CLASS B AND C

For performance class B and C aircraft this should be achieved within 70% of the LDA.
For wet runways, the LDA is equal to or exceeds the landing distance required. Shorter distance
may be acceptable if the aircraft Flight Manual specifies distances for wet runaways.
MINIMUM TIME ROUTES

A minimum time route (MTR) is the route giving the shortest time from departure to destination,
adhering to all ATC and airspace reservations. The idea is to choose a route at a specified
altitude, which using the forecast winds, gives the greatest ground speed for a specified TAS,
thus giving the minimum time for that route. The procedure involves plotting the track of the
aircraft over a short leg (normally 1 hour) along several different tracks and calculating which
produced the greatest ground distance covered in the shortest period. The procedure repeats for
another period until completing analysis of the whole route and comparison made regarding time
and fuel usage.
Today this is done by computers, which are updated regularly with meteorological information
and produce the MTR from input data including aircraft type, zero fuel mass, departure
aerodrome, date and time of departure, destination aerodrome, and destination alternate.
Consideration is given to the requirements of the ETOPS route and singe engine cruising speed
for ETOPS flights.

COMMANDER’S CONSIDERATIONS
The basic requirement of the Rules of the Air is that the flight requires proper planning. The
Commander is responsible for this and the Operator must ensure that the Commander has all the
necessary information to plan the flight. The Operator invariably delegates this responsibility to an
FOpsO/FDO.
However, the ultimate responsibility for any flight rests with the Commander and as such, a flight
must not be commenced unless the Commander is satisfied that:
i. The aeroplane is airworthy;
ii. The aeroplane is not operated contrary to the provisions of the Configuration Deviation
List (CDL);
iii. The instruments and equipment required for the flight are available;
iv. The instruments and equipment are in operable condition except as provided in the
MEL;
v. Those parts of the operations manual required for the flight are available;
vi. The documents, additional information, and forms required are on board;
vii. Current maps, charts, and associated documentation or equivalent data are available
to cover the intended operation of the aeroplane including any diversion which may
reasonably be expected;
viii. Ground facilities and services required for the planned flight are available and
adequate;
ix. The provisions specified in the operations manual in respect of fuel, oil and oxygen
requirements, minimum safe altitudes, aerodrome operating minima and availability of
alternate aerodromes, where required, can be complied with for the planned flight;
x. The load is properly distributed and safely secured;
xi. The mass of the aeroplane, at the commencement of take-off roll, is such that the flight
is within the specified performance limitations; and
xii. Any operational limitation in addition to those covered by sub-paragraphs (ix) and (xi)
above can be complied with.
FILING THE ATS FLIGHT PLAN (FPL)

Annex 2 requires that the FPL is filed (submitted to the appropriate ATS authority) not less than
one hour before departure. JAR-OPS 1.300 places the onus on the Operator for ensuring the
filing of the FPL so that the alerting services have adequate information concerning the flight.
For international flights, file the FPL to the Area Control Centre (ACC) for the Flight Information
Region (FIR) in which the location of the departure aerodrome is located. The process of filing
requires the completed form (in the UK the CA48) be delivered to a receiving office, indicated by
an information sign on the wall of the building (black C on a yellow background).
The clerk in the receiving office gives the filing agent (or the pilot) the bottom copy of the form,
and then by use of telex, transmits the content of the FPL to the ACC. The ACC acknowledges
receipt of the FPL and then retransmits the FPL to all the ‘down-route’ FIRs. Once all the FIRs
have acknowledge receipt of the FPL, the ACC , at the appropriate time (usually just after the
aircraft begins to taxi), issues an ATC clearance for the flight to commence under IFR or VFR (if
in airspace that requires control of VFR flights).

FLIGHTS SUBJECT TO AIR TRAFFIC FLOW MANAGEMENT (ATFM)

The increasing density of air traffic and the shrinking of air space due to increased aircraft
cruising speed, has forced implementation of flow management (the regulation – control, of
movements by the formation and implementation of tactical ATC plans). In order for the ATFM
system to work properly, information concerning projected flights must be available to the ATC
planning system. The use of repetitive flight plans (RPLs) for scheduled operations is ideal for this
purpose. Other flights (non scheduled) are still subject to ATFM and are required to give as much
notice as possible to the ATS authority by way of filing a FPL.
It is a requirement for flights subject to ATFM that the FPL is filed at least 3 hours before
departure.
FLIGHTS INTO OCEANIC AIRSPACE

Edition 9 of the North Atlantic Operations Manual requests that for flights entering the North
Atlantic Region, the FPL is filed as far in advance as possible. As ATFM is virtually universally
applied through the FIRs adjacent to the NAT region, the filing in accordance with ATFM satisfies
the need for Oceanic traffic planning.


For diagrams and assistance
Page 5-5 Mr. Ashley Gibb.

Page 5-7
Page 5-13
Page 5-9 Aerzur
Page 5-11 Virgin Atlantic Airways with special thanks to Mr. J. Jasper of
Virgin Atlantic’s Cabin Crew Training, Horley.
Page 5-12 NASA Langley
INTRODUCTION
In addition to the minimum equipment necessary for the issue of a Certificate of Airworthiness
(C of A), the instruments, equipment, and flight documents fitted to or carried in the aeroplane
have to be adequate for the operation. The operator includes the minimum equipment list (MEL)
in the operations manual, allowing the Commander to decide whether to commence a flight or
continue from any intermediate stop if any instrument, equipment, or system becomes
unserviceable.
Additionally, the operator provides operations staff and flight crew with an aircraft-operating
manual, for each aircraft type operated, which contains the normal, abnormal, and emergency
procedures relating to the operation of the aircraft. The manual also includes details of the aircraft
systems and of the checklists used.
BASIC REQUIREMENTS
An aeroplane has to be equipped with instruments allowing the flight crew to control the flight
path of the aeroplane, carry out any required procedural manoeuvres, and comply with the
operating limitations of the aeroplane in the expected operating conditions. Other equipment
carried in the aeroplane is necessary for either safety, navigation, or regulatory reasons.
INTERNAL DOORS AND CURTAINS

JAR-OPS has additional requirements concerning doors and curtains. All aeroplanes with more
than 19 passenger seats must have a lockable door between the passenger compartment and
the flight deck. The door is to have a notice on it stating that entry is only permitted to
crewmembers.

Chapter 5 The Aeroplane
Where a compartment not usually occupied passengers has an emergency exit, the door leading
from the passenger compartment to that area must have an openable door. If passage through a
doorway is necessary in the event of an emergency, the door (or curtain) requires a means of
securing it in the open position. Such doors (or curtains) require signs attached indicating that the
doorway leads to an emergency exit. The crew requires a means of unlocking any door that
passengers can lock (toilet doors).
FIRST AID KITS

JAR-OPS requires an aeroplane to be equipped with accessible and adequate medical supplies
(First Aid Kits) commensurate with the authorised number of passengers the aeroplane carries.
Regular inspection of the kits is necessary, and must be replenished when needed.
Additionally, Annex 6 and JAR-OPS require the carriage of an Emergency Medical Kit, for the
use of doctors or other qualified persons, for treating in-flight medical emergencies in aeroplanes
authorised to carry more than 30 passengers, if the flight is 60 minutes or more from qualified
medical assistance.
Passengers First Aid Kits

0 - 99 1
100 - 199 2
200 - 299 3
300 or more 4
Table 5.1 - First Aid Kit Requirements
HAND-HELD FIRE EXTINGUISHERS

The aeroplane systems have integrated fire extinguisher systems operated from the pilot stations.
However, to fight fires on the flight deck and in the passenger cabin (and cargo compartment
where necessary), hand held extinguishers must be carried. The content of the extinguisher must
be optimised for the type of fire likely to be encountered and to minimise the hazard from toxic
gasses produced.
At least one Halon 1211 (bromochlorodifluromethane) or equivalent extinguisher is to be

positioned on the flight deck. JAR-OPS requires extinguishers to be fitted in the passenger cabin
and when carrying more than one, they must be distributed evenly around the cabin.
The table below details the minimum number of extinguishers required against the passenger
carrying capability of the aeroplane. The location of galleys and toilets may require the fitting of
more.
Maximum Approved Number of Extinguishers

passenger Seating
7 to 30 1
31 to 60 2
61 to 200 3
201 to 300 4
301 to 400 5
401 to 500 6
501 to 600 7
601 or more 8
Table 5.2 - Fire Extinguishers

The Aeroplane Chapter 5
BREAK-IN MARKINGS
Areas of the fuselage suitable for break-in by rescue crews in an emergency are to be marked by
red or yellow lines, and if necessary, they are outlined in white to contrast with the background. If
the corner markings are more than 2 m apart, intermediate lines 9 cm x 3 cm are inserted so
there are no more than 2 m between adjacent markings.
3 cm 9 cm
9 cm
Not
over 2m
Fig 1 - Break In Markings
DC6 forward exit, emergency

exit, and break-in point
COCKPIT VOICE RECORDERS (CVRS)

There are many instances when the transcript of communications to and from the aeroplane or
between crewmembers offers vital evidence to what happened during an incident or before an
accident. In order to assist investigations CVRs are required to be carried and operated at all
times in aircraft involved in commercial air transport.
The regulatory requirements for the carriage of a CVR are complex and determined by the date
on which the certificate of airworthiness was first issued; whether or not the MTOM is greater or
less than 5700 kg, and the configuration of the engines.

There are 3 cases:
Case 1 Aircraft with C of A issued on 1 April 1998 or later; multi-engine turbine and has
maximum passengers of more than 9; or MTOM greater than 5700 kg.
Case 2 After 1 April 2000, aircraft with C of A issued on or after 1 January 1990 up to and
including 31 March 1998; multi-engine turbine; max passengers more than 9;
MTOM of 5700 kg or less.
Case 3 Any aeroplane with C of A issued before 1 April 1998 and MTOM over 5700 kg.
DATA RECORDED
A CVR records:
¾ Voice communication transmitted into or out of the cockpit

¾ The aural environment on the flight deck
¾ Voice communications of flight crewmembers using the intercom
¾ Voice or audio identification of navigation or approach aids in the headset or on the
speaker
¾ Voice communications of flight crewmembers using the PA system
CVRs – OPERATION, CONSTRUCTION AND INSTALLATION

For Case 2 and Case 3, the CVR has to be capable of retaining the information recorded during
at least the last 30 minutes of its operation. For case 1, the CVR has to be capable of recording
the last 2 hours of data (ICAO Annex 6 requires this for aircraft with C of A issued after 1 Jan
2003).
The construction, location, and installation of CVRs are to provide maximum practical protection
for the recordings in order to preserve, recover, and transcribe the recorded information. Flight
recorders must meet the prescribed crashworthiness and fire protection specifications, and are
required to have a device fitted to assist underwater location. Prior to the aeroplane first moving
under its own power, the CVRs must automatically switch on and record until the termination of
the flight.

FLIGHT DATA RECORDERS (FDRs)

FDRs are more commonly referred to as black boxes, although they are usually painted a Day-
Glo colour (either red or yellow) and have underwater location devices fitted. They must be
capable of recording data pertaining to the operation of the aeroplane systems, control positions,
and performance parameters. As with CVRs, they must assist in the investigation of accidents
and incidents.
An example of a Flight Data recorder……………with the emergency locator beacon
The regulatory requirements for the carriage of FDRs occupy many pages in both Annex 6 and
JAR-OPS but the LOs for Operational Procedures require the student to have knowledge only of
the parameters recorded; the rules for retention of data, and the rules regarding location,
construction installation and operation of FDRs as detailed in Annex 6 only.
PARAMETERS RECORDED
The parameters recorded are dependent upon the type of FDR fitted.
Annex 6 defines three types:
¾ Type I FDR – records parameters required to determine accurately the aeroplane flight
path, speed, altitude, engine power, configuration, and operation
¾ Type II FDR – records the same parameters as Type I but with the addition of
configuration of the lift and drag devices
¾ Type IIA FDR – records the same parameters as Type II (for aeroplanes with MTOM
5700 kg or less)
DATA LINK COMMUNICATIONS

For aeroplanes with C of A issued after 1 January 2005, the FDRs fitted to aeroplanes that have
CVRs fitted, and which use data link systems for communication, are to be capable of recording
all the data link communications. This becomes a general requirement with effect from 1 January
2007.
RECORDING DURATION
Type I and Type II FDRs are capable of recording at least the last 25 hours of their operation.
Type IIA FDRs are capable of recording the last 30 minutes of operation.

CONSTRUCTION AND INSTALLATION

Clearly, the FDR must be capable of withstanding any disaster that befalls the aeroplane, and it
must be capable of location after an accident. It must be constructed, located, and installed to
provide maximum practical protection for the recordings.
Specifications laid down are for crashworthiness and fire resistance, and JAR-OPS applies the
standards specified by the European Organisation for Civil Aviation Equipment (EUROCAE).
The FDR should be located close to the rear pressure bulkhead, or as far aft as possible. The
electrical supply should be from a bus bar that gives the maximum reliability of power supply
without jeopardising essential or emergency electrical loads. The FDR system must be capable of
being functionally checked before flight.
OPERATION OF FDRs
Do not switch off FDRs during flight time. Following an accident or an incident, de-activate the
FDR after landing and do not switch it on again until cleared for use after the conclusion of any
investigation.
COMBINATION RECORDERS
JAR-OPS permits recorders which act as both an FDR and a CVR. Such a combination recorder
may be fitted to aeroplanes with MTOM of 5700 kg or less, or to larger aeroplanes if two of the
combination recorders are fitted.
FLIGHT RECORDER RECORDS

Operators must make sure that if an aeroplane is involved in an incident or an accident the flight
recorder records and the recorders are retained in safe custody for at least 60 days until the
requirements of Annex 13 (Accident Investigation) have been met.
EQUIPMENT FOR COMPLIANCE WITH FLIGHT RULES

When operating an aircraft under VFR, it is assumed that the aeroplane can be navigated
visually. Flight under IFR on the other hand, requires the use of radio navigation aids and
instrumentation that is more sophisticated. All aeroplanes operated under VFR flights are to be
equipped with:
¾ A magnetic compass
¾ An accurate timepiece indicating the time in hours, minutes, and seconds
¾ A sensitive pressure altimeter
¾ An ASI which must be equipped with a heated pitot tube or equivalent means for
preventing malfunction due to either condensation or icing.
¾ Such additional instruments or equipment as may be prescribed by the appropriate
authority
CONTROLLED VFR FLIGHTS

VFR flights operated as controlled flights (in class B and C airspace) should be equipped as for
IFR flights.

COMPLIANCE WITH IFR

All aeroplanes operated under IFR, or when the aeroplane cannot maintain the desired attitude
without reference to one or more flight instruments, must be equipped with:
¾ A magnetic compass
¾ An accurate timepiece indicating the time in hours, minutes, and seconds
¾ Two sensitive pressure altimeters with counter drum-pointer or equivalent presentation.
Neither ‘three-pointer’ nor ‘drum-pointer’ altimeters satisfy the requirement
¾ An ASI which must be equipped with a heated pitot tube or equivalent means for
preventing malfunction due to either condensation or icing
¾ A turn and slip indicator
¾ An attitude indicator (artificial horizon)
¾ A heading indicator (directional gyroscope)
¾ A means of indicating whether the power supply to the gyroscopic instrument is adequate
¾ A means of indicating in the flight crew compartment, the outside air temperature
¾ A rate-of-climb and descent indicator
¾ Such additional instruments or equipment as may be prescribed by the appropriate
authority
Note: The requirements of the turn and slip indicator, attitude indicator, and heading indicator
may be met by combinations of instruments or by integrated flight director systems if the
safeguards against total failure, inherent in the three separate instruments, are retained.
STANDBY HORIZON
All aeroplanes of a maximum certificated take-off mass of over 5700 kg introduced into service
after 1 January 1975 are fitted with an emergency power supply, independent of the main
electrical generating system, for operating and illuminating an attitude indicating instrument
(artificial horizon), clearly visible to the pilot-in-command, for a minimum period of 30 minutes.
The emergency power supply is to automatically operate after the total failure of the main
electrical generating system and give a clear indication on the instrument panel, that the attitude
indicator is being operated by emergency (stand-by) power.
A basic standby
attitude indicator

NIGHT OPERATIONS
All aeroplanes, when operated at night require lighting. In addition to the instrumentation required
for IFR, aircraft equipped for night flight must have:
¾ The lights required by Annex 2 (Rules of the Air) for aircraft in flight or operating on the
movement area of an aerodrome
¾ Two landing lights
¾ Illumination for all instruments and equipment that are essential for the safe operation of
the aeroplane that are for use by the flight crew
¾ Lights in all passenger compartments
¾ An electric torch for each crewmember station
Basic navigation lights to be shown by an aircraft at night.

Left or Port wing a RED light shinning through 110°
Right or Starboard wing a GREEN light shinning through 110°
A WHITE tail light shinning 70° either side of the centre, giving lights showing through 360°.
FLIGHTS OVER WATER

Regulations apply to flights over water when aircraft are considered to be vulnerable to ditching.
For multi-engine aircraft, this is considered to be more than 93 km (50 nm) from land. Also,
anywhere over water beyond the gliding distance of a single engine aircraft, or wherever the
Authority of a State considers it necessary.
The latter case results from the crash of the Lockheed Electra into the Potomac River after take-
off from Washington National (now Ronald Reagan) Airport, when many passengers drowned
because there was no requirement then for life preservers to be carried on flights not flying over
the sea.

When required, aeroplanes flying over water must have one

life jacket or equivalent individual floatation device for each
person on board, stowed in a position easily accessible from
the seat of each person. Each life jacket and equivalent
individual floatation device is to be equipped with a location
light.
LONG RANGE FLIGHTS

Flights over water more than 120 minutes at cruising speed, or 740 km (400 nm), whichever is
less, away from land suitable for making an emergency landing in the case of multi-engine
aeroplanes, and 30 minutes or 185 km (100 nm), whichever is less, for all other aeroplanes, are
required to carry sufficient life-rafts to carry all persons on board. These are to be stowed ready
for use in an emergency, and fitted with life-saving equipment including means of sustaining life
(food, water, etc.) and equipment for making the pyrotechnic (rockets and flares) distress signals
described in Annex 2 (Rules of the Air).
REMOTE AREAS
When operated across land areas where search and rescue is difficult, aeroplanes are equipped
with the signalling and life-saving equipment (including means of sustaining life; food, water, etc.)
as may be appropriate to the area to be over-flown (i.e. Desert, Arctic, Jungle, and Ocean).
WEATHER RADAR
When carrying passengers in pressurised aircraft, the aeroplane is fitted with serviceable weather
radar whenever operating the aeroplane in areas where thunderstorms or other potentially
hazardous weather conditions that can be detected with airborne weather radar are expected to
exist along the route.
JAR-OPS expands the requirement to include

unpressurised aeroplanes with MTOM greater than
5700 kg; and any unpressurised aeroplane with more
than 9 passenger seats after 1 April 1999. For
pressurised propeller driven aeroplanes with MTOM not
exceeding 5700 kg and not more than 9 passenger
seats, a suitable system for detecting thunderstorms
and other potentially hazardous conditions may be used
instead of radar.
An example of a weather radar display

RADIATION MONITORING INDICATOR

All aeroplanes intended for operation above 15 000 m (49 000 ft), must carry equipment to
measure and continuously indicate on each flight, the current dose rate and the cumulative dose
of cosmic radiation received. The display unit of the equipment shall be readily visible to a flight
crewmember.
Individual records are kept for crewmembers that are liable to high exposure. The Commander or
the pilot delegated to the flight initiates a descent as soon as practicable when exceeding the limit
values of cosmic radiation specified.
MACHMETER
All aeroplanes with speed limitations expressed in terms of Mach number (limiting Mach) are
equipped with a Mach number indicator (Machmeter). This does not stop the use of the airspeed
indicator to derive Mach number for ATS purposes.
GROUND PROXIMITY WARNING SYSTEM (GPWS)

Too many aircraft are lost with crew and passengers killed by inadvertent controlled flight into
terrain. The ATC authority does not accept responsibility for terrain clearance (except during
radar vectoring) and the responsibility rests firmly with the pilots to ensure safe clearance from
the ground is maintained. Misreading of altimeters, misunderstanding procedures, poor
navigation, and misidentification by ATC radar units all conspire to make inadvertent controlled
flight into terrain a continuing danger and hazard.
A GPWS fitted to an aeroplane can give warning to the pilots that the aeroplane is getting too
close to the ground, and is required to be fitted to all commercial air transport aeroplanes with
MTOM greater than 5700 kg.
The GPWS shall provide, as a minimum, warnings of the following circumstances:
¾ Excessive descent rate

¾ Excessive terrain closure rate
¾ Altitude loss after take-off or go-around
¾ Unsafe terrain clearance while not in landing configuration
• Gear not locked down
• Flaps not in a landing position
¾ Excessive descent below the instrument glide path
All turbine-engine aeroplanes with a MTOM in excess of 15 000 kg or authorised to carry more
than 30 passengers must be fitted with a GPWS incorporating a predictive Terrain Awareness
and Warning System (TAWS). In addition from 1st January 2007 all turbine-engine aeroplanes
with a MTOM in excess of 5 700 kg or authorized to carry more then 9 passengers if they have a
C of A issued before 1st January 2003 must also carry TAWS.
COMMUNICATIONS EQUIPMENT
An aeroplane used for commercial air transport must be fitted with radio communication
equipment capable of conducting two-way communication with ATC for aerodrome control
purposes and receiving meteorological information at any time during flight.
JAR-OPS requires two independent VHF radio systems to be fitted when flying under IFR or VFR
on routes not navigated by visual landmarks. The communications equipment must also be
capable of tuning to other stations on the frequencies specified by the Authority of the State being
over-flown. Essentially, the equipment must be able to transmit/receive on the aeronautical
emergency frequency 121.500 MHz.

INTERNAL COMMUNICATIONS
Aeroplanes must have a public address (PA) system and a

crew intercommunications system (crew interphone or
intercom). The PA system is required (by JAR-OPS) for all
aeroplanes engaged in commercial air transport with more than
19 passenger seats. The crew interphone is required for all
aeroplanes with MTOM greater than 15 000 kg or having more
than 19 passenger seats, if the C of A was issued on or after
1 April 1965 and the aeroplane was registered in a JAA state
on 1 April 1995.
AUDIO SELECTOR PANEL (ASP)

The crew interphone system (between the flight crew) also carries the incoming audio output from
the radio equipment to the pilot’s headset or loudspeaker. Each position of the flight deck must
have an ASP so that the crewmember can select (by switching and volume control) the audio
services required.
Typically and ASP permits the audio output from the VHF and HF radios, VOR, DME, ADF,
markers, and ILS to be routed to the headset. Usually, the ASP has a microphone selector switch
to connect the pilot’s microphone to the transmitter circuit of equipment that can transmit audio
frequency (VHF and HF).
NAVIGATION EQUIPMENT
The aeroplane is fitted with navigation equipment enabling it to fly in accordance with its
operational flight plan, within the limits specified for RNP types, and as required by ATC.
It is assumed that flights under VFR fly by visual reference to landmarks.
For flights in areas where minimum navigation performance specifications (MNPS) are specified,
an aeroplane is fitted with navigation equipment which continuously provides indications of
adherence to or departure from track to the required degree of accuracy at any point along that
track. The MNPS and the procedures governing their application are published in Regional
Supplementary Procedures (Doc 7030).
For flights where RVSM of 300 m (1000 ft) is applied between FL 290 and FL 410, an aeroplane
is fitted with equipment capable of indicating the flight level flown, automatically maintaining a
selected flight level, providing an alert to the flight crew when a deviation occurs from the selected
flight level (the threshold for the alert shall not exceed ± 90 m (300 ft)), and automatically
reporting pressure-altitude (Mode C).
INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES
When operating the aeroplane under IFR and instrument procedures are required to comply with
IFR departure and arrival procedures, the aeroplane is to be fitted with not less than one; VOR;
ADF and DME; one ILS (or MLS); one marker 75 MHz beacon receiver. The requirement for
VOR/DME/ADF doubles where navigation along a route based on that aid alone. JAR-OPS also
require a SSR transponder equipped as required for the route being flown (at least Mode “C”).

INSTALLATION
The equipment installation is such that the failure of any single unit required for either
communications or navigation purposes, or both, does not result in the failure of another unit
required for communications or navigation purposes.
ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT FUSING

Most circuit protection systems fitted to aeroplanes use circuit breakers rather than fuses.
However, where fuses are used, there must be a supply of replacement fuses for use in flight (for
fuses that can be replaced in flight). There must be at least 10% of each type and fuse rating with
the proviso that there are not less than three of each.
WINDSHIELD WIPERS
Windshield wipers (or an equivalent means of clearing precipitation) must be fitted at each pilot
station if the MTOM is greater than 5700 kg.
EMERGENCY AND SURVIVAL EQUIPMENT

In order to assist the Search and Rescue organisation plan and execute any SAR operation, the
Operator must maintain lists of all the emergency and survival equipment fitted to aeroplanes for
use in the operation. The list includes number, colour, and type of life rafts, details of pyrotechnics
(flares and rockets), details of emergency medical supplies, water supplies, and the type and
frequencies of portable emergency radio equipment.
PERFORMANCE AND OPERATING LIMITATIONS

FACTORS AFFECTING AEROPLANE
PERFORMANCE
Factors that significantly affect the performance of
the aeroplane are to be taken into consideration
either as direct operational parameters, or as
allowances or margins, which may be provided in the
scheduling of performance data or in the code of
performance for the operation of the aeroplane. The
factors include mass, operating procedures, the
pressure-altitude appropriate to the elevation of the
aerodrome, temperature, wind, runway gradient, and
condition of the runway (presence of slush, water,
and/or ice etc.).
MASS LIMITATIONS
The mass of the aeroplane at the start-up or take-off should not exceed the mass at which take-
off performance requirements can be complied with, or the mass at which the requirements for:
the length of runway available, enroute – one engine inoperative, enroute – two power units
inoperative, and landing, can be complied with, allowing for expected reductions in mass as the
flight proceeds, and for fuel jettisoning as necessary.
In no case is the mass at the start of take-off to exceed the maximum take-off mass specified in
the flight manual for the pressure-altitude of the elevation of the aerodrome, and any other local
atmospheric condition (if necessary). Neither is the estimated mass for the expected time of
landing at the aerodrome of intended landing and at any destination alternate aerodrome, to
exceed the maximum landing mass specified in the flight manual.

