MECH3429 AIR CONDITIONING AND REFRIGERATION: PART 1 – AIR CONDITIONING AND

VENTILATION

Note: This note is mainly compiled based on Principles of heating, ventilation and air conditioning with worked
examples by Wijeysundera NE and other materials, and also some images from Internet. Note: Please send any
typos or errors that you find to Yuguo Li email: liyg@hku.hk. Important concepts and figures are highlighted in
Red in the main text. Updated 15 September 2019.

Pointers for review – major concepts and formulas (note formulas in red needs to be memorized)
Chapter 1 Introduction to air conditioning and refrigeration (11 concepts, 6 set of formulas)
Concepts: air conditioning, ventilation, HVAC, air handling unit,
humidification of air, heat conduction, convection heat transfer,
radiation heat transfer, thermal insulation materials, equivalent
thermal resistance, overall heat transfer coefficient.
Formulas:
 Sensible heat 𝑄𝑠̇ = 𝑚̇𝑎 𝑐𝑝𝑎 (𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ) = 𝜌𝑄̇𝑎 𝑐𝑝𝑎 (𝑡2 − 𝑡1 )
 Latent heat 𝑄̇ 𝑙 = ℎ𝑓𝑔 𝑚̇𝑤
𝑘𝐴 𝑇0 −𝑇𝐿
 Conduction 𝑄 = (𝑇0 − 𝑇𝐿 ) = , or 𝑇0 − 𝑇𝐿 = 𝑄𝑅𝑡ℎ
𝐿 𝑅𝑡ℎ
 For thermal resistance in series, 𝑇1 − 𝑇4 = 𝑄(𝑅𝑡ℎ1 + 𝑅𝑡ℎ2 + 𝑅𝑡ℎ3 ) = 𝑄𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 ; 𝑄 = 𝐴𝑈(𝑇1 − 𝑇4 ), where
1
𝐴𝑈 = 𝑅
𝑡𝑜𝑡
1 1 1 1 𝑇1 −𝑇2
 For thermal resistance in parallel 𝑅 = (𝑅 +𝑅 +𝑅 ), and 𝑄 =
𝑡𝑜𝑡 𝑡ℎ1 𝑡ℎ2 𝑡ℎ3 𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡
1
 Convection 𝑄 = 𝐴ℎ(𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 − 𝑇𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 ) or 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 − 𝑇𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 = 𝐴ℎ 𝑄 = 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 𝑄

Chapter 2. Psychrometric principles and air conditioning systems

(16 concepts, 4 set of formulas)
Concepts: Dry air, dew point, saturated air, relative humidity,
humidity ratio, enthalpy of moist air, psychrometric chart, four
basic psychrometric processes for heating and air conditioning,
dehumidification by cooling, bypass factor, evaporative cooling,
coil condition line, space cooling line, basic single-zone air
conditioning system, multi-zone air conditioning systems with
reheat, VAV systems,

Formulas:
 Enthalpy of moist air ℎ = ℎ𝑎 + 𝜔ℎ𝑔 (𝑡) = 𝑐𝑝𝑎 𝑡 + 𝜔ℎ𝑔 (𝑡); An
alternative approximate relation ℎ = 𝑐𝑝𝑚 𝑡 + 𝜔ℎ𝑔𝑜 where 𝑐𝑝𝑚 = 𝑐𝑝𝑎 + 𝜔𝑐𝑝𝑤 is the specific heat of moist
air. Consider a process from state 1 to state 2: ∆ℎ = ℎ2 − ℎ1 = ∆ℎ𝑠 + ∆ℎ𝑙 , and ∆ℎ𝑠 = 𝑐𝑎𝑚 (𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ), and
∆ℎ𝑙 = ℎ𝑔𝑚 (𝜔2 − 𝜔1 ).
𝑚̇ 𝑚̇
 Mixing of two moist air streams 𝑡3 = 𝑚̇𝑎1 𝑡1 + 𝑚̇𝑎2 𝑡2 ;
𝑎3 𝑎3

𝑚̇𝑎𝑏
 A simple bypass model for cooling coil: 𝑚̇𝑎 = 𝑚̇𝑎𝑏 + 𝑚̇𝑎𝑐 ; bypass factor 𝑏 = . Sensible cooling rate
𝑚̇𝑎
𝑄𝑠 ̇
𝑄̇𝑠 = 𝑚̇𝑎 𝑐𝑎𝑚 (𝑡1 − 𝑡2 ) = 𝑚̇𝑎 𝑐𝑎𝑚 (1 − 𝑏)(𝑡1 − 𝑡𝑑 ) ; total cooling rate 𝑄̇𝑡 = 𝑆𝐻𝑅 .
 Sensible cooling load and latent cooling load: 𝑄̇𝑠𝑡 = 𝑚̇𝑎 𝑐𝑎𝑚 (𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ) and 𝑄̇𝑙𝑡 = 𝑚̇𝑎 ℎ𝑔𝑚 (𝜔2 − 𝜔1 );

1
 𝑄̇
𝑄̇𝑡 =̇ 𝑄𝑠𝑡 + 𝑄̇𝑙𝑡 . Sensible heat ratio (SHR) is SHR= 𝑄𝑠𝑡̇ .
𝑡

Chapter 3. Heat and moisture transfer in

buildings, and cooling and heating loads (9
concepts, 2 sets of formulas)
Concepts: The overall thermal resistance of the
wall, the overall heat transfer coefficient, heating
load, cooling load, the mean coincident web-
bulb temperature, effective temperature,
minimum recommended ventilation rates, basic
principles of RTS and CTS methods, sol-air temperature, degree days

Formulas:
1 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿
 Steady heat transfer through multi-layered structures: 𝑅𝑜𝑎 = 𝐴 ℎ ; 𝑅1 = 𝐴 1𝑘 ; 𝑅2 = 𝐴 2𝑘 ; 𝑅𝑠 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑘 ; 𝑅4 =
𝑤 𝑜 𝑤 1 𝑤 2 𝑤 𝑠
𝐿4 𝐿𝑖𝑛 1 1 1 −1 ∆𝑇
; 𝑅𝑖𝑛 = 𝐴 ; 𝑅𝑖𝑎 = 𝐴 ; 𝑅𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 𝑅𝑜𝑎 + 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + (𝑅 + 𝑅 ) 𝑅4 + 𝑅𝑖𝑎 ; 𝑄 = 𝐴𝑤 𝑈𝑜 ∆𝑇 = 𝑅 ;
𝐴𝑤 𝑘4 𝑤 𝑘𝑖𝑛 𝑤 ℎ𝑖 𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙

 A simple model of a thin wall; thin wall surface or thin interior

𝑑𝑇
surface: The wall temperature. (𝜌𝑐𝑙𝐴) 𝑑𝑡𝑠 = 𝐴𝛼𝐼(𝑡) − 𝐴ℎ𝑠 (𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑎 );
The heat flux 𝑞𝑖 = ℎ𝑠 (𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑎 );
𝑑𝑞𝑖 ℎ 𝛼ℎ𝑠
Thus + 𝑞𝑖 = 𝛽𝐼(𝑡), where  = 𝜌𝑐𝑙𝑠 and 𝛽 = = 𝛼.
𝑑𝑡 𝜌𝑐𝑙

For 24-hour steady periodic conditions, we define radiant time

1−𝑒 −∆𝜏
factors 𝑟𝑛 = [1−𝑒 −𝑁∆𝜏 ] 𝑒 −𝑛∆𝜏 ; we have 𝑞𝑖 (𝑡) = ∑23 23
𝑛=0(𝛼𝐼𝑛 )𝑟𝑛 or 𝑞𝑖,𝑡 = ∑𝑛=0 𝑟𝑛 𝐼𝑠,𝑡−𝑛 .

For thick walls, the hourly heat gain due to conduction, 𝑞𝑖𝑐,𝑡 at hour 𝑡 is 𝑞𝑖𝑐,𝑡 = ∑23
𝑛=0 𝑐𝑛 𝑄𝑒,𝑡−𝑛 ; where 𝑐𝑛 is
the so-called conduction time factor for hour 𝒕 or interval 𝒏 and 𝑄𝑒,𝑡−𝑛 = 𝑈𝐴(𝑡𝑠𝑎,𝑡−𝑛 − 𝑡𝑎 );

Chapter 4 Air and water distribution systems (12 concepts, 11 formulas)

Concepts: Total head, Moody chart, local loss coefficient, fan laws, damper control, variable speed drive, equal
friction method, static regain method, cavitation, net positive suction head, two-pipe direct-return systems, two-
pipe reverse return systems

Formulas:
𝐸𝑚 𝑝 𝑣2
 The total head, 𝐻 = = 𝜌𝑔 + 2𝑔 + 𝑧.
𝑔
Between two sections 1 and 2 of the duct:
𝐸𝑚1 𝐸𝑚2 𝑝 𝑣2 𝑝 𝑣2
∆𝐻12 = ( − ) = (𝜌𝑔1 + 2𝑔1 + 𝑧1 ) − (𝜌𝑔2 + 2𝑔2 + 𝑧2 );
𝑔 𝑔

𝐿 𝜌𝑉 2
 Darcy-Weisbach equation: ∆𝑃𝑓 = 𝑓 𝐷 ;
2

 The volume flow rate of a fluid through a circular duct:

1
𝑄 = 4 𝜋𝐷2 𝑉

2
 1
 Pressure loss in fittings: ∆𝑝𝑡,𝑜 = 𝑐𝑜 𝑝𝑣𝑜 = 𝑐𝑜 (2 𝜌𝑉𝑜2 );
𝐿 1 1
 Total pressure loss in duct sections ∆𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡 = ∑𝑛 𝑓𝑛 𝐷𝑛 (2 𝜌𝑉𝑛2 ) + ∑𝑛 𝑐𝑛 (2 𝜌𝑉𝑛2 );
𝑛
 Fan characteristics: total pressure: ∆𝑝𝑡 = 𝑝𝑡,𝑜 − 𝑝𝑡,𝑖 ,; static pressure: ∆𝑝𝑠 = 𝑝𝑠,𝑜 − 𝑝𝑠,𝑖 ; ideal power input:
𝑚̇(𝑝𝑡,𝑜 −𝑝𝑡,𝑖 ) 𝑊̇ 𝑊̇
𝑊̇𝑖𝑑 = , fan efficiency,  = 𝑖𝑑 ; required electric power input 𝑊̇𝑒𝑙 = 𝑖𝑑 .
𝑓
𝜌 𝑊̇𝑠ℎ 𝑚 𝑓

𝑄̇ 𝑝 𝑊̇
 Fan laws 𝐷3 𝜔 = 𝑐1; 𝜌𝐷2𝑡𝜔2 = 𝑐2 ; 𝜌𝐷5 𝜔3 = 𝑐3 ,

𝐿 1 1
 Fan-duct network ∆𝑃1−2 = 𝑝0 − 𝑝2 = [∑𝑛 𝑓𝑛 𝐷𝑛 (2 𝜌𝑉𝑛2 ) + ∑𝑛 𝑐𝑛 (2 𝜌𝑉𝑛2 )] ;
𝑛 1−2
𝐸𝑚 𝑝 𝑉2
 Energy equation for hydronic systems: 𝐻 = = 𝜌𝑔 + 2𝑔 + 𝑧;
𝑔

∆𝑃𝑓 𝐿 𝑉2
 Head losses: frictional loss in straight pipes ∆ℎ𝑓 = = 𝑓 (𝐷) (2𝑔); dynamic loss in fittings ∆ℎ12 =
𝜌𝑔
𝑉2 𝐿 𝑉2 𝑉2 𝐿 𝑉2 𝑘𝐷
𝑘 (2𝑔); total head loss ∆ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝑓 (𝐷) (2𝑔) + 𝑘 (2𝑔) = [𝑓 (𝐷) + 𝑘] (2𝑔) ; equivalent length 𝐿𝑒𝑞 = 𝑓
=
𝑘
( ) 𝐷.
𝑓

∆𝑃𝑡
 Pump characteristics: Ideal work input to the fluid per unit mass of fluid by the pump 𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 = = 𝑔∆ℎ𝑡 ,
𝜌
𝑚̇∆𝑃
The ideal power input to the fluid by the pump 𝑊̇𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 = 𝜌 𝑡 = 𝑄̇ 𝜌𝑔∆ℎ𝑡 ; The actual work input per unit
𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑔∆ℎ𝑡 𝑄̇ 𝜌𝑔∆ℎ𝑡
mass, 𝑊𝑎𝑐𝑡 . The pump efficiency 𝑡 = = =
𝑊𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑊𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑊̇𝑎𝑐𝑡

3
On properties of air and water in this notes:

In this notes, the properties of air and water were only given for typical parameter ranges at course intervals due
to space constraints. In case a table of properties is given such as Table 1 and Table 2 in Chapter 1, Table 1 in
Chapter 2, interpolation may be needed.

In practice, you may have at least one of the handbooks or using internet resources such as
https://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/. Care needs to be taken with on-line resources so that knowledge an order
of magnitude of some major parameters is a good idea for checking the data.

Further references on more recently updated properties; see and their further editions.

 Kretzschmar, H-J. and Wolfgang Wagner W. (2019) Properties of Water and Steam. International Steam
Tables Based on the Industrial Formulation IAPWS-IF97, Springer.

 Perry Robert, H., Green Don, W., & Maloney James, O. (1997) Perry’s chemical engineers’ handbook. Mc
Graw-Hills New York, 56-64. This is a complete reference of chemical engineering, including properties of
air and water in Section 12 - Psychrometry, Evaporative Cooling, and Solids Drying.

 Shallcross, D. (2012) Handbook of psychrometric charts: humidity diagrams for engineers. Springer Science
& Business Media. This is a unique book with psychrometric charts for moist air at different pressures, and
other combinations of gases such as VOCs and air.

 Laube, M., Höller, H. (auth.), G. Fischer (eds.) (1988) - Physical and Chemical Properties of the Air.
Springer Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg. Here you can find properties of air at different altitudes.

General notes: You shall need to check the detailed definition of humidity ratio, mixing ratio, mass ratio, dry-
basis humidity, specific humidity, absolute humidity, and volumetric humidity in each reference.

4
Chapter 1 Introduction to air conditioning and refrigeration

What is the difference between air conditioning and refrigeration? Why are the two being put together here?
How to make a building cool (principles, refrigeration), how much cool to make (cooling load)? How to take
the “cool” medium (e.g. water or air) from one place to another (distribution)?

Air conditioning refers to the control of air temperature, moisture, and air quality as required by occupants, a
process or a product in an enclosed space. Simply speaking, it is the technologies used to maintain an enclosure
at a desired set of physical conditions.

The enclosure can be a building, a car, a bus, a train cabin, an aircraft cabin, a space station or a submarine. For
some engineers, air conditioning refers to air cooling/heating only. In such situations, we differentiate air
conditioning and ventilation, as the latter refers to supply of outdoor air into a space, and distribute within it.
HVAC is a commonly used acronym for heating, ventilation, and air conditioning, apparently first coined by
Chinese.

(a) (b)

Figure 1. (a) A conceptual diagram of HVAC system. (b) All-water two-pipe heating and cooling system in
a multi-story building.

Refrigeration is a process of producing a cool or cold medium, i.e. low-temperature reservoir, by removing
heat from it and transferring it to a high-temperature reservoir, by different mechanisms, e.g. vapor
compression. Air conditioning has become a common application of refrigeration, in addition to refrigerators
and freezers in the cold chain, and cryogenics etc.

Technically, man-made refrigeration was first demonstrated by William Cullen at the University of Glasgow in
1748 and a practical vapor-compression refrigeration system was built in 1851 in Australia. The first air
conditioning system was only developed, about 50 years later, in 1902 in New York. However, quite a few
different cooling methods were invented for keeping people and their food cool, long before 19th century. The
late Mr Lee Kuan Yew of Singapore once suggested that air conditioning was the most important human
invention in the 20th century.

5
Two major environment challenges in the 20th and 21th century have also
been caused by air conditioning:
 Climate change and energy efficiency - Energy consumption by
HVAC is significant and has also been on the significant rise, a
major contributor to fossil fuel consumption.
 Ozone hole - Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), a safe, non-toxic, non-
flammable alternative to dangerous substances like ammonia for
refrigeration, were found to lead to depletion of stratospheric
ozone. Their alternatives were now developed, e.g.
hydrofluorocarbon replacing CFC-12.

Basic academic background needed for this course are Willis Carrier (1896-1950) invented
 thermodynamics – energy balance for a closed system or air conditioning in 1902.
fixed mass or a control volume with mass flowing in and out.
 fluid mechanics – how liquid and gases flow in a pipe or duct
as shown by flow-pressure relationship. The flow can be steady or transient.
 and heat transfer – conduction, convection and radiation.

Table 1. Properties of dry air at atmospheric pressure

T (oC)  (kg/m3) cp (kJ/kg.K)  (kg/s.m)  (cm2/s) k (W/m.K)  (cm2/s) Pr (-)

-50 1.582 1.006 1.45×10-5 0.092 0.020 0.130 0.72
0 1.293 1.006 1.71×10-5 0.132 0.024 0.184 0.72
10 1.247 1.006 1.76×10-5 0.141 0.025 0.196 0.72
20 1.205 1.006 1.81×10-5 0.150 0.025 0.208 0.72
30 1.165 1.006 1.86×10-5 0.160 0.026 0.223 0.72
60 1.060 1.008 2.00×10-5 0.188 0.028 0.274 0.70
100 0.946 1.011 2.18×10-5 0.230 0.032 0.328 0.70

Heating is the transfer of energy to a space or to the air in a space by virtue of a difference in temperature
between the source and the space/air. The input heat involved in a rise in the temperature of air is referred to as
sensible heat.
𝑄𝑠̇ = 𝑚̇𝑎 𝑐𝑝𝑎 (𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ) = 𝜌𝑄̇𝑎 𝑐𝑝𝑎 (𝑡2 − 𝑡1 )
where 𝑄𝑠̇ is the rate of sensible heat transfer (W), 𝑚̇𝑎 mass flow rate of air (kg/s), 𝑐𝑝𝑎 constant pressure specific
heat of air (J/kg.K), 𝑄̇𝑎 the volume flow rate of air (m3/s), 𝜌 air density (kg/m3), 𝑡2 air temperature at exit, and 𝑡1
air temperature at inlet (oC), 𝜔 is the humidity ratio.

Derivation:
Mass balance of dry air: 𝑚̇𝑎1 = 𝑚̇𝑎2 = 𝑚̇𝑎
Mass balance of water: 𝑚̇𝑎1 𝜔1 = 𝑚̇𝑎2 𝜔2 , as no water vapor is added, hence 𝜔1 = 𝜔2
Energy balance (ignoring the change in potential energy): 𝑚̇𝑎1 ℎ1 + 𝑄𝑠̇ = 𝑚̇𝑎2 ℎ2
Hence 𝑄𝑠̇ = 𝑚̇𝑎 (ℎ2 − ℎ1 ) = 𝑚̇𝑎 𝑐𝑝𝑎 (𝑡2 − 𝑡1 )

6
Figure 2. Illustration of heating and humidification of air in a duct.

Example 1 – Determine the rate at which heat must be added to a 1 m3/s air stream to increase its temperature
from 13 oC to 24 oC?

Solution: Using interpolation from Table 1, air density 𝜌 at the average temperature18.5oC is 1.205 +
1.247−1.205
× 8.5 = 1.2407 ≈ 1.241kg/m3 ; the specific heat capacity 𝑐𝑝𝑎 = 1006 J/kg.K.
10
𝑄𝑠̇ = 𝜌𝑄̇𝑎 𝑐𝑝𝑎 (𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ) = 1.241 × 1 × 1006 × (24 − 13) = 13732.9 W=13.7 kW

Note: One can also calculate the air densities at 13 oC and 24 oC respectively, and then take the average of the
two (1.234 and 1.189 kg/m3), which is 1.212 kg/m3. Note the difference in result is not significant. The
difference here arises from the approximate formula being used (one can use 𝑄𝑠̇ = 𝑚̇𝑎2 ℎ2 − 𝑚̇𝑎1 ℎ1 ), and also
from the inaccurate information in the question. The volumetric flow rate 1 m3/s needs to be defined at inlet or
outlet. In the remaining notes, if no parameter is given, the air and water properties at 20oC, and sea level
atmospheric pressure will be used.

Humidification - Humidification refers to the addition of water vapor to air. This can be done by spraying fine
water droplets into air. The water droplets totally evaporate to become water vapor, but extract heat from air,
which is the latent heat transfer, which may be calculated approximately below; and a more accurate formula
will be derived later.
𝑄̇𝑙 = ℎ𝑓𝑔 𝑚̇𝑤
where 𝑄̇𝑙 is the rate of latent heat transfer (W), 𝑚̇𝑤 rate of water being vaporized (kg/s), and ℎ𝑓𝑔 enthalpy of
vaporization (J/kg).