Additionally, the mass at the start of take-off, or at the expected time of landing at the aerodrome
of intended landing and at any destination alternate aerodrome, cannot exceed the relevant
maximum masses applicable for noise certification standards, unless otherwise authorised in
exceptional circumstances for an aerodrome or a runway where there is no noise disturbance
problem.
TAKE-OFF
The aeroplane must, in the event of a critical power-unit failing at any point in the take-off, be able
to discontinue the take-off and stop within the accelerate-stop distance available, or to continue
the take-off and clear all obstacles along the flight path by an adequate margin until the aeroplane
is in a position to comply with the enroute criteria.
In determining the length of the runway available, account is taken of the loss of runway length
due to alignment of the aeroplane prior to take-off.
ENROUTE — ONE POWER UNIT INOPERATIVE

The aeroplane must, in the event of the failure of the critical engine at any point along the route,
be able to continue the flight to an aerodrome at which the landing standard can be met, without
flying below the minimum flight altitude at any point.
ENROUTE — TWO POWER UNITS INOPERATIVE

In the case of aeroplanes having three or more engines, where the probability of a second power-
unit becoming inoperative must be allowed for, the aeroplane must be able, in the event of failure
of any two engines, to continue the flight to an enroute alternate aerodrome and land.
LANDING
The aeroplane must be able to land within the landing
distance available, at the aerodrome of intended landing
and at any alternate aerodrome, after clearing all obstacles
in the approach path by a safe margin. Make allowance for
expected variations in the approach and landing
techniques, if no such allowance is made in the scheduling
of performance data.
AEROPLANE PERFORMANCE OPERATING LIMITATIONS

The LOs require the student to be able to state the aeroplane performance operating limitations.
This is a separate subject in its own right and detailed instruction is given during the study of
subject 032 Performance. Remember, however, that matters discussed in Performance lectures
are examinable in the OP examination.


INTRODUCTION
Before actually beginning the flight, there are further aspects of aircraft operation to take into
account, namely the actual performance of the aeroplane on the day and the specific route to be
flown. The FOpsO/FDO together with the loading team must prepare the load sheet and check
that the aircraft is balanced (the aircraft centre of gravity (C of G) is within the defined limits). The
achievable performance is compared with the required aerodrome operating minima, any ATC
regulations (restrictions) applicable, the preferred runway, and the meteorological conditions
(specifically the temperature deviation from ISA, and the wind component for the runway). When
complete, the Commander has all the information needed to make the final operational decisions
about the flight.
This chapter covers the required aeroplane performance for the selection of minimum cruising
altitude and the aerodrome operating minima with specific consideration to low visibility
operations.
PERFORMANCE CONSIDERATIONS — ENROUTE

The normal cruising altitude is largely determined by the mass of the aeroplane (‘height for
weight’). Where mass is not limiting, ATC considerations, comfort (avoidance of turbulence), and
economy (flying at or about the Tropopause) normally determines the cruising altitude of turbojet
aeroplanes. Propeller performance is normally otherwise limiting for turboprop aircraft.
However, in the event of a failure of a power unit, the aeroplane may not be able to maintain
normal cruising altitude, and a gradual loss of altitude (drift-down) occurs. The operator is
required to calculate the drift-down factor and specify a minimum cruising altitude to cover the
eventuality.
PERFORMANCE CLASS A — ONE ENGINE INOPERATIVE

The operator must ensure that with one engine inoperative an aeroplane can fly above the
minimum enroute altitude along the planned route. The net flight path requires a positive gradient
at 1500 ft above the aerodrome where the landing is made after engine failure. If ice protection
systems are required, take into account the effect of their use on the net flight path.

Chapter 6 Operating the Aeroplane
The gradient of the net flight path must be positive at least 1000 ft above all terrain and
obstructions along the route within 9.3 km (5 nm) on either side of the intended track.
OR
The net flight path must permit the aeroplane to continue flight from the cruising altitude to an
aerodrome where a landing can be made. The net flight path must clear vertically, by at least
2000 ft, all terrain and obstructions along the route within 9.3 km (5 nm) on either side of the
intended track with regard to the conditions set out below:
¾ The engine is assumed to fail at the most critical point along the route
¾ Take into account the effects of winds on the flight path
¾ Fuel jettisoning is permitted to an extent consistent with reaching the aerodrome with
the required fuel reserves, if using a safe procedure
¾ The aerodrome where the aeroplane is assumed to land after engine failure must
meet the following criteria:
(1) The performance requirements at the expected landing mass are met
(2) Weather reports or forecasts, or any combination thereof, and field condition
reports indicate that a safe landing can be accomplished at the estimated
time of landing
Where the navigation accuracy cannot meet the 95% containment level an operator can increase
the width margins to 18.5 km (10 nm).
COMPLIANCE
The high terrain or obstacle analysis required may be carried out in one of two ways:
a. Make a detailed analysis of the route using contour maps of the high terrain and plotting
the highest points within the prescribed width margins. The next step is to determine
whether it is possible to maintain level flight with one engine inoperative 1000 ft above
the highest point of the crossing. If this is not possible, or if the associated weight
penalties are unacceptable, work out a drift-down procedure based on engine failure at
the most critical point and clearing critical obstacles during the drift-down by at least 2000
ft. The minimum cruise altitude is determined by the intersection of the two drift-down
paths, taking into account allowances for decision making. This method is time
consuming and requires the availability of detailed terrain maps.
b. Alternatively, the published minimum flight altitudes (Minimum Enroute Altitude, (MEA), or
Minimum Off Route Altitude, (MORA)) may be used for determining whether one engine
inoperative level flight is feasible at the minimum flight altitude or it is necessary to use
the published minimum flight altitudes as the basis for the drift-down construction shown
below. This procedure avoids a detailed high terrain contour analysis but may be more
penalising than taking the actual terrain profile into account.

Operating the Aeroplane Chapter 6
Minimum Cruise Altitude

(para b.)
Decision Making
Allowance
Minimum Cruise Altitude
(para a.)
Minimum Flight Altitude

Minimum Flight Altitude
Para b.
2000 ft
2000 ft
Para a.
Fig 2 - Drift-down Construction
Note: MEA or MORA normally provides the required 2000 ft obstacle clearance for
drift-down. However, neither is for use directly at and below 6000 ft altitude, as
ensured clearence is only 1000 ft.
PERFORMANCE CLASS A — AEROPLANES WITH THREE OR MORE

ENGINES, TWO ENGINES INOPERATIVE
The operator must ensure that at no point along the intended track is an aeroplane with three or
more engines more than 90 minutes, at the all-engines long range cruising speed at standard
temperature in still air, away from an aerodrome at which the performance requirements
applicable at the expected landing mass are met unless it complies with the details set out below.
The two engines inoperative enroute net flight path data must permit the aeroplane to continue
the flight, in the expected meteorological conditions, from the point where two engines are
assumed to fail simultaneously, to an aerodrome at which it is possible to land safely. The net
flight path must clear vertically, by at least 2000 ft all terrain and obstructions along the route
within 9.3 km (5 nm) on either side of the intended track. If using ice protection systems take into
account the effect of their use on the net flight path data. If the navigational accuracy does not
meet the 95% containment level, an operator must increase the width margin to 18.5 km (10 nm).
Assume the two engines fail at the most critical point of the route where the aeroplane is more
than 90 minutes, at the all engines long range cruising speed at standard temperature in still air,
away from an aerodrome at which the performance requirements are met.
The net flight path requires a positive gradient at 1500 ft above the aerodrome where making the
assumed landing after the failure of two engines.
Fuel jettisoning is permitted if using a safe procedure.

The expected mass of the aeroplane at the point where the two engines are assumed to fail must
not be less than that which would include sufficient fuel to proceed to an aerodrome where
making the assumed landing, and to arrive at least 1500 ft directly over the landing area and
thereafter to fly level for 15 minutes.
PERFORMANCE CLASS B — MULTI-ENGINE AEROPLANES

The operator must ensure that the aeroplane, in the event of an engine failure, can fly above the
relevant minimum altitudes for safe flight stated in the Operations Manual to a point 1000 ft above
an aerodrome.
The following must be complied with:
¾ The aeroplane is flying at an altitude where the rate of climb equals 300 ft per minute
with all engines operating.
¾ The enroute gradient with one engine inoperative shall be the gross gradient of
descent or climb respectively increased or decreased by a gradient of 0.5%.
PERFORMANCE CLASS B — SINGLE-ENGINE AEROPLANES

The aeroplane must be capable of reaching a place where a safe forced landing can be made.
For landplanes, a place on land is required. This point should be 100 ft above the intended
landing area. Apply the following limitations:
¾ The aeroplane is flying at an altitude where the rate of climb is less than 300 ft per
minute
¾ The assumed enroute gradient shall be the gross gradient of descent increased by a
gradient of 0.5%
PERFORMANCE CLASS C — ALL ENGINES OPERATING

The aeroplane must be capable of a rate of climb of at least 300 ft per minute with all engines
operating and be able to satisfy the engine inoperative limitations.
PERFORMANCE CLASS C — ONE ENGINE INOPERATIVE

The operator must ensure that the aeroplane is, in the event of a failure at any point on its route
or on any planned diversion and with the other engine or engines operating, capable of continuing
the flight from the cruising altitude to an aerodrome where a landing can be made clearing
obstacles within 9.3 km (5 nm) either side of the intended track by a vertical interval of at least:
¾ 1000 ft when the rate of climb is zero or greater

¾ 2000 ft when the rate of climb is less than zero
The flight path requires a positive slope at an altitude of 450 m (1500 ft) above the aerodrome
where making the assumed landing after the failure of one engine. Take the available rate of
climb of the aeroplane as 150 ft per minute less than the gross rate of climb specified. If not, the
width margins are increased to 18.5 km (10 nm) if the navigational accuracy does not meet the
95% containment level. Fuel jettisoning is permitted if using a safe procedure.

Operating the Aeroplane Chapter 6
PERFORMANCE CLASS C — AEROPLANES WITH THREE OR MORE

ENGINES, TWO ENGINES INOPERATIVE
At no point along the intended track, will an aeroplane with three or more engines be more than
90 minutes at the all-engine long range cruising speed at standard temperature in still air, away
from an aerodrome at which the performance requirements applicable at the expected landing
mass are met unless it complies with the following:
The two-engines inoperative flight path shown must permit the aeroplane to continue the flight
clearing all obstacles within 9.3 km (5 nm) either side of the intended track by a vertical interval of
at least 2000 ft, to an aerodrome at which the performance requirements are met. Assume the
failure of the two engines at the most critical point of that portion of the route where the aeroplane
is more than 90 minutes away from an aerodrome at which the performance requirements
applicable at the expected landing mass are met.
The expected mass of the aeroplane at the point where assumed failure of the two engines
occurs, must not be less than that including sufficient fuel to proceed to an aerodrome where the
landing is assumed to be made, and to arrive there at an altitude of a least 450 m (1500 ft)
directly over the landing area and thereafter to fly level for 15 minutes.
The available rate of climb of the aeroplane shall be taken to be 150 ft per minute less than that
specified. If not, increase the width margins to 18.5 km (10 nm) if the navigational accuracy does
not meet the 95% containment level. Fuel jettisoning is permitted as long as the aircraft can reach
the aerodrome with the required fuel reserves. A safe procedure must be used.
SELECTION OF CRUISING SPEED AND ALTITUDE

Aeroplanes can fly for either maximum endurance (longest time airborne), maximum range, or
shortest route time.
ENDURANCE
When flying for endurance, use the lowest possible fuel flow. To achieve this, fly at the highest
levels where drag is minimum, therefore fuel flow is lower for the required speed. To improve the
handling of the aeroplane at these high levels, slightly increase the required speed at lower flight
levels and higher flight levels. Effectively, the economy is being obtained because of the reduced
density of the air. Remember, the temperature is isothermal above the tropopause so there is no
inherent gain in engine performance by climbing.
MAXIMUM RANGE
Achieve the greatest range by using the cruise climb technique, whereby the aeroplane climbs to
the most economical level for the mass, and the speed is set at 1.3 times the endurance speed.
From then on, as the aeroplane mass reduces, the aeroplane naturally climbs. Maintain this until
the descent point when the aeroplane descends rapidly. This technique is only possible in
uncongested airspace.

SHORTEST TIME
This is achieved by operating the aeroplane at maximum cruise thrust to obtain the highest mach
number for a given mass, pressure altitude, and temperature (this assumes no wind affect). The
flight manual normally quotes three speeds: high-speed cruise (0.78 Mach) a constant (0.74
Mach) and a Long-Range Cruise (LRC). For fuel economy, usually the LRC is used and the time
penalty accepted. For both speeds the fuel flow decreases as mass decreases and climbing to
height for weight increases the efficiency, known as Stepping.
For long range flights, a compromise is to use the stepped climb technique, where the aeroplane
flies a constant mach number until it is capable of climbing to a higher level at which time a climb
is requested and once achieved, the Mach number is regained. Repeat this at approximately
2 hour intervals.
In any event, where maintaining a lower level (usually due to ATC requirements, weather, etc.), a
penalty in either time or increased fuel usage occurs.
For further details on the above cruise techniquies and fuel planning please refer to Book 11 –
Flight Planning, Chapter 5.


Page 7-6
Page 7-9
Page 7-11
INTRODUCTION
Each aerodrome is different and requires different consideration for the efficient and expeditious
operation of aeroplanes. The Operator must establish by law Aerodrome Operating Minima
(AOM), which specify the minimum meteorological conditions necessary and specific
requirements for pilots to achieve before operating aircraft into or from the aerodrome.
The AOM are not universally applied but are specific to the aerodrome, the type of aeroplane, the
type of operation, the qualification of the crew, and many other criteria. However, the minima
specified by the Operator are not to be less than those approved by the Authority of the State in
which the aerodrome is located which, in turn, is not less than the minima stated in Annex 6 and
JAR-OPS.
In specifying the minima, the Operator needs to take into account:
¾ The type, performance, and handling characteristics of the aeroplane

¾ The composition, competence, and experience of the crew
¾ Dimensions and characteristics of the runway used
¾ Adequacy and performance of ground aids
¾ Aeroplane equipment for navigation and/or the control of the aeroplane during the take-
off, approach, the flare, the landing, the roll-out, and the missed approach
¾ Obstacles in the approach, missed approach and climb-out areas
¾ The obstacle clearance height/altitude (OCH/A) for instrument approaches
¾ The means of determining and reporting meteorological conditions
AIRCRAFT CATEGORISATION
In deciding the regulatory minima, ICAO, JAA, and the Authorities use aircraft speed as the
determining factor. The most critical speed is the speed at which the aeroplane is required to
cross the threshold (VAT). This calculates as follows:
¾ VAT = 1.3 x VSO (the stalling speed), or

¾ 1.23 x VS1G (the 1G stalling speed in the landing configuration)

Chapter 7 Aerodrome Operating Minima and Low Visibility Operations
Where both VSO and VS1G are available, the higher resulting VAT is used.
Aeroplane Approach Category

Aeroplane Category VAT
A Less than 91 kt
B From 91 to 120 kt
C From 121 to 140 kt
D From 141 to 165 kt
E From 166 to 210 kt
TERMINOLOGY
Terms used in this chapter have the following meaning:
Circling
The visual phase of an instrument approach to bring an aircraft into position for landing on a
runway, not suitably located for a straight-in approach.
Low Visibility Procedures (LVP)

Procedures applied at an aerodrome for ensuring safe operations during Category II and III
approaches and Low Visibility Take-offs.
Low Visibility Take-Off (LVTO)

A take-off where the Runway Visual Range (RVR) is less than 400 m.
Flight control system

A system that includes an automatic landing system and/or a hybrid landing system.
Fail-Passive flight control system

A flight control system is fail-passive if, in the event of a failure, there is no significant out-of-trim
condition or deviation of flight path or attitude but the landing is not completed automatically. For
a fail-passive automatic flight control system the pilot assumes control of the aeroplane after a
failure.
Fail-Operational flight control system

A flight control system is fail-operational if, in the event of a failure below alert height, the
approach, flare and landing, can be completed automatically. In the event of a failure, the
automatic landing system operates as a fail-passive system.
Fail-operational hybrid landing system

A system that consists of a primary fail-passive automatic landing system and a secondary
independent guidance system enabling the pilot to complete a landing manually after failure of
the primary system.
Note: A typical secondary independent guidance system consists of a monitored head-up

display providing guidance which normally takes the form of command information but it
may alternatively be situation (or deviation) information.
Visual approach
When either part or all of an instrument approach procedure is not completed and the execution
of the approach is with visual reference to the terrain.

Aerodrome Operating Minima and Low Visibility Operations Chapter 7
TAKE-OFF MINIMA
GENERAL
Take-off minima established by the operator must be expressed as visibility or RVR limits, taking
into account all relevant factors for each aerodrome planned to be used and the aeroplane
characteristics. Where there is a specific need to see and avoid obstacles on departure and/or for
a forced landing, additional conditions (e.g. ceiling) must be specified.
¾ The Commander cannot commence take-off unless the weather conditions at the
aerodrome of departure are equal to or better than the minima for landing at that
aerodrome, unless a suitable take-off alternate aerodrome is available.
¾ Where meteorological visibility is below that required for take-off and no report of RVR
exists, commencement of a take-off may only commence if the Commander can
determine that the RVR/visibility along the take-off runway is equal to or better than the
required minimum.
VISUAL REFERENCE
Select the take-off minima to ensure sufficient guidance to control the aeroplane in the event of a
discontinued take-off in adverse circumstances and a continued take-off after failure of the critical
power unit.
REQUIRED RVR/VISIBILITY
For multi-engine aeroplanes, whose performance is such that, in the event of a critical power unit
failure at any point during take-off, the aeroplane can either stop or continue the take-off to a
height of 1500 ft above the aerodrome while clearing obstacles by the required margins. The
take-off minima established by an operator are expressed as RVR/Visibility values not lower than
those given in the following table.
RVR/Visibility For Take-Off

Facilities RVR/Visibility (Note 3)
Nil (Day only) 500 m
Runway edge lighting and/or 250/300 m
centreline marking (Notes 1 and 2)
Runway edge and centreline 200/250 m
lighting (Note 1)
Runway edge and centreline 150/200 m
lighting and multiple RVR (Notes 1 and 4)
information
Notes
1. The higher values apply to Category D aeroplanes.
2. For night operations, at least runway edge and runway end lights are required.
3. The reported RVR/Visibility value representative of the initial part of the take-off run can
be replaced by pilot assessment.
4. The required RVR value must be achieved for all of the relevant RVR reporting points
with the exception given in Note 3 above.

For multi-engine aeroplanes whose performance is such that they cannot comply with the
performance requirements in the event of a critical power unit failure, there may be a need to re-
land immediately and to see and avoid obstacles in the take-off area. Such aeroplanes may be
operated to the following take-off minima provided they are able to comply with the applicable
obstacle clearance criteria, assuming engine failure at the height specified.
200 metres visibility……see the DC6?
The take-off minima established by an operator must be based upon the height from which the
one engine inoperative net take-off flight path can be constructed.
The RVR minima used may not be lower than either of the values given in the following table:
Take-Off RVR/Visibility - Flight Path

Assumed engine failure RVR/Visibility
height above the take-off (Note 2)
runway
< 50 ft 200 m
51 - 100 ft 300 m
101 - 150 ft 400 m
151 - 200 ft 500 m
201 - 300 ft 1000 m
> 300 ft 1500 m (Note 1)
Notes
1. 1500 m is also applicable if no positive take-off flight path can be constructed.

2. The reported RVR/Visibility value representative of the initial part of the take-off run can
be replaced by pilot assessment.
When reported RVR, or meteorological visibility is not available, the Commander shall not
commence take-off unless it can be determined that the actual conditions satisfy the applicable
take-off minima.

Exceptions:
Subject to the approval of the Authority, and provided the requirements in paragraphs a. to e.
below have been satisfied, an operator may reduce the take-off minima to 125 m RVR (Category
A, B and C aeroplanes) or 150 m RVR (Category D aeroplanes) when:
¾ Low Visibility Procedures are in force

¾ High-intensity runway centreline lights spaced 15 m or less and high-intensity edge lights
spaced 60 m or less are in operation
¾ Flight crewmembers have satisfactorily completed training in a simulator approved for
this procedure
¾ A 90 m visual segment is available from the cockpit at the start of the take-off run
¾ The required RVR value has been achieved for all of the RVR reporting points
Subject to the approval of the Authority, an operator of an aeroplane using an approved lateral
guidance system for take-off may reduce the take-off minima to an RVR less than 125 m
(Category A, B and C aeroplanes) or 150 m (Category D aeroplanes) but not lower than 75 m
provided runway protection and facilities equivalent to Category III landing operations are
available.
NON-PRECISION APPROACH SYSTEM MINIMA

An operator must ensure that system minima for non-precision approach procedures, based upon
the use of ILS without glidepath (LLZ only), VOR, NDB, SRA, and VDF, are not lower than the
MDH values given in the following table:
System Minima For Non-Precision Approach Aids

Facility Lowest MDH
ILS (no glide path - LLZ) 250 ft
SRA (terminating at ½ nm) 250 ft
VOR/DME 250 ft
SRA (terminating at 1 nm) 300 ft
VOR 300 ft
NDB 300 ft
VDF (QDM and QGH) 300 ft
SRA (terminating at 2 nm) 350 ft
MINIMUM DESCENT HEIGHT

An operator must ensure that the minimum descent height for a non-precision approach is not
lower than the OCH/OCA for the category of aeroplane; or the system minimum.
VISUAL REFERENCE
A pilot may not continue an approach below MDA/MDH unless at least one of the following visual
references for the intended runway is distinctly visible and identifiable to the pilot:
¾ Elements of the approach light system

¾ The threshold
¾ The threshold markings
¾ The threshold lights
¾ The threshold identification lights
¾ The visual glide slope indicator
¾ The touchdown zone or touchdown zone markings
¾ The touchdown zone lights
¾ Runway edge lights
¾ Other visual references accepted by the Authority

Runway threshold, centreline and edge lighting plus PAPIs
REQUIRED RVR
The lowest minima for use by an operator for non-precision approaches are:
Non-Precision Approach Minima Full Facilities (Notes 1, 5, 6, and 7)

MDH RVR/Aeroplane Category
A B C D
250-299 ft 800 m 800 m 800 m 1200 m
300-449 ft 900 m 1000 m 1000 m 1400 m
450-649 ft 1000 m 1200 m 1200 m 1600 m
650 ft and above 1200 m 1400 m 1400 m 1800 m
Non-Precision Approach Minima Intermediate Facilities

(Notes 2, 5, 6, and 7)
A B C D
250-299 ft 1000 m 1100 m 1200 m 1400 m
300-449 ft 1200 m 1300 m 1400 m 1600 m
450-649 ft 1400 m 1500 m 1600 m 1800 m
650 ft and above 1500 m 1500 m 1800 m 2000 m
Non-Precision Approach Minima Basic Facilities

(Notes 3, 5, 6, and 7)
A B C D
250-299 ft 1200 m 1300 m 1400 m 1600 m
300-449 ft 1300 m 1400 m 1600 m 1800 m
450-649 ft 1500 m 1500 m 1800 m 2000 m
650 ft and above 1500 m 1500 m 2000 m 2000 m

Non-Precision Approach Minima Nil Approach Light Facilities

(Notes 4, 5, 6, and 7)
A B C D
250-299 ft 1500 m 1500 m 1600 m 1800 m
300-449 ft 1500 m 1500 m 1800 m 2000 m
450-649 ft 1500 m 1500 m 2000 m 2000 m
650 ft and above 1500 m 1500 m 2000 m 2000 m
Notes
1. Full facilities comprise runway markings, 720 m or more of HI/MI approach lights, runway
edge lights, threshold lights and runway end lights. Lights must be on.
2. Intermediate facilities comprise runway markings, 420-719 m of HI/MI approach lights,
runway edge lights, threshold lights and runway end lights. Lights must be on.
3. Basic facilities comprise runway markings, <420 m of HI/MI approach lights, any length of
LI approach lights, runway edge lights, threshold lights and runway end lights. Lights
must be on.
4. Nil approach light facilities comprise runway markings, runway edge lights, threshold
lights, runway end lights or no lights at all.
5. The tables are only applicable to conventional approaches with a nominal descent slope
of not greater than 4. Greater descent slopes will usually require that visual glide slope
guidance (e.g. PAPI) is also visible at the Minimum Descent Height.
6. The above figures are either reported RVR or meteorological visibility converted to RVR
as in sub-paragraph (h) below.
7. The MDH mentioned in these tables refers to the initial calculation of MDH. When
selecting the associated RVR, there is no need to take account of a rounding up to the
nearest ten feet, which may be done for operational purposes, e.g. conversion to MDA.
NIGHT OPERATIONS
For night operations, at least runway edge, threshold, and runway end lights must be on.
PRECISION APPROACH - CATEGORY I OPERATIONS

GENERAL
A Category I operation is a precision instrument approach and landing using ILS, MLS or PAR
with a decision height not lower than 200 ft and with a runway visual range not less than 550 m.
DECISION HEIGHT
An operator must ensure that the decision height used for a Category I precision approach is not
lower than:
¾ The minimum decision height specified in the Aeroplane Flight Manual (AFM), if
stated
¾ The minimum height to which the precision approach aid can be used without the
required visual reference
¾ The OCH/OCL for the category of aeroplane, or
¾ 200 ft

VISUAL REFERENCE
A pilot may not continue an approach below the Category I decision height, unless at least one of
the following visual references for the intended runway is distinctly visible and identifiable to the
pilot:
¾ Elements of the approach light system

¾ The threshold
¾ The threshold markings
¾ The threshold lights
¾ The threshold identification lights
¾ The visual glide slope indicator
¾ The touchdown zone or touchdown zone markings
¾ The touchdown zone lights
¾ Runway edge lights
REQUIRED RVR
The lowest minima for use by an operator for Category I operations are:
Category I Minima
Decision Height Facilities/RVR (note 5)
(note 7)
Full Inter Basic Nil
(notes 1 & 6) (notes 2 & 6) (notes 3 & 6) (notes 4 & 6)
200 ft 550 m 700 m 800 m 1000 m
201 to 250 ft 600 m 700 m 800 m 1000 m
251 to 300 ft 650 m 800 m 900 m 1200 m
301 ft and above 800 m 900 m 1000 m 1200 m
Notes
1. Full facilities comprise runway markings, 720 m or more of HI/MI approach lights, runway
edge lights, threshold lights and runway end lights. Lights must be on.
2. Intermediate facilities comprise runway markings, 420-719 m of HI/MI approach lights,
runway edge lights, threshold lights and runway end lights. Lights must be on.
3. Basic facilities comprise runway markings, <420 m of HI/MI approach lights, any length of
LI approach lights, runway edge lights, threshold lights and runway end lights. Lights
must be on.
4. Nil approach light facilities comprise runway markings, runway edge lights, threshold
lights, runway end lights or no lights at all.
5. The above figures are either the reported RVR or meteorological visibility converted to
RVR in accordance with paragraph h.
6. The Table is applicable to conventional approaches with a glide slope angle up to 4°.
7. The DH mentioned in these tables refers to the initial calculation of DH. When selecting
the associated RVR, there is no need to take account of a rounding up to the nearest ten
feet, which may be done for operational purposes, (e.g. conversion to DA).
SINGLE PILOT OPERATIONS

For single pilot operations, an operator must calculate the minimum RVR for all approaches in
accordance with JAR-OPS. An RVR of less than 800 m is not permitted except when using a
suitable autopilot coupled to an ILS or MLS, in which case normal minima apply. The Decision
Height applied must not be less than 1.25 x the minimum use height for the autopilot.
NIGHT OPERATIONS
For night operations, at least runway edge, threshold, and runway end lights must be on.

PRECISION APPROACH - CATEGORY II OPERATIONS

GENERAL
A Category II operation is a precision instrument approach and landing using ILS or MLS with
decision height below 200 ft but not lower than 100 ft; and RVR not less than 350 m.
DECISION HEIGHT
An operator must ensure that the decision height for a Category II operation is not lower than:
¾ The minimum decision height specified in the AFM, if stated

¾ The OCH/OCL for the category of aeroplane
¾ The decision height to which the flight crew is authorised to operate
¾ 100 ft
VISUAL REFERENCE
A pilot may not continue an approach below the Category II decision height unless visual
reference containing a segment, which includes at least three consecutive lights of, the centre
line of the approach lights, touchdown zone lights, runway centre line lights, runway edge lights,
or a combination of these, is attained and can be maintained. This visual reference must include
a lateral element of the ground pattern, i.e. an approach lighting crossbar or the landing threshold
or a barrette of the touchdown zone lighting.
Approach lighting at Jersey showing clearly the lateral elements of the approach lighting

REQUIRED RVR
The lowest minima for use by an operator for Category II operations are:
Category II Minima
Auto-Coupled to Below DH (Note 1)
Decision Height RVR/Aeroplane RVR/Aeroplane
Category A, B, and C Category D
100 to 120 ft 300 m 300 m (Note 2) /350 m
121 to 140 ft 400 m 400 m
141 ft and above 450 m 450 m
Notes:
1. The reference to 'auto-coupled to below DH' in this table means continued use of the
automatic flight control system down to a height that is not greater than 80% of the
applicable DH. Thus, airworthiness requirements may, through minimum engagement
height for the automatic flight control system, affect the DH applied.
2. 300 m may be used for a Category D aeroplane conducting an autoland.
PRECISION APPROACH - CATEGORY III OPERATIONS

GENERAL
Subdivisions of Category III operations are as follows:
CATEGORY III A OPERATIONS

A precision instrument approach and landing using ILS or MLS with decision height lower
than 100 ft, and RVR not less than 200 m.
CATEGORY III B OPERATIONS

A precision instrument approach and landing using ILS or MLS with decision height
lower than 50 ft, or no decision height, and RVR lower than 200 m but not less than 50 m
(Annex 6) or 75 m (JAR OPS).
Note: Where the decision height (DH) and runway visual range (RVR) do not fall within
the same Category, the RVR determines in which Category the operation is considered.
CATEGORY III C OPERATIONS

A precision instrument approach and landing, usually ILS or MLS, with no decision height
and no RVR requirement.
DECISION HEIGHT
For operations using a decision height, an operator must ensure that the decision height is not
lower than:
¾ The minimum decision height specified in the AFM, if stated

¾ The authorised decision height to which the flight crew operates

NO DECISION HEIGHT OPERATIONS

Operations with no decision height may only be conducted if:
¾ The operation with no decision height is authorised in the AFM

¾ The approach aid and the aerodrome facilities can support operations with no decision
height
¾ The operator has an approval for CAT III operations with no decision height
VISUAL REFERENCE
For Category IIIA and IIIB operations with fail-passive flight control systems, a pilot may not
continue an approach below the decision height unless a visual reference containing a segment
of at least 3 consecutive lights of, the centreline of the approach lights, touchdown zone lights,
runway centre line lights, runway edge lights, or a combination of these, and can be maintained.
For Category IIIB operations with fail-operational flight control systems using a decision height, a
pilot may not continue an approach below the Decision Height unless attaining a visual reference
containing at least one centreline light, which can be maintained.
For Category III operations with no decision height there is no requirement for visual contact with
the runway prior to touchdown.
The Boeing 777 aircraft is equipped to land in CAT III conditions
REQUIRED RVR
The lowest minima for use by an operator for Category III operations are:
Category III Minima

Approach Decision Height Roll Out Control/ RVR
Category Guidance System
III A Less than 100 ft Not Required 200 m
III B Less than 100 ft Fail Passive 150 m

III B Less than 50 ft Fail Passive 125 m
III B Less than 50 ft or Fail Operational 75 m
no DH at all (50 m Annex 6)

CIRCLING
The lowest minima for use by an operator for circling are:
Lowest Circling Minima

A B C D
MDH 400 ft 500 ft 600 ft 700 ft
Minimum 1500 m 1600 m 2400 m 3600 m
Meteorological
Visibility
VISUAL APPROACH
An operator shall not use an RVR of less than 800 m for a visual approach.
CONVERSION OF REPORTED METEOROLOGICAL VISIBILITY TO RVR

An operator must ensure that a meteorological visibility to RVR conversion is not used for
calculating take-off minima, Category II or III minima or when a reported RVR is available. When
converting meteorological visibility to RVR in all other circumstances an operator must ensure
that the following table is used:
Conversion of Reported Meteorological Visibility to RVR

Lighting Elements in RVR = Reported Met Visibility times the following:
Operation
Day Night
HI approach and runway 1.5 2.0
lighting
Any type of lighting 1.0 1.5
installation other than
above
No lighting 1.0 Not Applicable
LOW VISIBILITY OPERATIONS

GENERAL OPERATING RULES
An operator shall not conduct Category II or III operations unless:
¾ Each aeroplane concerned is certificated for operations with decision heights below
200 ft, or no decision height, and equipped in accordance with JAR-AWO or an
equivalent accepted by the Authority.
¾ A suitable system for recording approach and/or automatic landing success and failure
is established and maintained to monitor the overall safety of the operation.
¾ The operations are approved by the Authority.
¾ The flight crew consists of at least 2 pilots.
¾ Each crew member has been training in low visibilty operations.
o NB. The flight crew qualification is specific to the operation and aircraft type.
¾ Decision Height is determined by means of a radio altimeter.
LV TAKE-OFF
An operator shall not conduct low visibility take-offs in less than 150 m RVR (Category A, B and C
aeroplanes) or 200 m RVR (Category D aeroplanes) unless approved by the Authority.

AERODROME CONSIDERATIONS
An operator shall not use an aerodrome for Category II or III operations unless the aerodrome
receives approval for such operations by the State in which the aerodrome is located. An operator
shall verify the establishment of the Low Visibility Procedures (LVP), and enforce those
procedures, at those aerodromes where conducting the low visibility operations.
OPERATING PROCEDURES
An operator must establish procedures and instructions to be used for Low Visibility Take-Off and
Category II and III operations. These procedures must be included in the Operations Manual and
contain the duties of flight crewmembers during taxiing, take-off, approach, flare, landing, roll-out
and missed approach as appropriate. The Commander shall verify that:
¾ The status of the visual and non-visual facilities is sufficient prior to commencing a Low
Visibility Take-Off or a Category II or III approach.
¾ Appropriate LVPs are in force according to information received from Air Traffic Services,
before commencing a Low Visibility Take-off or a Category II or III approach.
¾ The flight crewmembers are properly qualified prior to commencing a Low Visibility Take-
off in an RVR of less than 150 m (Category A, B and C aeroplanes) or 200 m (Cat D
aeroplanes) or a Category II or III approach.
MINIMUM EQUIPMENT
An operator must include in the Operations Manual the minimum equipment that has to be
serviceable at the commencement of a Low Visibility Take-off or a Category II or III approach in
accordance with the AFM or other approved document. The Commander shall verify that the
status of the aeroplane and of the relevant airborne systems is appropriate for the specific
operation conducted.
COMMENCEMENT AND CONTINUATION OF APPROACH

The pilot of a flight can commence an instrument approach regardless of the reported
RVR/Visibility. The approach shall not continue beyond the outer marker or equivalent position if
the reported RVR/Visibility is less than the minima required. If the aircraft passes the outer
marker and the RVR falls below the applicable minima then the approach may be continued to
DA/DH or MDA/MDH as applicable.
Where RVR is not available, derive the values using the reported visibility. If no outer marker or
equivalent position exists then the pilot shall make the decision to continue or abandon the
approach before descending below 1000 ft above the aerodrome on the final approach segment.
Where the MDA/MDH is at or above 1000 ft above the aerodrome the operator establishes a
height below which the aeroplane does not descend. The approach may be continued below
DA/DH or MDA/MDH and the landing completed provided the required visual reference is
established.
CONTROLLING RVR
The touchdown zone RVR is always controlling. Where the reported and relevant mid point and
stop end RVRs are also controlling then the following apply (Relevant means that part of the
runway used during the high speed phase of the landing to a speed of approximately 60 kt): the
minimum value for the mid point is 125 m or the required RVR value for the touch down zone if
less, and 75 m for the stop end. Where an aeroplane is fitted with a roll out guidance or control
system the minimum value for the mid point RVR is 75 m.

SPECIAL VFR
In the chapter of the Air Law notes, it discusses the regulations concerning Special VFR (SVFR)
concerning the Rules of the Air. ICAO Annex 2 states that a SVFR flight must not commence
when the ground visibility at an aerodrome within a CTR is less than 1500 m. JAR-OPS 1.465 on
the other hand, states that SVFR flights must not commence when the visibility is less than 3 km.
However, both Annex 2 and JAR-OPS state that SVFR flights must not continue if the flight
visibility is less than 1500 m. Students must be aware of the difference and be careful in the
examinations.


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Page 8-19
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Page 8-29
INTRODUCTION
Whilst aviation is inherently safe due mainly to strong legislation and strict enforcement of safety
procedures, the elements of nature often conspire to create situations that pose hazards to
operations which, if not dealt with, could result in the aircraft and people on board being placed in
danger or worse. All authorities publish information concerning hazards and offer advice in
addition to the strict enforcement of regulations where such hazards likely occur. In the UK the
CAA publishes pink AICs which contain information relating to safety matters. This chapter looks
more closely at some of the potential hazards and the procedures operators must apply.
ICE AND OTHER CONTAMINANTS

ICING
During the study of Meteorology, the process of ice formation and the detrimental effects the
accretion of ice has on the performance of an aeroplane are discussed. These include dramatic
increase in mass, shift of C of G, increased drag, increase in stalling speed, reduced lift, and a
reduction in the efficiency of flying controls. In piston engines, carburettor icing reduces airflow
through the venturi resulting in loss of power.
Operational Procedure (Rev Q407) 8-1

Chapter 8 Special Operational Procedures and Hazards
Rime ice forming on leading edge
For ice to form on an airframe three considerations are necessary: water in a liquid state must be
present, the outside air temperature must be below 0°C, and the aeroplane airframe temperature
must be below 0°C.
ICE REMOVAL
The law requires the removal of all ice from an aeroplane before any flight begins. The operator
must establish procedures for ground de-icing, anti-icing, and related necessary inspections of
the aeroplane(s). De-icing is removal of ice from the aircraft. Anti-icing is the prevention of ice
forming.
A flight cannot commence unless the external surfaces have been cleared of any contaminant or
deposit that might affect the performance of the aeroplane, and the aeroplane is certificated and
equipped for flight in icing conditions if there are known or expected icing conditions.
At night, the aeroplane must be equipped with a means to illuminate or detect the formation of
ice. Any illumination used must be of a type that does not cause glare or reflection affecting
crewmembers in the performance of their duties.
DE-ICING ON THE GROUND

A pilot can find information on the de-icing and anti-icing of aeroplanes in the operations manual,
and ICAO DOC 9640 – Manual of Aircraft Ground De-Icing/Anti-Icing. For a contaminated aircraft
on the ground there are three approved de-icing methods:
1. The application of de-icing fluids

2. Heating the airframe by use of hot air
3. Manually sweeping the aircraft
The carrying out of de-icing (applied HOT) /anti-icing (applied COLD) on the ground is done in a
one step or two step procedure:
One Step De-icing/anti-icing is done at the same time.

Two Step Ice removal is achieved first and then followed with anti-icing.
8-2 Operational Procedure (Rev Q407)

Special Operational Procedures and Hazards Chapter 8
DE-ICING/ANTI-ICING FLUIDS
De-icing fluids melt the ice and then prevent ice from forming until a much lower temperature, or it
slows down the ice forming process. Anti-icing fluids slow down the ice forming process. Because
the only difference is in the ability to melt the ice, they are effectively the same compounds. There
are three types in use:
1. Type I (unthickened) Fluid

2. Type II (thickened) Fluid
3. Type IV (thickened) Fluid
HOLDOVER TIMES
The fluids are applied neat or diluted depending on the holdover time. Holdover protection is
achieved by a layer of anti-icing fluid remaining on and protecting aircraft surfaces for a period of
time.
For a one-step procedure the holdover time begins at the commencement of de-icing/anti-icing.
With a two-step procedure the holdover time begins at the commencement of the second step.
The holdover times are published and vary with type of agent used and air temperature. At the
expiry of the holdover time, the aircraft is treated again and a new holdover period starts from
then. Prior to take-off the commander must ensure that the holdover time is still valid.
It is worth noting that various factors such as freezing rain/drizzle, strong winds, another aircraft’s
propeller or jet wash can reduce holdover times significantly.

FIRE AND SMOKE

FIRE
Fire is always a potential hazard with aeroplanes. The huge quantities of fuel carried and the
catastrophic effects of collisions and crashes result in graphic pictures of fires where accidents
occur. However, less catastrophic fires are more likely from routine operations, and Operators
must ensure the training of all crews to cope with fires both in the aircraft systems and inside the
cabin.
CARBURETTOR FIRE
A carburettor fire can start when a rich fuel mixture or neat fuel ignites by exhaust gasses or poor
starting techniques or a malfunction of the engine. The standard drill for dealing with a carburettor
fire is as follows:
If the engine has not started:
1. Move the mixture control to idle-cutoff.

2. Open the throttle fully.
3. Continue to operate the starter motor.
If the engine has started, keep the engine going. In both cases, if the fire does not go out,
execute the Engine Fire Drill.
ENGINE FIRE
Take account of whether the aeroplane is in the air or on the ground. The following are general
considerations and are not specific to type.
Piston Engine Fire:

1. Fuel off
2. Allow the engine to run dry
3. The system should then be purged of fuel
4. Ignition off
Jet Engine Fire:

1. Close the thrust lever
2. Engine start lever to cut-off
3. Pull the engine fire warning switch
If the warning continues, operate the fire extinguisher system. If this does not work, after
30 seconds, operate the second fire extinguisher system.
Turboprop Engine Fire

Same as for the Jet Engine Fire except that at some stage the propeller needs
feathering.

HAND FIRE EXTINGUISHERS

Provided are hand fire extinguishers for use in crew, passenger, and cargo compartments, and
galleys. The type of extinguisher must be suitable for the kinds of fires likely to occur in the
compartment where the intended use of the extinguisher is and, for personnel compartments, to
minimise the hazard of toxic gas concentration.
At least one hand fire extinguisher, containing Halon 1211 (bromochlorodifluromethane,

CBrCIF2), or equivalent as the extinguishing agent, must be conveniently located on the flight
deck for use by the flight crew.
At least one hand fire extinguisher must be located in, or readily accessible for use in, each galley
not located on the main passenger deck.
At least one readily accessible hand fire extinguisher must be available for use in each Class A or
Class B cargo or baggage compartment and in each Class E cargo compartment that is
accessible to crewmembers in flight.
The number of hand fire extinguishers required in the passenger compartments is listed below:
Requirements for Hand Fire Extinguishers

Maximum approved passenger seating Number of Extinguishers
configuration
7 to 30 1
31 to 60 2
61 to 200 3
201 to 300 4
301 to 400 5
401 to 500 6
501 to 600 7
601 or more 8
When two or more extinguishers are required, they must be evenly distributed in the passenger
compartment. The hand fire extinguishers that may be used in an aircraft are:
Types and Use of Hand Fire Extinguishers

Extinguisher Colour Use Remarks
Halon 1211 – BCF Green General Anywhere on aircraft
Water Red Domestic fires Nil
CO2 Black Electrical fires Not on flight deck
Dry Powder Blue Electrical and liquid Not on flight deck
fires
Automatically triggered fire extinguishers in toilets are generally Halon BCF.

CLASS OF FIRES
Know the following classes of fire:
Class A Solids, ordinary combustible material

Class B Flammable liquids
Class C Gases
Class D Combustible metals
FIRE DETECTION
Fire detection systems found on an aircraft include:
¾ Electro optical systems which work by the interruption of a beam of light

¾ Heat detection systems
BRAKE OVERHEAT
When overheated brakes occur, this presents a danger that the tyres and brakes may explode.
Fire crews should be in attendance in a situation involving overheated breaks . This can take a
substantial time. If approaching the aircraft, do so from the front or rear, not from the side.
CRASH AXES AND CROWBARS

An aeroplane with a MTOM > 5700 kg or having a passenger seating configuration of more than
nine requires a crash axe or crowbar on the flight deck. Where the seating configuration is more
than 200, required in the rearmost galley is a crash axe or crowbar. Do not make these items
visible to passengers.
SMOKE
Smoke in any form at any location is hazardous to life, and when airborne it is particularly
dangerous. Smoke reduces the absorption of oxygen into the lungs. In extreme cases this leads
to asphyxiation and death. It also causes panic which can lead to irrational behaviour. Other
effects include stimulation of the mucus membranes, irritation of the lungs, and obviously,
reduced vision. On the flight deck, smoke distracts the pilots from their duty and one or both must
take action with the necessary check list to identify the source of the smoke and stop it.
To reduce or negate the physiological effects of smoke on the flight deck, pilot positions have
smoke hoods and /or goggles together with oxygen masks that do not mix the oxygen with cabin
air. Smoke in the passenger cabin is most likely from a malfunction in the galley, or from
passengers illegally smoking in the toilet compartments.
In the event of smoke in the passenger compartment requiring the use of the drop-out oxygen
masks, passengers are reluctant to cover their mouths. The cabin crew must be forceful in
ensuring compliance with the Commander’s instructions to don the oxygen masks. Necessary
drills and training are in the Operations Manual.
SMOKE IN THE CARGO COMPARTMENT

On the flight deck or in the passenger compartment, smoke is immediately obvious and the drills
can be actioned. Usually unmanned, any smoke present in the cargo compartment may escape
attention until warning devices indicate increased temperature due to the fire. To overcome this,
linked smoke detectors (similar to domestic smoke detector) are in cargo compartments and
crewmembers must visit the compartment (if possible) at regular intervals.

SECURITY REQUIREMENTS
TRAINING PROGRAMMES
All operators must ensure that all appropriate personnel are familiar, and comply with the relevant
requirements of the national security programmes of the State of the operator. An operator must
establish, maintain and conduct approved training programmes which enable the operator's
personnel to take appropriate action to prevent acts of unlawful interference such as sabotage or
unlawful seizure of aeroplanes and to minimise the consequences of such events should they
occur.
AEROPLANE SEARCH PROCEDURE CHECKLIST

The operator ensures that all aeroplanes carry and follow a checklist of the procedures for that
type to search for:
¾ Concealed weapons
¾ Explosives
¾ Other dangerous devices
The checklist should also give guidance on action taken if a bomb or suspicious object is found.
REPORTING ACTS OF UNLAWFUL INTERFERENCE

An operator shall ensure that all appropriate personnel are familiar, and comply with the relevant
requirements of the national security programmes of the State of the operator. Following an act of
unlawful interference on board an aeroplane the Commander or the operator shall submit, without
delay, a report of such an act to the designated local authority and the Authority in the State of
the Operator.
FLIGHT CREW COMPARTMENT SECURITY

If installed, the flight crew compartment door on all aeroplanes operated for the purpose of
carrying passengers shall be able to lock from within the compartment in order to prevent
unauthorised access.
WEAPONS
In order to carry Weapons of War (as defined by JAR-OPS) in an aircraft, the operator must
obtain the permission of every State overflown. If States are pre-warned, the crew and the
Operator cannot then be accused of ‘gun running’ in the event of a non-scheduled diversion.
When carrying such weapons, carry them in accordance with the rules and, if classified as
Dangerous Cargo, apply the rules in full. Other weapons may be carried on board by law
enforcement officers and other persons acting in the discharge of their duty providing the rules
and regulations laid down by the states involved are adhered to.

UNLAWFUL INTERFERENCE - ANNEX 2

Any aircraft that is subject to unlawful interference shall endeavour to:
¾ Notify the appropriate ATS unit of this fact

¾ Inform the ATS of any significant circumstances
¾ Notify any deviation from the current flight plan necessitated by the above
This is to ensure that the ATS unit gives priority to the aircraft and minimises any risk of conflict
with other aircraft. The following procedures are intended as guidance for use by aircraft when
unlawful interference occurs and the aircraft is unable to notify an ATS unit of this fact.
PROCEDURES IF THE AIRCRAFT IS UNABLE TO NOTIFY AN ATS UNIT

Unless considerations on-board dictate otherwise, the Commander should attempt to continue
flying on the assigned track and at the assigned cruising level until notifying an ATS, or, the
aircraft is within radar coverage.
Where the aircraft must depart from its assigned track or level without making radio contact with
ATS, the Commander should, whenever possible:
¾ Attempt to broadcast warnings on the VHF emergency frequency and any other
appropriate frequencies, unless circumstances dictate otherwise
¾ Use other equipment such as on-board transponders, data links, etc. (conditions
permitting)
¾ Proceed in accordance with the applicable special procedures for in-flight
contingencies, where such procedures are established and promulgated
¾ If there is no applicable regional procedure, proceed at a level which differs from the
cruising levels normally used for IFR flight:
¾ 150 m (500 ft) where vertical separation minima of 300m (1000 ft) is applied; or
¾ 300 m (1000 ft) where vertical separation minima of 600m (2000 ft) is applied
ANNEX 14 - ISOLATED AIRCRAFT PARKING POSITION

An isolated aircraft parking position shall be designated or the aerodrome control tower shall be
advised of an area or areas suitable for the parking of an aircraft which is known or believed to be
the subject of unlawful interference, or which for other reasons needs isolation from normal
aerodrome activities.
The isolated aircraft parking position should be located at the maximum distance practicable and
in any case never less than 100 m from other parking positions, buildings, or public areas. Take
care in ensuring that the location of the position is not over underground utilities such as gas and
aviation fuel and, to the extent feasible, electrical or communication cables.
ANNEX 17 – RESPONSE TO ACTS OF UNLAWFUL INTERFERENCE

Each Contracting State shall provide assistance to an aircraft subjected to an act of unlawful
seizure, including the use of navigation aids, air traffic services and permission to land as may be
necessitated by the circumstances.
The State shall take measures to ensure that an aircraft subjected to an act of unlawful seizure
which has landed in its territory is detained on the ground unless its departure is necessitated by
the overriding duty to protect human life.

Each Contracting State in which an aircraft subjected to unlawful interference has landed shall
notify by the quickest means the State of Registry of the aircraft and the State of the Operator of
the landing and shall similarly transmit by the quickest means all other relevant information to:-
¾ the two above-mentioned States

¾ each State whose citizens suffered fatalities or injuries
¾ each State whose citizens were detained as hostages
¾ each Contracting State whose citizens are known to be on board the aircraft
¾ the International Civil Aviation Organization.
ANNEX 17 – BOMB THREATS

Whenever a known or suspected bomb threat has been received ATS units shall promptly attend
to requests or to anticipated needs of the aircraft. This includes requests for relevant information
relating to air navigation facilities, procedures and services along the route of flight and at any
aerodrome of intended landing, and shall take such action as is necessary to expedite the
conduct of all phases of the flight.
The following additional procedures shall apply if a threat is received indicating that a bomb or
other explosive device has been placed on board a known aircraft. The ATS unit receiving the
threat information shall either
a) if in direct communication with the aircraft, advise the flight crew without delay of
the threat and the circumstances surrounding the threat
or
b) advise the flight crew by the quickest means through other ATS units or other
channels.

FUEL JETTISONING SYSTEM

A fuel jettisoning system must be installed on each aeroplane unless it is shown that the
aeroplane meets the performance climb requirements at maximum take-off mass, less the actual
or computed weight of fuel necessary for a 15-minute flight comprised of a take-off, go-around,
and landing at the airport of departure. The aeroplane configuration, speed, and thrust should be
the same as that used in meeting the applicable take-off, approach, and landing climb
performance requirements. In other words, unless the aeroplane can land at or just below
maximum take-off mass, then a fuel jettisoning system must be installed.
If required, a fuel jettisoning system must be capable of jettisoning enough fuel within 15 minutes
to enable the aeroplane to meet the performance climb requirements, assuming that the fuel is
jettisoned under the conditions found least favourable during flight tests. During the flight tests it
must be shown that:
¾ The fuel jettisoning system and its operation are free from fire hazard
¾ The fuel discharges clear of any part of the aeroplane
¾ Fuel or fumes do not enter any part of the aeroplane
¾ The jettisoning operation does not adversely affect the controllability of the aeroplane
Fuel should not be jettisoned below 10 000 ft. In winter, in exceptional circumstances, this can be
lowered to 7000 ft. In summer in exceptional circumstances, this can be lowered to 4000 ft. The
fuel jettisoning valve must be designed to allow flight personnel to close the valve during any part
of the jettisoning operation. Unless it is shown that using any means (including flaps, slots, and
slats) for changing the airflow across or around the wings does not adversely affect fuel
jettisoning, there must be a placard, adjacent to the jettisoning control, to warn flight-
crewmembers against jettisoning fuel while using the means that change the airflow.
The fuel jettisoning system must be designed so that any

reasonably probable single malfunction in the system does
not result in a hazardous condition due to unsymmetrical
jettisoning of, or inability to jettison, fuel.
FUEL JETTISONING PROCEDURES

Prior to fuel jettison, inform ATC that fuel jettison is about to
occur, and that VHF RTF communications will be kept to
the absolute minimum. Switch off the HF communications
equipment to prevent inadvertent transmission. All
automatic circuit switching (water heaters, galley
equipment, etc.) is to be electrically isolated until jettison is
complete. An area is to be chosen where there is minimum
turbulence and no Cumulonimbus cloud present.
Ideally, whilst fuel jettisoning, the aircraft should be kept out

of cloud. Inform the cabin crew prior to the jettison, also
inform the passengers that the operation is a routine Fuel jettisoning outlet
procedure to reduce the weight of the aeroplane. Once
jettison begins, an observer reports the flow from both sides of the aeroplane. During jettison,
limit electrical switching to essential circuitry only. Illuminate the NO SMOKING light. Once
jettison is complete, the observer reports that flow stopped on both sides of the aeroplane.
Normal operation may then resume.