Table 2. Properties of water at atmospheric pressure

T  cp  (kg/s.m)  k  ℎ𝑓𝑔
(oC) (kg/m3) (kJ/kg.K) (cm2/s) (W/m.K) (cm2/s) (kJ/kg)
0 0.9999 4.217 0.01787 0.01787 0.56 0.00133 2501.0
10 0.9997 4.192 0.01304 0.01304 0.58 0.00138 2477.7
20 0.9982 4.182 0.01002 0.01004 0.59 0.00142 2454.2
30 0.9957 4.178 0.00798 0.00802 0.61 0.00146 2430.4
40 0.9923 4.178 0.00654 0.00659 0.63 0.00152 2406.8
50 0.9881 4.180 0.00548 0.00554 0.64 0.00155 2382.8
100 0.9584 1.011 0.00283 0.00295 0.68 0.00166 2257.0

Example 2 – We like to add 1 kg water vapor per second to a dry air stream, i.e. the mass flow rate is 1 kg/s.
Assume that we use the saturated (liquid) water in the humidifier. Calculate the required heat.

Solution: 𝑄̇𝑙 = ℎ𝑓𝑔 𝑚̇𝑤 = 2454.2 × 1 = 2454.2 kW = 2.5 MW

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Cooling is the transfer of energy from a space or to the air in a space by virtue of a difference in temperature
between the source and the space/air. In air conditioning, the cooling is usually achieved by passing the air over
a cool surface, e.g. a cooling tube surface. The tube surface may be cooled by a chilled liquid, say water or
refrigerant. Cooling usually signifies sensible heat transfer, with a decrease in the air temperature.

Dehumidification refers to the removal of water vapor to air. This can be done by circulating air over a
sufficiently cold surface which leads to condensation of water vapor from the air. It is also possible to
dehumidify by spraying cold water droplets into the air.

Ventilation refers to the supply of outdoor “fresh” air into a space and distribute within it. Air cleaning refers to
the removal of airborne pollutants from air, such as particles by filtration and volatile organic compounds by
adsorption etc.

Typical large commercial air-conditioning systems

The major elements of a commercial air-conditioning system is shown in Figure 3.
 The air conditioning and distribution system (also called secondary components of the HVAC system) – in
general, this system design first involves the determination of individual zones to be conditioned. A zone is
a conditioned space under the control of a single thermostat, which senses the space temperature and sends a
correction signal if it is not within a desired range.
 Return air from the conditioned space is drawn into the air handling unit (AHU) by the return air fan. As
the air passes through the AHU, a fraction of it is discharged to the outside ambient through the exhaust
port, and replaced by an equal amount of fresh outdoor air through inlet. Dampers are used to control this
process. The mixture of return air and fresh air then passes through a filter before entering the cooling and
dehumidifying coil for the major operation of the HVAC
system, i.e. air cooling and dehumidification. The condensed Question: using your daily experience,
water is drained out. The supply air fan then distributes the discuss the best location of the thermostat
cold air through the supply duct network to the conditioned in an office considering the possible non-
space, and the desired quantity of air is discharged to each uniformity of air temperature distribution in
conditioned space or room through flexible ducts connected
different spaces.
to supply diffusers.

 Chillers and boilers (also called primary components of HVAC system) provide chilled water and hot ware
or steam through a piping system to the entire facility. For large college campuses such as this campus, a
central plant for chillers and boilers may be used.

 The cooling coil receives chilled water pumped from the chiller, which is essentially a refrigerator, where
the evaporator cools water to a temperature of about 3-6oC. The heat rejected by the condenser of the
refrigerator is carried away by cooling water, pumped through the tubes of the condenser. This cooling
water finally discharges heat to the atmosphere in a cooling tower, before being circulated back to the
condenser by the cooling tower pump. A fuel-fired boiler can provide hot water for the heating coil of the
AHU. Chillers and boilers covert fuel or electrical energy to heating and cooling effects respectively.

Package, unitary systems, and reversible heat pumps for heating and cooling
The packed systems incorporate a vapor compression refrigeration unit, and a fuel-fired or electrical heating
unit, in a single compact package, for installation on roofs of commercial buildings, and connected through
supply and return ducts to the conditioned space below. Smaller air conditioning units, i.e. unitary or window
units, are designed to serve a single space, installed in a window or a wall opening, with the controls on the
inside. Room air is cooled and dehumidified by circulating it across the finned tube coils of the evaporator using
a fan. The condenser coil of the unit, facing the outside is cooled by a fan blowing ambient air over it.

8
reversible heat pump (as shown right) is essentially a vapor compression refrigeration system, with a reversing
valve. The inside coil becomes evaporator during cooling. The position of the reversing valve allows the
compressor to suck refrigerant from the evaporator. For heating, inside coil becomes condenser instead. The
A reversing valve is repositioned so that the compressor is now able to suck the refrigerant from the outdoor
evaporator. In ground-source heat pumps, the refrigerant in the outdoor unit exchanges heat with a fluid
circulating through a coil buried in the ground. The ground temperature variation is smaller than ambient air.

Figure 3. A typical central and large heating and air conditioning system using air and water.

The design, installation and commissioning of an HVAC

system requires input of specialists from several disciplines, i.e.
architects, civil engineers, mechanical engineers, control
engineers, manufacturers and contractors.
 The important considerations include the purpose and use of
the building, its location and the local weather conditions.
The historical (or even future) weather data such as solar
radiation, temperature, humidity and wind speed/direction,
including extreme weather conditions such as the extreme
heat/cold, and the strong winds at the location.
 The design of the buildings such as orientation, materials,
windows designed by architects affect the heating and cooling load.
 In general, HVAC designers will first determine the design heating and cooling load, based on the top 1% or
5% extreme weather conditions, and then select the type and size of the systems, followed by sizing each
individual component, and consult the manufacturers’ catalogues to select the appropriate units. In making
their choices, engineers consider both first cost and the operation cost, i.e. the life-cycle cost analysis.

9
Figure 4. Overview of HVAC design procedure.

Introduction to heat transfer

Air conditioning is about the transport and transfer of heat. Hence a basic knowledge is reviewed here with a
reference to building applications.

Figure 5. Modes of heat transfer (conduction, convection and radiation) for a wall

10
Figure 6. Illustrations of heat conduction through a wall and convection
𝑘𝐴
1D heat conduction 𝑄 = (𝑇0 − 𝑇𝐿 ), where k is the thermal conductivity of the wall material(s) [W/mK].
𝐿
𝜕𝑇
The general form of the Fourier’s Law 𝑄 = 𝑘𝐴 (𝜕𝑥 )

Materials such as fiberglass have very low thermal conductivity, and they are called
thermal insulation materials.

𝑘𝐴 𝑇0 −𝑇𝐿 𝐿
We write 𝑄 = (𝑇0 − 𝑇𝐿 ) = , where 𝑅𝑡ℎ = 𝑘𝐴 is the equivalent thermal
𝐿 𝑅𝑡ℎ
resistance,
or 𝑇0 − 𝑇𝐿 = 𝑄𝑅𝑡ℎ
Jean-Baptiste Joseph Fourier (1768-1830)
For thermal resistance in series, with Fourier series, Fourier transform and
𝑇1 − 𝑇2 = 𝑄𝑅𝑡ℎ1 ; 𝑇2 − 𝑇3 = 𝑄𝑅𝑡ℎ2 ; 𝑇3 − 𝑇4 = 𝑄𝑅𝑡ℎ3 ; Fourier's law in his honor. He also
hence 𝑇1 − 𝑇4 = 𝑄(𝑅𝑡ℎ1 + 𝑅𝑡ℎ2 + 𝑅𝑡ℎ3 ) = 𝑄𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 discovered the greenhouse effect.

We define overall heat transfer coefficient

1
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑈(𝑇1 − 𝑇4 ), where 𝐴𝑈 = 𝑅
𝑡𝑜𝑡

1 1 1 1 𝑇1 −𝑇2
For thermal resistance in parallel 𝑅 = (𝑅 +𝑅 +𝑅 ), and 𝑄 =
𝑡𝑜𝑡 𝑡ℎ1 𝑡ℎ2 𝑡ℎ3 𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡

When the wall surface is specified with a temperature or a heat flux, then the above equations can be directly
used.

When there is a convective heat transfer, we need to use the Newton’s law of convection, which states
1
𝑄 = 𝐴ℎ(𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 − 𝑇𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 ) or 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 − 𝑇𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 = 𝐴ℎ 𝑄 = 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 𝑄
where ℎ is the convective heat transfer coefficient. Thus, the thermal resistance for a convective boundary is
1
𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 = 𝐴ℎ

11
Thermal radiation transport does not require a material medium, but a result of
the propagation of electromagnetic waves. All bodies emit radiation at the
expense of stored energy. When these waves of radiation fall on other bodies, a
fraction of the radiation is absorbed, and the rest of reflected. The absorbed
energy is converted to stored energy in the receiving body.
 The total emission power of a surface is defined as the total rate of radiant
energy emission in all directions over all the wavelengths per unit area of the
surface.
 For a blackbody, the Stefan-Boltzman law 𝐸𝑏 = 𝜎𝑇 4 , where 𝜎 = 5.67 ×
10−8 W/Km2 is the Stefan-Boltzman constant.
 For a grey surface of emissivity , 𝐸𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑦 = 𝜀𝜎𝑇 4 .
 Consider a beam of radiation that is incident on a thin flat
body, we define the reflectivity 𝜌, the absorptivity 𝛼 and the Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck (1858-
transmissivity 𝜏, we have 𝜌 + 𝛼 + 𝜏 = 1. 1947), originator of quantum theory,
explained black-body radiation using
Question: For a black surface, what are the values of the energy quantisation
reflectivity 𝜌, the absorptivity 𝛼 and the transmissivity 𝜏?

Kirchhoff’s law states that for a surface, 𝜀 = 𝛼.

Figure 7. Radiation exchange between two gray surfaces.

We can derive that the energy exchange rate between two very large surfaces due to radiation is
1 1 1
𝑄1 = 𝑄2 = 𝜀𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝜎(𝑇14 − 𝑇24 ) , where 𝜀 = 𝜀 + 𝜀 − 1.
𝑒𝑓𝑓 1 2

If one of the surface is black, e.g. surface 1, then 𝑄1 = 𝑄2 = 𝜀2 𝜎(𝑇14 − 𝑇24 ), and for two black surfaces 𝑄1 =
𝑄2 = 𝜎(𝑇14 − 𝑇24 ).

Example 3. The exterior wall of a large industrial building has a layer of

fiberglass insulation of thermal conductivity 0.035 W/mK, and thickness 8 cm,
sandwiched between two plywood sheets of thermal conductivity 0.11 W/mK
and thickness 1 cm. The inner and outer surfaces of the wall are at 15oC and 32oC
respectively. Calculate the overall heat transfer coefficient, and the steady heat
flow rate through the wall per unit wall area.

Solution: Consider unit area (1 m2)

12
 𝐿 0.01
𝑅𝑝𝑙𝑦𝑤𝑜𝑜𝑑 = 𝐴𝑘 = 1×0.11 = 0.0909 K/W
𝐿 0.08
𝑅𝑓𝑖𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 𝐴𝑘 = 1×0.035 = 2.286 K/W
Hence 𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑅𝑝𝑙𝑦𝑤𝑜𝑜𝑑 + 𝑅𝑓𝑖𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 + 𝑅𝑝𝑙𝑦𝑤𝑜𝑜𝑑 = 0.0909 × 2 + 2.286 = 2.4678 K/W
1 1
𝑈 = 𝐴𝑅 = 1×2.4678 = 0.405 W/Km2
𝑡𝑜𝑡
𝑇𝑜 −𝑇𝑖 32−15
𝑄= = 2.4678 = 6.89 W
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡

Example 4. The inner section of a wall is made by placing slabs of

fiberglass of thermal conductivity 0.038 W/mK in the vertical spaces
formed in a wooden frame of thickness 150 mm. The thermal conductivity
of the framing material is 0.15 W/mK. The temperatures of the inner and
outer surfaces of the wall section are 18oC and 6 oC respectively. The area of
the insulation is 75% of the total area of the wall.

Calculate the total heat flow rate through the wall per unit area, and the heat
flow rate through the insulation.

Solution: This is a resistance in parallel problem. Consider the wall has an area of A m2.

𝐿 150×10−3 5.26
𝑅𝑖𝑛𝑠 = 𝐴 𝑘𝑖 = 0.75𝐴×0.038 = K/W
𝑖 𝑖 𝐴

𝐿𝑓 150×10−3 4
𝑅𝑓𝑟 = 𝐴 = 0.25𝐴×0.15 = 𝐴 K/W
𝑓 𝑘𝑓
1 1 1 1 1
= (𝑅 + 𝑅 ) = 𝐴 (5.26 + 4) = 0.44𝐴;
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑠 𝑓𝑟
𝑇𝑖 −𝑇𝑜 18−6
Hence 𝑄 = 𝐴𝑅 = = 5.29 W/m2
𝑡𝑜𝑡 2.27

Consider the heat flow path through the insulation area

𝑇𝑖 −𝑇𝑜 18−6
𝑄𝑖𝑛𝑠 = 𝐴𝑅 = 5.26 = 2.28 W/m2
𝑖𝑛𝑠

Example 5. A cold room maintained at -10 oC has a wall made of two layers
of different materials. The inner layer is 2 cm thick, and has a thermal
conductivity of 0.1 W/mK. The outer layer is 4 cm thick and has a thermal
conductivity of 0.04 W/mK. The outside ambient air temperature is 30 oC.
The convective heat transfer coefficients on the outside and inside of the
wall are 40 W/m2K and 20 W/m2K respectively.

Calculate the rate of heat flow through the wall, and the temperature of the
interface between the two layers making the wall.

Solution: Consider unit area A = 1m2 of the wall.

1 1 1 1
𝑅𝑐𝑖 = = = 0.05 K/W; 𝑅𝑐𝑜 = = = 0.025 K/W
𝐴ℎ 1×20 𝐴ℎ 1×40
𝐿 0.02 𝐿 0.04
𝑅𝑤𝑖 = 𝐴𝑘 = 1×0.1 = 0.2 K/W; 𝑅𝑤𝑜 = 𝐴𝑘 = 1×0.04 = 1.0 K/W
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑅𝑐𝑖 + 𝑅𝑤𝑖 + 𝑅𝑤𝑜 + 𝑅𝑐𝑜 = 1.275 K/W;

13
 𝑇𝑜 −𝑇𝑖 30+10
𝑄= = = 31.37 W
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 1.275

Between the interface and the outside ambient, we have

𝑇𝑜 −𝑇𝑤𝑖𝑓 30−𝑇𝑤𝑖𝑓
𝑄 = 𝑅 +𝑅 = 1.025 = 31.37 W, hence 𝑇𝑤𝑖𝑓 = −2.15 oC.
𝑤𝑜 𝑐𝑜

Example 6. A concrete wall of thickness 8 cm and thermal conductivity 1.6 W/mK, absorbs solar radiation at a
steady rate of 300 W/m2. The heat transfer coefficient between the outer surface of the wall and the ambient at
30 oC is 25 W/m2K. The heat transfer coefficient between the room air at 20 oC and the inner surface of the wall
is 10 W/m2K.

Calculate the rate of heat flow into the room, and the temperature of the outer surface of the wall.

Figure 8. Heat flow through a concrete wall, and its thermal network

Solution:
Consider a unit area of the wall.
1 1 1 1 𝐿 0.08
𝑅𝑐𝑖 = 𝐴ℎ = 1×10 = 0.1 K/W; 𝑅𝑐𝑜 = 𝐴ℎ = 1×25 = 0.04 K/W; 𝑅𝑤 = 𝐴𝑘 = 1×1.6 = 0.05 K/W

Energy balance at the outer surface node

𝑄𝑜 + 300 = 𝑄𝑖 ;
30−𝑇 30−𝑇
𝑄𝑜 = 𝑅 𝑠𝑜 = 0.04𝑠𝑜;
𝑐𝑜
𝑇 −20 𝑇𝑠𝑜 −20
𝑄𝑖 = 𝑅𝑠𝑜+𝑅 = .
𝑤 𝑐𝑖 0.15

Substitute 𝑄𝑜 and 𝑄𝑖 into the energy balance equation, gives 𝑇𝑠𝑜 = 37.37 oC.

Then we can find that 𝑄𝑜 = −184.2 W/m2, suggesting that some of radiation absorbed by the wall is lost to the
ambient air by convection.

Example 7. The external vertical wall of a room, made of thin metal,

absorbs solar radiation at the rate of 480 W/m2. The wall loses heat to the air
on the outside due to wind, and to the air on the inside due to natural
convection. The wind speed is 8 m/s. The outside and inside air
temperatures are 31oC and 29oC respectively. Assuming steady-state heat
transfer, calculate the temperature of the wall.

Given: The convective heat transfer coefficient (W/m2K) at a wind speed V

(m/s) is ℎ𝑤 = 2.8 + 3𝑉; and the natural convection heat transfer coefficient

14
(W/m2K) for a vertical wall is ℎ𝑐 = 4.2(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑎 )1/4 , where 𝑇𝑠 and 𝑇𝑎 are the temperatures of the surface and
the surrounding air respectively.

Solution Assume that the metal wall is a good conductor of heat so that the temperature variation across its
thickness is negligible. The wall temperature is 𝑇𝑤 . The radiation transfer is also negligible.

The energy balance equation for the wall is

𝑄𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 = 𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 + 𝑄𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑 or 480 = ℎ𝑤 (𝑇𝑤 − 31) + ℎ𝑐 (𝑇𝑤 − 29)
That is 480 = (2.8 + 3𝑉)(𝑇𝑤 − 31) + (4.2(𝑇𝑤 − 29)1/4 )(𝑇𝑤 − 29)

We let 𝑇𝑤 − 29 = 𝜃, then 480 = (2.8 + 24)(𝜃 − 2) + 4.2𝜃1.25, by trial and error, 𝜃 = 15.2 oC, so that 𝑇𝑤 =
29 + 15.2 = 44.2 oC.

One can use the simplest bisection method for the numerical solution. Assume that the roof for 𝜃 is in [0,100].
𝑓(𝜃) = 480 − (2.8 + 24)(𝜃 − 2) − 4.2𝜃1.25 , we have

Iteration 1: 𝑓(0) = 533.6; 𝑓(100) = −3474.6; 𝑓(50) = −1364.8;

Iteration 2: 𝑓(0) = 533.6; 𝑓(50) = −1364.8; 𝑓(25.5) = −390.5
Iteration 3: 𝑓(0) = 533.6; 𝑓(25.5) = −390.5; 𝑓(12.5) = 99.9;
Iteration 4: 𝑓(25.5) = −390.5; 𝑓(12.5) = 99.9; 𝑓(19) = −142.2;
Iteration 5: 𝑓(12.5) = 99.9; 𝑓(19) = −142.2; 𝑓(15.75) = −20.3;
Iteration 6: 𝑓(12.5) = 99.9; 𝑓(15.75) = −20.3; 𝑓(14.1) = 41.0;
Iteration 7: 𝑓(15.0) = 9.9; 𝑓(15.75) = −20.3; 𝑓(14.1) = 41.0;
Iteration 8: 𝑓(15.0) = 9.9; 𝑓(15.75) = −20.3; 𝑓(15.3) = −3.5

15
Chapter 2. Psychrometric principles and air conditioning systems

In the case of a mixture of a gas and vapor, such as dry air and water vapor,
the vapor could change phase during a process. For example, when ambient
air passes through the cooling coil of an air conditioner, some of the water
vapor in the air condenses to water on the cold surface of the coil. The air
delivered to the conditioned space after passing through the cooling coil, is
therefore drier than the original ambient air. The reverse process occurs in a
cooling tower where the air leaving the system becomes moist due to the
water vapor added to the air.

In order to analyze these practical situations, we need to develop a set of

parameters to characterize a mixture of gases and vapors, and also obtain
expressions for the relevant thermodynamic properties of the mixture.

How special is the mixture of dry air and water vapor?

Dry air is the air that is free of any moisture. The water vapor is generally
present in moist air in a superheated state. The pressure of water vapor in
typical ambient air is relatively low. For example, at 30oC the water vapor
pressure in air that is fully saturated with water vapor is about 4.24 kPa, which is the saturated pressure of water
vapor at 30oC from the steam table. This is compared with a mixture pressure about 100 kPa. Under such dilute
conditions, we assume that water vapor and dry air behave like ideal gases, which are independent from each
other, i.e. the properties of water vapor are not influenced by the presence of air.

Figure 1. The saturation vapor pressure as a function of its temperature.

Table 1. Part of the steam table

T (oC) Saturation pressure Enthalpy of saturated Enthalpy of Enthalpy of

Pg (kPa) liquid (kJ/kg) vaporization saturated vapor,
(kJ/kg) ℎ𝑔 (kJ/kg)
0.010 0.6113 0.0 2501.3 2501.3
2 0.7056 8.4 2496.6 2505.0
16
 5 0.8721 21.0 2489.5 2510.5
10 1.228 42.0 2477.7 2519.7
15 1.705 63.0 2465.9 2528.9
20 2.338 83.9 2454.2 2538.1
25 3.169 104.9 2442.3 2547.2
30 4.246 125.8 2430.4 2556.2
35 5.628 146.7 2418.6 2565.3
40 7.383 167.5 2406.8 2574.3
45 9.593 188.4 2394.8 2583.2
50 12.35 209.3 2382.8 2592.1
55 15.76 230.2 2370.7 2600.9
60 19.94 251.1 2358.5 2609.6
65 25.03 272.0 2346.2 2618.2
70 31.19 293.0 2333.8 2626.8
75 38.58 313.9 2321.4 2635.3
80 47.39 334.9 2308.8 2643.7
85 57.83 355.9 2296.0 2651.9
90 70.13 376.9 2283.2 2660.1
95 84.55 397.9 2270.2 2668.1

We consider a piston cylinder with moist air at state A, shown in the temperature-volume diagram. The pressure
of air in the cylinder is kept constant. Due to Dalton’s rule, we have
𝑃 = 𝑃𝑎 + 𝑃𝑣 ;
where 𝑃 is the pressure of the mixture; 𝑃𝑎 and 𝑃𝑣 the partial pressure of the air and water vapor respectively.