PRESSURISATION FAILURE
Failure of the pressurisation system of an aeroplane is potentially life threatening. At altitudes
above that at which the partial pressure of oxygen is no longer sufficient for normal respiration,
exposure to ambient pressure causes hypoxia (lack of oxygen) leading to reduced brain
functioning and failure of vital life systems in the body. Death results in a relatively short time.
Unfortunately, the body is not very efficient at recognising the onset of hypoxia because the major
effect is drowsiness and a gradual drift to unconsciousness. For this reason, aircraft have
pressurisation failure warning systems to alert the crew when the required cabin pressure cannot
be maintained. If any failure of the pressurisation system occurs above a level where the outside
atmosphere can not support life, the flight crew are to don their quick don oxygen masks
immediately and then commence a descent to such a level immediately. Inform ATC of the
descent (the RTF call preceded by MAYDAY x 3) and the pilot should broadcast level passing
information and advise when stabilised at the lower level.
Failure of the pressurisation system can be caused by a general failure of the conditioning
system, ruptures in the pressure hull of a size such that the system cannot cope with the rate of
loss of cabin air, total power failure (all engines out) or mishandling of the system by the crew.
The classification of failures is by the rate of decompression of the cabin air: slow, rapid, or
explosive. Slow decompression occurs over a period of time because the system is trying to
replace the lost air and only losing the battle slowly. A failed door seal, stuck pressure discharge
valve, or an open window are likely causes. As the cabin altitude slowly climbs above 10 000 ft
(700 mb), a warning horn sounds and the drop out system operates after a delay at
approximately 14 000 ft. It is possible that physiological changes were noticed prior to this,
especially by trained personnel, particularly ‘ears popping’, the onset of tunnel vision, pain in body
cavities, and excessive venting of air from the body.
Particularly affected is night vision, although this may not be immediately noticed.
Rapid decompression is when a door opens or the hull ruptures and the system cannot replace
the lost air at all. An explosive decompression is the result of a catastrophic failure of the
pressure hull resulting from say, a bomb blast or impact by a missile.
The difference between rapid and explosive decompressions is somewhat academic as the
response by the crew is the same. The crew attempts to regain control of the aeroplane and
execute a rapid descent to a level where the ambient pressure of oxygen is life sustaining. There
may be extreme physiological effects such as exploding sinuses and teeth cavities, rupturing of
ear drums, extensive abdominal distension, and rupturing of internal organs.

Chapter 3 covers the requirements for the carriage of supplemental oxygen, but they are
reiterated here.
Requirements for the Carriage of Supplemental Oxygen

Supply For Duration and Cabin Pressure Altitude
All occupants of flight The entire flight time when the cabin pressure exceeds 13 000 ft
deck seats The entire flight time when the cabin pressure altitude exceeds
10 000 ft but does not exceed 13 000 ft for the first 30 minutes at
those altitudes, but in no case less than:
i. 30 minutes for aeroplanes certificated to fly at altitudes
not exceeding 25 000 ft2
ii. 2 hours for aeroplanes certificated to fly at altitudes
more than 25 000 ft3
All required cabin Entire flight time when the cabin pressure exceeds 13 000 ft but not
crewmembers less than 30 minutes2
The entire flight time when the cabin pressure altitude exceeds
10 000 ft but does not exceed 13 000 ft for the first 30 minutes at
those altitudes,
100% of passengers5 The entire flight time when the cabin pressure altitude exceeds
15 000 ft but in no case less than 10 minutes4
14 000 ft but does not exceed 15 000 ft
10 000 ft but does not exceed 14 000 ft after the first 30 minutes at
these altitudes
Notes: 1. The supply provided must take account of the cabin pressure altitude
and descent profile for the routes considered.
2. The required minimum supply is that quantity of oxygen necessary for a
constant rate of descent from the aeroplane’s maximum certificated
operating altitude to 10 000 ft in 10 minutes followed by 20 minutes at
10 000 ft.
operating altitude to 10 000 ft in 10 minutes followed by 110 minutes at
10 000 ft.
operating altitude to 15 000 ft in 10 minutes.
5. For the purpose of this table, “passengers” means passengers actually
carried and includes infants.
Flight crewmembers use a quick donning oxygen mask, which is a mask that can be donned
within 5 seconds using one hand, and permits normal radio communications to be maintained.
The masks used by passengers are of no use when there is smoke in the cabin as the smoke
mixes with the oxygen. The number of oxygen dispensing units and outlets must exceed the
number of seats by at least 10%.

WINDSHEAR AND MICROBURST DEFINITIONS AND THE

METEOROLOGICAL BACKGROUND
Windshear is a change in wind direction and/or speed in either a vertical or horizontal sense. A
simple definition is given by the UK CAA in a still valid AIC.
Definition: Variations in vector wind along the aircraft flight path of a pattern, intensity,
and duration to displace an aircraft abruptly from its intended path requiring substantial
control action.
LOW ALTITUDE WINDSHEAR

Low altitude windshear affects the take-off and landing and can be split into 3 motions:
Vertical windshear The change of a horizontal wind vector with height.

Horizontal windshear The change of a horizontal wind vector with horizontal
distance
Updraught/downdraught Changes in the vertical component of wind with horizontal
distance.
A windshear encounter can affect large aircraft suddenly by displacing them beyond the pilot’s
powers of recovery.
METEOROLOGICAL FEATURES
Severe windshear is associated with
cumulonimbus or towering cumulus clouds.
However, windshear can also be experienced in
association with other features such as the
passage of a front, a marked temperature
inversion, a low-level wind maximum, or a
turbulent boundary layer. Topography or
buildings can make the situation worse when
there is a strong wind.
Towering cumulonimbus
THUNDERSTORMS
The study of thunderstorms in Meteorology covers the
physical properties of these phenomena and this
section of the notes describes the wind flows in and
around the thunderstorm which cause the most severe
windshear. The shears and draughts associated with
the thunderstorm can affect an aircraft from any angle.
This makes assessment of angle of attack and the
onset of the stall difficult to predict.
Lightning is only one of the hazards
associated with thunderstorms

Gust Front
The gust front is a well-defined area of cold air flowing out from a downdraught in all
directions. The gust front leads the storm along its line of movement and affects the area
out to 24 to 32 km from the storm centre, and from the surface up to about 6000 ft. The
area is subject to turbulence and possibly vertical shear because of the out flowing cold
air undercutting inflowing warm air. If the leading edge has no associated precipitation,
weather radar does not detect the gust front. With some gust fronts, a roll cloud may be
present which may be associated with the onset of precipitation.
Microbursts
A microburst is a highly concentrated,
powerful downdraught of air, typically less
than 5 km across, lasting from 1 to 5
minutes, with downdraughts up to 60 knots
and possible wind speed at the surface of
90 knots. Microbursts are either “wet” or
“dry”. The dry microburst has no associated
precipitation, which makes detection
difficult. The wet microburst is associated
with the precipitation that falls below a
cumulonimbus cloud.
A microburst
FRONTAL PASSAGE
The greatest risk of windshear is from well-developed active fronts with narrow surface frontal
zones, and marked temperature differences between the two air masses. Sharp changes in wind
direction as the front passes indicate the possibility of windshear. Signs to look for are a
temperature difference of 5°C or more across the frontal zone, and the speed of movement of the
front, especially if 30 kt or more. The cold front poses the greater risk with the windshear
occurring just after the surface passage. The period of windshear for a warm front is longer and
precedes the passage.
INVERSIONS
A strong vertical shear can occur when a low-level jet forms in association with a strong radiation
inversion. These normally develop at night under clear skies. Low-level inversions may develop
where a strong upper flow is above a calm flow next to the surface. Windshear can be
experienced across the boundary.
TURBULENT BOUNDARY LAYER

In the boundary layer strong surface winds are associated with large gusts and lulls causing
horizontal windshear. Solar heating of the ground can cause up and downdraughts.
TOPOGRAPHICAL WINDSHEAR
Natural or man made features affect the wind flow and can cause windshear. The direction of flow
and wind speed determines the severity of the windshear, mountain waves being the best
example.

THE EFFECTS OF WINDSHEAR ON AN AIRCRAFT IN FLIGHT

In windshear the magnitude of the change of wind vector and the rate at which it happens
determine the severity. An aeroplane at 1000 ft agl may have a headwind component of 30 kt
with a surface headwind component of only of 10 kt on the runway. The 20 kt difference may
reduce evenly and the effect is negligible, or if the speed differential still exists at 300 ft the
change through further descent is marked. Windshear implies a narrow borderline and the 20 kt
of wind speed may well be lost over a small vertical distance.
Shear Line
30 kt
IAS 130 kt
Groundspeed 100 kt 10 kt
IAS 110 kt
Groundspeed 100 kt
As shown in the diagram, the loss of airspeed when passing through the shear line is sudden.
The inertia of the aircraft keeps it at its original ground speed of 100 kt and power is needed to
accelerate the aircraft back to its original air speed. This takes time and there is sinking, as lift is
lost. The headwind was a form of energy and when it dropped 20 kt, an equivalent amount of
energy loss occurred. NEGATIVE windshear.
Shear Line
30 kt
IAS 120 kt IAS 140 kt

Groundspeed 100 kt Groundspeed 100 kt
10 kt
The opposite effect happens when taking off. Assume a climb with a 10 kt headwind, which
changes to a 30 kt headwind. The target climb speed is 120 kt. The effect of a sudden transition
to a 20 kt increase of headwind increases the lAS by the same amount until the momentum of the
ground speed is lost. The aircraft climbs more rapidly with the added lift. POSITIVE windshear.

SUMMARY
Effect of Windshear
IAS Effect
Headwind Increase Increase Climb
Headwind Decrease Decrease Descent
Tailwind Increase Decrease Descent
Tailwind Decrease Increase Climb
TECHNIQUES TO COUNTER THE EFFECTS OF WINDSHEAR

There is no international agreement for grading windshear. Always plan for the worst case
scenario. If the forecast calls for thunderstorms at the planned destination, then expect windshear
and give consideration to the following. Increase the airspeed on the approach. Rule of thumb
guidance include adding half the headwind component of the reported surface wind to VAT, or,
half the mean wind speed plus half the gust factor, in each case up to a maximum of 20 kt.
Where a sudden increase in airspeed occurs, the normal reaction to the rise above the glidepath
is to reduce power to regain the glidepath. The pilot must be alert to the need to increase power
in good time to avoid dropping below the glidepath. In the later stages of an approach windshear
can be much more hazardous. A drop in the wind speed might bring about a very sudden drop in
airspeed with an increase in the rate of descent. A rapid and positive increase in power is
needed.
Vital actions to counter loss of airspeed caused by windshear near the ground:
¾ Increase power to full go-around

¾ Raise the nose to check descent (to stick shaker operation)
¾ Co-ordinate power and pitch
¾ Be prepared to carry out a missed approach rather than risk landing from a
destabilised approach
The technique for dealing with the effect of a microburst is as follows:
¾ If an initial rise in airspeed and rise above the approach path occurs
• Increase thrust to go-around power.
• Select a pitch angle for a missed approach, typically about 15°, and hold
it against turbulence and buffeting.
¾ The increased airspeed and rate of climb may be rapidly lost. If the downdraught
strikes, airspeed may be lost and the aircraft may start to descend even with the high
power and pitch angle.
¾ The most critical period is when the downdraught begins to change to increasing
tailwind. The rate of descent may decrease, but the airspeed may continue to fall.
¾ If maximum thrust is already applied and there is a risk of striking the ground or an
obstacle, increase the pitch angle until feeling the stick shaker.

When there is an indefinite risk of windshear, it may be possible to use a longer runway or one
that points away from an area of potential threat. Rotating at a slightly higher speed may be
possible. The high power setting and high pitch angle after rotation put the aircraft an optimum
configuration should a microburst strike. In both approach and take-off cases.
Vital actions are:
¾ Use the maximum power available as soon as possible.

¾ Adopt a pitch angle of around 15° and try to hold that attitude. Do not chase
airspeed.
¾ Be guided by stick shaker indications when holding or increasing pitch attitude,
easing the backpressure as required to attain and hold a slightly lower attitude.
Windshear warning can be provided in several ways:
¾ Meteorological warning
¾ ATS warning
¾ Pilot warning
¾ On board pre-encounter warning
¾ On board encounter warning and/or guidance

WAKE TURBULENCE
AIRCRAFT WAKE VORTEX CHARACTERISTICS
Wake vortices are present behind every aircraft in
forward flight. They are most hazardous to aircraft
with a small wing span during the take-off, Initial
climb, final approach, and landing phase. The
characteristics of the wake vortex system generated
by an aircraft in flight are determined initially by the
aircraft's gross mass, wingspan, aircraft configuration,
and attitude. Two counter-rotating cylindrical air
masses trailing behind the aircraft make up the vortex
system in the wake of an aircraft.
The two vortices are separated by about three

quarters of the aircraft's wingspan. In still air, the
vortices tend to drift slowly downward and either level
off, usually not more than 1000 ft below the flight path
of the aircraft, or, approaching the ground, move
sideways from the track of the generating aircraft at a height roughly equal to half the aircraft's
wingspan. The tangential airspeed can be up to 300 ft/sec immediately behind a large aircraft.
This decays slowly with time.
Wake vortex generation begins when the nose wheel lifts

off the runway on take-off and continues until the nose
wheel touches down on landing. Vortex strength
increases with the weight of the generating aircraft. With
the aircraft in a given configuration, the vortex strength
decreases with increasing aircraft speed, and for a given
weight and speed the vortex strength is greatest when
the aircraft is in a clean configuration. For a given weight
and speed, a helicopter produces a stronger vortex than
a fixed-wing aircraft. It is normal for aircraft to take off into
wind. Strongest vortex is from a Heavy aircraft, flying
slow and in a clean configuration.
The wake vortex generated by an aircraft taking off drifts on the wind, and may be a hazard to an
aircraft taking off from a point on the same runway, short of where the first aircraft rotated. A light
crosswind (less than 5kt) will cause the vortex to drift sideways and may present a hazard to
aircraft using adjacent parallel or near parallel runways.
WAKE VORTEX AVOIDANCE — ADVICE TO PILOTS

Avoid the area 1000 ft below and behind a large aircraft.
The wake turbulence group of an aircraft should be indicated on the flight plan (Item 9) as H, M,
or L according to the ICAO specification.
Wake Turbulence Categories

Category Weight
Heavy (H) > 136 000 kg
Medium (M) 7000 – 136 000 kg
Light (L) 7000 kg or less

WAKE TURBULENCE SPACING

ATC applies the following radar (distance) and procedural (time) separation to counter the effect
of wake turbulence. Note that wake turbulence is not a problem where the following aircraft is
above the preceding aircraft and separation of 1 minute can be achieved between successive
arriving aircraft.
Wake Turbulence Spacing Minima – Arrivals

Leading Aircraft Following Aircraft Spacing Minima Distance
Heavy Heavy 4 nm
Heavy Medium 5 nm
Heavy Light 6 nm
Medium Heavy 3 nm
Medium Medium 3 nm
Medium Light 5 nm
Light Heavy 3 nm
Light Medium 3 nm
Light Light 3 nm
Apply the minima when operating behind another aircraft or when crossing the path of an aircraft
at the same altitude or 1000 ft below. Note in the table below, there is no allowance made for
aircraft of the same type. The standard ATC departure separation of 1 minute between take-offs
(minimum of 45° track divergence) covers this case.
Wake Turbulence Spacing Minima – Departures

Leading Aircraft Following Aircraft Minimum Spacing at the Time Aircraft are
Airborne
Heavy Medium or light Departing from the 2 minutes
Medium Light same position 2 minutes
Heavy Medium or light Departing from an 3 minutes
Medium Light intermediate point on 3 minutes
the same runway
Differing categories
of aircraft can lead to
separation problems
on departure.
Eg. An aircraft
departing from a
runway intersection
shall have to wait
3 minutes before
departure.

WAKE TURBULENCE SPACING MINIMA — DISPLACED LANDING THRESHOLD

Use a spacing of two minutes between medium or light aircraft following a heavy aircraft, and light
aircraft following a medium aircraft when operating on a runway with a displaced threshold when:
¾ A departing medium or light aircraft follows a heavy aircraft or a departing light

aircraft follows a medium aircraft
¾ An arriving medium or light aircraft follows a heavy aircraft departure, or an arriving
light aircraft follows a departing medium aircraft
¾ Expecting the projected flight paths to cross
WAKE TURBULENCE SPACING MINIMA — OPPOSITE DIRECTION

A spacing of two minutes between a medium or light aircraft and a heavy aircraft, and between a
medium aircraft and a light aircraft whenever the heavier aircraft is making a low or missed
approach and the lighter aircraft is:
¾ Taking-off on the same runway in the opposite direction

¾ Landing on the same runway in the opposite direction
¾ Landing on a parallel opposite direction runway separated by less than 760 m
WAKE TURBULENCE SPACING MINIMA — CROSSING AND PARALLEL RUNWAYS

When parallel runways separated by less than 760 m are in use, consider these runways as
single runways.
WAKE TURBULENCE SPACING MINIMA — INTERMEDIATE APPROACH

On intermediate approach, apply a minimum wake turbulence spacing of 5 nm between a heavy
and a medium or light aircraft following or crossing behind.
WAKE TURBULENCE SPACING — MADE SIMPLE

The above official spacing can seem difficult to remember, but below is a simplified version you
might want to use.
Time
Everything 2 minutes
Except on Take-off From a runway intersection 3 minutes
Except on Landing Light aircraft behind Medium or Heavy 3 minutes
Distance
Following Aircraft Type Distance Lead Aircraft Type
Heavy 4 nm Heavy
Medium 5 nm Heavy
Light 6 nm Heavy
Light 5 nm Medium
Any other combination 3 nm

TRANSPORT OF DANGEROUS GOODS BY AIR

TERMINOLOGY
Terms used in this Subpart have the following meanings:
Acceptance Check List

A document used to assist in carrying out a check on the external appearance of
packages of dangerous goods and their associated documents to determine that all
appropriate requirements have been met.
Cargo Aircraft
Any aircraft which is carrying goods or property, but not passengers. In this context the
following are not considered to be passengers:
¾ A crewmember
¾ An operator's employee permitted by, and carried in accordance with the
instructions contained in the Operations Manual
¾ An authorised representative of an Authority
¾ A person with duties in respect of a particular shipment on board
Dangerous Goods Accident

An occurrence associated with and related to the transport of dangerous goods which
results in fatal or serious injury to a person or major property damage.
Dangerous Goods
Incident
An occurrence, other than
a dangerous goods
accident, associated with
and related to the transport
of dangerous goods, not
necessarily occurring on
board an aircraft, which
results in injury to a
person, property damage,
fire, breakage, spillage,
leakage of fluid or radiation
or other evidence of Oops…incident or accident?
improper maintenance of the integrity of the packaging. Also considered a dangerous
goods incident is any occurrence relating to the transport of dangerous goods which
seriously jeopardises the aircraft or its occupants.
A Dangerous Goods Incident or Accident first Report shall be despatched within 72 hours
of the event unless exceptional circumstances prevent this.
Dangerous Goods Transport Document

A document which is specified by the Technical Instructions. Completion of this
document is by the person who offers dangerous goods for air transport ‘The Shipper’
and contains information about those dangerous goods. The document bears a signed
declaration indicating that the dangerous goods are fully and accurately described by
their proper shipping names and UN numbers (if assigned) and that they are correctly
classified, packed, marked, labelled, and in a proper condition for transport.
Freight Container
A freight container is an article of transport
equipment for radioactive materials, designed to
facilitate the transport of such materials, either
packaged or unpackaged, by one or more modes of
transport.
NOT a recommended loading technique!

Handling Agent
An agency which performs on behalf of the operator some or all of the latter's functions
including receiving, loading, unloading, transferring, or other processing of passengers or
cargo.
Over pack
An enclosure used by a single shipper to contain one or more packages and to form one
handling unit for convenience of handling and stowage.
Package
The complete product of the packing operation consisting of the packaging and its
contents prepared for transport.
Packaging
Receptacles and any other components or materials necessary for the receptacle to
perform its containment function and to ensure compliance with the packing
requirements.
Proper Shipping Name

The name used to describe a particular article or substance in all shipping documents
and notifications and, where appropriate, on packaging.
Serious Injury
An injury sustained by a person in an accident and which:
¾ Requires hospitalisation for more than 48 hours, commencing within seven days
from the date the injury was received; or
¾ Results in a fracture of any bone (except simple fractures of fingers, toes or
nose); or
¾ Involves lacerations which cause severe haemorrhage, nerve, muscle or tendon
damage; or
¾ Involves injury to any internal organ; or
¾ Involves second or third degree burns, or any burns affecting more than 5% of
the body surface; or
¾ Involves verified exposure to infectious substances or injurious radiation.

State of Origin
The Authority in whose territory the dangerous goods were first loaded on an aircraft.
Technical Instructions
The latest effective edition of the Technical Instructions for the Safe Transport of
Dangerous Goods by Air (Doc 9284-AN/905), including the Supplement and any
Addendum, approved and published by decision of the Council of the International Civil
Aviation Organisation.
UN Number
The four-digit number assigned by the United Nations Committee of Experts on the
Transport of Dangerous Goods to identify a substance or a particular group of
substances.
Unit Load Device

Any type of aircraft container, aircraft pallet with a net, or aircraft pallet with a net over an
igloo. Note: An over pack is not included in this definition. For a container containing
radioactive materials see the definition for freight container.

DANGEROUS GOODS CATEGORIES

Class 1 - Explosives
Class 2 - Compressed gases
Class 3 - Flammable liquids
Class 4 - Other flammable hazards
Class 5 - Oxygen rich material, oxidisers, and organic peroxides
Class 6 - Material affecting health, poisons, and infectious substances
Class 7 - Radioactive material
Class 8 - Corrosive material
Class 9 - Miscellaneous hazards
REQUIREMENTS
An operator must comply with the provisions contained in the Technical Instructions on all
occasions when carrying dangerous goods, irrespective of whether the flight is wholly or partly
within or wholly outside the territory of a State. Articles and substances, otherwise classed as
dangerous goods, are excluded from the provisions of this Subpart, to the extent specified in the
Technical Instructions, provided:
1. They must be aboard the aeroplane in accordance with the relevant JARs or for
operating reasons.
2. They are carried as catering or cabin service supplies.
3. They are carried for use in flight as veterinary aid or as a humane killer for an
animal.
4. They are carried for use in flight for medical aid for a patient, if:
a. Gas cylinders were manufactured specifically for the purpose of containing
and transporting that particular gas.
b. Drugs, medicines, and other medical matter are under the control of trained
personnel during the time when they are in use in the aeroplane.
c. Equipment containing wet cell batteries is kept, and when necessary
secured, in an upright position to prevent spillage of the electrolyte.
d. Proper provision is made to stow and secure all the equipment during take-
off and landing and at all other times when deemed necessary by the
Commander in the interest of safety.
5. They are carried by passengers or crewmembers.
DANGEROUS GOODS ON AN AEROPLANE FOR OPERATING REASONS

Dangerous goods required on board an aeroplane in accordance with the relevant JARs or for
operating reasons, are those which are for the airworthiness of the aeroplane, the safe operation
of the aeroplane, or the health of passengers or crew. These include: batteries, fire extinguishers,
first-aid kits, insecticides/air fresheners, life saving appliances, and portable oxygen supplies.
LOADING RESTRICTIONS
An operator shall ensure that dangerous goods are not carried in an aeroplane cabin occupied by
passengers or on the flight deck, unless otherwise specified in the Technical Instructions.

CARGO COMPARTMENTS
An operator shall ensure that dangerous goods are loaded,
segregated, stowed, and secured on an aeroplane as specified in
the Technical Instructions.
PACKING AND LABELLING

It is the shipper’s responsibility to check that any dangerous
goods are not forbidden for transport by air. They must be clearly
classified, labelled and packed in accordance with the Technical
Instructions. The shipper signs the transport document to be a
true and accurate record. If crossing international boundaries it is
recommended that the document is written in English.
INFORMATION FOR PASSENGERS AND OTHER

PERSONS The DC6 cargo compartment
An operator shall ensure the promulgation of information as required by the Technical Instructions
to warn passengers as to the types of goods that they are forbidden from transporting aboard an
aeroplane, and ensure the provision of notices at acceptance points for cargo giving information
about the transport of dangerous goods.
INFORMATION TO CREW MEMBERS

An operator shall ensure the provision of information in the Operations Manual to enable
crewmembers to carry out their responsibilities concerning the transport of dangerous goods,
including the actions to be taken in the event of emergencies arising involving dangerous goods.
INFORMATION TO THE COMMANDER

An operator shall ensure the provision of the Commander with written information, as specified in
the Technical Instructions.
INFORMATION IN THE EVENT OF AN AEROPLANE INCIDENT OR

ACCIDENT
If an in-flight emergency occurs, the Commander shall as soon as possible inform ATC of any
dangerous goods carried on board the aircraft. ATC shall pass this information on to the
aerodrome authorities to minimise the hazard risk from any dangerous goods.
If involved in an aircraft accident the operator is to inform as soon as possible, the appropriate
authorities of the State of the Operator and the State in which the aeroplane accident occurred
the nature of any dangerous goods carried. This is usually going to be as shown on the written
information given to the Commander.
TRAINING PROGRAMME
An operator shall establish and maintain staff training programmes, as required by the Technical
Instructions, this programme must be approved but the Authority. The operator must ensure that
all staff are tested to verify their understanding. All staff requiring recurrent training must receive
their training at intervals not exceeding 2 years. The training records must be kept for 3 years.

CONTAMINATED RUNWAYS
TERMINOLOGY
Terms used in this section have the following meaning:
Contaminated runway
A runway is considered to be contaminated when more than 25% of the runway surface
area (whether in isolated areas or not) within the required length and width used is
covered by the following:
¾ Surface water more than 3 mm (0.125 in) deep, or by slush, or loose snow,
equivalent to more than 3 mm (0.125 in) of water;
¾ Snow which has been compressed into a solid mass which resists further
compression and holds together or breaks into lumps if picked up (compacted
snow); or
¾ Ice, including wet ice.
Damp runway
A damp runway is where the surface is not dry, but the moisture on it does not give it a
shiny appearance.
Dry runway
A dry runway is one which is neither wet nor contaminated, and includes those paved
runways, specially prepared with grooves or porous pavement, and maintained to retain
effectively dry braking action even when moisture is present.
Wet runway
A wet runway is a water covered surface, or equivalent, less than as defined in
‘Contaminated runway’ above or when there is sufficient moisture on the runway surface
to cause it to appear reflective, but without significant areas of standing water.
Contaminant Depth
If exceeding the following limits, then do not attempt a take-off:
¾ Dry snow > 60 mm

¾ Very dry snow > 80 mm
¾ Water, slush or wet snow > 15 mm
AQUAPLANING (HYDROPLANING)
Aquaplaning is the effect of the tyres of an aeroplane riding over water on the surface of a
runway. As the speed of the aeroplane on the ground increases a ‘bow wave’ of water builds up
in front of the tyre and eventually the tyre is lifted off the surface. This allows the tyre to slow, and
creates a friction boundary between the tyre and the surface of the runway. The heat generated
by the friction can cause the tyre to scald and the rubber to melt with the possibility of tyre
explosion. In any event, when a tyre is aquaplaning there is a loss of adhesion and thus loss of
directional control. This is not such a problem for normal take-off except in the case of a rejected
take-off. It is a major concern for aircraft landing on to a contaminated runway especially in a
cross wind condition.