Figure 1. (a) piston-cylinder set-up with moist air; (b) T-v diagram for vapor.

Now imagine the air in the cylinder is cooled slowly, i.e. a quasi-steady process. The load on the top of the
piston is fixed, so that the pressure of the mixture remains unchanged.

 Initially, since the mole fraction of air and that of the water vapor are constant, hence the partial pressure of
water vapor remains unchanged. The cool process follows a constant pressure line, from A to B.
 At reaching B, which is the saturated vapor curve, condensation of water vapor starts. The temperature at B,
where the condensation just begins is the dew point of the air, and the air is then referred to as saturated air.
 As the cooling process continues from B to C, more vapor condensed. The mass of water vapor, and thus the
mole fraction of water vapor in the mixture, decrease. The small volume of the water does not affect the
mixture in the cylinder. Hence partial pressure of the water vapor decreases. Since vapor is in saturated state
during condensation, its temperature and consequently the temperature of mixture decrease. As the mixture
17
 pressure is unchanged, hence the partial pressure of air increases to compensate for the reduced vapor
pressure.
 Now consider if there was no dry air, only pure water vapor in the cylinder. A constant pressure cooling
would follow a constant temperature line BD.

Is it interesting that the presence of air significantly alters the overall behavior of the vapor during
condensation? This is the beauty of physics.

Properties of air-water mixtures (Note that formulas (except those in Page review list) are not required)
The relative humidity  is the ratio of the partial pressure of the vapor, 𝑃𝑣 in the mixture to the saturation
𝑃𝑣
pressure 𝑃𝑔 (𝑡) of the vapor at the mixture temperature, 𝑡, i.e.  = 𝑃 (𝑡) .
𝑔

The humidity ratio, 𝜔 is defined as the mass of water vapor in a given volume of mixture to the mass of dry air
in the same volume.
∆𝑚 ∆𝑚𝑣 /∆𝑉 𝜌
𝜔= 𝑣= = 𝑣;
∆𝑚𝑎 ∆𝑚𝑎 //∆𝑉 𝜌𝑎
where ∆𝑚𝑣 and ∆𝑚𝑎 the mases of vapor and dry air respectively in a volume of ∆𝑉. 𝜌𝑣 and 𝜌𝑎 the densities of
vapor and dry air respectively.

As 𝑃𝑣 = 𝜌𝑣 𝑅𝑣 𝑇 and 𝑃𝑎 = 𝜌𝑎 𝑅𝑎 𝑇, 𝑅𝑣 and 𝑅𝑎 are the respective gas constants of water vapor and air.

𝑅̅ 𝑅̅ 𝑅̅ 𝑅̅
𝑅𝑎 = 𝑀 = 28.96; and 𝑅𝑣 = 𝑀 = 18, where 𝑅̅ is the universal gas constant, and 𝑀𝑎 and 𝑀𝑣 are the molecular
𝑎 𝑣
masses.

𝜌 𝑃 𝑅 𝑃𝑅 𝑅𝑎 𝑃𝑔 (𝑡) 18𝑃𝑔 (𝑡) 0.622𝑃𝑔 (𝑡)

Hence 𝜔 = 𝜌𝑣 = 𝑃𝑣 𝑅𝑎 = (𝑃−𝑃
𝑣 𝑎
= = = .
𝑎 𝑎 𝑣 )𝑅 𝑣 𝑣 𝑅𝑣 (𝑃−𝑃𝑔 (𝑡)) 28.96(𝑃−𝑃𝑔 (𝑡)) (𝑃−𝑃𝑔 (𝑡))
The degree of saturation, 𝜇 is defined as the ratio of the mass of water vapor in a mixture of air and water
vapor to the mass of vapor that would be present if the air was in a saturated state at the same temperature and
mixture pressure.
𝜔
𝜇 = 𝜔 , where 𝜔𝑠 is the specific humidity of saturated air at the same temperature and mixture pressure.
𝑠

0.622+𝜔
𝜇 =  [0.622+𝜔 ].
𝑠

Enthalpy of moist air (kJ/kg of dry air)

The enthalpy of moist air is equal to the sum of enthalpy of dry air, ℎ𝑎 and that of superheated water vapor, ℎ𝑔
ℎ = ℎ𝑎 + 𝜔ℎ𝑔 (𝑡) = 𝑐𝑝𝑎 𝑡 + 𝜔ℎ𝑔 (𝑡);

where 𝑡 is the dry-bulb temperature, 𝜔 humidity ratio, 𝑐𝑝𝑎 the specific heat capacity at constant pressure of dry
air. For the typical range of temperature of about 0-60 oC, we may use 𝑐𝑝𝑎 = 1.00 kJ/Kkg.

From the steamtable, under low pressures, the enthalpy of superheated steam is approximately equal to the
enthalpy of saturated stream at the same temperature. So we choose ℎ𝑔 (𝑡) to be the saturated vapor enthalpy.

An alternative approximate relation for the moisture air enthalpy can be obtained by assuming that low pressure
water vapor behaves like an ideal gas.

18
ℎ𝑔 (𝑡) = 𝑐𝑝𝑤 𝑡 + ℎ𝑔𝑜 ; where ℎ𝑔𝑜 = 2501 kJ/kg is the enthalpy of saturated water vapor at the reference
temperature of 0oC, and 𝑐𝑝𝑤 = 1.86 kJ/kgK is the specific heat capacity of water vapor.

Hence
ℎ = 𝑐𝑝𝑎 𝑡 + 𝜔ℎ𝑔 (𝑡) = 𝑐𝑝𝑎 𝑡 + 𝜔(𝑐𝑝𝑤 𝑡 + ℎ𝑔𝑜 ) = 𝑐𝑝𝑚 𝑡 + 𝜔ℎ𝑔𝑜
where 𝑐𝑝𝑚 = 𝑐𝑝𝑎 + 𝜔𝑐𝑝𝑤 is the specific heat of moist air.

Consider a process from state 1 to state 2 where the change of enthalpy is ∆ℎ = ℎ2 − ℎ1 , we can derive
(derivation omitted)

∆ℎ = ∆ℎ𝑠 + ∆ℎ𝑙 where the sensible heat ∆ℎ𝑠 = 𝑐𝑎𝑚 (𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ), and the latent heat ∆ℎ𝑙 = ℎ𝑔𝑚 (𝜔2 − 𝜔1 ). Both
𝑐𝑎𝑚 and ℎ𝑔𝑚 are evaluated at mean temperature and mean humidity ratio of the two states.

𝜔2 +𝜔1 𝑡2 +𝑡1
𝑐𝑎𝑚 = 𝑐𝑝𝑎 + 𝜔
̅𝑐𝑝𝑤 = 𝑐𝑝𝑎 + 𝑐𝑝𝑤 ; and ℎ𝑔𝑚 = ℎ𝑔𝑜 + 𝑡̅𝑐𝑝𝑤 = ℎ𝑔𝑜 + 𝑐𝑝𝑤
2 2

For the temperature range from 0 oC to 60oC of a typical psychrometric chart, the following mean values may be
used. 𝑐𝑎𝑚 = 1.02 kJ/kgK and ℎ𝑔𝑚 = 2555 kJ/kg. (Note: not the enthalpy of vaporization is used, but the mean
enthalpy of the saturated water vapor).

Specific volume of moist air 𝑣 (m3/kg dry air) can be obtained by using the ideal gas equation for dry air

𝑅𝑎 𝑇 𝑃 𝑅
𝑣 𝑎 0.622(𝑃−𝑃𝑎 ) 𝑅𝑎 𝑇 𝜔 𝑅𝑎 𝑇 𝜔
𝑣= , we can also obtain 𝜔 = (𝑃−𝑃 )𝑅
= ;𝑣= [1 + 0.622], so 𝑣 = [1 + 0.622].
𝑃𝑎 𝑣 𝑣 𝑃𝑎 𝑃 𝑃

Adiabatic saturation and wet-bulb temperature

An ideal process is shown in Figure 3a, where
a stream of air passing steadily through to a
saturated state. The walls are perfectly
insulated, and the water pool is sufficiently
long and large. It can be derived that at ideal
conditions, the air entering with different
combined conditions, would result in the same
fully saturated air at the same saturation
temperature. This saturation temperature is
web-bulb thermometer to
measure the thermodynamic web-bulb temperature, though only appropriate, but fairly
accurate (not derived here). The web-bulb thermometer consists of an ordinary liquid-in-
glass thermometer whose bulb is covered with a wet porous wick, continuously supplied
with water. The air whose humidity is to be determined is blown over the wick usually
with aid of a fan. The temperature indicated by the thermometer under steady conditions is
called the web-bulb temperature.

The psychrometric chart

Exterminating the physical and thermodynamic properties of air-
water vapor mixtures as above is referred to as psychrometrics or
Heinrich Hertz (1857-1894), who proved
psychrometry. The term comes from the Greek psuchron (ψυχρόν)
meaning "cold" and metron (μέτρον) meaning "means of existence of electromagnetic waves, also
measurement". A psychrometric chart is a graph of the produced the thermodynamic diagram
thermodynamic parameters of moist air at a constant pressure, i.e. of atmosphere and moisture.
19
at a particular elevation relative to sea level. The ASHRAE-style psychrometric chart, pioneered by Willis
Carrier in 1904, is often used in Hong Kong.

(a) (b)

Figure 3. (a) Adiabatic saturator; (b) The coordinates of a commonly used psychrometric chart, and from
any of the two known parameters, one can determine the other parameters. The results are equivalent to using
the formulas shown/derived earlier. Computer software is now widely used for the determination, however,
reading psychrometric chart is still common.

Figure 4. A typical psychrometric chart (Wikipidia).

Sensible heat ratio protractor

The sensible heat ratio (SHR) is defined as the ratio of the change in sensible enthalpy ∆ℎ𝑠 to the change in the
total enthalpy ∆ℎ
∆ℎ ∆ℎ
SHR = ∆ℎ𝑠 = 1 − ∆ℎ𝑙;
As ∆ℎ𝑙 = ℎ𝑔𝑚 (𝜔2 − 𝜔1 ) = ℎ𝑔𝑚 ∆𝜔, hence
ℎ𝑔𝑚 ∆𝜔 ℎ𝑔𝑚
SHR = 1 − = 1− ; where 𝑞 = ∆ℎ/∆𝜔.
∆ℎ 𝑞
20
Figure 2. The ASHRAE psychrometric chart at 101.325 kPa pressure
21
Example 1. Atmospheric air at a pressure of 95 kPa has a humidity ratio of 0.016 kg/kg DA, and a temperature
of 27oC. Determine the following quantities: (a) the dew point temperature; (b) the relative humidity, (c) the
specific volume, and (d) the enthalpy.

Solution In theory, you may use psychrometric chart, but be careful as the chart is generally for the sea level
pressure as shown here.
0.622𝑃𝑣
(a) 𝜔 = (𝑃−𝑃𝑣 )
= 0.016, 𝑃 = 95 kPa, we can find out 𝑃𝑣 = 2.382 kPa, from the steam table (Table 1), the
dew point is 20.3oC. (i.e. using at 25oC, the saturation pressure is 3.169 kPa, at 20oC, 2.338 kPa)
𝑃𝑣 2.382
(b)  = 𝑃 (𝑡) = 3.600 = 66.2%, where 3.600 kPa is the saturation vapor pressure at 27oC.
𝑔
𝑅𝑎 𝑇 𝜔 0.287×(27+273) 0.016
(c) 𝑣 = [1 + ]= [1 + ] = 0.93 m3/kg dry air
𝑃 0.622 95 0.622
(d) ℎ = 𝑐𝑝𝑎 𝑡 + 𝜔ℎ𝑔 (𝑡) = 1.0 × 27 + 0.016 × 2552.6 = 67.8 kJ/kg [Note the ℎ𝑔 (𝑡) is obtained by
interpolation from Table 1 for the enthalpy of the saturated vapor]

Example 2. The dimensions of the room are 10 m × 6 m × 3 m. The pressure, temperature and degree of
saturation of the air in the rom are 100 kPa, 25oC, and 55% respectively. (a) Calculate the mass of air in the
room. (b) If the surface temperature of a window of the room is 10.5oC, will moisture condense out of the air?

Solution
From the steam table, the saturation vapor pressure at 25oC is 3.169 kPa.

The humidity ratio of saturated air at 25oC can be obtain

0.622𝑃𝑣𝑠 0.622×3.169
𝜔𝑠 = (𝑃−𝑃𝑣𝑠 )
= = 0.02035; note that 𝑃𝑣𝑠 is the saturation vapor pressure at 25oC.
100−3.169

𝜔 ω
𝜇 = 𝜔 = 0.02035 = 0.55; hence ω = 0.011196
𝑠
𝑅𝑎 𝑇 𝜔 0.287×(25+273) 0.011196
𝑣 = 𝑃 [1 + 0.622] = [1 + 0.622 ] = 0.8707 m3/kg dry air
100
The room volume 𝑉 = 10 × 5 × 3 = 180 m3
𝑉 180
The mass dry air in the room is 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑣 = 0.8707 = 206.73kg

22
The mass of moist air is 𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎 (1 + 𝜔) = 206.73 × (1 + 0.011196) = 209.04 kg
0.622𝑃𝑣
𝜔= (𝑃−𝑃𝑣 )
= 0.011196, hence 𝑃𝑣 = 1.7682 kPa. The dew point is the saturation temperature at this pressure,
which is 15.5oC. The window surface temperature is much lower than this, hence condensation will occur.

Example 3. The pressure and dry-bulb temperature of the air in a house are 100 kPa and 22oC respectively. The
surface temperature of a window of the house is 6oC. What is the maximum relative humidity allowable in the
house if no condensation is to occur on the surface of the window?

Solution
Assume dew point is 𝑡𝑑𝑝 =6oC, from the steam table, the saturation pressure at this temperature is 0.9433 kPa.
The saturation vapor pressure at the air dry-bulb temperature of 22oC is 2.670 kPa.
𝑃𝑣 0.9433
At 𝑡𝑑𝑏 = 22 oC, 𝑡𝑑𝑝 =6oC,  = 𝑃 (22℃) = 2.670 = 35.33%, which is the max allowance RH.
𝑔

Example 4. Moist air undergoes a process from an initial state 1 with 𝑡𝑑𝑏1 = 10℃ and 𝜔1 = 0.005 to a final
state 2 with 𝑡𝑑𝑏1 = 40℃ and 𝜔1 = 0.021. Obtain the changes in enthalpy using three ways (a) the basic
formula for enthalpy of moist air; (b) the formula for the change in sensible enthalpy and latent enthalpy, and
(c) the Psychrometric chart.

Solution
(a) ℎ = 𝑐𝑝𝑎 𝑡 + 𝜔ℎ𝑔 (𝑡), and the saturation vapor enthalpy obtained from the steam table (Table 1), and also the
specific heat capacity as a function of temperature (Table 1 in Chapter 1).
ℎ1 = 1.006 × 10 + 0.005 × 2519.7 = 22.66 kJ/kg
ℎ2 = 1.006 × 40 + 0.021 × 2574.3 = 94.32 kJ/kg
ℎ2 − ℎ1 = 94.32 − 22.66 = 71.66 kJ/kg.

(b) ∆ℎ = ∆ℎ𝑠 + ∆ℎ𝑙 where

∆ℎ𝑠 = 𝑐𝑎𝑚 (𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ), ∆ℎ𝑙 = ℎ𝑔𝑚 (𝜔2 − 𝜔1 )

We use the mean values for the specific heat capacity and enthalpy. 𝑐𝑎𝑚 = 1.02 kJ/kgK and ℎ𝑔𝑚 = 2555
kJ/kg.

∆ℎ𝑠 = 1.02 × (40 − 10) = 30.6, and ∆ℎ𝑙 = 2555 × (0.021 − 0.005) = 40.88
∆ℎ = ∆ℎ𝑠 + ∆ℎ𝑙 = 30.6 + 40.88 = 71.48 kJ/kg.

23
(c) ℎ2 − ℎ1 = 72 kJ/kg

Psychrometric processes for heating and air conditioning

The processing units of air conditioning systems use psychrometric processes to produce air with the required
temperature and relative humidity to be supplied to a space.

Basic psychrometric processes include mixing of two moist air streams, sensible heating and cooling of air,
dehumidification of air by cooling, humidification of air by adding moisture,.

Mixing of two moist air streams

The two streams 1 and 2 are mixed to become a joint stream 3. The change in enthalpy is much greater than
those in kinetic energy and potential energy, which are ignored here. We also assume adiabatic process at
steady state conditions and constant pressure.
 Mass balance of air: 𝑚̇𝑎1 + 𝑚̇𝑎2 = 𝑚̇𝑎3 , All there symbols represent respectively dry air mass
flow rates of the three streams.
 Mass balance of water: 𝑚̇𝑎1 𝜔1 + 𝑚̇𝑎2 𝜔2 = 𝑚̇𝑎3 𝜔3
 Energy balance of moist air: 𝑚̇𝑎1 ℎ1 + 𝑚̇𝑎2 ℎ2 = 𝑚̇𝑎3 ℎ3

𝑚̇ ℎ −ℎ 𝜔 −𝜔
Thus, 𝑚̇𝑎1 = ℎ3 −ℎ2 = 𝜔3 −𝜔2, suggesting that 1-2-3 is a line.
𝑎2 1 3 1 3

(a) (b)

Figure 5. (a) Mixing of two air streams; (b) psychrometric chart.

24
From the energy balance equation, we have

𝑚̇𝑎1 [(𝑐𝑝𝑎 + 𝜔1 𝑐𝑝𝑤 )𝑡1 + 𝜔1 ℎ𝑔𝑜 ] + 𝑚̇𝑎2 [(𝑐𝑝𝑎 + 𝜔2 𝑐𝑝𝑤 )𝑡2 + 𝜔2 ℎ𝑔𝑜 ] = 𝑚̇𝑎3 [(𝑐𝑝𝑎 + 𝜔3 𝑐𝑝𝑤 )𝑡3 + 𝜔3 ℎ𝑔𝑜 ];

As 𝑚̇𝑎1 𝜔1 + 𝑚̇𝑎2 𝜔2 = 𝑚̇𝑎3 𝜔3 , we have

𝑚̇𝑎1 (𝑐𝑝𝑎 + 𝜔1 𝑐𝑝𝑤 )𝑡1 + 𝑚̇𝑎2 (𝑐𝑝𝑎 + 𝜔2 𝑐𝑝𝑤 )𝑡2 = 𝑚̇𝑎3 (𝑐𝑝𝑎 + 𝜔3 𝑐𝑝𝑤 )𝑡3;

If we assume that the specific heat capacities of the moist air are equal in the three streams, then we can obtain
he following appropriate relation for the mixed temperature

𝑚̇ 𝑚̇ 𝐿 𝐿
𝑡3 = 𝑚̇𝑎1 𝑡1 + 𝑚̇𝑎2 𝑡2 ; or 𝑡3 = 𝐿23 𝑡1 + 𝐿13 𝑡2 ;
𝑎3 𝑎3 21 21

Sensible heating and cooling

Heating may be obtained by an electrical resistance heater or a tubular coil carrying a hot fluid. The air can be
cooled by passing a cold fluid like chilled water or a refrigerant through a similar coil.

(a) (b)
Figure 6. (a) Sensible heating or cooling; (b) psychrometric chart.

During sensible heating and cooling, the moisture content of the air remains constant. This means that we need
to ensure that the coil surface temperature is above the dew-point of the entering air.

 Mass balance of dry air: 𝑚̇𝑎1 = 𝑚̇𝑎2 = 𝑚̇𝑎

 Mass balance of water: 𝑚̇𝑎1 𝜔1 = 𝑚̇𝑎2 𝜔2
 Energy balance: 𝑚̇𝑎1 ℎ1 + 𝑄̇𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚̇𝑎2 ℎ2

Hence 𝑄̇𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚̇𝑎 (ℎ2 − ℎ1 )

Assume that the specific heat capacity of moist air is constant, 𝑄̇𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚̇𝑎 𝑐𝑝𝑚 (𝑡2 − 𝑡1 )

Note that 𝑄̇𝑖𝑛 can be negative, which applies to cooling.

Dehumidification by cooling
Useful to consider the following three situations:
 S1 - the piston cylinder set up discussed earlier;
 S2 - flowing over a cold plate; and
25
  S3 - an actual system using cooling coil.

On a psychometric chart, S1 goes along the 1-3-4 line, S2 goes along the straight dashed line 1-4 and S3 long
the solid curved line 1-2.

(d)

Figure 7. (a-b) Three ideal cooling processes (S1, S2 and S3) and (d) their illustration on the
psychrometric chart.

S1 is an ideal process, with line 1-3 representing a sensible cooling phase with the humidity ratio being kept
constant. After Point 3, the air attains its dew-point temperature, and become fully saturated with water vapor.
Further cooling results in vapor condensation and temperature reduction, hence following the saturation curve
3-4.

S2 is more realistic. The cold plate temperature is below the dew-point, and water vapor will condense on the
plate from the air layer just adjacent to it. However, the mean temperature of the air at a section would be above
the dew-point for some distance along the plate. A detailed analysis of the heat and moisture between the air
and the plate is possible, but beyond the scope here. The main result, pertinent to the present discussion is
𝑑𝑡 (𝑡𝑝 −𝑡)
= Le (𝜔
𝑑𝜔 𝑝 −𝜔)
where 𝑡𝑝 and 𝜔𝑝 are respectively the constant plate temperature and the saturation humidity ratio of the air
adjacent to the water film, and 𝑡 and 𝜔 the meam temperature and humidity ratio of the air at a section
respectively.

26
If the Lewis number is unity (1), then line 1-4 is approximately linear. This is sometimes called the straight line
law. At point 4, the air temperature approaches the plate temperature.

S3 is more like an actual system. Moist air flows over the outside tube surface of the coil. The air is cooled
sensibly as it passes over the first few tube rows, and condensation of water vapor occurs over the rest of the
rows. Ideally, vapor condensation begins at the tube row where the tube surface temperature is just below the
dew-point. The condensed water drains through exit 3.

Unlike the plate cooling S2, the tube surface temperature of the actually cooling coil is not uniform over
different tube rows. This results in the non-linear variation of the mean air temperature, i.e. curve 1-2.

Consider the simplified control volume,

 Mass balance of dry air: 𝑚̇𝑎1 = 𝑚̇𝑎2 = 𝑚̇𝑎
 Mass balance of water: 𝑚̇𝑎1 𝜔1 = 𝑚̇𝑎2 𝜔2 + 𝑚̇𝑤3 (note: 𝑚̇𝑤3 is the condensate flow at 3).
 Energy balance: 𝑚̇𝑎1 ℎ1 = 𝑚̇𝑎2 ℎ2 + 𝑚̇𝑤3 ℎ𝑤3 + 𝑄̇𝑜𝑢𝑡
̇
𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 is the total rate of heat transfer from the air to the cooling fluid flowing through the tubes. This is called
the refrigeration load or refrigeration capacity.

A simple bypass model for the cooling coil

A complete analyses of the cooling coil is also possible, just like that for a cold plate. Here a semi-empirical
model using the bypass factor is presented for understanding.

The cooling process can be considered as a composite process. The bypass portion does not contact the cold
tube surface, with its state unchanged. The cooled portion undergoes cooling similar to the cold plate process
S2. The two portions are mixed adiabatically to obtain state 2.

The cooling coil temperature or apparatus dew-point is 𝑡𝑑 .

Mass balance of dry air: 𝑚̇𝑎 = 𝑚̇𝑎𝑏 + 𝑚̇𝑎𝑐 (note: 𝑚̇𝑎𝑏 and 𝑚̇𝑎𝑐 are the dry air flow rates of the bypass portion
and the cooled portion, respectively)

𝑚̇𝑎𝑏
A bypass factor is defined 𝑏 = .
𝑚̇𝑎
For the assumed adiabatic mixing process, we obtain
𝑚̇ 𝑚̇
𝑡2 = 𝑚̇𝑎𝑏 𝑡1 + 𝑚̇𝑎𝑐 𝑡𝑑 ; (note: 𝑡𝑑 equals to 𝑡4 in the figure).
𝑎 𝑎
𝑡 −𝑡
Using the above three equations, we have 𝑏 = 𝑡2 −𝑡𝑑.
1 𝑑

The sensible cooling rate 𝑄̇𝑠 = 𝑚̇𝑎 𝑐𝑎𝑚 (𝑡1 − 𝑡2 ) = 𝑚̇𝑎 𝑐𝑎𝑚 (1 − 𝑏)(𝑡1 − 𝑡𝑑 ) (note: consider the situation if 𝑏 =
0, i.e. no bypass)

The total cooling rate is given by

𝑄̇ 𝑚̇ 𝑐 (1−𝑏)(𝑡1 −𝑡𝑑 )
𝑄̇𝑡 = 𝑠 = 𝑎 𝑎𝑚 .
SHR SHR
Where SHR is the sensible heat ratio (SHR = 𝑄̇𝑠 /𝑄̇𝑡 ), , which may be obtained directly from the protractor in
the psychrometric chart for the process 1-4 as shown for S2.

Humidification of air

27
Here we show a humidifier where a series of nozzles spray moisture directly to the air stream. Under ideal
conditions, we assume that all the moisture sprayed is retained in the air stream. Consider the control volume as
shown.

(a) (b)

Figure 8. (a) Humidification of air; (b) psychrometric chart.

 Mass balance of dry air: 𝑚̇𝑎1 = 𝑚̇𝑎2 = 𝑚̇𝑎

 Mass balance of water: 𝑚̇𝑎1 𝜔1 + 𝑚̇𝑤 = 𝑚̇𝑎2 𝜔2
 Energy balance: 𝑚̇𝑎1 ℎ1 + 𝑚̇𝑤 ℎ𝑤 = 𝑚̇𝑎2 ℎ2

The enthalpy-humidity ratio 𝑞is obtained by the manipulating the three equations.
ℎ −ℎ
𝑞 = 𝜔2 −𝜔1 = ℎ𝑤 ;
2 1
where ℎ𝑤 is the enthalpy of the sprayed moisture.

Consider the change of enthalpy of the two points 1 and 2 in case the dry-bulb temperature is unchanged.
ℎ −ℎ
ℎ2 (𝑡) − ℎ1 (𝑡) = (𝜔2 − 𝜔1 )ℎ𝑔 (𝑡); hence if 𝑞 = 𝜔2 −𝜔1 = ℎ𝑤 = ℎ𝑔 (𝑡), i.e. the line 1 − 2 is the constant dry-
2 1
bulb temperature line passing through 1.

Hence
 If ℎ𝑤 > ℎ𝑔 (𝑡), i.e. the air will be sensibly heated during humidification process, i.e. line 1-2 in Figure 8b.
 If ℎ𝑤 < ℎ𝑔 (𝑡), i.e. the air will be sensibly cooled during humidification process, line 1 − 2′ in Figure 8b.

Evaporating cooling
In such a system, ambient is passed through a porous structure supplied with water, and the non-evaporated
water dripping down which is then recirculated. The porous structure distributes water in the form of a thin film,
and increases the contact area between air and water to facilitate evaporation. The incoming air is relatively dry,
so during evaporation, water absorbs the latent heat of evaporation from air. Air is then cooled.

28
 (a) (b)

Figure 9. (a) Evaporative cooler; (b) psychrometric chart.

The above simple analysis for air humidification can be done here, but not useful. Again a detailed design
analysis can be carried out, but beyond the scope here. One useful conclusion is that under ideal conditions, the
state of air during adiabatic evaporative cooling follows a constant wet-bulb temperature in the psychrometric
chart. However, in practice, the moist air leaving the cooler at 2 is not cooled to the wet-bulb temperature,
which is the lowest possible temperature to which the air could be cooled.

Space condition line

It is customary to list all energy and moisture flows into the space which the air conditioning system needs to
remove in two groups, i.e. sensible cooling load and the latent cooling load.
 The sensible cooling load (total sensible heat gain) 𝑄̇𝑠𝑡 : heat flow through walls, roofs, and windows;
appliances generating heat, lighting and occupants within the space; unintended air infiltration.
 The latent cooling load 𝑄̇𝑙𝑡 : the moisture released by appliances and occupants within the space, and moist
air infiltration. The total rate of moisture gain by the air is 𝑚̇𝑤𝑡 .

For heating, we have heating load. We assume that these are available for our analyses. Their calculation is
discussed later.

We assume that the space conditions are steady, and the air is well mixed within the space. Thus, the return air
condition is the same as in the space.

(a) (b)

Figure 10. (a) Air conditioned space; (b) psychrometric chart.

Consider a control volume with a single inlet port 1 and a single outlet port 2, surrounding the space.
29
Mass balance of dry air: 𝑚̇𝑎1 = 𝑚̇𝑎2 = 𝑚̇𝑎
Mass balance of water: 𝑚̇𝑎1 𝜔1 + 𝑚̇𝑤𝑡 = 𝑚̇𝑎2 𝜔2
Energy balance: 𝑚̇𝑎1 ℎ1 + 𝑄̇𝑠𝑡 + 𝑄̇𝑙𝑡 = 𝑚̇𝑎2 ℎ2
Manipulating the three equations, we have

ℎ −ℎ 𝑄̇𝑠𝑡 +𝑄̇𝑙𝑡
𝑞 = 𝜔2 −𝜔1 = ;
2 1 𝑚̇𝑤𝑡

Thus, for fixed values of the sensible and latent cooling loads, and the rate of moisture gain, the enthalpy-
moisture ratio, 𝑞 is constant. Moreover, the state point of supply air at 1 on the psychrometric chart must lie on
∆ℎ
a straight line drawn through 2, parallel to the direction of 𝑞 in the ∆𝜔-protractor.

This straight line is the space condition line.

 If 𝑞 = ℎ𝑔2 , or the enthalpy-moisture ratio equals to the enthalpy of vapor in the space, then we have the line
1 − 2 in Figure 10b, the constant dry-bulb temperature line.
 If 𝑞 > ℎ𝑔2 , i.e. the supply air at 1 is cooler, and less humid than the air in the space (line 1-2). This is the
condition line for a typical summer air conditioning situation.
 If 𝑞 < ℎ𝑔2 , i.e. the supply air is warmer and less humid than the air in the space (line 1′ − 2). This could be
a typical winter air conditioning situation.
The above arguments can be derived mathematically, though not done here.

Using the earlier results, the sensible cooling load 𝑄̇𝑠𝑡 and the latent cooling load 𝑄̇𝑙𝑡 may be expressed by
𝑄̇𝑠𝑡 = 𝑚̇𝑎 𝑐𝑎𝑚 (𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ) and 𝑄̇𝑙𝑡 = 𝑚̇𝑎 ℎ𝑔𝑚 (𝜔2 − 𝜔1 )
𝑄̇𝑡 =̇ 𝑄𝑠𝑡 + 𝑄̇𝑙𝑡 .

Again, for the temperature range from 0 oC to 60oC of a typical psychrometric chart, the following mean values
may be used. 𝑐𝑎𝑚 = 1.02 kJ/kgK and ℎ𝑔𝑚 = 2555 kJ/kg.

𝑄̇𝑠𝑡
The sensible heat ratio (SHR) is SHR= .
𝑄̇𝑡

Application of the psychrometric processes

As shown above, the desired conditions of the space, its heating/cooling loads, and the required supply air
conditions are related by the condition line of the space.
 Zone: a space or a room with a specified temperature, humidity ratio and heating/cooling load.
 Single-zone: controlled by its own thermostat.
 Multi-zone: a large building may have many different rooms with different heating/cooling loads, and
different temperature and humidity ratio requirements.

Here we show how the psychrometric processes can be used for analyzing single-zone and multi-zone systems.

Single-zone air conditioning system: summer air conditioning systems

The essential air processing components consisting of a filter, a cooling and dehumidifying coil, and a fan are
arranged in series. These are connected using ducts through which air flows. For ventilation, a portion of the air
withdrawn from the space at 2 is discharged to the ambient at 3, and replaced with an equal mass of outdoor air
at 4. Again, we assume steady state condition.

30
 Point 2 and condition line of the space– this is the space condition in term of the temperature and humidity
ratio or other moist air properties. If the sensible and latent cooling loads of the space are estimated, then
SHR can be calculated. The condition line of the space is obtained by drawing a straight line through Pont 2
in the direction of the line on the protractor pointing towards the SHR-value for the space.
 Point 4 – the state of outdoor air is easily located by knowing two thermodynamic properties of the ambient
air. The dry air mass fraction of the outdoor air to compensate for the return air discharged at 3 is usually
specified.
 Point 5 – the mixture of the outdoor air of 4 and the return air of 2. This uses the adiabatic mixing analysis
early, and 5 can be obtained by dividing the straight line 2-4 in the inverse ratio of the dry air mass flow
rates of the two air streams.

The curved line 5-1, or the coil condition line gives the state of air as it flows through the cooling and
dehumidifying coil. This can be obtained using the coil manufacturer’s data or the computer-based heat and
mass transfer analyses of the cooling coil.

(a) (b)

Figure 11. (a) Summer air conditioning system; (b) psychrometric chart.

The air undergoes a slight increase in temperature as it flows through the fan, which for all practical purposes,
could be neglected. However, we could add the energy input to the fan as a sensible cooling load to the space.
In the basic air conditioning system, the cooling and dehumidifying coil is the sole air processing unit, and
therefore only one property of the air could be controlled. In most systems, this property would be the dry-bulb
temperature.

Summer air conditioning systems with reheat

If the condition line of a space is very steep, then the coil condition line and the space condition line drawn on
the psychrometric chart may not intersect. In physical terms, this implies that the cooling coil is unable to
produce the required state of the supply air to meet the cooling load of the space. Inclusion of a reheat coil after
the cooling coil may remedy this situation.

As shown in the psychrometric chart, in the reheat coil, the air leaving the cooling coil at 6 undergoes sensible
heating with the humidity ratio remaining constant. Therefore, the intersection of the space condition line and
the horizontal line through 6 gives the supply air state 1. The rest is similar to the basic system.

31
 (a) (b)

Figure 12. (a) Air conditioning system with reheat; (b) psychrometric chart.

Since the energy has been expended to cool the air to state 6, the energy input to the reheat coil is an additional
energy input that lowers the overall energy efficiency of the system. This demonstrates that there is a trade-off
between the desired comfort conditions in a space and the operating energy cost of the system.

Multi-zone air conditioning systems: multi-zone systems with reheat

For illustration purpose, we consider two zones A and B. The states of the return air from the two zones are
represented by points 2a and 2b. The two streams of return air mix adiabatically to produce air with the state 2.
The outdoor air at state 4, is mixed with the return air at 2 to produce state 5 of the air entering the cooling coil.
The air at state 5 is cooled to state 6, and then reheated sensibly at constant humidity ratio, satisfying the
different requirements of zones A and B.

(a) (b)
Figure 13. (a) A multi-zone system with reheat; and (b) the psychrometric chart.

In practice, the dry-bulb temperatures of the zones are maintained by thermostats that control the heat inputs of
the two reheat coils. The reheating helps to control the required temperature and humidity of each zone more
precisely, but at a cost of energy efficiency.

Dual-duct multi-zone systems

In such systems, the supply air from the main fan is divided into two streams. One stream passes through a
cooling and dehumidifying coil, and the other through a heating coil and a humidifier. The temperature of the
air supplied to each zone is controlled by mixing air from the hot and cold streams in correct proportion. This is
done in a mixing box which in practice responds to a signal from the thermostat in the zone.

32
 (a) (b)

Figure 14. (a) A dual duct system for multi-zones, and (b) Psychrometric chart.
In the chart,
 The return air from the two zones A and B, at states 2a and 2b, mix adiabatically to produce air at state 2.
The outdoor air at state 4 mixes with return air at 2 to produce state 5 of the air entering the fan. Here the
stream bifurcates.
 From state 5 to 7, the air passes through the cooling and dehumidifying coil along the coil condition line.
 From state 5 to 8 and then to 9, the air first passes through the heating coil, heated sensibly at constant
humidity ratio, reaching 8. Ideally, in the humidifier, the state of the air follows a web-bulb temperature
line. However, the final temperature at 9 of the air leaving the humidifying depends on the saturation
effectiveness of the humidifier.
 The conditions 1a and 1b of the air resupplied to the two zones A and B, through the mixing boxes, are
located by the points of intersection of the line 7-9 and the respective space conditioning lines of the two
zones.

The dual-duct system can deal with zones of widely different temperature requirements. For instance, some
zones may only need cooling, and other need heating only. Its disadvantages include the high initial cost for two
supply air ducts, and also possible the lowered overall energy efficiency as energy is expended both for cheating
and cooling as in a reheat system.

Variable air volume (VAV) systems

In a VAV system, the temperature of a zone is controlled by varying the supply air flow rate to the zone. This is
achieved by changing the settings of the dampers in the VAV-unit mounted in the supply air duct to the zone.
The main fan of the system is designed to supply the air flow rate required to meet the maximum total cooling
load of the system. The cooling loads on the different zones can attain their maximum values at different times.
VAV systems allow to balance the air flow to the different zones to meet the required maximum flow rates of
each zone. Typical VAV systems are used for summer cooling where only a cooling and dehumidifying coil is
required. Therefore, any reheat required in a zone has to be supplied locally by using a separate heater.

(a) (b)

33
Figure 15. (a) VAV system, and (b) Psychrometric chart.

However, there are variations of VAV systems that incorporate reheat and dual duct arrangements. In such
systems, the ability to control the temperature and humidity of each zone is enhanced.

In the chart,
 The return air from the two zones A and B, at stages 2a and 2b respectively mix adiabatically to produce air
at stage 2.
 The mixing of outdoor air at stage 4 and the return air at stage 2 results in the stage 5 of the air entering the
fan.
 From state 5 to 7, air passing through the cooling and dehumidifying coil along the coil condition line. The
condition lines for the two zones A and B are along the lines 7-2a, and 7-2b respectively.

Example 5. In an air conditioning system return air at 26oC dry-bulb temperature and 50% relative humidity is
mixed with outdoor ambient air at 34oC dry-bulb temperature and 60% relative humidity. The dry air mass flow
rate of outdoor air is 30% of the supply air mass flow rate to the space. The pressure is constant at 101.3 kPa.
(a) Calculate the enthalpy, the humidity ratio and the dry bulb temperature of the supply air using the ideal
gas expressions.
(b) Obtain the answers using the psychrometric chart.

Solution
(a) Let 1 and 2 denote properties of the two air streams and 3 the properties of the mixed stream.

We extract the following steam table data (Table 1)

For 𝑡𝑑𝑏1 = 26 oC, 𝑃𝑔1 = 3.384 kPa, ℎ𝑔1 = 2549.0 kJ/kg;

For 𝑡𝑑𝑏2 = 34 oC, 𝑃𝑔2 = 5.350 kPa, ℎ𝑔1 = 2563.5 kJ/kg;
The total pressure 𝑃 = 101.3 kPa

The humidity ratio

0.6221 𝑃𝑔1 (𝑡) 0.622×0.5×3.384
𝜔1 = = (101.3−0.5×3.384) = 0.010566;
(𝑃−1 𝑃𝑔1 (𝑡))

0.6222 𝑃𝑔2 (𝑡) 0.622×0.6×5.350

𝜔2 = = (101.3−0.6×5.350) = 0.02036;
(𝑃−2 𝑃𝑔2 (𝑡))

The enthalpy
ℎ1 = 𝑐𝑝𝑎 𝑡1 + 𝜔ℎ𝑔1 (𝑡) = 1.0 × 26 + 0.010566 × 2549.0 = 52.93 kJ/kg;
ℎ2 = 𝑐𝑝𝑎 𝑡2 + 𝜔ℎ𝑔2 (𝑡) = 1.0 × 34 + 0.02036 × 2563.5 = 86.19 kJ/kg;

After mixing
𝑚̇𝑎1 ℎ1 + 𝑚̇𝑎2 ℎ2 = 𝑚̇𝑎3 ℎ3 ; so ℎ3 = 0.7 × 52.93 + 0.3 × 86.19 = 62.91 kJ/kg
𝑚̇𝑎1 𝜔1 + 𝑚̇𝑎2 𝜔2 = 𝑚̇𝑎3 𝜔3 ; so 𝜔3 = 0.7 × 0.010566 + 0.3 × 0.02036 = 0.01350

The enthalpy at exit 3 may be written as

ℎ3 = 𝑐𝑝𝑎 𝑡3 + 𝜔ℎ𝑔3 (𝑡) or 1.0𝑡3 + 0.01350ℎ𝑔3 (𝑡) = 62.91

34
We can make an initial guess of the temperature 𝑡3 , and then obtain the saturation vapor enthalpy from the
steam table. The process can be iterated to adjust the guessed value until the above equation is satisfied. We
find 𝑡3 = 28.4℃.

We can also use the following approximate relation

𝑚̇ 𝑚̇
𝑚̇𝑎1 𝑡1 + 𝑚̇𝑎2 𝑡2 = 𝑚̇𝑎3 𝑡3 or 𝑡3 = 𝑚̇𝑎1 𝑡1 + 𝑚̇𝑎2 𝑡2 = 0.7 × 26 + 0.3 × 34 = 28.4℃.
𝑎3 𝑎3
(b) Using the

The solutions obtained are ℎ3 = 65 kJ/kg; 𝑡3 = 29℃; 𝜔3 = 0.014, which agree relatively with the first
method. The psychrometric chart is found to be useful.