Aquaplaning does not generally begin at a speed less than the critical speed given by the
formula:
V = 9√P
Where: V is the groundspeed (kt)

P is the tyre pressure (lb per in2)
However, once hydroplaning starts, it continues to speeds well below the critical speed. There are
three types of hydroplaning:
Dynamic Hydroplaning
Dynamic hydroplaning is a condition where the tyre lifts completely above the surface of
the runway. As little as 2.5 mm of water is sufficient to produce dynamic hydroplaning.
Viscous Hydroplaning
Viscous hydroplaning can occur at slower speeds and rather than the water lifting the tyre
from the pavement, the tyre slips on a thin film. This occurs on smooth runways.
Reverted Rubber (Steam) Hydroplaning

Hard braking during a rejected takeoff or long landing may causes the brakes to lock,
although the maxaret units should act in the same manner as the ABS systems in cars. If
brake locking occurs on a wet runway, the tyre track area heats up due to friction causing
some of the rubber to revert back to a gummy state, trapping water. The water turns to
steam and steam pressure lifts the tyre from the runway.
STATIONARY TYRE
Studies show that a tyre that is not rotating does hydroplane at a lower speed than a rotating tyre.
NASA has evaluated the speed as 7.7 x √P. There is a question in the question bank concerning
non-rotating tyres.
RECOMMENDATIONS
It is nearly impossible to land an aeroplane at a speed below the critical speed, but using the
following techniques can reduce the effects of hydroplaning:
¾ Approach to land at the slowest airspeed consistent with safety; that is, use the short-field
landing technique.
¾ Land firmly, rather than making the smooth, “greaser” type landing.
¾ Lower the nose wheel to the surface as soon as the main wheels are firmly on the
surface.
¾ Know the hydroplaning critical speed and avoid heavy braking above this speed.
¾ Retract the flaps immediately after landing to place more weight on the tyres.
¾ Divert to an alternate aerodrome when conditions indicate a potential hydroplaning
hazard on runways experiencing a strong crosswind.
¾ In heavy rain (as a result of a TS/CB) it is best to delay your approach and landing, the
shower normally passes through in about 15 to 20 minutes.

Tyre Pressure Vs. Hydroplaning Speed

Tyre Pressure lb/Bar Hydroplaning Speed Knots
30 /2.0 49
50/3.45 64
100/5.5 90
150/10.35 110
200/13.8 127 (B737)
225/15.5 135 (B777)
If the surface is covered by a contaminant other than water, then divide P by the specific gravity
of the contaminant. Tyre configuration, treading, etc., increase the speed at which aquaplaning
begins. Beware: there is a question in the exam where the given tyre pressure is in Bar. (1 Bar =
14.5 psi).
WHEEL BRAKING ON WET RUNWAYS

The retardation effect of an aircraft braking system relies on friction with the surface of the
runway. If the surface is not dry then the amount of friction is reduced. The reduction in friction
can be given in a factor known as the co-efficient of braking, defined by the value of friction of the
runway at an instant in time, determined by measurement, divided by the value of friction for the
same runway when dry. If the runway is dry, the coefficient of braking is 1. If not dry, the co-
efficient is less than 1.
All paved runways of 1200 m or longer require calibration for co-efficient of braking. When wet,
good braking action is possible to calculate.
RTF reports the presence of water on a runway as follows:
Dry The surface is dry.

Damp The surface shows a change of colour due to moisture.
Wet The surface is soaked, but no significant patches of standing water are
visible.
Water Patches Significant patches of standing water are visible.
Flooded Extensive standing water is visible.
INTERPRETATION
When a runway is reported as dry, damp, or wet, pilots may assume an acceptable level of
braking friction is present. Water patches or flooded means that braking may be affected by
hydroplaning and appropriate adjustments should be considered. Water patches will be reported
if at least 25% of the runway is affected.
When a runway is notified as slippery when wet, take-offs and landings in wet conditions should
only be considered if the distances equal or exceed the distances required for icy runways as
defined in the aircraft manual.
SNOW, SLUSH, OR ICE ON A RUNWAY

Whenever a runway is affected by snow, slush, or ice and it has not been possible to clear the
precipitant fully, assess the condition of the runway, and the friction coefficient measured.

The table below, with associated descriptive terms, was developed from friction data collected in
compacted snow and ice and should not be taken as absolute values applicable in all conditions.
Friction Co-efficient
Measured Coefficient Estimated Braking Action Code
0.40 and above Good 5
0.39 to 0.36 Medium to good 4
0.35 to 0.30 Medium 3
0.29 to 0.26 Medium to poor 2
0.25 and below Poor 1
If the surface is affected by snow or ice and the

braking action reported as “good”, pilots should
not expect to find conditions as good as on a
clean dry runway (where the available friction
may well be greater than that needed in any
case). The value “good” is a comparative value
and is intended to mean that aeroplanes should
not experience directional control or braking
difficulties especially when landing.
SNOWTAM
During the winter periods a SNOWTAM shall be issued by an airport whenever snow, slush or ice
may prevent normal aircraft operations. A SNOWTAM is valid for 24 hours unless there is any
significant changes.
Below is an example of a SNOWTAM with the decode on the following page.
A EGBE
B 12240920
C 05
D
E
F 5, 6, 7
G 04. 05, 03
H 2, 2, 1
J
K
L
M
N
P
R NO
S
T DEICING

SNOWTAM Decode
A ICAO Code for Coventry

B December 24th at 0920z (date and time of observation)
C Runway 05
D Cleared runway length if less than published
E Cleared runway width if less than published
F Wet Snow, Slush, Ice (type of contaminate)
G 4, 5, 3 (depth of contaminate in mm)
H Medium to Poor, Medium to Poor, Poor (braking action see 8-29)
J Critical snowbanks
K Runway lights
L Further clearance
M Further clearance expected to be completed by
N Taxiway
P Taxiway snowbanks
R Apron not usable
S Next planned observation/measurement
T De-icing in progress (plain language remarks)
Type of Contamination Codes

Code Description
Nil Clear and Dry
1 Damp
2 Wet or Water Patches
3 Rime or Frost Covered
4 Dry Snow
5 Wet Snow
6 Slush
7 Ice
8 Compacted or Rolled Snow
9 Frozen Ruts or Ridges

BIRD HAZARD REDUCTION

Assess the bird strike hazard on, or near, an aerodrome, through the establishment of a national
procedure for recording and reporting bird strikes to aircraft, and the collection of information from
aircraft operations personnel on the presence of birds on or around the aerodrome. Report all bird
strikes. On aerodromes, the use of the following deters birds congregating in large flocks:
¾ Long grass
¾ Bird scaring techniques such as:
• Bird distress calls (most long-term effective)
• Pyrotechnics
• Shell crackers
Rubbish tips or other equivalent waste areas attract birds. A bird generally reacts to the proximity
of an aircraft within 3 seconds.
BIRD HAZARDS AND STRIKES

When a potential bird hazard is observed, the Commander immediately informs the local ATSU.
Where a bird strike occurs then a written bird strike report is submitted to the authority after
landing, if the aircraft sustains significant damage. If the Commander is unable to do this, then the
operator must submit the report.
IBIS
ICAO established a system to collect and disseminate information concerning bird strikes, known
as IBIS (ICAO Bird Strike Information System). Other sources of information include pilot reports,
NOTAMS, ground radar detections, and aerodromes VCR observations. Where specific
aerodromes are on migratory routes, local information may be broadcast on ATIS or a BIRDTAM
may be promulgated. Bird sancturies are also shown on aeronautical charts.
According to IBIS bird strike statistics reveal the following:-
¾ 69% of strikes occur during daylight hours while 15% occur at night and the rest between
dawn and dusk.
¾ 65% of strikes involve a turbo-fan aircraft over 27 000 kg.
¾ 29% of strikes occur during approach while 25% occur during take-off.
¾ 51% of strikes occur below 100 ft.
The damage resulting from a

bird strike can be significant.

NOISE ABATEMENT PROCEDURES

ICAO Document 8168 PANS-OPS details the information required for departure and approach
procedures regarding noise abatement. Aircraft are noisy and in the modern era where an airport
is close to a built-up area, designed procedures reduce the noise as much as possible.
The Operator must ensure the compliance of noise abatement procedures. In order to check
compliance, the authority positions noise monitoring stations along the required flight path and
operators must ensure that pilots fly over the stations during departures.
A noise abatement handling procedure shall be developed for each aircraft type and agreed by
the State of the Operator. This procedure shall be the same for all aerodromes. Do not get
confused with the SID and noise avoidance routes, which have been designed by the airport and
aviation authorities.
Where special departure procedures are designed, the MTOM may be limited in order to achieve
the requirements of the noise abatement procedures.
NOISE PREFERENTIAL RUNWAYS

Preferred runway directions for take-off and landing are nominated for noise abatement purposes,
the objective being to utilize whenever possible those runways that permit aeroplanes to avoid
noise-sensitive areas during the initial departure and final approach phases of flight.
Runways should not normally he selected for preferential use for landing unless they are
equipped with suitable glide path guidance, e.g. ILS, or a VASI or PAPI for operations in VMC.
Noise abatement procedures in the form of reduced power take-off should not be required in
adverse operating conditions such as:
¾ If the runway surface conditions are adversely affected (e.g. snow, slush, ice or other
contaminants)
¾ When the horizontal visibility is less than 1.9 km (1 nm)
¾ When the crosswind component, including gusts, exceeds 15 knots
¾ When the tailwind component, including gusts, exceeds 5 knots
¾ When wind shear has been reported or forecast
¾ Thunderstorms are expected to affect the approach or departure

NOISE PREFERENTIAL ROUTES

Noise preferential routes are established to ensure that departing and arriving aeroplanes avoid
over-flying noise-sensitive areas in the vicinity of the aerodrome as far as practicable.
When establishing noise preferential routes the following must be considered:-
¾ turns during take-off and climb should not be required unless:
• the aeroplane has reached (and can maintain a height of not less than 500 ft)
above terrain and the highest obstacles under the flight path
• the bank angle for turns after take-off is limited to 15°, except where adequate
provision is made for an acceleration phase permitting attainment of safe speeds
for bank angles greater than 15°
¾ no turns should be required coincident with a reduction of power
¾ sufficient navigation guidance should be provided
¾ ensure minimum obstacle clearance climb gradients are achieved, but the maximum
acceptable body angle for an aircraft shall not be exceeded.

NOISE ABATEMENT DEPARTURE - PROCEDURE 1 (NADP 1)

The intention of this procedure is to provide noise reduction for noise sensitive areas in close
proximity to the departure end of the runway.
The procedure involves a power reduction at or above the prescribed minimum altitude and the
delay of flap/slat retraction until attaining the prescribed maximum altitude.
¾ The initial climbing speed to the noise abatement initiation point is not less than V2 +
10 knots
¾ When at or above 800 ft above aerodrome elevation the engine power/thrust is
adjusted in accordance with the noise abatement schedule in the aircraft operating
manual
¾ A climb speed of V2 plus 10 to 20 knots is maintained with the flaps/slats in the take-
off position
¾ At no more than 3000 ft above aerodrome elevation while maintaining a positive rate
of climb, the aircraft is accelerated and the flaps/slats retracted
¾ At 3000 ft above aerodrome elevation accelerate to enroute climb speed
Maintain positive rate of climb

Accelerate smoothly to enroute climb speed
At no more than 3000 ft, retract flaps/slats on
schedule
3000 ft
Climb at V2 + 10 to 20 kt
Maintain reduced power
Maintain flaps/slats in the take-off configuration
Initiate power reduction at or

above 800 ft
800 ft
Take–off Thrust
V2 + 10 to 20 kt (Or V2 + 20 to 40 kmh)

NOISE ABATEMENT DEPARTURE PROCEDURE 2 (NADP 2)

The design of this procedure is to alleviate noise distant from the aerodrome. The procedure
involves the initiation of the flap/slat retraction on reaching the minimum prescribed altitude. While
maintaining a positive rate of climb, on schedule, retract the flaps/slats.
Perform the power reduction either:
¾ With the first flap/slat retraction; or,

¾ When the zero flap/slat configuration is attained
At the prescribed altitude, make the transition to normal enroute climb procedures.
The initial climbing speed to the noise abatement initiation point is V2 + 10 to 20 knots. On
reaching 800 ft above aerodrome elevation, decrease the body angle/angle of pitch while still
maintaining a positive rate of climb. Accelerate the aircraft to VZF and either:
¾ Reduce power with the initiation of the first flap/slat retraction, or

¾ Reduce power after flap/slat retraction
Maintain a positive rate of climb and accelerate the aircraft to a climb speed of VZF plus 10 to 20
knots to 3000 ft above aerodrome elevation. Make the transition to normal enroute climb speed at
3000 ft.
On reaching 3000 ft transition smoothly

to enroute climb speed
3000 ft
Not before 800 ft with a positive rate of climb accelerate to
VZF and reduce power with the initiation of the first flap/slat
retraction
or
When flaps/slats are retracted with a positive rate of climb
reduce power and climb at VZF + 10 to 20 kt
800 ft
Take–off Thrust
V2 + 10 to 20 kt (Or V2 + 20 to 40 kmh)

NOISE ABATEMENT ON APPROACH

For an approach, the aircraft is in a final landing configuration 5 nm from the threshold of the
landing runway, or after passing the outer marker if it is more than 5 nm from the threshold. For
landing there is no limitation on the use of reverse thrust. A displaced threshold is only used for
noise abatement if noise is sufficiently reduced and the runway distance is still sufficiently long for
the operations required.
The following conditions preclude the choice of runway to use with regard to noise abatement:
¾ If the runway is not clear and dry

¾ The cloud ceiling is 500 ft (150 m) for landing or the horizontal visibility is less
than 1.9 km for take-off or landing
¾ The cross wind component including gusts exceeds 15 knots
¾ The tail wind component including gusts exceeds 5 knots
¾ When windshear has been reported or is forecast
¾ When thunderstorms are expected to affect the approach or departure
STABILISED APPROACH
A method of reducing noise from approaching aircraft is to use a procedure known as stabilised
approach. This method requires the aircraft to adopt the required rate of descent (usually 300
ft/nm) from the IAF all the way to the threshold of the landing runway. The Approach Controller or
Approach Radar Controller requests the aircraft to fly at a certain speed (usually about 210 kt)
and by accurate radar vectoring, the aircraft arrives at the outer marker or FAP at the glide path
height. This procedure allows the pilot to set the throttles, lift/drag enhancers, and gear at a very
early stage in the approach (in the case of Heathrow at FL70) and use attitude to adjust speed for
separation.

OPERATIONAL APPROVAL AND AIRCRAFT SYSTEM

REQUIREMENTS FOR FLIGHT IN THE NAT MNPS AIRSPACE
INTRODUCTION
The reference for transoceanic flight is the North Atlantic MNPS Airspace Operations Manual –
Ninth Edition. The North Atlantic Area (NAT) consists of five oceanic FIRs, four of which are
known as Oceanic Control Areas (OCAs). These are Shanwick, Santa Maria, Gander, and New
York. The fifth is the Reykjavik Oceanic FIR. The ICAO Procedures for Oceanic and polar flight
also apply to operations in the Bodǿ and Sonderstrom OCAs. All of these FIRs are Class A
airspace from FL55 up to FL660. Below FL55, the airspace is class G.
Additional material relating to North Atlantic aircraft operations are in the following documents:
¾ ICAO Annexes
¾ PANS/RAC (Doc.4444)
¾ Regional Supplementary Procedures (Doc.7030)
¾ State AIPs
¾ Current NOTAMs
MINIMUM NAVIGATION PERFORMANCE SPECIFICATION AIRSPACE

(MNPSA)
Within the NAT region, part of the controlled airspace is further classified as airspace within which
a minimum navigation performance is specified. This is to ensure that where aircraft are flying out
of the range of ground based radar and navigation aids, they can be navigated so as not to pose
a threat to the navigation of other aircraft. The vertical dimension of MNPS Airspace is between
FL285 and FL420; the cruising levels available are FL290 to FL410 inclusive. The lateral
dimensions include the following Control Areas (CTAs):
¾ REYKJAVIK (to the North Pole)

¾ SHANWICK , GANDER OCEANIC and SANTA MARIA OCEANIC
¾ NEW YORK OCEANIC North of 27°N but excluding the area west of 60°W and
south of 38°30'N
¾ 27°N to 90°N (the Pole)

Chapter 9 Transoceanic and Polar Flight
RVSM
RVSM applies within MNPS airspace. Air Law notes cover RVSM (reduced vertical separation
minima) in detail. Briefly, where applying RVSM, the vertical separation of aircraft remains at
1000 ft above FL300 rather than increasing to the standard 2000 ft in accordance with the rules of
the air. RVSM is applied between FL290 and FL410 inclusive.
ABBREVIATIONS
The following abbreviations are for use in conjunction with subsequent chapters.
ACC Area Control Centre HMU Height Monitoring Unit

ADC Air Data Computer LRNS Long Range Navigation System
AFTN Aeronautical Fixed Telecommunication Network MASPS Minimum Aircraft System Performance Spec
AIC Aeronautical Information Circular MEL Minimum Equipment List
AIP Aeronautical Information Publication MNPS Minimum Navigation Performance Spec
AIS Aeronautical Information Service MTT Minimum Time Track
ARINC Aeronautical Radio Incorporated NAM North America
ASR Aviation Safety Report NAR North American Route
ATA Actual Time of Arrival NAT North Atlantic
ATM Air Traffic Management NAT SPG North Atlantic Systems Planning Group
AWPR Automatic Waypoint Reporting NDB Non Directional Beacon
BRNAV Basic Area Navigation nm Nautical Mile
CAR Caribbean OAC Oceanic Area Control Centre
CDU Control Display Unit OCA Oceanic Control Area
CMA Central Monitoring Agency OTS Organised Track System
CTA Control Area PRM Preferred Route Message
DCPC Direct Controller/Pilot Communications PTS Polar Track Structure
DME Distance Measuring Equipment RA Resolution Advisory
DR Dead Reckoning RAIM Receiver-Autonomous Integrity Monitoring
ELT Emergency Locator Transmitter RMI Remote Magnetic Indicator
ETOPS Extended Range Twin-engine Aircraft Ops RNP Required Navigation Performance
EUR Europe RVSM Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum
FDE Fault Detection and Exclusion SELCAL Selective Calling
FIR Flight Information Region SID Standard Instrument Departure
FL Flight Level SSB Single Sideband
FLAS Flight Level Allocation Scheme SSR Secondary Surveillance Radar
FMC Flight Management Computer SST Supersonic Transport
FMS Flight Management System TA Traffic Advisory
GLONASS Global Orbiting Navigation Satellite System TAS True Airspeed
GMU GPS (Height) Monitoring Unit TCAS Traffic Collision Avoidance System
GNE Gross Navigation Error TLS Target Level of Safety
GNSS Global Navigation Satellite System TMI Track Message Identification
GP General Purpose WAH When Able Higher
GPS Global Positioning System WATRS West Atlantic Route System

Transoceanic and Polar Flight Chapter 9
GENERAL
All flights in MNPS airspace must achieve the highest standards of horizontal and vertical
navigation performance and accuracy. Aircraft operating within MNPS Airspace must meet a
Minimum Navigation Performance Specification (MNPS) in the horizontal plane through the
mandatory carriage and use of a specified level of navigation equipment. Aircraft operating at
RVSM levels in NAT MNPS Airspace must be equipped with altimetry and height keeping
systems which meet RVSM Minimum Aircraft System Performance Specifications (MASPS). The
ultimate responsibility for checking that a NAT MNPS/RVSM flight has the necessary approval
rests with the Commander.
EMERGENCY LOCATOR TRANSMITTERS (ELT)

Carry Emergency Locator Transmitters (ELTs) for flights over the NAT region. These beacons
must operate on frequency 406 MHz and have a 121.5 MHz search and rescue homing
capability.
NAVIGATION REQUIREMENTS FOR UNRESTRICTED MNPS

AIRSPACE OPERATIONS
LONGITUDINAL NAVIGATION
The assessment of longitudinal separations between aircraft following the same track and
between aircraft on intersecting tracks in the NAT MNPS Airspace is by use of ATAs/ETAs at
common waypoints. The longitudinal separation minima currently used in the NAT MNPS
Airspace are expressed in clock minutes and the maintenance of in-trail separations is aided by
the application of the Mach Number Technique. Aircraft clock errors can result in waypoint ATA
reporting errors. The time-keeping device intended for use in indicating waypoint passing times
must be accurate, and synchronised to an acceptable UTC time signal before commencing flight
in MNPS Airspace. The pre-flight procedures for any NAT MNPS operation must include a UTC
time check and resynchronisation of the aircraft Master Clock.
LATERAL NAVIGATION
There are two navigational requirements for aircraft planning to operate in MNPS Airspace:
1. The necessary navigation performance achieved, in terms of accuracy.

2. The need to carry standby equipment with comparable performance characteristics.
For approval of unrestricted operation in the MNPS Airspace, an aircraft must be equipped with
two fully serviceable Long Range Navigation Systems (LRNSs). Each LRNS must be capable of
providing to the flight crew a continuous indication of the aircraft position relative to desired track.
A LRNS may be one of the following:
¾ One Inertial Navigation System (INS)

¾ One Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS)
¾ One navigation system using the inputs from one or more Inertial Reference System
(IRS) or any other sensor system complying with the MNPS requirement

ROUTES FOR AIRCRAFT WITH ONLY ONE LRNS

A number of special routes have been developed for aircraft equipped with only one LRNS and
carrying normal short-range navigation equipment (VOR, DME, ADF). These routes are within
MNPS Airspace, and State approval must be obtained prior to flying along them. They are also
available for interim use by aircraft normally approved for unrestricted MNPS operations that
suffered a partial loss of navigation capability and have only a single remaining functional LRNS.
Detailed descriptions of the special routes known as Blue Spruce Routes are included later.
ROUTES FOR AIRCRAFT WITH SHORT-RANGE NAVIGATION EQUIPMENT

ONLY
Aircraft equipped with only with short-range navigation equipment (VOR, DME, ADF) may
operate through MNPS Airspace, along routes G3 or G11, with required State approval. It is the
responsibility of pilots with limited certification to reject clearances that would otherwise divert
them from officially permitted routes.
SPECIAL ARRANGEMENTS FOR THE PENETRATION OF MNPS AIRSPACE

BY NON-MNPS APPROVED AIRCRAFT
The responsible ATC unit may clear an aircraft to climb/descend in MNPS Airspace provided the
completion of the climb or descent is within the coverage of selected VOR/DMEs or NDBs and/or
within radar coverage of the ATC unit issuing the clearance and the aircraft is able to maintain
Direct Controller/Pilot Communications (DCPC) on VHF; and MNPS approved aircraft operating
in that part of the MNPS Airspace affected by any climb or descent are not penalised. Non-MNPS
Approved aircraft may also be cleared to climb or descend through MNPS Airspace for the sole
purpose of landing at or departing from an airport which underlies MNPS Airspace but which does
not have serviceable short range navaids, radar or DCPC. Details are in the AIS publications of
the appropriate ATS Provider State.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED FOR OPERATIONS AT RVSM LEVELS

Embodied in the MASPS (Minimum Aircraft Systems Performance Specifications) for RVSM flight
operations is the minimum equipment standard. These MASPS require:
¾ Two fully serviceable independent primary altitude measurement systems

¾ One automatic altitude-control system
¾ One altitude-alerting device
Mode C
A functioning Mode C SSR Transponder is also required for flight through radar controlled
RVSM transition airspace.
Altimeter Checks
When checking altimeters (pre-flight or in-flight), confirmation is necessary that all altitude
indications are within the tolerances specified in the aircraft operating manual. At least two
primary altimeters must at all times agree within plus or minus 200 ft.

Transoceanic and Polar Flight Chapter 9
Independent pitot-static systems are

required for RVSM approval
SPECIAL ARRANGEMENTS FOR NON-RVSM APPROVED AIRCRAFT

CLIMB/DESCENT THROUGH RVSM LEVELS
MNPS approved aircraft not approved for RVSM operation are permitted to climb/descend
through RVSM levels to attain cruising levels above or below RVSM airspace. Flights have to
climb/descend continuously through the RVSM levels without stopping at any intermediate level
and should report leaving their current level and report reaching their cleared level.
OPERATION AT RVSM LEVELS

ATC may provide an altitude reservation for an MNPS approved aircraft that is not approved for
RVSM operation to fly at RVSM levels provided that the aircraft is on a delivery flight, was RVSM
approved but suffered an equipment failure and is returning to its base for repair and/or re-
approval, or is on a mercy or humanitarian flight.
Operators requiring an altitude reservation should contact the initial Oceanic Area Control Centre
(OAC), normally not more than 12 hours and not less than 4 hours prior to the intended departure
time. The altitude reservation approval should be clearly indicated in item 18 of the ICAO flight
plan.


GENERAL
North Atlantic (NAT) air traffic contributes to two major alternating flows:
1. A westbound flow departing Europe in the morning, and

2. An eastbound flow departing North America in the evening.
The effect is to concentrate the traffic at 30°W:
1. Peak westbound traffic occurring between 1130 UTC and 1900 UTC, and
2. Peak eastbound traffic occurring between 0100 UTC and 0800 UTC
Use of OTS tracks is not mandatory. Aircraft may fly on random routes which remain clear of the
OTS or may fly on any route that joins or leaves an outer track of the OTS. There is also nothing
to prevent an operator from planning a route which crosses the OTS. At and above FL55 the NAT
Region is Class A airspace and Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) apply at all times. Airspace
utilisation is achieved by the application of Mach Number Technique, and RVSM.
MACH NUMBER TECHNIQUE

DESCRIPTION OF TERMS
‘Mach Number Technique’ describes the technique where subsonic turbojet aircraft are cleared
by ATC to maintain appropriate Mach numbers for a portion of the enroute phase of their flight.
OBJECTIVE
The objective of the use of Mach Number Technique is to achieve improved utilisation of the
airspace on long route segments where ATC has no means other than position reports of
ensuring that the longitudinal separation between successive aircraft does not reduce below the
established minimum.
PROCEDURES IN NAT OCEANIC AIRSPACE

The ATC clearance includes the assigned Mach number to maintain. Information on the desired
Mach number is included in the flight plan for turbojet aircraft intending to fly in NAT oceanic
airspace. ATC uses Mach number together with pilot position reports to calculate estimated times
for significant points along track. These times provide the basis for longitudinal separation
between aircraft and for co-ordination with adjacent ATC units. Longitudinal separation between
successive aircraft flying a particular track at the same flight level starts from the oceanic entry
point. Following aircraft on the same track can be assigned different Mach numbers. These
ensure that prescribed separations are maintained throughout the oceanic crossing. Intervention
by ATC is only necessary if an aircraft requires a change to its Mach number due to conflicting
traffic or to change its flight level.