Example 6. In a summer air conditioning system, 25% of the return air from a space at 30 oC dry-bulb
temperature, and 22 oC web-bulb temperature is exhausted and an equal quantity of outdoor air at 34 oC dry-
bulb temperature, and 28 oC web-bulb temperature is mixed with the remaining return air.

The mixture passes over a cooling coil whose coil surface temperature (apparatus dew-point) is 8 oC, and the
bypass factor is 0.25.

The mass flow rate of dry air to the space is 0.8 kg/s; and the pressure is constant at 101.3 kPa.

Calculate (a) dry-bulb temperature and the relative humidity of the

air leaving the cooling coil; (b) enthalpy-humidity ratio of the
cooling process, and (c) the refrigeration capacity of the cooling
coil.

Solution
We use psychrometric chart. Identify state 1 (space air) and state 2
(outdoor air), and divide line 1-2 such that (length 1-3)/(length 2-3)
= 1/3. We have 𝑡𝑑𝑏3 = 31℃ and 𝑡𝑤𝑏3 = 23.5℃.

For the cooling coil process, the bypass factor is 0.25, meaning only 75% of the air passes through the ideal
straight line (3-4), to finally achieve the apparatus dew-point of 8oC, i.e. state 4. The cooled air at state 4 mixes
with the bypass air at state 3, to produce the supply air at state 5. To locate 5, we divide line 3-4 so that (length
4-5)/(length 3-5) =1/3.
35
 (a) 𝑡𝑑𝑏5 = 13.8℃ and 5 =89%
(b) To obtain the enthalpy-humidity ratio of the cooling process, we draw a line parallel to line 3-4 through
∆ℎ
the centre of protractor. This gives the ∆𝜔-ratio as 5300 kJ/kg.
(c) The refrigeration capacity of the cooling coil is given by
𝑄̇𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑔 = 𝑚̇𝑎 (ℎ3 − ℎ5 ) = 0.8 × (71 − 36.5) = 27.6 kW.

Example 7. Return air from an air conditioned space is at 32oC db-temperature, and 50% relative humidity. To
satisfy the design requirements of the space, air has to be supplied at 16oC db-temperature, and 65% relative
humidity. The pressure is constant, at 101.3 kPa. Answer the following two questions:
(a) Can a cooling and dehumidifying coil be used as the only processing unit of the system?
(b) What other processing units could be included to satisfy the required conditions of the supply air?

Solution: We find state 1 (32oC db, 50% RH) and state 2 (16oC db, 65%)
on the psychrometric chart. We observe that the condition line 1-2 of the
required ideal cooling coil does not intersect the saturation line. Hence it
is not possible to achieve state 2 of the supply air by a cooling coil alone.

If we draw line 1-3 that is tangential to the saturation curve, then state 3
gives the lowest temperature (3.7oC) to which air could be cooled using
an ideal cooling coil.

Air at stage 5 lying on the horizontal line through 2, can be produced by

cooling 75% of the dry air mass flow to state 3 and later mixing it with the 25% of the bypass mass flow. We
obtain mixed state 5 as 10.8oC. Reheat from 5 to 2, we can produce the required state 2.

Another method – we cool the entire air flow to the saturated state 4 (9.3oC). Reheat sensibly from 4 to 2.

Example 8. (Removed)

Example 9. Ambient air at 38oC db-temperature and 20oC wb-temperature enters an evaporative cooler with a
dry air mass flow rate of 0.75 kg/s. The pressure is constant at 95kPa. The air leaves at a db-temperature of
25oC. Calculate:
(a) The relative humidity of the air at inlet,
(b) The relative humidity of the air at exit,
(c) The rate of flow of water to the cooler, and
(d) The saturation effectiveness of the cooler.

Solution: Since the pressure is 95kPa, we cannot use the standard

psychrometric chart, but we still illustrate the process on it.

We obtain the following data from the steam table.

At 𝑡1 = 38℃, 𝑃𝑔1 = 6.681 kPa, ℎ𝑔1 = 2570.7 kJ/kg;
At 𝑡𝑤1 = 20℃, 𝑃𝑔𝑤1 = 2.338 kPa, ℎ𝑔𝑤1 = 2538.1kJ/kg; ℎ𝑓𝑤1 = 83.9
kJ/kg;
At 𝑡2 = 25℃, 𝑃𝑔1 = 3.169 kPa, ℎ𝑔1 = 2547.2 kJ/kg;

At the wb-temperature, the relative humidity 2 = 100%. The humidity ratio

36
 0.622𝑃𝑔𝑤1 (𝑡) 0.622×2.338
𝜔𝑤1 = = = 0.01569;
𝑃−𝑃𝑔𝑤1 (𝑡) 95−2.338
The enthalpy is
ℎ𝑤1 = 1.0 × 20 + 0.01569 × 2538.1 = 59.82kJ/kg;
The properties at the wb-temperature and db-temperature are related. Hence

ℎ −ℎ
𝑞 = 𝜔𝑤1 −𝜔1 = ℎ𝑓𝑤1 ;
𝑤1 1
Substituting numerical values in this equation, we have 59.82 − (38 + 2570.7𝜔1 ) = 83.9(0.01569 − 𝜔1 ) ,
hence 𝜔1 = 0.00825.

Now the humidity ratio is given

0.622𝑃𝑔1 (𝑡) 0.622×6.6811
𝜔1 = = = 0.00825; hence 1 = 18.61%.
𝑃−𝑃𝑔1 (𝑡) 95−6.6811

Assume that the water sprayed in the humidifier is at the wb-temperature of the incoming air that is at 20oC.
The governing equation of the humidifier is given
ℎ −ℎ
𝑞 = 𝜔2 −𝜔1 = ℎ𝑓𝑤1 ;
2 1
Substituting numerical values in this equation, we have 59.82 − (1.0 × 25 + 2547.2𝜔2 ) =
83.9(𝜔2 − 0.00825 ) , hence 𝜔2 = 0.0135.

Now the humidity ratio is given

0.6222 𝑃𝑔2 (𝑡) 0.622×3.1692
𝜔2 = = = 0.0135; hence 2 = 63.7%, which is the RH at the exit.
𝑃−2 𝑃𝑔2 (𝑡) 95−3.1692
The mass flow rate of water is given
𝑚̇𝑤 = 𝑚̇𝑎 (𝜔2 − 𝜔1 ) = 0.75(0.0135 − 0.00825) = 0.00394 kg/s.
The saturation effectiveness of the humidifier is defined as
𝑡 −𝑡 38−25
𝑒𝑐 = 𝑡 1−𝑡 2 = 38−20 = 72%.
1 𝑤1

Example 10. The rate of sensible heat gain and the rate of moisture gain by a space are 23 kW and 0.0024 kg/s
respectively. The space is maintained at 24oC db-temperature and 50% RH. The air supplied to the space is at
db-temperature of 15oC. Assume that the moisture entering the space has an enthalpy of 2555 kJ/kg. The
pressure is constant at 101.3kPa. Calculate
(a) The relative humidity, the wb-temperature, and the dry air mass flow rate of air supplied;
(b) The refrigeration capacity of the cooling coil; and
(c) The bypass factor and the apparatus dew-point of the cooling coil.

Solution
A schematic diagram of the system is shown in Figure 10a. We locate state
2 of the space air (24oC db-temp and 50%RH).

To find state 1 (supply air), we use SHR protractor.

𝑄̇𝑠 = 23kW; 𝑄̇𝑙 = 0.0024 × 2555 = 6.13kW. ( as ℎ𝑔𝑚 = 2555 kJ/kg.)
𝑄̇ 23
The sensible heat ratio 𝑆𝐻𝑅 = 𝑄̇ +𝑠𝑄̇ = 23+6.13 = 0.7895.
𝑠 𝑙
We first draw a line on the SHR-protractor pointing towards the value of 0.7895. The space condition line is
obtained by drawing a straight line through 2, parallel to the line drawn on the protractor. State 1 is located by
the intersection of the space condition line and the 15oC constant db-temp line.

37
 (a) Read state 1 properties on the psychrometric chart. wb-temp = 12.8oC, and RH = 78%.
23
The mass flow rate of dry air is obtained by 𝑄̇𝑠 = 𝑚̇𝑎 𝑐𝑎𝑚 (𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ), hence 𝑚̇𝑎 = 1.02(24−15) = 2.505
kg/s.
(b) The refrigeration capacity of the cooling coil is given by
𝑄̇𝑟𝑒𝑓 = 𝑚̇𝑎 (ℎ2 − ℎ1 ) = 2.505(48 − 36.3) = 29.3 kW, where the enthalpies are obtained from the
chart. The total heat load on the space is 23+6.13= 29.13 kW. This value should equal to 𝑄̇𝑟𝑒𝑓 by energy
conservation.
(c) The apparatus dew-point or the ideal coil surface temperature is the temperature at the point of
intersection 3, of the line 1-2 and the saturation line. We read 𝑡𝑑 = 𝑡3 = 10.5oC.
The bypass factor of the coil is
𝑡 −𝑡 15−10.5
𝑏 = 𝑡1 −𝑡𝑑 = 24−10.5 = 0.33.
2 𝑑

Example 11. An air conditioning system supplying air to a space with a sensible heat load of 14 kW, and a
latent heat load of 9 kW has a cooling coil and a bypass path as shown in Figure 16.

(a) (b)

Figure 16. (a) A schematic diagram for Example 11; (b) associated psychrometric chart.

The db-temperature of the space is maintained at 26oC. The dry air mass flow rate of supply air is 1.2 kg/s.
Outdoor ventilation air at 34oC db-temperature and 50% RH is introduced into the system with a dry air mass
flow rate of 0.26 kg/s.

The air leaving the cooling coil is fully saturated at a db-temperature of 6oC. The pressure is constant at 101.3
kPa.

Determine
(a) Db-temperature and RH of the supply air to the space;
(b) Wb-temperature of the space;
(c) The temperature of the air entering the cooling coil;
(d) The refrigeration capacity of the cooling coil.

38
Solution: Locate state 6 (6oC db-temp and saturation). The state 6 air mixes with state 2 return air to produce
supply air at state 1. Now the space condition line 1-2 is shown – therefore Points 6, 2 and 1 must all lie on the
condition line.

𝑄̇ 14
The sensible heat ratio, SHR is given by 𝑆𝐻𝑅 = 𝑄̇ +𝑠𝑄̇ = 14+9 = 0.608
𝑠 𝑙
We first draw a line on the SHR-protractor pointing towards the value of 0.608. The space condition line is
obtained by drawing a straight line through 6, parallel to the line drawn on the protractor. The intersection of
this line and the 26oC db-temp gives state 2 of the return air.

The sensible heat load is given by𝑄̇𝑠 = 𝑚̇𝑎 𝑐𝑎𝑚 (𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ), and 14 = 1.2 × 1.02 × (26 − 𝑡1 ),
(a) Hence the supply air temperature𝑡1 = 14.56 ℃.

State 1 is located (14.56 ℃ db-temp and the space condition line). We read RH at state 1 as 77%.

(b) The wb-temperature of the space is read as 𝑡𝑤2 = 19 ℃. The dry air mass flow rates at points 6 and 2a
in Figure 16a are obtained from the lengths of the lines 1-6 and 1-2 on the psychrometric chart. This
gives
𝐿 5.3
𝑚̇𝑎6 = 1.2 × 𝐿12 = 1.2 × 9.3 = 0.68 kg/s; (Note the length differs for charts of different scale).
62
Mass mixing at the mixing junctions 2a-6-7 and 2c-4-5 gives
𝑚̇𝑎2𝑎 = 1.2 − 0.68=0.52 kg/s;
𝑚̇𝑎2𝑐 = 0.68 − 0.26=0.42 kg/s;
The state 4 of the outdoor air is located by the intersection of the 34oC constant db-temperature line and the
50% constant RH curve. The outdoor air at 4 is mixed with return air at 2 to produce air at 5 that enters the
𝐿
cooling coil. Therefore state 5 is obtained by dividing the line 2-4 such that 𝐿45 = 0.42/0.26.
25

(c) We obtain the db-temperature at 5 as 29oC.

(d) The refrigeration capacity of the cooling coil is given by 𝑄̇𝑟𝑒𝑓 = 𝑚̇𝑎 (ℎ5 − ℎ6 ) = 0.68(63 − 20.8) =
28.7 kW, where the enthalpies are obtained from the psychrometric chart.
Note: it is instructive to check the overall energy balance of the system. This can be written as

𝑄̇𝑠 + 𝑄̇𝑙 = 𝑄̇𝑟𝑒𝑓 − 𝑚̇𝑎4 (ℎ4 − ℎ2 ); LHF=14+9=23 kW; RHS=28.7-0.26(77.5-54)=22.6 kW.

Fairly good balance! Considering we read quite a number of quantities from the psychrometric chart.

39
Chapter 3. Heat and moisture transfer in buildings, and cooling and heating loads

To calculate the cooling and heating loads, we need to understand the basic process of heat and moisture
transfer in buildings.

Steady heat transfer through multi-layered structures

As shown in Figure 1, a typical wall consists an outer layer 1, followed by a sheathing layer 2, that bears
agonists a wooden frame made of vertical beams called studs, (s). The space between these studs is filled with
insulation material (in). The inside of the wall consists of a layer of wall board 4. Hence this is a thermal
network with both series and parallel heat flow paths, which can be handled by at least two methods, i.e. the
parallel path method and the isothermal plane method. The final results are the same.

Figure 1. (Left) typical arrangement of a multi-layered wall structure; (Right) Corresponding networks
with (a) parallel path; and (b) isothermal plane.

In the isothermal plane method, we assume that the heat flow paths are parallel only through the insulation and
the studs.

The individual thermal resistances of the wall sections are

1 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 1
𝑅𝑜𝑎 = 𝐴 ℎ ; 𝑅1 = 𝐴 1𝑘 ; 𝑅2 = 𝐴 2𝑘 ; 𝑅𝑠 = 𝐴 𝑘𝑠 ; 𝑅4 = 𝐴 4𝑘 ; 𝑅𝑖𝑛 = 𝐴 𝑖𝑛𝑘 ; 𝑅𝑖𝑎 = 𝐴 ℎ
𝑤 𝑜 𝑤 1 𝑤 2 𝑠 𝑠 𝑤 4 𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑤 𝑖
Where the total wall area 𝐴𝑤 = 𝐴𝑠 + 𝐴𝑖𝑛
The overall thermal resistance of the wall
1 1 −1
𝑅𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 𝑅𝑜𝑎 + 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + (𝑅 + 𝑅 ) + 𝑅4 + 𝑅𝑖𝑎 ;
𝑠 𝑖𝑛
We can then calculate the overall heat transfer coefficient, 𝑈𝑜
∆𝑇
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑤 𝑈𝑜 ∆𝑇 = 𝑅 ; where ∆𝑇 = 𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜 is the overall temperature difference.
𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙

Radiation heat transfer coefficient

On each surface, both interior and exterior surfaces, in addition to the convective heat transfer, there also exists
radiative heat transfer between it and other surrounding surfaces. Fortunately, the temperature difference
between surfaces is generally small, and this allows us to simplify the calculation.

Consider a flat surface, e.g. a roof, losing heat by both thermal radiation and convection to the surrounding
ambient. The sky, with which the surface exchanges radiation, may be treated as a large hemispherical surface
at an absolute temperature 𝑇𝑜 .
40
The net rate of radiation heat transfer between the surface and sky is
𝑄𝑟 = 𝐴𝜎𝜀(𝑇𝑠4 − 𝑇𝑜4 ), where 𝜀, 𝐴 and 𝑇𝑠 are the emissivity, area and the absolute temperature of the surface.
𝑇𝑠 +𝑇𝑜
Let ∆𝑇 = 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑜 and 𝑇𝑎𝑣 = , we can write (derivation not shown)
2
3 0.25∆𝑇 2 3
𝑄𝑟 = 𝐴𝜎𝜀(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑜 ) [4𝑇𝑎𝑣 (1 + 2 )] ≈ 𝐴(4𝑇𝑎𝑣 𝜎𝜀)(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑜 )= 𝐴ℎ𝑟 (𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑜 );
𝑇𝑎𝑣
3
where ℎ𝑟 = 4𝑇𝑎𝑣 𝜎𝜀 is the radiation heat transfer coefficient.

The convective heat transfer rate 𝑄𝑐 = 𝐴ℎ𝑐 (𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑎 ), and if the sky temperature assumed to be close to the
ambient air temperature 𝑇𝑎 , the total heat transfer rate becomes

𝑄𝑡 = 𝐴(ℎ𝑐 + ℎ𝑟 )(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑎 ) = 𝐴ℎ𝑐𝑟 (𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑎 ); where ℎ𝑐𝑟 is the combined convection-radiation heat transfer
coefficient.

Table 1. Surface combined heat transfer coefficients in still air (ASHRSE 2013 Fundamentals)

Orientation of Heat flow Emissivity =0.9 Emissivity =0.2 Emissivity =0.05

surface direction ℎ𝑐𝑟 [W/m2K] ℎ𝑐𝑟 [W/m2K] ℎ𝑐𝑟 [W/m2K]
Horizontal Upward 9.26 5.17 4.32
Slope 45 Upward 9.09 5.0 4.15
Vertical Horizontal 8.29 4.2 3.35
Slope 45 Downward 7.5 3.41 2.56
Horizontal Downward 6.13 2.1 1.25

For moving air: ℎ𝑐𝑟 = 34 [W/m2K] at speed 6.7 m/s and : ℎ𝑐𝑟 = 22.7 [W/m2K] at speed 3.4 m/s.

Overall heat transfer coefficient of windows and doors

Heat transfer across windows and doors occur through the transparent section as well as the frame. Again we
assume that the heat flow is 1D for the central glass area, but 2D for the edge of the glass and the frame. For
design calculations, the window or door is divided into three sections with different average heat transfer
coefficients, i.e. the center of the glass (area 𝐴𝑐𝑔 ), the edge of the glass (area 𝐴𝑒𝑔 )and the frame (area 𝐴𝑓𝑟 ). The
average heat transfer coefficients for the edge and the frame can be done by 2D simulations.

(a) (b)

Figure 2. (a) Double-glazing unit construction; (b) heat flow sections of window.
41
The total heat transfer across the window may be expressed in terms of an average heat transfer coefficient 𝑈𝑜 .
(𝐴𝑐𝑔 + 𝐴𝑒𝑔 + 𝐴𝑓𝑟 )𝑈𝑜 ∆𝑇 = 𝐴𝑐𝑔 𝑈𝑐𝑔 ∆𝑇 + 𝐴𝑒𝑔 𝑈𝑒𝑔 ∆𝑇 + 𝐴𝑓𝑟 𝑈𝑓𝑟 ∆𝑇;
𝐴𝑐𝑔 𝑈𝑐𝑔 +𝐴𝑒𝑔 𝑈𝑒𝑔 +𝐴𝑓𝑟 𝑈𝑓𝑟
𝑈𝑜 = .
𝐴𝑐𝑔 +𝐴𝑒𝑔 +𝐴𝑓𝑟

Table 2. U-values of fixed double-glazed windows [W/m2K] (ASHRSE 2013 Fundamentals) (based on -18oC
outdoor and 21 oC indoor temperatures, wind speed of 6.7 m/s.)

Gap, gas in Center of glass Edge of glass

Aluminum Aluminum
space 𝑈𝑐𝑔 𝑈𝑒𝑔 frame without frame with
break, 𝑈𝑓𝑟 break, 𝑈𝑓𝑟
6 mm, air 3.12 3.63 3.88 3.52
13 mm, air 2.73 3.36 3.54 3.18
6 mm, argon 2.90 3.48 3.68 3.33
13 mm, argon 2.56 3.24 3.39 3.04
6 mm, air* 2.95 3.52 3.73 3.38
13 mm, air* 2.50 3.20 3.34 2.9
6 mm, argon* 2.67 3.32 3.49 3.13
13 mm, argon* 2.33 3.08 3.20 2.84
*) for the two surfaces facing the gas space, the emissivity, 𝜀 = 0.60

Calculations for basement walls and floors are possible, but not included here.

Heat transfer in gas filled cavities

Gas filled spaces or cavities are present in several building envelope components, such as walls, roofs and
multi-glazed fenestrations like windows, doors and sky lights. In some windows, the space between the two
glass panes may be filled with a gas like argon or krypton.

Heat transfer across the gas space of two surfaces 𝑇1 and 𝑇2 , occurs due to radiation and convection.
𝑄𝑡 = 𝑄𝑟 + 𝑄𝑐 = (ℎ𝑐 + ℎ𝑟 )(𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ) = ℎ𝑒𝑓𝑓 (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 );
3 𝑇1 +𝑇2
ℎ𝑒𝑓𝑓 =ℎ𝑐 + 4𝜀𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝜎𝑇𝑎𝑣 , where 𝑇𝑎𝑣 = 2

The ℎ𝑒𝑓𝑓 values are also available from ASHRAE 2013 fundamentals. Table 3 presented some representative
values for 13 mm vertical air spaces.

Table 3. Heat transfer coefficients (W/m2K) for 13 mm vertical air spaces.

𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 ℃ ∆𝑇, ℃ 𝜀𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 0.03 𝜀𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 0.05 𝜀𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 0.2 𝜀𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 0.5 𝜀𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 0.82
32.2 5.6 2.33 2.44 3.45 5.26 7.14
10.0 16.7 2.22 2.33 3.13 4.55 6.25
5.6 2.13 2.22 3.03 4.55 6.25
-17.8 11.1 2.0 2.08 2.63 3.85 5.0
5.6 1.92 2.0 2.56 3.7 5.0
-45.5 11.1 1.96 2.0 2.44 3.23 4.17
5.6 1.79 1.82 2.22 3.03 3.85

Infiltration
42
This is the unintended air flows into a conditioned space through cracks and openings in the building envelope.
The infiltration rate 𝑚̇𝑎 can be estimated using the air flow theory.

The cooling load 𝑄𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚̇𝑎 (ℎ𝑜 − ℎ𝑖 ) = 𝑄𝑠 + 𝑄𝑙

The sensible and latent cooling loads
𝑄𝑠 = 𝑚̇𝑎 𝑐𝑎𝑚 (𝑡𝑜 − 𝑡𝑖 ); 𝑄𝑙 = 𝑚̇𝑎 ℎ𝑔𝑚 (𝜔𝑜 − 𝜔𝑖 ) and added moisture 𝑚𝑤 = 𝑚̇𝑎 (𝜔𝑜 − 𝜔𝑖 ).

Substituting the density and specific heat capacity of air at standard conditions of 1 bar (100kPa) and 15oC, i.e.
𝜌𝑎 = 1.2255 kg/m3; 𝑐𝑝 =1.006 kJ/kg; ℎ𝑓𝑔 = 2465.95 kJ/kg
𝑄𝑠 [kW] = 1.23𝑉̇𝑖𝑛 (𝑡𝑜 − 𝑡𝑖 ); 𝑄𝑙 [kW] = 3020𝑉̇𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑜 − 𝜔𝑖 )
where 𝑉̇𝑖𝑛 is the volume flow rate of infiltration air (m3/s).
The infiltration air flow rate is sometimes specified as air exchanges per hour (ACH).
3600𝑉̇𝑖𝑛
ACH= , where V is the building volume.
𝑉

Solar radiation
Solar radiation incident on the external surfaces of a building contributes significantly to the cooling load of the
building.
 Opaque surfaces such as walls and roofs absorb a fraction of the incident solar radiation, and reflect the
rest. A portion of the absorbed radiation is conducted through the wall or roof, while the rest is lost to
the ambient by convection, and thermal radiation exchange with surrounding surfaces.
 On transparent surfaces like glass windows and skylights, the solar radiation incident undergoes
reflection, absorption and transmission. The absorbed is either transferred to the inside air by conduction
and then convection, or to the surroundings by radiation. The transmitted arrive on different inner
surfaces such the floor, being absorbed, conducted or radiated again by these inner surfaces. The glass
windows and skylights are usually called fenestrations.

Total solar radiation incident on a surface (horizontal, vertical or inclined) can be calculated or measured, as a
function of the three fundamental angular quantities, the latitude, the declination and the hour angle. The
location of the sub at any time during the day can be specified by two angles, i.e. the solar altitude angle and the
solar azimuth angle.

The shading of surfaces from solar radiation can also be estimated.

Example 1. An exterior wall of a building has a 10cm thick layer of face brick on the outside, followed by a
layer of 20 cm thick concrete. A 15 cm thick layer of mineral wool insulation is sandwiched between the
concrete and a layer of plywood of thickness 10 mm. The wall is 10 m long and 3 m high. The outside and
inside heat transfer coefficients are 30 W/m2K and 9 W/m2K respectively. The inside and outside air
temperature are 22oC and -15oC respectively. Calculate
(a) The total thermal resistance;
(b) The overall heat transfer coefficient, and
(c) The total heat transfer rate through the wall.

Solution: Consider unit area of the wall where the

constituent layers are in series. The thermal resistance of
1
a layer is 𝑅𝑖 = 𝐴 𝐾 . Here we obtain the data as follows
𝑖 𝑖
(note: we obtain the thermal conductivity values from
ASHRA 2013 Fundamentals).

43
 Layer, i 𝑘𝑖 ,W/mK 𝐿𝑖 , mm 𝑅𝑖 , m2K/W
Brick 0.81 100 0.123
Concrete 1.8 200 0.11
Mineral wool 0.035 150 4.29
Plywood 0.095 10 0.105

1 1 1 1
Also 𝑅𝑖𝑛 = ℎ = 9 = 0.11 m2K/W; 𝑅𝑜𝑢 = ℎ = 30 = 0.033 m2K/W
𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑢
Total thermal resistance 𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 0.033 + 0.123 + 0.11 + 4.29 + 0.105 + 0.11 = 4.77 m2K/W;
1 1
The overall heat transfer coefficient is 𝑈𝑜 = 𝑅 = 4.77 = 0.21W/ m2K.
𝑡𝑜𝑡
The total heat transfer rate through the wall is 𝑄𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝐴𝑈𝑜 (𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜 ) = 10 × 3 × 0.21 × (22 + 15) = 233W.

Example 2. A building has an exterior wall with 14 cm framing that makes 20% of its area. The wall consists of
the following layers of materials:

9.5 cm thick gypsum board on the inside of the framing, fiber glass in the spaces between the framing, 12.7 mm
thick sheathing next to the insulation and framing, 38 cm thick layer of expanded polystyrene, 10 cm thick layer
of brick on the outside.

The air temperature inside is 20oC and the outside ambient temperature
is -10oC. The wind speed is 12 km/h. The inside heat transfer
coefficient is 8 W/m2K. Calculate (a) the total thermal resistance; (b)
the average heat transfer coefficient, and (c) the average heat transfer
rate through the wall using (i) the parallel path method, and (ii) the
isothermal plane method.

Solution

𝐿𝑖
It is convenient to first compute the unit thermal resistance 𝑅̅𝑖 = , considering the unit cross sectional area of
𝑘𝑖
each heat transfer path.

Layer, i Actual area, m2 𝑘𝑖 ,W/mK 𝐿𝑖 , mm 𝑅𝑖 , m2K/W

Brick 1.0 0.89 100 0.11
Polystyrene 1.0 0.036 38 1.06
Sheathing 1.0 0.055 12.7 0.23
Wood frame 0.2 0.15 140 0.93
Fiber glass 0.8 0.04 140 3.5
44
 Gypsum 1.0 0.16 9.5 0.059

For wind speed 13 km/h or 3.6 m/s, we can find from reference that ℎ𝑜 = 25 W/m2K. The unit thermal
resistance of the indoor and outdoor air films, including contributions due to thermal radiation are
1 1 1 1
𝑅̅𝑖 = ℎ = 8 = 0.125 m2K/W; 𝑅̅𝑜 = ℎ = 25 = 0.04 m2K/W
𝑖 𝑜

(i) Consider two parallel heat flow paths from the outside air to the inside air, the first through the wood
framing and the second through the fiber glass insulation.
The total thermal resistance of these two paths are
1 2.554
𝑅𝑓𝑟 = 𝐴 (0.04 + 0.11 + 1.06 + 0.23 + 0.93 + 0.059 + 0.125) = 0.2 = 12.77 K/W;
𝑓𝑟
1 5.124
𝑅𝑖𝑛 = 𝐴 (0.04 + 0.11 + 1.06 + 0.23 + 3.5 + 0.059 + 0.125) = = 6.405 K/W;
𝑖𝑛 0.8
The two resistances above are in parallel. Therefore the overall thermal resistance is
−1 −1
1 1 1 1
𝑅𝑝𝑟 = (𝑅 + 𝑅 ) = (12.77 + 6.405) = 4.27 K/W
𝑓𝑟 𝑖𝑛
The overall heat transfer coefficient is
1 1
𝑈𝑝𝑟 = 𝐴 𝑅 = 1×4.27 = 0.234 W/m2K.
𝑡𝑜𝑡 𝑝𝑟
The average heat transfer rate through the wall is
𝑄𝑝𝑟 = 𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑡 𝑈𝑝𝑟 (𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜 ) = 1 × 0.234 × (20 − (−10)) = 7W/m2

(ii) Isothermal plane method

In the isothermal plane method we assume that heat flows uniformly through all the layers except the framing
and the insulation where the heat flow paths are parallel. The thermal resistances of the latter two paths are
0.93 3.5
𝑅𝑓𝑟 = 0.2 = 4.65 and 𝑅𝑖𝑛𝑠 = 0.8 = 4.375
The equivalent resistance of these two parallel paths is
−1 −1
1 1
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = (𝑅 ) = (4.65+4.375) = 2.254 K/W
𝑓𝑟 +𝑅𝑖𝑛𝑠
Hence the total thermal resistance is
𝑅𝑖𝑠𝑜 = 0.04 + 0.11 + 1.06 + 0.23 + 2.254 + 0.059 + 0.125 = 3.88 K/W
The overall heat transfer coefficient is
1 1
𝑈𝑖𝑠𝑜 = 𝐴 𝑅 = 1×3.88 = 0.258 W/m2K.
𝑡𝑜𝑡 𝑖𝑠𝑜
The average heat transfer rate through the wall is
𝑄𝑖𝑠𝑜 = 𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑡 𝑈𝑖𝑠𝑜 (𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜 ) = 1 × 0.258 × (20 − (−10)) = 7.74W/m2

Example 3. A building has a double-glazed vertical window with a 13 mm air space between the two glasses.
The glass thickness is 6 mm and thermal conductivity is 0.8 W/mK. The emissivity of glass is 0.9. The inside
and outside heat transfer coefficients are 8.3 W/m2K and 34 W/m2K respectively. The indoor air conditions are
20oC and 49% RH. The outdoor air temperature is -10oC. The ambient pressure is 101.3 kPa.
(a) Calculate the rate of heat loss through the center of the window.
(b) Will condensation occur on the inner surfaces of the window?

Solution: Consider unit area (𝐴 = 1 m2) of the window. Thermal resistance of each glass pane is
𝐿𝑔 6×10−3
𝑅𝑔 = 𝑘 = = 7.5 × 10−3 m2K/W
𝑔 0.8
The effective emissivity for the air-filled cavity between the glass panes is given

45
 1 1 1 2
= 𝜀 + 𝜀 − 1 = 0.9 − 1 = 1.22, so 𝜀𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 0.82 W/m2K.
𝜀𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑔 𝑔

As an initial guess assume the inner and outer glass surface temperature to be 14oC and -8oC respectively. The
mean air space temperature is 3oC, and the temperature difference is 22oC. The air space heat transfer
coefficient is a function of the surface emissivity, mean air space temperature and temperature difference. Table
3 includes some typical values. Using it or similar, we find ℎ𝑐 = 6.02 W/m2K.

The overall thermal resistance of the center of the window is

1 1 −3 1 −3 1
= + 7.5 × 10 + + 7.5 × 10 + = 0.33 , and 𝑈𝑜 = 3.02 W/m2K.
𝑈𝑜 8.3 6.02 34

The total heat transfer rate per unit area through the center of the window is

𝑄 = 𝑈𝑜 (𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜 ) = 3.02 × 30 = 90.6W/m2

We now obtain an improved estimate of the inner glass surface temperatures by applying network analogy.
Hence we have
1
𝑇𝑔1 = 20 − 90.6 ( + 7.5 × 10−3 ) = 8.4℃;
8.3
1
𝑇𝑔2 = −10 + 90.6 (34 + 7.5 × 10−3 ) = −6.65℃.

Therefore, the new mean air space temperature and the temperature difference are 0.9oC and 15oC respectively.
We use the same Table 3 to obtain new air space heat transfer coefficient, ℎ𝑐 = 5.7 W/m2K
The overall thermal resistance of the center of the window is
1 1 −3 1 −3 1
= + 7.5 × 10 + + 7.5 × 10 + = 0.34 , and 𝑈𝑜 = 2.94 W/m2K.
𝑈𝑜 8.3 5.7 34

The total heat transfer rate per unit area through the center of the window is

𝑄 = 𝑈𝑜 (𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜 ) = 2.94 × 30 = 88.2W/m2

We now obtain an improved estimate of the inner glass surface temperatures by applying network analogy.
Hence we have
1
𝑇𝑔1 = 20 − 88.2 (8.3 + 7.5 × 10−3 ) = 9.4℃.

Now the indoor air conditions are 20oC and 49% RH, hence the dew-point is 9oC, according to the
psychrometric chart, which is slightly lower than the inner glass surface temperature, hence probably no
condensation occurs.

Cooling load and heating load calculations

Space heating load refers to the rate of heat input needed to maintain the indoor temperatures and humidity of a
building within specified limits during the winter heating season. The heating load includes:
 The heat loss to the outside ambient across the building envelope
 The heat required to raise the temperature of the infiltrated air as the outdoor air is colder than the indoor
air.

Space cooling load refers to the total rate of heat that is needed to be removed from the space to maintain a
comfortable temperature and relative humidity. The cooling load includes
 The heat gain from the outside ambient across the building envelope
 Solar radiation entering through the windows
 Heat released from lighting, occupants and other equipment such as computers.
46
  Heat gained due to the infiltration of the outside warmer and humid air

Figure 3. Illustration how energy and moisture flow in a building

The space loads are time varying.

The detailed energy and moisture flows in a building are shown in Figure 3. Clearly, a detailed analysis of all
the transient process is complex and also tedious. In real design, load estimation is done by computer software.
Our aim here is to describe the physical principles that form the basis of these computerized procedures of load
estimation.

Note that ASHRAE simplified the wind heating load estimation, by ignoring the solar radiation gain.

Assume that we have a magic and accurate computer software which can simulate the entire system of a
building including the heat and moisture transfer, and the air conditioning system operation. We have the
detailed, say hourly weather data over the last 100 years. We can simulate how the system performs all the
100 × 365 × 24 hours, and a large number of design options need to be tested. We can choose an ideal design
which can satisfy, say 99% of time, as the most extreme weather conditions may lead to unrealistic cost. In
practice, we cannot choose such a process, and engineers are smarter (as always). They choose the design
conditions for both outdoor and indoor, and they make assumptions so that their design calculations are
sufficiently fast.

Outdoor design conditions

47
The design is normally done to meet the first the extreme weather conditions expected at a location. The
weather records for a large number of locations around the world have been compiled and processed to develop
a series of weather related outdoor design conditions. They are tabulated in ASHRAE Fundamentals.

Table 1. Design weather data for winter heating systems

Location Lat deg. Long. deg DB (oC) DB (oC) Wind Wind

99.6% 99% speed (m/s) speed (m/s)
1% 5%
New York 40.7N 73.8W -13.0 -10.2 12.1 9.2
Dallas 32.9N 97.04W -5.0 -2.6 11.6 9.2
Toronto 43.68N 79.63W -16.1 -13.3 13.3 10.5
Sydney 33.93S 151.18E 6.1 7.1 12.9 10.2
Beijing 39.93N 116.28E -11.0 -9.1 9.8 6.7
Bangalore 12.97N 77.58E 15.2 15.9 5.5 4.1
Hong Kong 22.33N 114.18E 9.0 10.8 10.2 9.4

Table 2. Design weather data for summer cooling systems

Location DB/MCWB (oC) DB/MCWB (oC) DB/MCWB (oC) 2.0%

0.4% 1.0 %
New York 29.8/22.4 27.8/21.6 26.6/21.1
Dallas 38.0/23.6 37/23.7 35.8/23.9
Toronto 28.5/21.8 26.8/21.4 25.3/20.8
Sydney 32.9/19.5 30.1/20.1 28.2/20.0
Beijing 35//22.0 33.2/22.5 32/22.4
Bangalore 34.2/19.8 33.4/19.8 32.6/19.8
HK 33.2/26.3 32.9/26.3 32.1/26.2

In Table 1, the middle two columns give the dry bulb temperatures during the coldest month of the year with
respective annual cumulative frequencies of 99.6% and 99%. The values listed under 99.6% is the ambient
temperature exceeded 99.6% of the time during a year. In the case of New York, this implies that, on average,
the low temperature of -13oC is exceeded during 8725 out of 8760 hours a year. In the last two columns, the
wind speeds exceeded, on average, during 1% (88 hours) and 5% (438 hours) of the time during a year, are
shown

In Table 2, the dry bulb (DB) temperatures under 0.4%, 1% and 2% levels are the
high temperature exceeded, on average, 0.4% (35 hours), 1% (88 hours) and 2%
(175 hours) of the time during a year. The “mean coincident wet-bulb temperature
“(MCWB) is the average value of the wet-bulb temperature at the corresponding
dry-bulb temperature. 0.4% level is often selected for design.

Human body thermal balance

The human body converts chemical energy from food into heat and mechanical
work by a process called metabolism. The metabolic energy generation rate, usually
in met unit in thermal comfort (1 met = 58.2 W/m2 of body area),
depending on the activity level, age and health conditions. Povl Ole Fanger (1934 –2006), Danish
scientist, developed the thermal comfort
theory still being used today.

48
Temperature regulation of the body is achieved through the control of blood flow rate to the skin. As the
environmental temperature goes up, the blood flow rate to the skin increases to raise the skin temperature,
which in turn, increases the heat transfer rate to the environment. This process is effective until the skin
temperature reaches the core body temperature of 37 oC. At this stage, sweating is initiated, which transfer the
metabolic heat to the surroundings by evaporation.

Figure 4. Thermal interaction of the human body with the environment.

The energy and moisture transfer between human body, cloth and environment is shown in Figure 4.

 The metabolic heat and sweat reaching the skin flows across the air gap between the skin and the inner
surface of the clothing. Heat and moisture then diffuse the clothing layer to the outer surface. The above
heat and moisture transfer processes depend respectively on the effective thermal resistance, and mass
transfer resistance of the clothing layer.
 Heat transfer from the clothing surface to the ambient occurs by convection and thermal radiation. The rate
of convection is governed by the ambient air temperature, and the air movement around the clothing surface.
The radiation transfer, on the other hand, is governed by the temperature of the surrounding surfaces.

Question: Can the temperature of surrounding surfaces in a room differ from the air temperature? Explain your
answer.

 The rate of energy transfer to the ambient due to the evaporation of sweat is dependent on the ambient
temperature, the relative humidity and the speed of air movement.
 Heat is also transferred from the body to the ambient due to respiration. The rate of energy transfer in this
case depends on the average air flow rate into the lungs and the temperature and relative humidity of
ambient air.

Two important physiological variables affecting thermal comfort are the skin temperature and the evaporation
rate due to sweating.

Effective temperature
Several comfort indexes were developed to correlate human thermal comfort to the surrounding environmental
conditions. One is the effective temperature.

Assume: the energy loss due to respiration is negligible; the surrounding surface temperature is the same as the
air temperature; and the wetted area of the skin is constant.

We have the heat loss rate from the skin, 𝑄𝑠𝑘 to the ambient at 𝑡𝑜 and 𝜔𝑜
49
𝑄𝑠𝑘 = 𝐶𝑠𝑒𝑛 (𝑡𝑠𝑘 − 𝑡𝑜 ) + 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑡 (𝜔𝑠,𝑠𝑘 − 𝜔𝑜 ) (1)

Where 𝑡𝑠𝑘 and 𝜔𝑠,𝑠𝑘 are the skin temperature and the satuation humidity ratio at the skin temperature
respectively. The sensible and latent heat parameters 𝐶𝑠𝑒𝑛 and 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑡 depends on either overall heat/moisture
transfer coefficient from clothing to ambient.

Here is the trick. If we select an arbitrary air temperature, 𝑡𝑜∗ and a RH of 50%, it becomes
𝑄𝑠𝑘∗ = 𝐶𝑠𝑒𝑛 (𝑡𝑠𝑘 − 𝑡𝑜∗ ) + 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑡 (𝜔𝑠,𝑠𝑘 − 0.5𝜔𝑠,𝑡𝑜∗ ) (2)

Note that at 50% relative humidity, the humidity ratio is approximately half the saturation humidity ratio, 𝜔𝑠,𝑡𝑜 .

(a) (b)

Figure 5. (a) Line of constant heat loss and effective temperature ET*, and (b) the ASHRAE summer and
winter comfort zones.

Now 𝑄𝑠𝑘∗ is a function of 𝑡𝑜∗ only. 𝑡𝑜∗ is referred to effective temperature, denoted as ET*. If RH is another
value, the corresponding ET* values for the same 𝑄𝑠𝑘∗ value, can be obtained by solving (1). Thus, ET* follows
a straight line through Point B (𝑡𝑜∗ , 50% RH) as shown in Figure 5a. Once the effective temperature B changes
to a higher value, say at Pont P, then due to Equation (1), the sensible heat transfer reduces, and the latent heat
transfer has to be increase, hence the corresponding humidity ratio will be less to maintain the same total heat
loss.

Question: What humidity ratio benefits thermal comfort? A higher value or a lower value?

Indoor design conditions

The ASHARE thermal comfort chart based on the effective temperature concept is shown in Figure 5b. The
indicated comfort zones for winter and summer are for people performing office type work, and wearing
clothing with thermal resistances of 1.0 clo (winter) and 0.5 clo (summer) respectively. The speed of air
movement is less than 0.2 m/s. The upper limit of the humidity ratio is 0.012 kg/kg DA, and no lower limit is
recommended. The recommended temperature range is 20-25oC for winter and 24-28 oC for summer.

50
In the middle of a thermal comfort zone, a person wearing the prescribed clothing would have a neutral thermal
sensation. The middle of the winter and summer comfort zones are 22oC /50% RH, and 25oC/50%RH
respectively.

Indoor air quality

Airborne pollutants are generated within the conditioned space, and can also be transported from other
locations, such as the ambient or neighboring rooms. One of the major pollutant sources is due to the human
body. Some pollutants can be removed by air cleaning, e.g. filtration for removing fine particles. In general,
ventilation, i.e. supply of outdoor “clean” air can be used to dilute the indoor air pollutants. This also means that
the ventilation air intakes should not be close to high pollution areas, such as roads with heavy traffic.

Because that the ventilation air needs to be cooled and dehumidified (in Hong Kong for example), the amount
of ventilation air should be as small as possible while maintaining a reasonable indoor air quality.

The minimum ventilation rates are given by recognizable standards such as those form ASHRAE. The values
depend on the number of occupants, and their activities, as well as the indoor materials.

Table 3. Minimum ASHRAE recommended ventilation rates.

Application Function Design occupancy/100m2 Ventilation air flow rate
per person (L/s)
Office Offices 7 10
Conference room 50 10
Restaurant Lounge 100 15
Dining room 70 10
Kitchen 20 7.5
Retail store Shops, malls 20 1 (L/sm2)
Sport area Ballrooms 100 13
Gymnasiums 30 10

Internal heat sources in buildings (people, lights, and equipment)

Note: during winter season, these internal heat sources help to reduce the heating load, not included in heating
load calculations.

Heat gain from people

Metabolic heat of people is released to the air both as sensible heat, and latent heat due to sweating,
 The sensible heat consists of a convective component (thus released to indoor air immediately) and a
radiative component, which first absorbed by other surfaces and later released to indoor air by convection.
This time delay needs to be considered.
 The latent heat is released to indoor air immediately

Table 4. Heat and moisture released by people of different activities

Activity level Total heat (W) Sensible Latent Radiant/sensible heat (%)
Adult male Adjusted for heat (W) heat (W) Low air speed High air
M/F/children 0.5 m/s speed 2 m/s
Seated at theater 115 95 65 30 60 27
Moderate office 140 130 75 55 58 38
work
Walking, standing 160 145 75 70 58 38
51
 Light bench work, 235 220 80 140 49 35
factory
Heavy work, 440 425 170 255 54 19
factory

Heat gain from lighting

The radiant energy emitted by lights is absorbed by different surfaces in the room, especially the floor (as most
lighting is on the ceiling), and the absorbed heat on surfaces released to indoor air later. Lights also transfer heat
to air directly by convection due to their higher operating temperature.

The rate of heat gain, 𝑞𝑒𝑙 = 𝑊𝐹𝑢𝑙 𝐹𝑠𝑎 , where 𝑊is the total light wattage (not including the energy released by
ballasts), 𝐹𝑢𝑙 is the fraction of the wattage in use, and 𝐹𝑠𝑎 is the special allowance factor which is the ratio of the
actual energy released by the lighting fixture to the power consumption of the lamps.

Furthermore, the fraction of the total heat that enters the room is called the space fraction. For example, for the
recessed lights located in ceilings, only a portion of the heat released enters the room air, while the rest goes to
unconditioned space above the ceiling.

Table 5. Lighting heat gain parameters

Luminaire type Space fraction Radiative fraction
Recessed fluorescent without lens 0.64-0.74 0.48-0.68
Recessed fluorescent with lens 0.40-0.50 0.61-0.73
Downlight compact fluorescent 0.12-0.24 0.95-1.0
Downlight incandescent 0.70-0.80 0.95-1.0
Not-in-ceiling fluorescent 1.0 0.50-0.57

Heat from equipment

Estimation is difficult due to the wide variety, and varying operating schedules. The direct use of the energy
data on the nameplate can be a significant overestimate. For a list of equipment, see the latest ASHRAE
handbooks.

Table 6. Radiative and convective fractions for various heat gains.

Type of heat gain Radiative fraction Convective fraction
Occupants, office 0.6 0.4
Office equipment 0.1-0.8 0.9-0.2
Lights
Conduction through walls 0.46 0.54
Conduction through roofs 0.6 0.4
Conduction through windows
SHGC>0.5 0.33 0.67
SHGC<0.5 0.46 0.54

Transient effect (Note that formulas (except those in Page review list) are not required)
If all the heat gains can be added together, then the calculation of cooling load is easy. The difficulty arises due
to the temporary storage of walls and other surfaces. We shall demonstrate this by a simple case.

We assume that the room air temperature, 𝑇𝑎 is constant. The interior or exterior surface absorbs a fraction 𝛼 of
the incident solar radiation or lighting radiation, 𝐼(𝑡) as a function of time, and also exchange heat with room

52
air by a combined convection and thermal radiation (ℎ𝑠 ). The wall is thin with a high conductivity, so that we
assume that its temperature is uniform, at 𝑇𝑠 .

Figure 6. A simple model of a thin wall; (a) thin wall surface; (b) thin interior surface.

𝑑𝑇𝑠
(𝜌𝑐𝑙𝐴) = 𝐴𝛼𝐼(𝑡) − 𝐴ℎ𝑠 (𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑎 ); (1)
𝑑𝑡

where A is the wall surface area, l is the thickness, c is the specific heat capacity, and 𝜌 is the density of wall
material.

The heat flux per unit area entering the room from the surface is
𝑞𝑖 = ℎ𝑠 (𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑎 ); (2)
𝑑𝑞
Thus 𝑑𝑡𝑖 + 𝑞𝑖 = 𝛽𝐼(𝑡), (3)
ℎ 𝛼ℎ𝑠
where  = 𝜌𝑐𝑙𝑠 and 𝛽 = = 𝛼.
𝜌𝑐𝑙

The solution of this first order ODE (3) is

𝑡
𝑞𝑖 (𝑡) = 𝑞𝑖0 𝑒 −𝑡 + 𝛼 ∫0 𝐼(𝜏)𝑒 −𝑡 𝑑𝜏 (4)
where 𝑞𝑖0 is the heat flux at time 𝑡 = 0. The above solution shows that the current heat flux at time 𝑡 is affected
by the heat gain that occurred at earlier times, i.e. between 𝑡 = 0 to the present.

If 𝐼(𝑡) is a constant 𝐼0 , we have 𝑞𝑖 (𝑡) = 𝑞𝑖0 𝑒 −𝑡 + 𝛼𝐼0 (1 − 𝑒 −𝑡 ) (5)

1
(note that ∫ 𝑒 −𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = −  𝑒 −𝑡 + 𝐶)

Solution (5) shows that as time goes to infinity, 𝑞𝑖 (𝑡) = 𝛼𝐼0 , though at time 𝑡 = 0, 𝑞𝑖 (𝑡) = 𝑞𝑖0 .

We divide the period 𝑡 into 𝑡 = 𝑁∆𝜏, where 𝑁 is the total number of intervals. Assume each interval ∆𝜏 is one
hour, and we assume that heat gain 𝐼(𝜏) is constant during each time interval. Solution (4) gives

𝑞𝑖 (𝑡) = 𝑞𝑖0 𝑒 −𝑁∆𝜏 + ∑𝑛=0 𝛼𝐼𝑛 [𝑒 −𝑛∆𝜏 − 𝑒 −(𝑛+1)∆𝜏 ]

(𝑁−1)
(6)
Where 𝐼𝑛 is the short wave radiation at time internal 𝑛 = 0, 𝑁 − 1.

In equation (6), we let 𝑒 −𝑛∆𝜏 − 𝑒 −(𝑛+1)∆𝜏 = 𝐴𝑛 , i.e. the transfer function coefficients.

In almost all cooling load calculations, we assume 24-hour steady periodic conditions.

This means 𝑞𝑖 (𝑡) = 𝑞𝑖 (𝑡 − 24).

53
Consider at 𝑛 = 0, 𝑞𝑖 (0) = 𝑞𝑖 (−24) = 𝑞𝑖0 , equation (6) becomes

𝑞𝑖 (𝑡)(1 − 𝑒 −24∆𝜏 ) = ∑23

𝑛=0 𝛼𝐼𝑛 𝑒
−𝑛∆𝜏
[1 − 𝑒 −∆𝜏 ]; or
−𝑛∆𝜏 1−𝑒 −∆𝜏
𝑞𝑖 (𝑡) = ∑23
𝑛=0(𝛼𝐼𝑛 )𝑒 [1−𝑒 −𝑁∆𝜏].

This great equation is applicable to a 24-hour period, where 𝑁 = 24, ∆𝜏 = 1 hour.

We define radiant time factors

1−𝑒 −∆𝜏 23 1−𝑒 −∆𝜏 23
𝑟𝑛 = [1−𝑒 −𝑁∆𝜏 ] 𝑒 −𝑛∆𝜏 ; and we can find out ∫𝑛=0 𝑟𝑛 = [1−𝑒 −𝑁∆𝜏 ] ∫𝑛=0 𝑒 −𝑛∆𝜏 = 1

Hence 𝑞𝑖 (𝑡) = ∑23

𝑛=0(𝛼𝐼𝑛 )𝑟𝑛 .

This is an amazing formula, showing that the instantaneous heat flux (cooling load) at time 𝑡 can be calculated
using the radiant time factors, which depends only on the geometrical and thermal properties.

We write 𝛼𝐼𝑛 as 𝐼𝑠,𝑡−𝑛 , the radiant heat gain rate during the 𝑛-th hour before the current hour 𝑡, and 𝑟𝑛 is the
radiant time factor for hour 𝑛. Hence

𝑞𝑖,𝑡 = ∑23
𝑛=0 𝑟𝑛 𝐼𝑠,𝑡−𝑛 .

Note that this approaches works for a thin wall, which can be assumed to have a uniform temperature
distribution.

In case, a thick wall does not have a uniform temperature distribution, the basic 1D heat conduction equation
can also be analyzed, though the procedure becomes complex. The results are similar as follows.

The hourly heat gain due to conduction, 𝑞𝑖𝑐,𝑡 at hour 𝑡 is

𝑞𝑖𝑐,𝑡 = ∑23
𝑛=0 𝑐𝑛 𝑄𝑒,𝑡−𝑛 .

Where 𝑐𝑛 is the so-called conduction time factor for hour 𝒕 or interval 𝒏. 𝑄𝑒,𝑡−𝑛 is the heat imput at the
exterior surface of the wall during the 𝑛-th hour before the current hour.

𝑄𝑒,𝑡−𝑛 = 𝑈𝐴(𝑡𝑠𝑎,𝑡−𝑛 − 𝑡𝑎 ); where 𝑈 is the overall heat transfer coefficient for the wall, 𝐴 surface area, 𝑡𝑎 indoor
air temperature (constant). 𝑡𝑠𝑎 is the sol-air temperature.

The concept of sol-air temperature for an exterior surface is used to simplify the surface heat gain calculation
due to the combined effect of solar radiation, and convection/thermal radiation.
𝑄𝑒 = 𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 = 𝑞𝑠𝑜𝑙 + ℎ𝑐 (𝑇𝑎𝑎 − 𝑇𝑠 ) + ℎ𝑟 (𝑇𝑠𝑘𝑦 − 𝑇𝑠 ); or
𝑄𝑒 = 𝑞𝑠𝑜𝑙 + ℎ𝑐 (𝑇𝑎𝑎 − 𝑇𝑠 ) + ℎ𝑟 (𝑇𝑎𝑎 − 𝑇𝑠 ) − ℎ𝑟 (𝑇𝑎𝑎 − 𝑇𝑠𝑘𝑦 ) = 𝑞𝑠𝑜𝑙 + ℎ𝑜 (𝑇𝑎𝑎 − 𝑇𝑠 ) − 𝜀∆𝑅;
where 𝜀∆𝑅 = ℎ𝑟 (𝑇𝑎𝑎 − 𝑇𝑠𝑘𝑦 ) and ℎ𝑜 = ℎ𝑐 + ℎ𝑟 . We let 𝑄𝑒 = ℎ𝑜 (𝑇𝑠𝑎 − 𝑇𝑠 ) by defining a new variable 𝑇𝑠𝑎 .
Thus, ℎ𝑜 (𝑇𝑠𝑎 − 𝑇𝑠 ) = 𝑞𝑠𝑜𝑙 + ℎ𝑜 (𝑇𝑎𝑎 − 𝑇𝑠 ) − 𝜀∆𝑅, where 𝜀∆𝑅 = ℎ𝑟 (𝑇𝑎𝑎 − 𝑇𝑠𝑘𝑦 )
𝑞𝑠𝑜𝑙 −𝜀∆𝑅
We find the new variable, i.e. sol-air temperature 𝑇𝑠𝑎 = 𝑇𝑎𝑎 + ℎ𝑜
The small term 𝜀∆𝑅 = ℎ𝑟 (𝑇𝑎𝑎 − 𝑇𝑠𝑘𝑦 ) is generally considered to be a small correction term for the difference
between the sky and air temperature.
54
Thus, the sol-air temperature is an effective driving temperature that incorporates the contributions of solar
radiation, long wave radiation, and convection to the energy interactions at an external surface.

The cooling load calculation by the RTS and CTS methods

The above derived radiant time factor series (RTS) and conduction time factor series (CTS) can be used to
convert heat gains on surfaces to cooling loads by accounting for the time delays caused by the thermal storage
of walls, roofs and surfaces within a zone.

Values for RTS and CTS for different walls and roofs are available in ASHRAE 2013 Fundamentals.

Table 6. Conduction time series (CTS) for two walls and one roof
Curtain wall: mass = 20.9 kg/m2; thermal capacity = 20.4 kJ/m2K; U=0.429 W/m2K
Hour 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
𝑐𝑛 (%) 25 57 15 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Hour 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
𝑐𝑛 (%) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Brick wall: mass = 304 kg/m ; thermal capacity = 253.5 kJ/m K; U=0.348 W/m K
2 2 2

Hour 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
𝑐𝑛 (%) 2 2 2 3 5 6 7 7 7 7 6 6
Hour 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
𝑐𝑛 (%) 5 5 5 4 4 3 3 3 3 2 2 1
Metal deck roof: mass = 57.6 kg/m ; thermal capacity = 57.2 kJ/m K; U=0.297 W/m K
2 2 2

Hour 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
𝑐𝑛 (%) 0 10 22 20 14 10 7 5 4 3 2 1
Hour 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
𝑐𝑛 (%) 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Table 2. Non-solar radiant time series (RTS) for two constructions

Light construction: with carpet, 50% glass
Hour 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
𝑐𝑛 (%) 50 18 10 6 4 3 2 1 1 1 1 1
Hour 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
𝑐𝑛 (%) 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Light construction: with carpet, 10% glass
55
 Hour 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
𝑐𝑛 (%) 47 11 6 4 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Hour 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
𝑐𝑛 (%) 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Building energy estimation and modelling

We described the heat and transfer calculations for the purpose of cooling and heating load estimations. To
predict the long-term energy consumption in buildings, we can use sophisticated methods to calculate hourly
energy consumption, using hourly weather data, human behavior and system operation. Here we describe some
typical manual methods, i.e. the degree-day method and the bin method for predicting annual energy
consumption.

Degree-day method
In this method, we assume
 The heating load depends only on the indoor and outdoor dry-bulb temperatures
 The efficiency of the heating system is constant
 The internal heat gain due to solar radiation, people, lights and equipment are constant
 Air infiltration affects only the sensible heating load

Different instantaneous energy flow rates in and out of the space are as follows
 Heat flow rate across the envelope 𝑄̇𝑒 = 𝑈𝑒 𝐴𝑒 (𝑇𝑖𝑛 − 𝑇𝑎𝑚𝑏 ) (1)
where 𝑈𝑒 and 𝐴𝑒 are the heat transfer coefficient and area of the building envelope respectively.
 Sensible heat flow due to infiltration 𝑄̇𝑖𝑛𝑓 = 𝑚̇𝑖 𝑐𝑝 (𝑇𝑖𝑛 − 𝑇𝑎𝑚𝑏 ) (2)
where 𝑚̇𝑖 and 𝑐𝑝 are the infiltration rate and specific heat of air respectively.
Adding (1) and (2), we obtain the total energy loss due to envelope heat transfer and infiltration, which can be
expressed simply in the equivalent form,

𝑄̇𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = (𝑈𝑒 𝐴𝑒 + 𝑚̇𝑖 𝑐𝑝 )(𝑇𝑖𝑛 − 𝑇𝑎𝑚𝑏 ) = 𝑈𝑜 𝐴𝑜 (𝑇𝑖𝑛 − 𝑇𝑎𝑚𝑏 ); where 𝑈𝑜 𝐴𝑜 is the effective heat transfer
conductance.
The rate of heat gain due to solar energy, people, lights and equipment 𝑄̇𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝑄̇𝑠𝑜𝑙 + 𝑄̇𝑝𝑒𝑜 + 𝑄̇𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑠 + 𝑄̇𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑝

At steady state the heating load, 𝐿̇ℎ = 𝑄̇𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑄̇𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝑈𝑜 𝐴𝑜 (𝑇𝑖𝑛 − 𝑇𝑎𝑚𝑏 ) − 𝑄̇𝑖𝑛𝑡

𝑄 ̇
We define a balance temperature, or a base temperature. 𝐿̇ℎ = 𝑈𝑜 𝐴𝑜 (𝑇𝑏𝑎𝑙 − 𝑇𝑎𝑚𝑏 ), and 𝑇𝑏𝑎𝑙 = 𝑇𝑖𝑛 − 𝑈 𝑖𝑛𝑡 . This
𝐴 𝑜 𝑜
means that the heating load is zero when 𝑇𝑏𝑎𝑙 = 𝑇𝑎𝑚𝑏 .

The heating degree-day method is based on the observation that the heating system needs to supply heat only
when 𝑇𝑎𝑚𝑏 < 𝑇𝑏𝑎𝑙 . Thus the total amount of heat to be supplied by the heating system during the heating season
is
𝑡
𝐸ℎ𝑒 = 𝑈𝑜 𝐴𝑜 ∫0 𝑠(𝑇𝑏𝑎𝑙 − 𝑇𝑎𝑚𝑏 )+ 𝑑𝑡; (note: the superscript “+” indicates only positive values included.)

For a period, such a month, 𝐸ℎ𝑒,𝑚 = 𝑈𝑜 𝐴𝑜 (𝐷𝐷)𝑚 , where (𝐷𝐷)𝑚 is the total heating degree-days for the
month.

𝑈𝑜 𝐴𝑜 (𝐷𝐷)𝑚
If the furnace efficiency is 𝑓 , the amount of fuel energy required 𝐸𝑓𝑢,𝑚 = .
𝑓
A similar cooling degree days can be defined. Thus we have heating and cooling degree days (HDD and CDD).
56
Bin method
The degree-day method has the following limitations. (a) a single indoor temperature set-point is assumed; (b) a
constant heat rate is assumed, and changes in occupancy rate cannot be included; (c) variation in outdoor
humidity is not included, and therefore latent heat loads have to be neglected.

In the bin method, these limitations are partially overcome by compiling outdoor temperature data as a
frequency distribution over a series of outdoor temperature intervals. The exact principle and the application of
the bin method can be found in literature.

Computer simulation methods

These methods can incorporate all the dynamic interactions occurring between the various subcomponents of an
HVAC system. The widely used software include TRANSYS, EnergyPlus, and ESP-r.

Example 5. A thin vertical metal wall of a building at a location with a northern latitude of 40 faces 35 east of
south. The measured direct beam and diffuse solar radiation intensities at the location on August 15 at 10 am
solar time are 580 W/m2, and 148 W/m2 respectively. The reflectivity of the ground surrounding the wall is 0.3.
With such information, we can estimate the direct radiation incident on unit area of the wall surface is 331.8
W/m2; the diffuse radiation incident on unit area is 133.57 W/m2; and the ground-reflected radiation falling on
unit area of surface is 89.4 W/m2. Thus the total solar radiation incident on unit area of the wall is 554.8 W/m2.
(Note the solar radiation and solar shading calculations are beyond the scope of the lecture).

The average emissivity of the wall surface is 0.85. The ambient temperature and the inside air temperature are
28oC and 23oC respectively. The overall external and internal heat transfer coefficients are 35 W/m2K and 8.5
W/m2K respectively. Assume that the heat capacity and the thermal resistance of the wall are negligible,

Calculate
(a) Sol-air temperature; and
(b) The temperature of the wall.

Solution: The sol-air temperature

𝑞 −𝜀∆𝑅 0.85×554.8
𝑇𝑠𝑎 = 𝑇𝑎 + 𝑠𝑜𝑙ℎ = 28 + = 41.47℃. Note that we assume that ∆𝑅 = 0.
𝑜 35

Since the thermal capacity and the thermal resistance of the wall are negligible, the net heat flow rate

𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛 = ℎ𝑜 (𝑇𝑠𝑎 − 𝑇𝑤 ) = ℎ𝑖 (𝑇𝑤 − 𝑇𝑖𝑛 ); 35(41.47 − 𝑇𝑤 ) = 8.5(𝑇𝑤 − 23).

𝑇𝑤 = 37.86℃.