Chapter 10 The Organised Track System (OTS)
PROCEDURE AFTER LEAVING OCEANIC AIRSPACE

After leaving oceanic airspace pilots must maintain their assigned Mach number in domestic
controlled airspace until the appropriate ATC unit authorises a change.
CONSTRUCTION OF THE ORGANISED TRACK SYSTEM (OTS)

The appropriate OAC constructs the OTS after determining the minimum time tracks, taking into
consideration airlines preferred routes and airspace restrictions such as danger areas and military
airspace reservations. The night-time OTS is produced by Gander OAC and the daytime OTS by
Shanwick OAC (Prestwick).
THE NAT TRACK MESSAGE

The agreed OTS is published by means of the NAT Track Message via the AFTN to all interested
addressees. Time of publication of the Daytime OTS is 2200 UTC, and Night-time OTS is 1400
UTC.
NAT TRACK MESSAGE CONTENT

This message gives full details of the coordinates of the organised tracks as well as the flight
levels expected to be in use on each track. In most cases, there are also details of domestic entry
and exit routings associated with individual tracks:
1. In the westbound (daytime) system, the track most northerly, at its point of origin, is
designated Track A (Alpha) and the next most northerly track is designated Track B
(Bravo), etc.
2. In the eastbound (night-time) system, the most southerly track, at its point of origin, is
designated Track Z (Zulu) and the next most southerly track is designated Track Y
(Yankee), etc.
The originating OAC identifies each NAT Track Message, within the Remarks section appended
to the end of the NAT Track message, by means of a 3-digit Track Message Identification (TMI)
number. Using the Julian calendar date on which that OTS is effective, the OTS effective on
February 1st is identified by TMI 032. (The Julian calendar date is a simple progression of
numbered days without reference to months, with numbering starting from the first day of the
year.) Any subsequent NAT Track amendments affecting the entry/exit points, route of flight
(coordinates), or flight level allocation, for an OTS on a given day, include a successive
alphabetic character (i.e. ‘A’, then ‘B’, etc.) added to the end of the TMI number. Remarks may
vary periodically depending upon what important aspects of NAT operation Shanwick or Gander
wish to bring to the attention of operators such as clearance delivery frequency assignments; the
vertical extent of MNPS and RVSM Airspace, plus a warning on the occurrence of Gross
Navigational Errors (GNEs).
Note: A GNE is where the aircraft is more than 25 nm displaced from the allocated track.

The Organised Track System (OTS) Chapter 10
PERIODS OF VALIDITY
The hours of validity of the two Organised Track Systems (OTS) are normally as follows:
Daytime OTS 1130 UTC to 1900 UTC at 30°W

Night-time OTS 0100 UTC to 0800 UTC at 30°W
Changes to these times are negotiated between Gander and Shanwick OACs and the specific
hours of validity for each OTS are indicated in the NAT Track Message. For flight planning,
operators should take account of the times specified in the relevant NAT Track Message(s).
Oceanic airspace outside the published OTS is available, subject to application of the appropriate
separation criteria and NOTAM restrictions. It is possible to flight plan to join or leave an outer
track of the OTS.
OTS CHANGEOVER PERIOD

To ensure a smooth transition from night-time to daytime OTSs and vice-versa, a period of
several hours is used between the end of one system and the start of the next. These periods are
from 0801 UTC to 1129 UTC: and 1901 UTC to 0059 UTC.
During the changeover periods, imposed are some restrictions to flight planned routes and levels.
Eastbound and westbound aircraft operating during these periods should file flight level requests
in accordance with the Flight Level Allocation Scheme (FLAS) as published. The FLAS as
published in the AIPs applies only to the current phase of NAT RVSM operations. During these
times, there is often a need for clearances individually co-ordinated between OACs and cleared
flight levels may not be in accordance with that flight planned. If a flight is expected to be level
critical, operators should contact the initial OAC prior to filing the flight plan to ascertain the likely
availability of levels.
EXAMPLE OF A WESTBOUND NAT TRACK MESSAGE
(NAT-1/2 TRACKS FLS 310/ 390 INCLUSIVE

OCTOBER 8/ 1130Z TO OCTOBER 8/ 1800Z
PART ONE OF TWO PARTS-
A 59/10 61/20 61/30 61/40 61/50 60/60 CIMAT

EAST LVLS NIL
WEST LVLS 310 320 330 340 350 360 390
EUR RTS WEST NIL
NAR N464B N466B N468B N472B N474B
B 58/10 60/20 60/30 60/40 59/50 PRAWN YDP
EAST LVLS NIL
WEST LVLS 310 320 330 340 350 360 370 380 390
EUR RTS WEST NIL
NAR N322B N328C N334B N336E N346A N348C N352C N356C N362B-

C 57/10 59/20 59/30 58/40 56/50 SCROD VALIE

EAST LVLS NIL
WEST LVLS 310 320 330 340 350 360 370 380 390
EUR RTS WEST NIL
NAR N242B N248B N250C N252B-
D 56/10 58/20 58/30 57/40 55/50 OYSTR STEAM

EAST LVLS NIL
WEST LVLS 310 320 330 340 350 360 370 380 390
EUR RTS WEST NIL
NAR N224C N228A N230B N232B-
(NAT-2/2 TRACKS FLS 310/390 INCLUSIVE

PART TWO OF TWO PARTS-
E 55/10 57/20 57/30 56/40 54/50 CARPE REDBY

EAST LVLS NIL
WEST LVLS 310 320 330 340 350 360 370 380 390
EUR RTS WEST NIL
NAR N204A N208A N210B
F MASIT 56/20 56/30 55/40 53/50 YAY

EAST LVLS NIL
WEST LVLS 310 320 330 340 350 360 370 380 390
EUR RTS WEST VIA DEVOL
NAR N184B N188B N192B-
G 49/15 48/20 45/30 42/40 38/50 35/60 HENCH

EAST LVLS NIL
WEST LVLS 320 340 360
EUR RTS WEST VIA GUNSO
NAR NIL
REMARKS:
1. TRACK MESSAGE IDENTIFICATION NUMBER IS 281 AND OPERATORS ARE
REMINDED TO INCLUDE THE TMI NUMBER AS PART OF THE OCEANIC
CLEARANCE READBACK
2. MNPS AIRSPACE EXTENDS FROM FL285 TO FL420. OPERATORS ARE REMINDED
THAT SPECIFIC MNPS APPROVAL IS REQUIRED TO FLY IN THIS AIRSPACE. IN
ADDITION, RVSM APPROVAL IS REQUIRED TO FLY BETWEEN FL310 AND FL390
INCLUSIVE
3. EIGHTY PERCENT OF GROSS NAVIGATION ERRORS OCCUR AFTER A REROUTE.
ALWAYS CARRY OUT WAYPOINT CROSS CHECKS
END OF PART TWO OF TWO PARTS

EXAMPLE OF DAYTIME WESTBOUND ORGANISED TRACK SYSTEM

EXAMPLE OF AN EASTBOUND NAT TRACK MESSAGE
(NAT-1/1 TRACKS FLS 310/390 INCLUSIVE

PART ONE OF ONE PARTS-
W CYMON 51/50 52/40 52/30 52/20 53/15 BURAK

EAST LVLS 310 320 330 340 350 360 370 380 390
WEST LVLS NIL
EUR RTS WEST NIL
NAR N95B N97B-
X YQX 50/50 51/40 51/30 51/20 52/15 DOLIP

EAST LVLS 310 320 330 340 350 360 370 380 390
WEST LVLS NIL
EUR RTS WEST NIL
NAR N79B N83B-
Y VIXUN 49/50 50/40 50/30 50/20 51/15 GIPER

EAST LVLS 310 320 330 340 350 360 370 380 390
WEST LVLS NIL
EUR RTS WEST NIL
NAR N63B N67B-
Z YYT 48/50 49/40 49/30 49/20 50/15 KENUK

EAST LVLS 310 320 330 340 350 360 370 380 390
WEST LVLS NIL
EUR RTS WEST NIL
NAR N53B N55A
REMARKS.
1. CLEARANCE DELIVERY FREQUENCY ASSIGNMENTS FOR AIRCRAFT

OPERATING FROM MOATT TO BOBTU INCLUSIVE:
LOACH AND NORTH 128.7
SCROD TO YAY 135.45
DOTTY TO YQX 135.05
VIXUN AND SOUTH 119.425
2. TRACK MESSAGE IDENTIFICATION 282.
REMINDED THAT MNPS APPROVAL IS REQUIRED TO FLY IN THIS
AIRSPACE. IN ADDITION, RVSM APPROVAL IS REQUIRED TO FLY
3. WITHIN THE NAT REGION BETWEEN FL310 AND FL390 INCLUSIVE.
PLEASE REFER TO CANADIAN NOTAM 980097 OR A3797.
4. 80 PERCENT OF GROSS NAVIGATION ERRORS OCCUR AFTER A
EROUTE. ALWAYS CARRY OUT WAYPOINT CROSS CHECKS.
END OF PART ONE OF ONE PART

EXAMPLE OF NIGHT-TIME EASTBOUND ORGANISED TRACK SYSTEM


GENERAL
A Polar Track Structure (PTS) consists of 10 fixed tracks in Reykjavik, CTA, and 5 fixed tracks
through Bodø OCA. The PTS tracks through Bodø OCA are a continuation of the PTS tracks in
Reykjavik CTA. The routes are not mandatory. A recommendation for operators proposing to fly
between Europe and Alaska from FL310 to FL390 inclusive is to submit flight plans in accordance
with one of the promulgated PTS tracks.
ABBREVIATED CLEARANCES
An abbreviated clearance may be issued to an aircraft to follow one of the polar tracks throughout
its flight. When an abbreviated clearance is issued it includes: the clearance limit, normally the
destination airfield, the cleared track specified by the track code, the cleared flight level(s), and
the cleared Mach number (if required).
On receipt of an abbreviated clearance, the pilot must read back the contents of the clearance
message and, in addition, the full details of the track specified by the track code.
ABBREVIATED POSITION REPORTS

When operating on the PTS position reports may be abbreviated by replacing the normal latitude
co-ordinate with the word 'Polar' followed by the track code.
Example: “Position, Atlantic 422, Polar Romeo 20 West at 1620, Flight Level 330, Estimating
Polar Romeo 40 West at 1718, Polar Romeo 60 West Next”
Unless otherwise required by ATC, make a position report at the significant points listed in the
appropriate AIP for the relevant PTS track.

Chapter 11 The Polar Track Structure (PTS)
POLAR TRACK STRUCTURE (PTS)

GENERAL
The Organised Track System and the Polar Track Structure are the most significant route
structures within NAT MNPS Airspace. Other route structures within and adjacent to MNPS
Airspace are below.
OTHER ROUTES WITHIN NAT MNPS AIRSPACE

Other routes within NAT MNPS Airspace are:
¾ A699 and A700 in the western part of the New York OCA;
¾ *Blue Spruce Routes, are established as special routes for aircraft equipped with only
one serviceable LRNS. State approval for MNPS operations is required in order to fly
along these routes;
¾ Routes between Northern Europe and Spain/Canaries/Lisbon FIR. (T9*, T14 and T16);
¾ *Routings between the Azores and the Portuguese mainland and between the Azores
and the Madeira Archipelago;
¾ Special routes of short stage lengths where aircraft equipped with normal short-range
navigation equipment can meet the MNPS track-keeping criteria (G3 and G11). State
approval for MNPS operations is required in order to fly along these routes.
* Routes identified with an asterisk above may be flight planned and flown by approved aircraft
equipped with normal short-range navigation equipment (VOR, DME, ADF) and at least one
approved fully operational LRNS.
ROUTE STRUCTURES ADJACENT TO NAT MNPS AIRSPACE

IRISH/UK DOMESTIC ROUTE STRUCTURES
The UK AIP and AIP Ireland both specify the domestic routes used for westbound and eastbound
NAT traffic based upon entry points into and exit points from oceanic airspace.
NORTH AMERICAN ROUTES (NARS)

The North American Routes (NARs) consist of a numbered series of predetermined routes which
provide an interface between oceanic and domestic airspace. The design of the NAR System is
to accommodate major airports in North America. Published in the United States Airport/Facility
Directory - Northeast and the Canada Flight Supplement are full details of all NAR routings
together with associated procedures.

Chapter 12 Other Route and Route Structures Within or Adjacent to NAT MNPS Airspace
ROUTES BETWEEN NORTH AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN AREA

An extensive network of routes linking points in the United States and Canada with Bermuda, the
Bahamas and the Caribbean area are defined in the New York OCA to the west of 60°W. This
network is known as the Western Atlantic Route System (WATRS). The United States AIP
contains the details of these routes and associated procedures.
SHANNON OCEANIC TRANSITION AREA (SOTA)

Part of the Shanwick OCA is designated as the Shannon Oceanic Transition Area (SOTA). The
purpose of the airspace is to allow aircraft to transition to and descend from oceanic levels and
domestic FIR/UIR levels. MNPS Airspace requirements are still applicable from FL285 to FL420.
SOTA has the same vertical extent as the Shanwick OCA, and is bounded by lines joining
successively the following points:
N5100 W01500 – N5100 W00800 – N4830 W00800 – N4900 W01500 – N5100 W01500
SHANNON ACC using the call sign SHANNON CONTROL provides air Traffic Service. Full
details of the service provided and the procedures used are contained in AIP Ireland.
BREST OCEANIC TRANSITION AREA (BOTA)

Part of the Shanwick OCA is designated as the Brest Oceanic Transition Area (BOTA). MNPS
Airspace requirements are still applicable from FL285 to FL420. BOTA has the same vertical
extent as the Shanwick OCA, and is bounded by lines joining successively the following points:
N4834 W00845 – N4830 W00800 – N4500 W00800 – N4500 W00845 – N4834 W00845
The Brest ACC provides Air Traffic service, call sign BREST CONTROL.

PREFERRED ROUTE MESSAGES (PRMS)
Oceanic planners take into consideration operators' preferred routes in the construction of the
OTS. NAT operators should provide information regarding their proposed flights and optimum
tracks during the peak traffic periods. The information should be provided as far in advance as
possible, but not later than:
¾ 1900 UTC for the following daytime OTS and

¾ 1000 UTC for the following night-time OTS.
FLIGHT PLAN REQUIREMENTS

All flights which generally route in an eastbound or westbound direction should normally be flight
planned so that specified ten degrees of longitude (20°W, 30°W, 40°W, etc.) are crossed at whole
degrees of latitude. Northbound or southbound flights should normally be flight planned so that
specified parallels of latitude spaced at five degree intervals (65°N, 60°N, 55°N, etc.) are crossed
at whole degrees of longitude. All flights should plan to operate on great circle tracks joining
successive significant waypoints. Routes outside of the OTS are referred to as random tracks.
It is recommended that waypoints do not exceed 60 minutes flight time.
ROUTINGS
During the hours of validity of the OTS, operators are encouraged to flight plan in accordance
with the OTS, along a route to join or leave an outer track of the OTS, or on a random route to
remain clear of the OTS. Outside of the OTS periods operators may flight plan any random
routing, with the proviso that during the two hours prior to each OTS period the following
restrictions apply:
¾ Eastbound/Westbound flights that cross 30°W less than one hour prior to the
incoming/pending OTS should plan to remain clear of the incoming/pending OTS
structure.
¾ Any opposite direction flights crossing 30°W between one and two hours prior to the
incoming OTS where the route beyond 30°W coincides with the incoming/pending OTS
structure at any point, should plan to join an outer track at any point, or backtrack the
length of one of the incoming/pending tracks.

Chapter 13 Flight Planning for NAT Routes
FLIGHT LEVELS
Flight levels for use under RVSM are published in the UK and Canada AIPs, as the Flight Level
Allocation Scheme (FLAS). The FLAS as published in the AIPs applies only to the current phase
of NAT RVSM operations. Different flight level allocation schemes which apply when
implementing subsequent phases of RVSM operations are similarly published as and when these
new phases occur. During the OTS Periods (eastbound 0100-0800 UTC, westbound 1130-1900
UTC) aircraft intending to follow an OTS Track for its entire length may plan at any of the levels
as published for that track on the current daily OTS Message. Flights planned to remain entirely
clear of the OTS or which join or leave an OTS Track (i.e. follow an OTS track for only part of its
published length), are referred to as Random Flights. Pilots intending to fly on a random route or
outside the OTS time periods should normally plan flight level(s) appropriate to the direction of
flight.
APPROPRIATE DIRECTION LEVELS

These are specified by the Semi-circular Rule, ICAO Annex 2, Appendix 3 and NAT RVSM
implementation (FL290-FL410 inclusive). Appropriate Direction Eastbound levels are therefore:
FLs 270, 290, 310, 330, 350, 370, 390, 410 ,450, etc., and appropriate Direction Westbound
levels are therefore FLs 260, 280, 320, 340, 360, 380, 430, 470, etc.
ATC FLIGHT PLANS

FILING
Submit flight plans as far in advance of departure as possible, for flights departing from points in
other regions and entering the NAT Region without intermediate stops.
APPROVED FLIGHTS
In order to signify that a flight is approved to operate in NAT MNPS Airspace the letter ‘X’ shall be
inserted, in addition to the letter ‘S’, within item 10 of the flight plan. If the flight is approved to
operate at RVSM levels, include a ‘W’ in item 10.
MACH NUMBER AND SPEED

For turbojet aircraft the Mach number should be specified in item 15 of the flight plan. Item 15 of
the flight plan should reflect the proposed speeds in the following sequence:
1. Cruising True Airspeed (TAS)

2. Oceanic entry point and cruising Mach number
3. Oceanic landfall and cruising TAS
FLIGHTS PLANNING ON THE ORGANISED TRACK SYSTEM

If planning the flight to operate along the entire length of one of the organised tracks, the intended
track is used in item 15 of the flight plan using the abbreviation 'NAT' followed by the code letter
assigned to the track. If it is planned to use part of, or leave, an organised track at some
intermediate point, consider this a random route aircraft. Specify full route details in the flight plan
and the track letter must not be used to abbreviate any portion of the route in these
circumstances.
The planned Mach number and flight level for the organised track should be specified at the last
domestic reporting point prior to oceanic airspace entry or the organised track commencement
point. Geographical co-ordinates in latitude and longitude or as a named waypoint must specify
each point at which a change of Mach number or flight level is planned. For flights operating
along the whole length of one of the organised tracks, estimates are only required for the
commencement point of the track.

Flight Planning for NAT Routes Chapter 13
FLIGHTS PLANNING ON RANDOM ROUTE SEGMENTS AT/OR SOUTH OF 70°N

The requested Mach number and flight level should be specified at either the last domestic
reporting point prior to oceanic airspace entry or the OCA boundary. The route of flight should be
specified in terms of the following significant points, with estimates included in item 18 of the flight
plan:
¾ The last domestic reporting point prior to the oceanic entry point;
¾ The OCA boundary entry point (only required by the Shanwick, New York and Santa
Maria OACs);
¾ Significant points formed by the intersection of half or whole degrees of latitude, with
meridians spaced at intervals of ten degrees of longitude from the Zero degree E/W
(Greenwich) Meridian to longitude 70°W;
¾ The OCA boundary exit point (only required by the Shanwick, New York and Santa Maria
OACs); and
¾ The first domestic reporting point after ocean exit.
Each point at which a change of Mach number or flight level is requested must be specified and
followed in each case by the next significant point.
FLIGHTS PLANNING ON A GENERALLY EASTBOUND OR WESTBOUND DIRECTION

ON RANDOM ROUTE SEGMENTS NORTH OF 70°N
Flight planning requirements are identical to those listed for flights on random route segments
at/or south of 70°N except that the route should be specified at 20° longitude intervals at whole
degrees of latitude to 60°W.
FLIGHTS PLANNING ON RANDOM ROUTES IN A GENERALLY NORTHBOUND OR

SOUTHBOUND DIRECTION
Flight planning requirements for flights are identical to those listed for flights operating on random
route segments at/or south of 70°N except that the route should be specified in terms of whole
degrees of longitude with specified parallels of latitude which are spaced at 5° intervals from 20°N
to 90°N.
FLIGHTS PLANNING ON THE POLAR TRACK STRUCTURE (PTS)

If the flight is planned to operate along the whole length of one of the Polar tracks, the intended
track should be defined in item 15 of the flight plan using the abbreviation 'PTS' followed by the
track code. Flights wishing to join or leave a polar track at some intermediate point are
considered as following a random route and full track details must be specified in the flight plan.
The track code must not be used to abbreviate any portion of the route in these circumstances.
Estimated times over significant points must be specified in item 18 of the flight plan. The
requested Mach number and flight level should be specified at the commencement point of the
PTS or at the NAT Oceanic boundary. Each point at which a Mach number or flight level change
is planned must be specified as geographical co-ordinates in latitude and longitude followed in
each case by the abbreviation 'PTS' and the track code.
FLIGHTS PLANNING TO OPERATE WITHOUT HF COMMUNICATIONS

The carriage of HF communications is mandatory for flight in the Shanwick OCA. Aircraft with
only functioning VHF communications equipment should plan their route outside the Shanwick
OCA and ensure that they remain within VHF coverage of appropriate ground stations throughout
the flight.

Chapter 13 Flight Planning for NAT Routes

GENERAL
Oceanic Clearances are required for all flights within the NAT Airspace at or above FL55. Pilots
should request Oceanic Clearances from the ATC unit responsible for the first OCA within which
they wish to fly. The clearances are applicable only from the entry point. Pilots should request
their Oceanic Clearance at least 40 minutes prior to the Oceanic entry point ETA and should
include the next preferred alternative if requesting an OTS track.
PERFORMANCE LIMITATION
When requesting an oceanic clearance, the pilot should notify the OAC of the maximum
acceptable flight level possible at the boundary. The aircraft must be within radar coverage during
any climb. The pilot must notify the OAC of any required change to:
¾ The oceanic flight planned level

¾ Track
¾ Mach number
CLEARANCE DELIVERY
Methods of obtaining Oceanic Clearances include:
¾ Use of published VHF clearance delivery frequencies

¾ By HF communications to the OAC through the appropriate radio station (at least 40
minutes before boundary/entry estimate)
¾ A request via domestic or other ATC agencies
¾ By data link when arrangements have been made with designated airlines to request
and receive clearances using on-board equipment
At some airports situated close to oceanic boundaries, pilots must obtain the Oceanic Clearance
before departure. They can do this either by contacting the OCA directly on the VHF frequency
published or via ATC.
CRITICAL FAILURE
If an aircraft has a critical in-flight equipment failure enroute to the NAT Oceanic Airspace or at
dispatch and is unable to meet the MEL requirements for RVSM or MNPS approval on the flight,
the pilot must advise ATC at initial contact when requesting Oceanic Clearance.
ETA AT OCA BOUNDARY

After obtaining and reading back the clearance, the pilot should monitor the forward estimate for
oceanic entry and should pass a revised estimate to ATC if this changes by 3 minutes or more.

Chapter 14 Oceanic ATC Clearances
DIFFERENT ROUTE
If the cleared oceanic route differs from the original request and/or the oceanic flight level differs
from the current flight level, the pilot is responsible for obtaining the necessary domestic re-
clearance to ensure that the flight complies with its Oceanic Clearance when entering oceanic
airspace.
CLEARANCE ELEMENTS
There are three elements to an Oceanic Clearance:
¾ Route
¾ Mach number
¾ Flight level
These elements serve to provide for the three basic elements of separation: lateral, longitudinal,
and vertical. The Oceanic Clearance issued to each aircraft is at a specific flight level and cruise
Mach number. Do not make flight level or Mach number changes without prior ATC clearance.
CLEARANCE NOT RECEIVED

Prior to reaching the Shanwick OCA boundary, if pilots have not received their Oceanic
Clearance, they are to remain clear of Oceanic Airspace whilst awaiting the Clearance. This is not
the case for other NAT OCAs where flights may enter whilst pilots are awaiting receipt of a
delayed Oceanic Clearance.
Clearance Examples: An example of a pilot voice request for Oceanic Clearance is as follows:
“Atlantic 442 request Oceanic Clearance. Estimating 56N 010W at 1131. Request Mach decimal
eight zero, Flight Level three five zero, able Flight Level three six zero, second choice Track
Charlie.”
If the request also includes a change to the original flight plan, affecting the OCA, then it should
be according to the following example:
“Atlantic 442 request Oceanic Clearance. Estimating 55N 010W at 1147. Request Mach decimal
eight zero, Flight Level three four zero. Now requesting Track Charlie, able Flight Level three six
zero, second choice Track Delta.”

Oceanic ATC Clearances Chapter 14
CONTENTS OF CLEARANCES
An abbreviated clearance is issued by Air Traffic Services when clearing an aircraft to fly along
the whole length of an Organised Track or along a Polar Track within the Reykjavik CTA and/or
Bodø OCA. When an abbreviated clearance is issued, it includes:
¾ Clearance Limit, which is normally the destination airfield

¾ Cleared track specified as “Track” plus code letter or “Polar Track” plus code
identification
¾ Cleared flight level(s)
¾ Cleared Mach number
¾ The phrase “SEND MET REPORTS” if the aircraft is designated to report MET information
enroute
Procedures exist for an abbreviated read back of an Oceanic Clearance issued on VHF. A typical
example of such a clearance is as follows:
“Atlantic 442 is cleared to Toronto via Track Bravo, from 56N 010W maintain Flight Level three
five zero, Mach decimal eight zero.”
The flight crew confirms that they are in possession of the current NAT Track message by using
the TMI number in the read-back of the Oceanic Clearance, as follows:
“Atlantic 442 is cleared to Toronto via Track Bravo 283, from 56N 010W maintain Flight Level
three five zero, Mach decimal eight zero.”
If the TMI number is included in the read-back, there is no requirement for the pilot to read back
the NAT Track coordinates even if the cleared NAT Track is not the one originally requested. If
any doubt exists as to the TMI or the NAT Track coordinates, the pilot should request the
complete track coordinates from the OAC. Similarly, if the pilot cannot correctly state the TMI, the
OAC reads the cleared NAT Track coordinates in full and requests a full read-back of those
coordinates.
OCEANIC CLEARANCES FOR FLIGHTS INTENDING TO OPERATE WITHIN THE NAT

REGION AND SUBSEQUENTLY ENTER THE EUR OR NAM REGIONS
Oceanic Clearances issued to most flights in this category are strategic clearances intended to
provide a safe separation for each flight from oceanic entry to oceanic track termination point. If
pilots receive a clearance on a track other than originally flight planned, they must check that the
landfall and domestic routings are fully understood.
OCEANIC CLEARANCES FOR RANDOM FLIGHTS INTENDING TO OPERATE WITHIN

THE NAT REGION AND SUBSEQUENTLY ENTER REGIONS OTHER THAN NAM OR
EUR
Oceanic Clearances issued to flights in this category are similar to domestic ATC clearances in
that clearances are to destination on the assumption that coordination is effected ahead of the
aircraft's passage. In this case, the flight profile may be changed enroute, prior to hand-over from
one centre to another, depending upon traffic conditions in the adjacent area.

Chapter 14 Oceanic ATC Clearances
OCEANIC FLIGHTS ORIGINATING FROM THE CAR OR SAM REGIONS AND ENTERING
NAT MNPS AIRSPACE VIA THE NEW YORK OCA
Pilots are reminded that Oceanic Clearances from the New York OAC do not need to be
requested until first contact with New York is established on HF frequencies. Note that Oceanic
Clearances are not required for entry to or transit of that portion of the New York OCA outside
MNPS Airspace.
ERRORS ASSOCIATED WITH OCEANIC CLEARANCES

Navigation errors associated with Oceanic Clearances fall into several categories. The most
significant are ATC System Loop errors and Waypoint Insertion errors.
WAYPOINT INSERTION ERRORS

Experience has shown that many of the ‘track-keeping’ errors that occur result from:
¾ Failure to observe the principles of checking waypoints to be inserted in the navigation

systems against the ATC cleared route
¾ Failure to load waypoint information carefully
¾ Failure to cross check on-board navigation systems
ATC SYSTEM LOOP ERROR

An ATC system loop error is any error caused by a misunderstanding between the pilot and the
controller regarding assigned FL, Mach number, or assigned route. Such errors can arise from
incorrect interpretation of oceanic clearances or re-clearances by pilots. Errors of this nature that
are detected by ATC from pilot position reports are normally corrected. However, timely
intervention cannot always be guaranteed especially as it may depend upon HF communication.

HF COMMUNICATIONS
Most NAT air/ground communications are conducted on single side-band HF frequencies.
VHF COMMUNICATIONS
The carriage of HF communications equipment is mandatory for flight in the Shanwick OCA.
Aircraft with only functioning VHF communications equipment should plan their route outside the
Shanwick OCA and ensure that they remain within VHF coverage of appropriate ground stations
throughout the flight.
TIME AND PLACE OF POSITION REPORTS

Unless otherwise requested by Air Traffic Control, position reports from flights on routes that are
not defined by designated reporting points should be made at the significant points listed in the
flight plan. Air Traffic Control may require any flight operating in a north/south direction to report
its position at any intermediate parallel of latitude when necessary.
In requiring aircraft to report their position at intermediate points, ATC is guided by the
requirement to have position information at approximately hourly intervals and also by the need to
cater for varying types of aircraft and varying traffic and MET conditions. Pilots must always
report to ATC as soon as possible on reaching any new cruising level.
CONTENTS OF POSITION REPORTS

For flights outside the PTS and domestic ATS route network, express position in terms of latitude
and longitude except when flying over named reporting points.
For flights whose tracks are predominantly east or west, express latitude in degrees and minutes,
and longitude in degrees only.
For flights whose tracks are predominantly north or south, express latitude in degrees only, and
longitude in degrees and minutes.
All times should be expressed in four digits giving both the hour and the minutes UTC.

Chapter 15 Communications and Position Reporting Procedures
STANDARD MESSAGE TYPES

Standard air/ground message types and formats are used within the NAT Region and are
published in State AIPs and Atlantic Orientation charts. To enable ground stations to process
messages in the shortest possible time, pilots should observe the following rules:
¾ Use the correct type of message applicable to the data transmitted

¾ State the message type in the contact call to the ground station or at the start of the
message
¾ Adhere strictly to the sequence of information for the type of message
¾ All times in any of the messages should be expressed in hrs and min UTC
Example Messages: The message types are shown below with examples:
POSITION
Example: “Position, Atlantic 442, 56 North 10 West at 1235, Flight Level 330, Estimating
56 North 20 West at 1310, 56 North 30 West Next”
REQUEST CLEARANCE
Example: “Request Clearance, Atlantic 442, 56 North 20 West at 1308, Flight Level 330,
Estimating 56 North 30 West at 1340, 56 North 40 West Next. Request Flight Level 350”
or if a position report is not required,

“Request Clearance, Atlantic 442, Request Flight Level 370”
REVISED ESTIMATE
Example: “Revised Estimate, Atlantic 442, 57 North 40 West at 0305”
ADDRESSING OF POSITION REPORTS

Position reports made by aircraft operating within an OCA at a distance of 60 nm or less from the
boundary with an adjacent OCA, including aircraft operating on tracks through successive points
on each boundary, should also be made to the ACC serving the adjacent OCA using the
message “Shanwick copy Santa Maria”.
“WHEN ABLE HIGHER” (WAH) REPORTS

Prior notice to ATC of the time or position that a flight is able to accept the next higher level can
assist ATC in ensuring optimum use of available altitudes. These reports can also be used to help
plan the altitudes for flights as they transition from RVSM to conventional altitudes. All flights
entering the MNPS Airspace portion of the New York OCA and entering the Santa Maria OCA
must provide a WAH Report. Provision of WAH Reports on entering other NAT OCAs is optional
or any OAC may request them. When entering an oceanic FIR, pilots should include the time or
location that the flight is able to accept the next higher altitude in the initial position report. The
report may include more than one altitude if that information is available.
Example: “Atlantic 442, 40 North 40 West at 1010, Flight Level 350, Estimating 40 North
50 West at 1110, 40 North 60 West Next. Able Flight Level 360 at 1035, Able Flight Level
370 at 1145, Able Flight Level 390 at 1300”

Communications and Position Reporting Procedures Chapter 15
Information provided about the aircraft’s future altitude ability is not automatically interpreted by
ATC as an advance request for a step climb. It is used as previously indicated to assist ATC in
planning airspace utilisation. However, should the pilot wish to register a request for one or more
future step climbs, this may be incorporated in the WAH report by appropriately substituting the
word “request” for the word “able.”
Example: “Atlantic 442, 42 North 40 West at 1215, Flight Level 330, Estimating 40 North
50 West at 1310, 38 North 60 West Next. Request Flight Level 340 at 1235, Able Flight
Level 350 at 1325, Request Flight Level 360 at 1415”
Although optimal use of the WAH reports is in conjunction with a Position Report, a WAH report
can be made or updated separately at any time.
Example: “Atlantic 442, Able Flight Level 360 at 1035, Request Flight Level 370 at 1145,
Able Flight Level 390 at 1300”
ATC acknowledgement of a WAH report (and any included requests) is NOT a clearance to
change altitude.
METEOROLOGICAL REPORTS
From among the aircraft intending to operate on the organised track system, OACs designate
those that are required to report routine meteorological observations at and midway between
each prescribed reporting point. The designation is made by the OAC when issuing the Oceanic
Clearance using the phrase “SEND MET REPORTS“ and is normally made to designate one
aircraft per track at approximately hourly intervals. Pilots flying tracks partly or wholly off the OTS
should include routine Met observations with every prescribed report. The midpoint observation
should be recorded and then transmitted at the next designated reporting point.
SELCAL
When using HF communications, pilots should maintain a listening watch on the assigned
frequency unless SELCAL is fitted, in which case they should ensure the following sequence of
actions:
1. Provision of the SELCAL code in the flight plan (any subsequent change of
aircraft for a flight requires passing the new SELCAL information to the OAC)
2. Checking the operation of the SELCAL equipment at or prior to entry into
Oceanic airspace with the appropriate radio station (This SELCAL check must be
completed prior to commencing SELCAL watch)
3. Maintenance thereafter of a SELCAL watch
GENERAL PURPOSE VHF COMMUNICATIONS (GP/VHF)

Radio stations are also responsible for the operation of GP/VHF outlets. It is important for the
pilot to appreciate that when using GP/VHF communications, they are with a radio station and not
by direct contact with ATC. However, Direct Controller/Pilot Communications (DCPC) can be
arranged if necessary on some GP/VHF frequencies.

DATA LINK COMMUNICATIONS

Data link communications are gradually being introduced into the NAT environment for position
reporting. Consult AIS publications of the NAT ATS Provider States to determine the extent of
their implementation and any associated procedures.
HF COMMUNICATIONS FAILURE
Each radio station continuously listens out on its appropriate family/families of NAT HF
frequencies. In the event of failure of HF communications, make every effort to relay position
reports through other aircraft. An air-to-air VHF frequency for the Region has been agreed upon.
When out of range of VHF ground stations on the same or adjacent frequencies, 123.45 MHz
may be used to relay position reports.
If necessary, initial contact for such relays can be established on 121.5 MHz. Great care must be
exercised should this be necessary, as the frequency 121.5 MHz is monitored by all aircraft
operating in the NAT Region in case aircraft experiencing emergencies are using it. Therefore, in
order to minimise unnecessary use of 121.5 MHz, it is recommended that aircraft additionally
monitor 123.45 MHz the Inter Pilot Frequency, when flying through NAT airspace.
GENERAL
If so equipped, the pilot of an aircraft experiencing a two-way communications failure should
operate the SSR transponder on identity Mode A Code 7600 and Mode C. The pilot should
attempt to contact any ATC facility or another aircraft and inform them of the difficulty and request
they relay information to the ATC facility with whom communications are intended.
COMMUNICATIONS FAILURE PRIOR TO ENTERING NAT REGION

Due to the potential length of time in oceanic airspace, it is strongly recommended that a pilot
experiencing communications failure whilst still in domestic airspace does not enter the OCA but
adopts the procedure specified in the appropriate domestic AIP and lands at a suitable airport.
However, if the pilot elects to continue, one of the following procedures should be followed to
allow ATC to provide adequate separation:
1. If operating with a received and acknowledged Oceanic Clearance, the pilot must
enter oceanic airspace at the cleared oceanic entry point, level, and speed and
proceed in accordance with the received and acknowledged Oceanic Clearance.
Any level or speed changes required to comply with the Oceanic Clearance must
be completed within the vicinity of the oceanic entry point.
2. If operating without a received and acknowledged Oceanic Clearance, the pilot

must enter oceanic airspace at the first oceanic entry point, level, and speed
contained in the filed flight plan and proceed via the filed flight plan route to
landfall. The initial oceanic level and speed must be maintained until landfall.

Communications and Position Reporting Procedures Chapter 15
COMMUNICATIONS FAILURE AFTER ENTERING NAT REGION

Two situations are considered:
If cleared on the filed flight plan route:

The pilot must proceed in accordance with the last received and acknowledged Oceanic
Clearance, including level and speed, to the last specified oceanic route point (normally landfall),
then continue on the filed flight plan route. After passing the last specified oceanic route point, the
flight should conform to the relevant State procedures/regulations.
If cleared on other than the filed flight plan route

The pilot must proceed in accordance with the last received and acknowledged Oceanic
Clearance, including level and speed, to the last specified oceanic route point (normally landfall).
After passing this point, the pilot should conform with the relevant State procedures/regulations,
rejoining the filed flight plan route by proceeding via the published ATS route structure where
possible to the next significant point contained in the filed flight plan.
PROCEDURE
Aircraft with a destination within the NAT Region should proceed to their clearance limit and
follow the ICAO standard procedure to commence descent from the appropriate designated
navigation aid serving the destination aerodrome at or as close as possible to the expected
approach time. Detailed procedures are promulgated in relevant State AIPs.
OPERATION OF TRANSPONDERS
Unless otherwise directed by ATC, pilots of aircraft equipped with SSR transponders flying in the
NAT FIRs operate transponders continuously in Mode A/C Code 2000, however, the last
assigned code is retained for a period of 30 min after entry into NAT airspace.
Pilots should note that it is important to change from the last assigned domestic code to the Mode
A/C Code 2000, since the original domestic code may not be recognised by the subsequent
Domestic Radar Service on exit from the oceanic airspace. This procedure does not affect the
use of the special purpose codes (7500, 7600, and 7700) in cases of unlawful interference, radio
failure, or emergency.
AIRBORNE COLLISION AVOIDANCE SYSTEMS (ACAS)

Report all ACAS Resolution Advisories that occur in the NAT Region to the controlling authority
for the airspace involved.


FLIGHT OPERATION
IMPORTANCE OF ACCURATE TIME
The proper operation of a correctly functioning LRNS ensures that the aircraft follows its cleared
track. ATC applies standard separations between cleared tracks and assures the safe lateral
separation of aircraft. Longitudinal separations between subsequent aircraft following the same
track and between aircraft on intersecting tracks are assessed in terms of differences in
ETAs/ATAs at common waypoints. Aircraft clock errors resulting in position report time errors can
lead to a shortening of longitudinal separation between aircraft. Prior to entry into the NAT MNPS
Airspace, the time reference system used during the flight must be accurately synchronised to
UTC. The calculation of waypoint ETAs and the reporting of waypoint ATAs are referenced to this
system. Pre-flight procedures for any NAT MNPS flight must include a UTC time check and
resynchronisation of the aircraft master clock. NAT ATS Provider States have promulgated lists of
acceptable time sources for this purpose.
The following are examples of acceptable time standards:
¾ GPS (Corrected to UTC)

¾ WWV-National Institute of Standards (NIST-Fort Collins, Colorado). WWV operates
continually H24 on 2500, 5000, 10 000, 15 000, and 20 000 kHz (AM/SSB) and provides
UTC (voice) once every minute.
¾ CHU-National Research Council (NRC-Ottawa, Canada). CHU operates continually H24
on 3330, 7335 and 14 670 kHz (SSB) and provides UTC (voice) once every minute
(English even minutes, French odd minutes).
¾ BBC-British Broadcasting Corporation (United Kingdom). The BBC transmits on a
number of domestic and worldwide frequencies and transmits the Greenwich time signal
(referenced to UTC) once every hour on most frequencies, although there are some
exceptions.
THE USE OF THE MASTER DOCUMENT

Navigation procedures must include the use of a master working document to be used on the
flight deck that lists sequentially the waypoints defining the route, track, and distance between
each waypoint and other information relevant to navigation along the cleared track. This
document may be based upon:
¾ The flight plan

¾ Navigation log
¾ Other suitable documents

Chapter 16 MNPS Flight Operations and Navigation Procedures
Misuse of the Master Document can result in gross navigation errors (GNEs – aircraft more than
25 nm off track). For this reason, establish strict procedures regarding its use. These procedures
should include the following:
¾ The crew on the flight deck should use only one Master Document. However, this does
not preclude other crewmembers maintaining a separate flight log.
¾ On INS equipped aircraft, the flight crew should establish a waypoint numbering
sequence from the outset of the flight and enter it on the Master Document. The identical
numbering sequence should be used for storing waypoints in the navigation computers.
¾ For aircraft equipped with FMS databases, FMS generated or inserted waypoints should
be carefully compared to Master Document waypoints and cross checked by both pilots.
¾ An appropriate symbology should be adopted to indicate the status of each waypoint
listed on the Master Document.
GPS OPERATIONAL CONTROL RESTRICTIONS

Any predicted satellite outages that affect the capability of GPS navigation may require the
cancellation, delay, or re-routing of the flight.
EFFECTS OF SATELLITE AVAILABILITY

Given suitable geometry, four appropriately configured satellites are required to determine
position, five are required to detect the presence of a single faulty satellite; and six are required to
identify the faulty satellite and exclude it from the navigation solution. The number of satellites
may be reduced by one if barometric aiding is used.
FLIGHT PLAN CHECK

The purpose of this check is to ensure complete compatibility between the data in the Master
Document and the calculated output from the navigation systems. Typical actions could include:
¾ Checking the distance from the ramp position to the first waypoint
¾ Selecting track waypoint 1 to waypoint 2 and doing the following:
¾ Checking accuracy of the indicated distance against that in the Master Document
¾ Checking, if possible, that the track displayed is the same in the Master
Document
¾ Carrying out similar checks for subsequent pairs of waypoints and any
discrepancies between the Master Document and displayed data checked for
possible waypoint insertion errors.
¾ When each leg of the flight has been checked in this manner, it should be annotated
on the Master Document.
IN FLIGHT PROCEDURES
During the initial part of the flight, ground navaids should be used to verify the performance of the
LRNSs.
ATC OCEANIC CLEARANCE

Two flight crewmembers should listen to and record every ATC clearance. Any doubt should be
resolved by requesting clarification from ATC.

MNPS Flight Operations and Navigation Procedures Chapter 16
NAVIGATION PROCEDURES
ENTERING THE MNPS AIRSPACE AND REACHING AN OCEANIC
WAYPOINT
When passing waypoints, carry out the following checks:
¾ Just prior to the waypoint, check the present position coordinates of each navigation
system against the cleared route in the Master Document.
¾ Check the next two waypoints in each navigation system against the Master
Document.
¾ At the waypoint, check the distance to the next waypoint. Confirm that the aircraft
turns in the correct direction and takes up a new heading and track appropriate to the
leg to the next waypoint.
¾ Before transmitting the position report to ATC, verify the waypoint coordinates
against the Master Document and those in the steering navigation system. When
feasible, read the position report “next” and “next plus 1” waypoint coordinates from
the CDU of the navigation system coupled to the autopilot.
APPROACHING LANDFALL
When the aircraft is within range of land-based navaids, and the crew is confident that these
navaids are providing reliable navigation information, they should consider updating the LRNSs.
AVOIDING CONFUSION BETWEEN MAGNETIC AND TRUE TRACK

REFERENCE
Crews who decide to check or update their LRNSs by reference to VORs should remember that
in the Canadian Northern Domestic Airspace, these may be oriented with reference to true north
rather than magnetic north.
NAVIGATION IN THE AREAS OF COMPASS UNRELIABILITY

In areas of compass unreliability, basic inertial navigation requires no special procedures, but
most operators feel it is desirable to retain an independent heading reference in case of system
failure (where the magnetic field is less than 6 microteslas).

Chapter 16 MNPS Flight Operations and Navigation Procedures

INTRODUCTION
At high latitudes, magnetic compasses become unreliable due to the dip angle of the Earth’s
magnetic field. Gyrocompasses and grid navigation techniques are one option to overcome this
problem. The other more common technique is to use an IRS based on a triple IN system, all
feeding data into an FMS. The volumes on Instrumentation and Radio Navigation cover this in
depth.
GRID AND PLOTTING ON A POLAR CHART

Where a straight line is drawn on a Polar Stereographic chart, it roughly equates to a Great
Circle. To allow a constant straight-line course direction, a grid is superimposed upon the Polar
Stereographic chart normally aligned to the 0° meridian. This grid is printed because the use of
true or magnetic references in Polar Regions is difficult due to the following:
¾ Magnetic variation changes rapidly over short distances.

¾ The magnetic compass becomes unreliable at latitudes greater than 70°N.
¾ The convergence of the meridians causes the course to change rapidly.
Note: Other meridians may be used to reference the grid. The same principle applies.
Operational Procedures 17-1

Chapter 17 Grid Navigation
The direction of the datum meridian is Grid North. Any course measured from this datum is
known as grid direction. In the diagram above, the grid is aligned to the prime meridian. A line is
drawn between A (N85 W030) and B (N85 E030). The Grid Course equals the True Course when
the line passes through the 0° meridian. Both True North and Grid North are the same:
Grid Course 270° True Course 270°
However, the true and grid courses differ at both A and B. By measurement, if transiting from
B to A:
At B: Grid Course = 270° At A: Grid Course = 270°

True Course = 300° True Course = 240°
The angular difference between the two is convergence:
¾ Where True North is west of Grid North (B), convergence is westerly.

¾ Where True North is east of Grid North (A), convergence is easterly.
The angular difference between the Grid North and True North is 30°. The angular difference
between the Reference Meridian (0°) and Point A or Point B is 30°.
Following a simple convention:
Convergence west – True best Convergence east – True least

Point B Point A
Grid Course = True Course - 30° Grid Course = True Course + 30°
True Bearing = Grid Bearing + Longitude West (- Longitude East)
The longitude refers to whether True North is to the west of Grid North or to the east.

Grid Navigation Chapter 17
Aircraft Heading In the diagram below, the aircraft grid heading is given.
South
South South
135°W 180°E/W 135°E
5
75°
N
80°
N
85°
1 4
South North 090°E South
090°W
Pole
Grid
North
3
2
045°W 045°E
0°E/W
South South
South
The Grid Headings are:
Aircraft 1 Grid 000° (270° T)

Convergence Factor = ChLong x Sin Lat
Convergence Angle = ½ ChLong x Sin Lat
The following are examples of the questions asked in the OP exam.
1. On a polar stereographic chart, with a grid referenced on the Greenwich meridian and
convergence of 10°W, true heading of 300°, what is grid heading?
a. 290°
b. 010°
c. 300°
d. 310°

Answer: Convergence west – true best. True heading = 300°, therefore Grid heading = 300 – 10
= 290° G = A
2. If the grid datum is 054°W, position 80°N 140°E and true heading of 330°, what is the grid
heading?
a. 316°
b. 276°
c. 164°
d. 136°
Answer: Convergence is West (54W to 140E). At 140E, True North is to the West of Grid North,
hence convergence West. Convergence is 194°W.
Convergence West – True Best, True Hdg = 330° so Grid Hdg = 330 – 194 = 136° = D
GYROS AND INERTIAL SYSTEMS

The principles of operation of gyroscopes and their application to gyro-compasses and inertial
reference systems are detailed in Instrumentation.
PRECESSION
When an external force is applied a rotating body, the body moves as if the force had been
applied 90° further round in the direction of rotation. Therefore, any external force applied to a
free gyro produces a rotation at right angles to the force applied. If the body is not free to move, a
precession force is induced in the body. When a driver leans a racing motorcycle, the bike turns
in the direction of the lean due to the precession forces induced in the rotating wheels. The
precession force is proportional to the rate of rotation of the body.
FORCE
PRECESSION
LEAN TO THE LEFT – TURN TO THE LEFT
Precession of a Rotating Body

TYPES OF GYRO
SPACE (OR FREE) GYRO
This gyro has freedom to move in all three planes. It consists of two concentrically pivoted rings
called inner and outer gimbal rings. The three planes relate to the three axes of the aeroplane
(e.g. side to side or roll axis, lateral or pitch axis, and the normal or yaw axis). Furthermore, there
is no means of external control over this type of gyro, a feature which distinguishes it from a tied
or earth gyro. This type of gyro would have no practical use in an aeroplane instrument where the
gyro is required to be set to and maintain a given direction.
TIED (OR DISPLACEMENT) GYRO

This type of gyro is basically a space gyro which has a means of external control and has
freedom of movement about all three planes. This type is used as a directional gyro (e.g. in the
Direction Indicator (DI).
EARTH GYRO
This type of gyro is a tied gyro, where the controlling force is the gravity of the Earth. This type is
used in gyro horizon or artificial horizon instruments.
RATE GYRO
This gyro has one plane of freedom only; its plane of rotation is 90° removed from its plane of
freedom. This type of gyro is used to measure the rate of turn, and employs restraining springs
(e.g. in the turn and balance indicator or turn co-ordinator).
RATE INTEGRATING GYRO

This type of gyro is similar to the rate gyro, having a single degree of freedom. However, it uses
the viscosity of a fluid (viscous restraint) to damp the precessional rotation about its output axis
instead of restraining springs. The main function of this type of gyro is to detect turning about its
input axis by precessing about its output axis. Inertial navigation stablised platforms use this type
of gyro.
SOLID STATE (RING LASER) GYRO

These are not gyros in the true sense, but they behave like gyros and sense the angular rate of
motion about a single axis. They consist of a solid block of temperature stable glass within which
there is a cavity or laser path filled with a lasing medium, such as helium-neon. Some are
triangular in shape (Honeywell), whilst others have four sides (Litton). They both have small
tunnels drilled in them, with reflecting mirrors sited at each corner. Two beams of high-energy
laser light are passed in opposite directions around the sealed cavity and initially travel at the
same speed.
Any rotation of the gyro in the plane of the laser results in a change in the path lengths of each
beam. The resultant frequency shift of the beams is measured using a control element. The
frequency differential is directly proportional to the angular turning rate.
GYRO WANDER
Any deviation of the gyro spin axis from its set direction is known as gyro wander, and is
classified as follows:
Real Wander
Any physical deviation of the gyro spin axis is called real wander. A gyro should not wander away
from its preset direction, but various forces act on the rotating mass of a gyro and cause it to
precess, for example, the bearing friction that is always present at the spin axis.

If this friction is symmetrical, it merely slows down the rotor, but if it is asymmetrical, it causes the
gyro to precess. Similarly, any friction in the gimbal bearings causes the gyro to precess. Wear on
the gyro may result in movement of the C of G, which may also result in a precessing force. Such
errors are not constant or predictable, and cannot be calibrated for or corrections applied to nullify
this error.
Apparent Wander
In this case, the gyro spin axis does not physically wander away from its pre-set direction, but to
an observer, it appears to have changed its direction. This is because the gyro maintains its
direction with respect to a fixed point in space, whereas the observer rotates with the Earth. With
the passage of time, the gyro appears to have changed direction with reference to an Earth
datum.
Apparent wander is also made up of horizontal components called drift and vertical components
called topple. The rate of drift and topple depends upon the latitude and can vary from zero to a
maximum of 15.04° per hour (the rate at which the Earth rotates).
Depending on whether a gyro has a vertical or horizontal spin axis, the rotation of the Earth also
has a different effect.
HORIZONTAL AXIS GYRO

The diagram below shows a horizontal spin axis gyro positioned at the North Pole.
Gyro Drift
It shows an observer initially at position A, where the gyro is set so that its spin axis is directly in
line with the observer. Six hours later, the Earth having rotated through 90°, the observer now
views the gyro from position B. The observer’s own motion is not noticed, and the gyro spin axis
appears to have moved clockwise in the horizontal plane through 90°. Twelve hours later, the
gyro spin axis appears to have moved through 180°, and finally after twenty-four hours, with the
observer back in the original position, the gyro spin axis again appears as it was first aligned. The
apparent motion in the horizontal plane is known as gyro drift.
If a horizontal spin axis gyro has its axis aligned in a north/south direction along the equator,
during the Earth rotation, the gyro spin axis continues to remain aligned with the local meridian.
This occurs because all of the meridians are parallel to one another at the equator, and a gyro
aligned with a meridian remains with that meridian over a 24-hour period. This means that the
gyros neither drift nor topple when aligned in this manner.

If the horizontal spin axis gyro is positioned at the poles, it drifts through 360° in 24 hours
(maximum drift) (i.e. the rate of drift at the poles is the same as the angular velocity of the Earth
at 15.04° per hour, whilst at the equator, the same gyro with its spin axis aligned with the local
meridian has zero drift due to Earth rotation).
Drift at intermediate latitudes = 15.04° x Sin Latitude° per hour.
TRANSPORT WANDER
This is an additional form of apparent topple/drift, which principally occurs when the gyro is
placed on a platform, such as an aeroplane that is flying in an east or west direction. The gyro is
now carried in space in the same way as the Earth and results in transport wander.
Transport drift = Rate of change of longitude° per hour x Sin latitude° per hour
Transport topple = Rate of change of longitude° per hour x Cos latitude° per hour
Transport Wander = (Ground Speed/60 x Tan Lat) Degrees/hr (-East; +West)
EXAMPLES OF GYRO WANDER

If a gyro with a horizontal spin axis is set with its axis aligned in an east/west direction at latitude
45°N, the attitude of its spin axis will change as the Earth rotates. Since the gyro axis is aligned in
an east/west direction at an intermediate latitude, the gyro both drifts and topples.
After 3 hours, the change will be:

Drift = 15.04° Sin latitude° per hour = 3 x 15.04° x Sin 45° = 31.9°
Topple = 15.04° Cos latitude° per hour = 3 x 15.04° x Cos 45° = 31.9°
Note: In the Northern Hemisphere, the gyro axis drifts clockwise. Drift is anti-clockwise in the
Southern Hemisphere.
The spin axis is aligned at 090° + 31.9° = 121.9° / 301.9°.
The eastern end of the spin axis appears to have risen by 31.9° from the horizontal, and the
western end is similarly depressed.
If the rate of change of longitude during a flight is 25° in one hour, at latitude 50°N, the amount of
transport drift present is:
Transport drift = Rate of change of longitude° per hour x Sin latitude° per hour
Transport drift = 25° x Sin 50° = 19.15°
The following are examples of likely questions in the OP exam:
1. An aeroplane is at 60°N 010°E and is to fly to 60°N 020°E. The flight time is 1½ hours in
still air. The gyro is set with the reference to true north and not corrected in flight for
precession. What is the required initial heading if a constant gyro heading is to be
maintained?
a. 080°
b. 076°
c. 066°
d. 086°

Answer: The formulae for earth rate drift and latitude nut corrections are identical. However, the
drift corrections are applied to the gyro in opposite senses. For example, in the Northern
Hemisphere, the indications of a DI decrease over time due to the Earth’s rotation. The idea of
the latitude nut is to counteract the earth rate drift so its effect is to increase the direction
indications over time. The latitude nut can be adjusted for corrections of earth rate drift in either
hemisphere. The formula is 15 x Sin of latitude.
For transport wander, the change in direction indication decreases for any transport in an easterly
direction in the Northern Hemisphere and increases for transport westerly. Note here that the
decreasing error is the same for Northern Hemisphere earth rate drift and easterly transport.
Remember that there is no transport wander when travelling directly North or South, but such
movement varies the amount of drift due to earth rate.
The formula is (groundspeed ÷ 60) x Tan mean lat. or another way to look at transport wander
is to think of it as convergence, Convergence Factor = ChLong x Sin Lat. Where ChLong is the
departure longitude – the destination longitude. The later formula avoids the calculation of
groundspeed.
The trick is to arrange your work in a very methodical and logical manner. The following order of
calculations is suggested:
Earth Rate ER (This is apparent wander) (Also known as Astronomic)
Lat nut LN (This is real wander but is calibrated to a known amount)
Transport TW (This is apparent wander)
Random RW (Random wander is real wander and cannot be calculated)
Now, apply the general explanation above to the specific question:
An aeroplane is at 60°N 010°E and is to fly to 60°N 020°E. The flight time is 1½ hours in still air.
The gyro is set with the reference to true north and not corrected in flight for precession. What is
the required initial heading if a constant gyro heading is to be maintained?
ER – The aircraft remains at 60°N for the duration of this flight, therefore:
15 x Sin 60 = 12.99° decrease per hour, so 19.48° in 1.5 hours.
LN – Not given
TW – The groundspeed is not given but departure is. 10° long at 60°N = 300 nm.
So, GS is 200 kt. This speed is used in the TW formula.
200/60 x Tan Lat = 5.77° decrease per hour because flight is easterly. For 1.5 hours, the
decrease is 8.65°.
RW - Not given or asked for.
The total expected drift is a 28.13° decreasing. If a pilot followed a constant gyro heading with a
decreasing indication, the aircraft would track to the right of track, so the initial gyro heading
would be half the expected drift and applied to the left of intended track. Therefore, 090° less
14° = 76°.
2. You are at a latitude of 59°57’N with a heading of 120° showing on a gyro compass. You
experience a delay of 2hrs 30mins. What is the effect on your compass?
a. -18.5°
b. 18.5°
c. -32.5°
d. 32.5°
Answer: During the delay, the Earth rotates and the gyro is subject to Earth Rate Precession
over the period. This is: 15.04°/hr x Sin Lat = 15.04 x 2.5 x 0.866 = 32.56 The rotation is easterly,
so the compass precesses by – 32.56 degrees. Answer C

GENERAL
The navigation systems fitted to MNPS approved aircraft are generally very accurate and very
reliable. GNEs in NAT MNPS Airspace are rare. For unrestricted operation in MNPS Airspace, an
approved aircraft must be equipped with a minimum of two fully serviceable LRNSs. MNPS
approved aircraft that have suffered any equipment failures that result in only a single LRNS
remaining serviceable may still be flight planned and flown through the MNPS Airspace but only
on specified routes established for this purpose.
Crew training and consequent approval for MNPS operations should include instruction on what
actions to consider in the event of navigation system failures.
DETECTION OF FAILURES
Normally, navigation installations include comparator and/or warning devices, but it is still
necessary for the crew to make frequent comparison checks. When an aircraft is fitted with three
independent systems, the identification of a defective system should be straightforward.
METHODS OF DETERMINING WHICH SYSTEM IS FAULTY

With only two systems on board, identifying the defective unit can be difficult. If such a situation
does arise in oceanic airspace, consider any or all of the following actions:
¾ Check malfunction codes for indication of unserviceability.

¾ Obtain a fix. It may be possible to use the following:
¾ The weather radar (range marks and relative bearing lines) to determine the position
relative to an identifiable landmark such as an island
¾ The ADF to obtain bearings from a suitable NDB
¾ A VOR
¾ Contact a nearby aircraft on VHF and compare information on spot wind or ground speed
and drift.
If such assistance is not available, as a last resort, compare the flight plan wind speed and
direction for the current DR position of the aircraft with that from navigation system outputs.

Chapter 18 Procedures in the Event of Navigation System Degradation or Failure
GUIDANCE ON WHAT CONSTITUTES A FAILED SYSTEM

Operations or navigation manuals should include guidelines on how to decide when a navigation
system should be considered to have failed. If there is a difference greater than 15 nm between
two aircraft navigation systems, it is advisable to split the difference between the readings when
determining the aircraft's position. If the disparity exceeds 25 nm, one or more of the navigation
systems should be regarded as having failed.The pilot should notify ATC in this case.
GPS SATELLITE FAULT DETECTION OUTAGE

If the GPS receiver displays an indication of a fault detection function outage (i.e. RAIM is not
available), navigation integrity must be provided by comparing the GPS position with the position
indicated by another LRNS sensor. If the only sensor for the approved LRNS is GPS, then
comparison should be made with a position computed by extrapolating the last verified position
with airspeed, heading, and estimated winds. If the positions do not agree within 10 nm, the pilot
should adopt navigation system failure procedures until the exclusion function or navigation
integrity is regained, and should report degraded navigation capability to ATC.
PARTIAL OR COMPLETE LOSS OF NAVIGATION/FMS CAPABILITY BY AIRCRAFT

HAVING STATE APPROVAL FOR UNRESTRICTED OPERATIONS IN MNPS AIRSPACE
Some aircraft carry triplex equipment (3 LRNSs). If one system fails, even before take-off, the two
basic requirements for MNPS Airspace operations may still be met and the flight can proceed
normally. The following offers guidance for aircraft equipped with only two operational LRNSs:
One System Fails Before Take-Off

The pilot should consider delaying departure if timely repair is possible or obtain a
clearance above or below MNPS Airspace. Another option is to plan on the special routes
known as the Blue Spruce Routes. Use of these routes is subject to sufficient navigation
capability. To ensure that MNPS accuracy can be met by relying on short-range navaids,
the pilot files a revised flight plan with the appropriate ATS unit and obtains an
appropriate ATC clearance.
One System Fails Before the OCA Boundary is Reached

The pilot must consider landing at a suitable aerodrome before the boundary, or returning
to the aerodrome of departure, diverting via one of the special routes described
previously, or obtaining a re-clearance above or below MNPS Airspace.
One System Fails After the OCA Boundary is Crossed

Once the aircraft has entered oceanic airspace, the pilot should normally continue to
operate the aircraft in accordance with the Oceanic Clearance already received,
appreciating that the reliability of the total navigation system has been significantly
reduced. The pilot should, however, assess the prevailing circumstances in MNPS
Airspace, etc., and prepare a proposal to ATC with respect to the prevailing
circumstances; advise and consult with ATC as to the most suitable action, and obtain
appropriate re-clearance prior to any deviation from the last acknowledged Oceanic
Clearance.

Procedures in the Event of Navigation System Degradation or Failure Chapter 18
MONITORING
When a flight with a nav system failure continues in accordance with its original clearance
(especially if the distance ahead within MNPS Airspace is significant), the pilot should begin a
careful monitoring programme to take special care in the operation of the remaining system,
bearing in mind that routine methods of error checking are no longer available. Also, check the
main and standby compass systems frequently against the information that is still available, and
check the performance record of the remaining equipment. If doubt arises regarding its
performance and/or reliability, consider the following procedures:
¾ Attempt visual sighting of other aircraft or their contrails, which may provide a track
indication
¾ Call the appropriate OAC for information on other aircraft adjacent to the aircraft’s
estimated position and/or call on VHF to establish contact with such aircraft (preferably
same track/level) to obtain information from them that could be useful (e.g. drift,
groundspeed, wind details).
The Remaining System Fails after Entering MNPS Airspace

The pilot should:
¾ Immediately notify ATC

¾ Make best use of procedures specified above relating to attempting visual sightings and
establishing contact on VHF with adjacent aircraft for useful information
¾ Keep a special look-out for possible conflicting aircraft and make maximum use of
exterior lights
¾ Consider climbing or descending 500 ft if instructions are not received from ATC within a
reasonable period. Broadcast the altitude change on 121.5 MHz and advise ATC as soon
as possible.
This procedure also applies when the remaining system gives an indication of degradation of
performance or neither system fails completely, but the system indications diverge widely, and
the defective system cannot be determined.
COMPLETE FAILURE OF NAVIGATION SYSTEMS COMPUTER

A characteristic of the navigation computer system is that the computer element might fail and
deprive the aircraft of steering guidance and the indication of position relative to cleared track.
However, the basic outputs of the IRS (LAT/LONG, Drift, and Groundspeed) are not impaired. A
typical drill to minimise the effects of a total navigation computer system failure is suggested
below. It requires the carriage of a suitable plotting chart.
¾ Draw the cleared route on a chart and extract mean true tracks between waypoints.
¾ Use the basic IRS/GPS outputs to adjust heading to maintain mean track and to calculate
ETAs.
At intervals of not more than 15 minutes, plot position (LAT/LONG) on the chart and adjust
heading to regain track.

Chapter 18 Procedures in the Event of Navigation System Degradation or Failure

NORTH ATLANTIC (NAT) REGION
INTRODUCTION
The procedures below are supplementary to the previous NAT Manual concerning MNPS.
MNPS SPECIFICATIONS
Within MNPS the lateral track error of any aircraft is expected to be less than 6.3 nm and the
mean altimetry error to be no more than 80 ft. This applies to all groups of aircraft. Where an
aircraft has a unique avionics system, the altimetry system error must not be more than 200 ft.
FLIGHT PLANNING
Flights are planned along Great Circle Routes.
SEPARATION OF AIRCRAFT
LATERAL SEPARATION
Minimum lateral separation is:
¾ 60 nm between MNPS aircraft

¾ 90 nm between aircraft outside MNPS airspace if one aircraft is not MNPS approved
¾ 120 nm between other aircraft
The above minima can be referenced to latitude as long as the track does not change latitude by:
¾ 3° at or south of 58°N
¾ 2° between 58°N and 70°N
¾ 1° at or North of 70°N
At or above 80°N, where 1° of latitude is exceeded, the track spacing expression must be in nm.

Chapter 19 Regional Supplementary Procedures: North Atlantic (NAT) and European (EUR)
LONGITUDINAL SEPARATION
Minimum longitudinal separation is 10 minutes when using Mach Number Technique. The aircraft
concerned should have reported over a common point and follow the same track. Where aircraft
have reported over a common point and the tracks diverge:
¾ 10 minute longitudinal separation must occur at the point where tracks diverge.
¾ 5 minutes longitudinal separation must occur where 60 nm lateral separation occurs.
¾ At least 60 nm lateral separation must occur before the next significant point, or, 90
minutes or within 600 nm of the common point, whichever is first.
If aircraft have not reported over a common point the use of radar may ensure the correct
separation.
If the leading aircraft is faster, then the separation can be between 10 minutes to 5 minutes using
the following formulae:
Time Lead Aircraft

9 minutes M 0.02 faster than the following aircraft
Separation by Mach number
For MNPS turbojet aircraft not covered by any of the above spacing, the minimum separation is
15 minutes.
WESTERN ATLANTIC ROUTE SYSTEM (WATRS)

The minimum longitudinal separation when turbo jet aircraft operate within the WATRS area or
west of 60°W are 10 minutes if using Mach Number Technique and the aircraft is at or above
FL280. For non-turbojet aircraft the separation is 20 minutes.
OPERATIONS NOT MEETING THE MNPS AIRSPACE EXCEPT THE WATRS

Minimum longitudinal separation is:
¾ 15 minutes
¾ 10 minutes if the lead aircraft is M 0.03 faster than the following aircraft and radar can
guarantee the separation
¾ 5 minutes if the lead aircraft is M 0.06 faster than the following aircraft and radar can
guarantee the separation

Regional Supplementary Procedures: North Atlantic (NAT) and European (EUR) Chapter 19
EUROPEAN (EUR) REGION

SUBMISSION OF FLIGHT PLANS
For flights subject to air traffic flow management (AFTM) submission must be at least 3 hours
before the estimated off blocks time (EOBT). A modification message must be transmitted for
changes to the EOBT of more than 15 minutes.
8.33 KHZ SPACING

8.33 KHz spacing is utilised in order to increase the frequencies available to aircraft. Where an
aircraft can comply with 8.33 KHz spacing, the letter Y is inserted in ITEM 10 of the flight plan.
Where an exemption has been granted, ‘STS/EXM833’ is placed in ITEM 18. All aircraft operating
above FL245 in the EUR region must be equipped with 8.33 KHz spacing.
SEPARATION OF AIRCRAFT
LONGITUDINAL SEPARATION
The minimum separation is 3 minutes, provided that the flight is continuously monitored by radar
and the distance between aircraft is never less than 20 nm.
TRANSFER OF RADAR CONTROL

Silent transfer of radar control may occur if the minimum distance between aircraft is 10 nm, SSR
is being used, and radar overlap is at least 30 nm. The distance can be reduced to 5 nm if the
ATC units have some electronic means of effecting the transfer.
Mach Number Control, as with NAT Mach Number Control, can be used in the EUR region. The
following conditions must apply:
¾ Aircraft must fly the Mach number assigned

¾ If the Mach number changes by more than M 0.01 ATC must be informed
¾ Where required the Mach number should be included in position reports

Chapter 19 Regional Supplementary Procedures: North Atlantic (NAT) and European (EUR)

EMERGENCY AND PRECAUTIONARY LANDINGS
GENERAL
In extreme circumstances, it may become inevitable that further flight is neither desirable nor
practicable, forcing the Commander to make a decision to land as soon as possible. The
procedures for diversion to an alternate aerodrome have been covered in detail, but a situation
could force the aeroplane to land on unprepared land or the surface of the sea. In either event,
the procedures in the Operations Manual guide the actions of the pilots and crew. One point that
cannot be over-emphasised is that a decision to make such a landing must occur whilst the pilots
are still able to control the aeroplane.
DITCHING
Ditching is the process of landing an aeroplane on the surface of the sea. During the design
phase of the aeroplane construction, tests on computer and scale models occur in water tanks to
determine the ditching characteristics of the aeroplane. The effects are included in the aircraft
manual and pilots must be well briefed regarding the methods of ditching the aircraft during the
type rating course.
Statistically, 88% of ditchings result in few if any, injuries to crew and passengers. Unfortunately,
a much smaller percentage survives the ensuing ‘survival’ phase, with many deaths caused by
drowning after a successful ditching. Surviving the ‘survival’ phase is all about the speed of
rescue. This depends upon the accuracy and extent of the information conveyed to the ATC
authority by the crew during the run-up to the ditching.
PROCEDURE
Ditching is a controlled operation, with the aeroplane landing deliberately and smoothly (or as
smoothly as possible) on to the surface of the sea, not dropped onto the surface during a stall. It
is recommended to land the aircraft across the swell (using a crosswind landing technique). If the
wind speed is more than 35/40 kt, wave height may well exceed 10 ft, making it more prudent to
land into the wind in this case. A significant speed reduction and a definite nose up pitching
happens, which can cause high-G rotations leading to possible structural damage and injuries.
To minimise the risk of injury, everybody on board should be securely strapped into their seats
and those without shoulder restraint harnesses should adopt a position with the head as far
forward (ideally between the knees) and the hands clasped tightly behind the neck holding the
head forward. Life jackets should be donned before adopting the position. Cabin crew should
ensure that all loose articles are stowed and the seats are correctly positioned before securing
themselves.
After rapidly coming to rest, providing there is no catastrophic fuselage damage, the aeroplane
will float for a considerable time allowing an orderly evacuation via the over-wing exits into the life
rafts or dinghies. These should have been released from the in-wing stowages, but are still
tethered to the aeroplane.

Chapter 20 In-Flight Contingencies
PRECAUTIONARY LANDING
If the command decision is to divert to an enroute alternate, make a MAYDAY or PAN PAN call to
ATC. The Rules of the Air section of the Air Law notes, and the IFR and VFR Communications
notes cover the procedures for emergency communications. The ATC authority will activate the
alerting service and the regional Rescue Coordination Centre (RCC) will be informed of the
emergency. SAR assets are also alerted. Preparations on the ground occur at the diversion
aerodrome nominated to receive the aeroplane. Because the diversion is unplanned, ATC makes
every effort to route other traffic out of the way of the aircraft in emergency, but compliance with
ATC instructions regarding routing, heights, and speeds must occur (without exacerbating the
emergency situation).
The possibility that the situation could deteriorate rapidly, requiring a forced landing or ditching
with little extra warning, is foremost in the minds of ATC personnel. Measures such as scrambling
long-range SAR aircraft and helicopters may appear some what ‘over the top’ at the time but such
preparatory action may be crucial to saving lives later.
Within the restrictions of the situations, a normal, controlled landing should be made as well as
can be achieved. Once on the ground, the Commander must make a decision whether or not to
move the aircraft off the landing runway or bring the aircraft to a stop and immediately evacuate
the passengers and crew. This will depend very much on the nature and severity of the
emergency situation. In any situation involving fire, all personnel must leave the aeroplane as
quickly as possible. The fire/rescue crew will attempt to control the fire until all personnel are
evacuated.
PASSENGER BRIEFING
In an emergency situation, fear becomes the main enemy. Even the most seasoned traveller and
the most experienced crewmember experience at least apprehension in an emergency. The
inexperienced may tend to panic, and the cabin crew should attempt to impose strict discipline to
overcome irrational behaviour, not only with regard to the passengers, but toward themselves as
well.
The most valuable weapon the crew has available is to keep the passengers informed of exactly
what is happening. This, together with skill and calmness, provides the passengers the
impression that the situation is totally under control, even if this is not exactly the case. Attention
to detail (stowing small loose items, removing rubbish, and assisting in donning life jackets, etc.)
reassures the passengers.
The flight crew should attempt to provide a virtual running commentary over the PA system. This
further reassures and occupies the minds of the passengers. When the aeroplane is committed to
a course of action: crash landing, ditching, or precautionary landing, a comprehensive brief to the
cabin crew and passengers must happen. This must include a strong statement as to the
authority of the cabin crew and an order from the Commander for the passengers to do as
instructed.
Cabin crew should re-brief the emergency procedures covered during the pre-takeoff stage.
EVACUATION
Once the aeroplane has come to a stop after the landing, rapid evacuation is essential to
preserve life. Fire is always a risk and the aim must be to get everybody as far away from the
aeroplane as possible. During the briefing, the location of exits and the route to the exits should
be reiterated.
Cabin crews will have trained in the procedures for evacuation, including strict discipline and firm
control, and the correct use of all the equipment provided to assist the evacuation. The Operator
is responsible for regular training sessions, and the drills to follow should be included in the
Operations manual.

In-Flight Contingencies Chapter 20
SAFE FORCED LANDING

Definition – An inevitable landing on land or sea from which one may reasonably expect no
injuries on board or on the surface.
NORTH ATLANTIC PROCEDURES

INTRODUCTION
The following procedures are intended for guidance only. Although all possible contingencies
cannot be covered, they provide for such cases as:
¾ Inability to maintain assigned level due to weather (for example severe turbulence)
¾ Aircraft performance problems
¾ Pressurisation failure
They are applicable primarily when rapid descent, turn-back, or diversion to an alternate
aerodrome is required. The pilot's judgment determines the specific sequence of actions taken
regarding the prevailing circumstances.
GENERAL PROCEDURES
If an aircraft is unable to continue its flight in accordance with its ATC clearance, obtain a revised
clearance whenever possible, prior to initiating any action, using the radio telephony distress
(MAYDAY, MAYDAY, MAYDAY) signal or urgency (PAN PAN, PAN PAN, PAN PAN) signal as
appropriate.
If prior clearance cannot be obtained, obtain an ATC clearance at the earliest possible time. In
the meantime, the aircraft should broadcast its position (including the ATS Route designator or
the Track Code as appropriate) and its intentions, at frequent intervals on 121.5 MHz (with 123.45
MHz as a back-up frequency). Until a revised clearance is obtained, carefully follow the specified
NAT in-flight contingency procedures. Fly the aircraft at a flight level and/or on a track where it is
least likely to encounter other aircraft. Make maximum use of aircraft lighting and maintain a good
lookout. If the aircraft carries TCAS, use the displayed information to assist in sighting proximate
traffic.
SPECIAL PROCEDURES
The general concept of these NAT in-flight contingency procedures is, whenever operationally
feasible, to offset from the assigned route by 30 nm and climb or descend to a level which differs
from those normally used by 500 ft if below FL410 or by 1000 ft if above FL410.
INITIAL ACTION
The aircraft should leave its assigned route or track by initially turning 90° to the right or left.
Factors that may affect the direction of turn are:
¾ Direction to an alternate airport

¾ Terrain clearance
¾ Levels allocated on adjacent routes or tracks

Chapter 20 In-Flight Contingencies
SUBSEQUENT ACTION
An aircraft that is able to maintain its assigned flight level should, once established on the offset
track:
¾ Climb or descend 1000 ft if above FL410

¾ Climb or descend 500 ft when below FL410
¾ Climb 1000 ft or descend 500 ft if at FL410
An aircraft that is unable to maintain its assigned flight level should, whenever possible, minimise
its rate of descent while acquiring the 30 nm offset track; for the subsequent level flight, select a
flight level that differs from those normally used by 1000 ft if above FL410 or by 500 ft if below
FL410.
If these contingency procedures are employed by a twin-engine aircraft as a result of the

shutdown of a power unit or the failure of a primary aircraft system the pilot should advise ATC as
soon as practicable of the situation, reminding ATC of the type of aircraft involved and requesting
expeditious handling.
WAKE TURBULENCE
Any pilot who experiences a wake turbulence incident when flying in NAT MNPS Airspace or
within an adjacent RVSM transition area must report it. When flying within NAT MNPS Airspace
(but not in adjacent domestic airspace RVSM transition areas), if necessary, the pilot may offset
from cleared track by up to a maximum of 2 nm (upwind) in order to alleviate the effects of wake
turbulence. The flight crew should advise ATC of this action and the aircraft should be returned to
the cleared track as soon as the situation allows.
TCAS ALERTS AND WARNINGS

In the event that a Traffic Advisory (TA) is issued, commencement of a visual search for the
threat aircraft should occur and preparation made to respond to a Resolution Advisory (RA), if
one should follow. In the event that an RA is issued, initiate the required manoeuvre immediately.
Note that manoeuvres should never be made in a direction opposite to those required by the RA,
and that RAs should be disregarded only after positively identifying the potentially conflicting
traffic and it becomes evident that no deviation from the current flight path is needed. Report all
RAs to ATC verbally, as soon as practicable; and in writing, to the Controlling Authority, after
landing.

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ii Operational Procedures (Rev Q407)

Operational Procedures (Rev Q407) iii

General Navigation (JAR Ref 061)

Radio Navigation (JAR Ref 062)

Airframes and Systems (JAR Ref 021 01)

Powerplant (JAR Ref 021 03)

Electrics (JAR Ref 021 02)

iv Operational Procedures (Rev Q407)

Principles of Flight (JAR Ref 080)

Performance (JAR Ref 032)

Mass and Balance (JAR Ref 031)

Flight Planning (JAR Ref 033)

Air Law (JAR Ref 010)

Operational Procedures (Rev Q407) v

Operational Procedures (JAR Ref 070)

Communications (JAR Ref 090)

vi Operational Procedures (Rev Q407)

Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 1-1

Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 2-1

The Operations Manual (OM) ...................................................................................................................... 3-1

Operational Procedures (Rev Q407) vii

Commander/Pilot in Command .................................................................................................................... 3-6

Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 4-1

viii Operational Procedures (Rev Q407)

Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 5-1

Operational Procedures (Rev Q407) ix

Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 6-1

Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 7-1

x Operational Procedures (Rev Q407)

Aerodrome Considerations ........................................................................................................................ 7-13

Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 8-1

Operational Procedures (Rev Q407) xi

Wake Turbulence Spacing Minima – Opposite Direction ........................................................................... 8-20

xii Operational Procedures (Rev Q407)

General ...................................................................................................................................................... 10-1

General ...................................................................................................................................................... 11-1

General ...................................................................................................................................................... 12-1

Preferred Route Messages (PRMS) .......................................................................................................... 13-1

Operational Procedures (Rev Q407) xiii

General ...................................................................................................................................................... 14-1

xiv Operational Procedures (Rev Q407)

Flight Operation ......................................................................................................................................... 16-1

Introduction ................................................................................................................................................ 17-1

General ...................................................................................................................................................... 18-1

Operational Procedures (Rev Q407) xv

North Atlantic (NAT) Region....................................................................................................................... 19-1

Emergency and Precautionary Landings ................................................................................................... 20-1

xvi Operational Procedures (Rev Q407)

For photographs and assistance

Page 1-9 Mr. Ashley Gibb

Operational Procedures (Rev Q407) 1-1

Aerodrome operating minima

¾ Take-off, expressed in terms of runway visual range and/or visibility and, if

Aircraft operating manual

Air operator certificate (AOC)

ETOPS enroute alternate

1-2 Operational Procedures (Rev Q407)

Approved by the Authority (JAR)

Approved Standard (JAR)