Example 6. The effective temperature, ET* for a particular indoor ambient is 25oC. The ratio of sensible heat
parameter 𝑐𝑠𝑒𝑛 , to the latent heat parameter 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑡 is 0.0038. The average skin temperature is 33.7 oC. Calculate
(a) The ratio of the sensible heat transfer to the latent heat transfer to the ambient;
(b) The ambient relative humidity if the temperature changes to 23 oC and 27 oC for the same ET*.

Solution:
(a) 𝑄𝑠𝑘 = 𝐶𝑠𝑒𝑛 (𝑡𝑠𝑘 − 𝑡𝑜 ) + 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑡 (𝜔𝑠,𝑠𝑘 − 𝜔𝑜 )
𝑡𝑠𝑘 = 33.7℃, hence the saturation humidity ratio can be obtained from tabulated data or from the chart 𝜔𝑠,𝑠𝑘 =
0.03406
The humidity ratio, at 25oC and 50% RH is 𝜔𝑜 = 0.01

57
 𝐶𝑠𝑒𝑛 (𝑡𝑠𝑘 −𝑡𝑜 ) 0.0038×(33.7−25)
Hence 𝑟 = 𝐶 = = 1.37.
𝑙𝑎𝑡 (𝜔𝑠,𝑠𝑘 −𝜔𝑜 ) 0.03406−0.01

(b) Along the constant ET* line: 𝐶𝑠𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑜 + 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑡 𝜔=constant.

Applying it to 𝑡𝑜 = 𝐸𝑇 ∗ = 25℃, and 𝑡𝑜 = 23℃, we have

25𝐶𝑠𝑒𝑛 + 0.01𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑡 = 23𝐶𝑠𝑒𝑛 + 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑡 𝜔; we have 𝜔 = 0.0176. Hence RH=96% at 𝑡𝑜 = 23℃.

Applying it to 𝑡𝑜 = 𝐸𝑇 ∗ = 25℃, and 𝑡𝑜 = 27℃, we have

25𝐶𝑠𝑒𝑛 + 0.01𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑡 = 27𝐶𝑠𝑒𝑛 + 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑡 𝜔; we have 𝜔 = 0.0024. Hence RH=12% at 𝑡𝑜 = 23℃.

Example 7. The zone of a building is occupied by people engaged in moderate office work. The occupancy
schedule is given in Table E2.1. Each person generates 75W of sensible heat and 55W of latent heat. The
radiative fraction of the sensible component is 0.6. The interior of the zone is of light construction for which the
appropriate non-solar RTS values are given in Table E2.2.
The cooling load due to people was calculated for all hours except hour 11 and 15, as shown in Table E2.3

(a) Calculate the cooling load due to people for hour 11 and hour 15.
(b) Obtain the highest cooling load due to people and its occurrence time.

Given:

Table E2.1 Occupancy schedule of zone (* hour from midnight; 𝑁𝑝 =number of people)
Hour* 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
𝑁𝑝 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 12 12 12
Hour* 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
𝑁𝑝 12 12 12 12 12 12 5 0 0 0 0 0

Table E2.2 Non-solar radiant time series (RTS)

Light construction: with carpet, 50% glass
Hour 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
𝑐𝑛 (%) 50 18 10 6 4 3 2 1 1 1 1 1
Hour 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
𝑐𝑛 (%) 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Table E2.3 Cooling load due to people at 22 of the 24 hours

Time 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
𝑄𝑙𝑎𝑡 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 340 1020 1020
+ 𝑄𝑠𝑒𝑛
𝑄𝑟𝑎𝑑 42 35 29 24 19 13 8 2 90 302 432
𝑄𝑡𝑜𝑡 42 35 29 24 19 13 8 2 430 1322 1452
Time 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
𝑄𝑙𝑎𝑡 1020 1020 1020 1020 1020 425 0 0 0 0 0
+ 𝑄𝑠𝑒𝑛
𝑄𝑟𝑎𝑑 461 481 504 509 514 363 199 132 96 74 55
𝑄𝑡𝑜𝑡 1480 1501 1524 1529 1534 788 199 132 96 74 55

58
Solution:
(a) The latent heat gain and the convective component of the sensible heat gain from people contribute to the
cooling load immediately. Hence for hour 11, we have
𝑄𝑙𝑎𝑡 + 𝑄𝑠𝑒𝑛 = 𝑞𝑐𝑙1 = 𝑁𝑝 (𝑞𝑙𝑎𝑡 + 0.4𝑞𝑠𝑒𝑛 ) = 12 × (55 + 0.4 × 75) = 1020 W;

Here comes the important part – the radiant components of the sensible heat gains during the previous 24 hours
contribute to the cooling load at 11 am. These hourly contributions are obtained by the hourly radiant heat gains
and RTSs for the 24 hours, i.e. 𝑄𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝑞𝑐𝑙2 = ∑23𝑛=0 𝑟𝑛 𝐼𝑠,𝑡−𝑛 .

Table E2.4 Computation of radiant contributions for hour 11. (* 24 hours before hour 11)

Hour* 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
𝑐𝑛 (%) 50 18 10 6 4 3 2 1 1 1 1 1
𝑁𝑝 12 12 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
𝑞𝑟𝑎𝑑 540 540 180 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
𝑐𝑛 𝑞𝑟𝑎𝑑 270 97.2 18 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Hour* 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
𝑐𝑛 (%) 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
𝑁𝑝 0 0 0 0 5 12 12 12 12 12 12 12
𝑞𝑟𝑎𝑑 0 0 0 0 225 540 540 540 540 540 540 540
𝑐𝑛 𝑞𝑟𝑎𝑑 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Table E2.5 Computation of radiant contributions for hour 15. (* 24 hours before hour 15)

Hour* 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
𝑐𝑛 (%) 50 18 10 6 4 3 2 1 1 1 1 1
𝑁𝑝 12 12 12 12 12 12 4 0 0 0 0 0
𝑞𝑟𝑎𝑑 540 540 540 540 540 540 180 0 0 0 0 0
𝑐𝑛 𝑞𝑟𝑎𝑑 270 97.2 54 32.4 21.6 16.2 3.6 0 0 0 0 0
Hour* 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
𝑐𝑛 (%) 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
𝑁𝑝 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 12 12 12
𝑞𝑟𝑎𝑑 0 0 0 0 0 0 540 0 225 540 540 540
𝑐𝑛 𝑞𝑟𝑎𝑑 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

The total contribution from radiant heat gains during the 24 hours prior to hour 11
𝑄𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝑞𝑐𝑙2 = ∑23𝑛=0 𝑟𝑛 𝐼𝑠,𝑡−𝑛 = 270 + 97.2 + 18 + 0 + ⋯ = 385.3 W;
𝑄𝑡𝑜𝑡 = (𝑄𝑙𝑎𝑡 + 𝑄𝑠𝑒𝑛 ) + 𝑄𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 1020 + 385.2 = 1405.2 W

For hour 15,

𝑄𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝑞𝑐𝑙2 = ∑23
𝑛=0 𝑟𝑛 𝐼𝑠,𝑡−𝑛 = 270 + 97.2 + 54 + 32.4 + 21.6 + 16.2 + 3.6 + 0 + ⋯ = 495 W;
𝑄𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑙𝑎𝑡 + 𝑄𝑠𝑒𝑛 ) + 𝑄𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 1020 + 495 = 1515 W
(𝑄

Table E2.3(completed) Cooling load due to people at 22 of the 24 hours

Time 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
𝑄𝑙𝑎𝑡 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 340 1020 1020 1020
+ 𝑄𝑠𝑒𝑛
59
 𝑄𝑟𝑎𝑑 42 35 29 24 19 13 8 2 90 302 385 432
𝑄𝑡𝑜𝑡 42 35 29 24 19 13 8 2 430 1322 1405 1452
Time 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
𝑄𝑙𝑎𝑡 1020 1020 1020 1020 1020 1020 425 0 0 0 0 0
+ 𝑄𝑠𝑒𝑛
𝑄𝑟𝑎𝑑 461 481 495 504 509 514 363 199 132 96 74 55
𝑄𝑡𝑜𝑡 1480 1501 1515 1524 1529 1534 788 199 132 96 74 55

The highest cooling load due to people is 1534 W, and occurs at hour 18.

Example 8. The wall of a building is 8 m long and 3 m high. It has two equal sized windows of length 2.5 m
and height 2 m located in it. The overall heat transfer coefficient for the wall is 0.246 W/m2K. The overall heat
transfer coefficient for the window is 3.02 W/m2K. The outdoor and indoor design temperatures are -10oC and
20oC, respectively. Calculate the total heat load due to heat loss through the wall.

Solution: 𝐴𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 3 × 8 − 2 × 2.5 × 2 = 14 m2;

̅𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 (𝑇𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑜𝑜𝑟 − 𝑇𝑎𝑚𝑏 ) = 14 × 0.246 × (20 + 10) = 103.3 W;
𝑄𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 𝐴𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑈

𝐴𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑜𝑤 = 2 × 2.5 × 2 = 10 m2;

𝑄𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑜𝑤 = 𝐴𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑜𝑤 𝑈 ̅𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑙 (𝑇𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑜𝑜𝑟 − 𝑇𝑎𝑚𝑏 ) = 10 × 3.02 × (20 + 10) = 906 W;
Therefore, the total heating load due to wall heat loss is
𝑄̇𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑄𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 + 𝑄𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑜𝑤 = 103.3 + 906 = 1009.6W.

Example 9. For a two-story building, the infiltration rate is 0.068 m3/s. The indoor design conditions are 22oC
and 40% relative humidity. The outdoor ambient air is saturated at -10 oC. The pressure is 101 kPa. Calculate
the sensible and latent heat loads due to infiltration of ambient air.

Solution: From the psychrometric chart, 𝜔𝑖 = 0.0066; and 𝜔𝑜 = 0.0016 (the values were actually from
tabulated data).

𝑄𝑠 = 1.23𝑉̇𝑖𝑛 (𝑡𝑖 − 𝑡𝑜 ) × 1000 = 1.23 × 0.068 × 1000 × [22 − (−10)] = 2676.5 W;

𝑄𝐿 = 3020𝑉̇𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑖 − 𝜔𝑜 ) × 1000 = 3020 × 0.068 × 1000 × (0.0066 − 0.0016) = 1026.8W.

60
Chapter 4 Air duct system and ventilation

The topics include the pressure losses across ducts and fittings, arrangement of duct work, characteristics of
fans, interaction of fan and duct network and distribution of air within the conditioned space.

Total pressure distribution

At any section of a duct system, the total mechanical energy per unit mass of fluid, 𝐸𝑚 (J/kg) is
𝑝 𝑣2
𝐸𝑚 = 𝜌 + + 𝑔𝑧; where the three RHS terms are potential energy due to static pressure (N/m2), kinetic energy
2
due to fluid velocity and gravitational potential energy due to vertical height.

The total head, 𝐻 (m) of fluid at any section is defined as

𝐸𝑚 𝑝 𝑣2
𝐻= = 𝜌𝑔 + 2𝑔 + 𝑧; where the three RHS terms are the static pressure head, velocity head and elevation
𝑔
head respectively.

Figure 1. (a) A typical duct network of an air conditioning system; (b) the total pressure (total head)
distribution.

As fluid flows through a duct work, a fraction of its mechanical energy is converted to internal thermal energy
due to fluid friction, resulting in a small rise of the fluid temperature. We usually call the change in the
mechanical energy between any two sections as an energy loss, 𝐸𝐿 (J/kg), or expressed by the head loss ∆𝐻 and
total pressure loss ∆𝑃 (Pa)

Between two sections 1 and 2 of the duct.

𝐸𝑚1 𝐸𝑚2 𝑝 𝑣2 𝑝 𝑣2
∆𝐻12 = ( − ) = (𝜌𝑔1 + 2𝑔1 + 𝑧1 ) − (𝜌𝑔2 + 2𝑔2 + 𝑧2 );
𝑔 𝑔
Or
61
 𝜌𝑣 2 𝜌𝑣 2
∆𝑃12 = 𝜌ℎ∆𝐻12 = (𝑝1 + 21 + 𝜌𝑔𝑧1 ) − (𝑝2 + 22 + 𝜌𝑔𝑧2 );
The variation of total pressure (total head) of the air in shown in Figure 1 for a duct network.
 The total pressure entering the return air duct decreases progressively as it passes through the grill, return
duct and filter. The graph slow indicates the total pressure loss in each element. There is a sharp increase
across the fan due to the work input by the fan.
 The heating and cooling coils also result in a significant loss. The air flow divides into three streams. Each
air stream loses total pressure due to friction in the duct, fittings and diffuser.

Pressure loss in duct networks

The frictional pressure loss ∆𝑃𝑓 [Pa] in a straight duct of circular cross section is given by the Darcy-Weisbach
equation
𝐿 𝜌𝑉 2
∆𝑃𝑓 = 𝑓 𝐷 2 ; (1)
where
64
 for laminar flow, 𝑓 = Re and
1 𝐷 𝐷 1
 for turbulent flow, = 1.14 + 2log ( 𝜀 ) − 2log [1 + 9.3 ( 𝜀 ) ( )]. (2)
√𝑓 Re√𝑓

The latter is the Colebrook equation, which is a transcendental equation, and has to be solved iteratively. The
friction factor can also be obtained from the Moody chart.

𝐿 – pipe length (m); 𝐿 – pipe diameter (m); 𝑉 – fluid velocity (m/s); 𝜌 – fluid density (kg/m3); 𝑓 = friction factor
𝜌𝑉𝐷
[-], Reynolds number Re= 𝜇 ; 𝜇- dynamic viscosity of fluid (Pas), 𝜀 – absolute surface roughness [m].

In air-conditioning, we develop a simple graphical method as follows. The volume flow rate of a fluid through a
circular duct is
1
𝑄 = 𝜋𝐷2 𝑉 (3)
4
From (1) and (3), we obtain
∆𝑃𝑓 8𝜌𝑓 𝑄 2
= ( 𝜋2 ) 𝐷5;
𝐿
∆𝑃 8𝜌𝑓
Hence log ( 𝐿 𝑓 ) = 2log(𝑄) − 5log(𝐷) + log ( 𝜋2 )
Either for a constant diameter or a constant fluid velocity, the friction coefficient 𝑓 can be determined. Hence
∆𝑃
log ( 𝐿 𝑓 ) and log(𝑄) has a linear relationship. A typical graph is shown in Figure 2. The actual design values
for diameter and flow velocity falls within the area bounded by the bold lines considering duct cost, fan power
and noise level. Larger duct sizes usually associated with lower fan power and noise levels, have higher initial
cost. Smaller ducts on the other hands, have higher noise levels and require more fan power.

62
Figure 2. Friction chart for round ducts with curves for constant diameter and constant velocity. (Temperature =
20oC, density 1.2041 kg/m3, and roughness = 0.09 mm).

The above formulas and graph can also be applicable to a rectangular duct with side lengths 𝑎 and 𝑏, by using
the equivalent diameter.

63
 (𝑎𝑏)0.625
𝐷𝑒𝑞 = 1.30 (𝑎+𝑏)0.25.

Pressure loss in fittings

Air duct system consists of straight ducts and fittings, such as contractions, enlargements, elbows, branches,
dampers, filters and diffusers.

Figure 3. Typical fittings. (a) 90o elbow; (b) transition; (c) diverging tee; (d) converging tee.

Table 1.1 Loss coefficients for 90o elbow.

Table 1.2 Loss coefficients for transition, round to round ducts.

Table 1.3 Loss coefficients for diverging tee.

64
 Table 1.4 Loss coefficients for converging tee with 𝐷𝑐 > 250mm.

In fittings, mechanical energy losses or dynamic losses, as commonly called, occur as a result of direction
changes in elbows, flow area changes in expansions and contractions, and mixing as in branches.

65
The total pressure loss in a fitting is generally considered as
1
∆𝑝𝑡,𝑜 = 𝑐𝑜 𝑝𝑣𝑜 = 𝑐𝑜 (2 𝜌𝑉𝑜2 );
where 𝑐𝑜 – local loss coefficient referenced to section o [-]; 𝑝𝑣𝑜 - velocity pressure at the selected referenced
section o [Pa]; 𝑉𝑜 -velocity at the selected referenced section o [m/s].

ASHRAE duct fitting database (2012) contains an extensive data set of loss coefficients for nearly all air duct
fittings. ASHRAE Handbooks also contain a limited list. Here we cited some representative values for the
typical fittings shown in Figure 3.

For some fittings like contractions, with unequal inlet and outlet areas, the loss coefficient may be changed from
section o (outlet) to i (inlet) by applying the mass balance equation.
1 𝐴 2
∆𝑝𝑡,𝑖 = 𝑐𝑖 𝑝𝑣𝑖 = 𝑐𝑖 (2 𝜌𝑉𝑖2 ), where 𝑐𝑖 = 𝑐𝑜 (𝐴 𝑖 ) .
𝑜

For diverging and converging flow junctions, the total pressure loss (mechanical energy) through the straight
(main) section is
1
∆𝑝𝑡,𝑠 = 𝑐𝑠 𝑝𝑣𝑠 = 𝑐𝑠 (2 𝜌𝑉𝑠2 );
where 𝑐𝑠 – local loss coefficient referenced to section s [-]; 𝑝𝑣𝑠 - velocity pressure at the selected referenced
section s [Pa]; 𝑉𝑠 -velocity at the selected referenced section s [m/s].

The total pressure loss through a branch section is

1
∆𝑝𝑡,𝑏 = 𝑐𝑏 𝑝𝑣𝑏 = 𝑐𝑏 (2 𝜌𝑉𝑏2 );
where 𝑐𝑏 – branch loss coefficient [-]; 𝑝𝑣𝑏 - velocity pressure at the selected referenced section b [Pa]; 𝑉𝑏 -
velocity at the selected referenced section s [m/s].

In converging sections, mechanical energy is exchanged between two fluid streams moving at different
velocities due to turbulent mixing. Consequently, under some flow conditions, the mechanical energy per unit
mass of the slower moving stream can increase due to mixing. This results in a negative loss coefficient for the
lower velocity stream.

Total pressure loss in duct sections

The total pressure loss in a duct section consisting of straight sections and fittings can be obtained

𝐿 1 1
∆𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡 = ∑𝑛 𝑓𝑛 𝐷𝑛 (2 𝜌𝑉𝑛2 ) + ∑𝑛 𝑐𝑛 (2 𝜌𝑉𝑛2 );
𝑛
The loss coefficient 𝑐𝑛 and the friction coefficient 𝑓𝑛 have to be referenced to the appropriate sections. It is
possible to have a computer code doing all the calculations.

Air distribution fans

The mechanical work input to a fan generates the pressure necessary to overcome the pressure loses in the ducts
and the fittings. Some fans, used mainly for exhaust, are placed at the discharge end of a duct, while some are
placed near the center. The commonly used fans in air conditioning systems are either axial flow fans or
centrifugal fans.

66
 (a)

(b)

Figure 4. (a) A schematic diagram of axial fan, and their static pressure rise, ideal fan power and efficiency; (b)
those for a centrifugal fan with forward-curved blades.

 In an axial fan, the air is moved axially by the propeller blades, mounted on a concentric hub, rotated by an
electric motor. The kinetic energy imparted to the air is converted to a pressure rise by the stationary blades
located downstream of the propeller. The stationary blades also help improve the efficiency of the fan by
reducing the swirl of the air. As axial flow fans are located axially in the flow duct, they do not require a
change in flow direction of the air. Axial flow fans are used mainly in high volume flow applications.
 A centrifugal fan consists of an impeller with a series of blades attached to a hub, driven by an electric
motor. The power is usually transferred from the motor to the fan through a belt drive with pulleys attached
to the motor and the impeller. Air enters at the center of the impeller in a direction normal to the plane of the
figure as shown. The centrifugal force created by the rotating blades accelerates the air in the radial
direction. The kinetic energy gained by the air is converted to a high static pressure in the diffusing section
of the fan.

Four types of blades are used in the impellers of centrifugal fans.

 Radial, airfoil and backward-curved – commonly used in high pressure or high volume flow system.

67
 Forward-curved – commonly used in low pressure systems, shown in Figure 4b, are curved in the same
direction as the direction of rotation of the impeller.

Fan characteristics
These parameters are generally included in tabular form or graphical form in manufacturer’s catalogues.
 Total pressure – the rise in total pressure cross the fan. ∆𝑝𝑡 = 𝑝𝑡,𝑜 − 𝑝𝑡,𝑖 , where i and o denote conditions at
the inlet and outlet respectively.
 Static pressure - the rise in the static pressure across the fan. ∆𝑝𝑠 = 𝑝𝑠,𝑜 − 𝑝𝑠,𝑖 .
 Ideal power input – required to operate the fan under the given conditions. Assuming the temperature rise of
𝑚̇(𝑝𝑡,𝑜 −𝑝𝑡,𝑖 )
air to be negligible, and the density to be constant, 𝑊̇𝑖𝑑 = , where 𝑚̇ is the mass flow rate of air.
𝜌
 Fan efficiency – the ratio of the ideal power (𝑊̇𝑖𝑑 ) required to the actual shaft power input (𝑊̇𝑠ℎ ) of the fan,
𝑊̇𝑖𝑑
𝑓 = . Usually fans are driven by electric motors through belt drives. If the efficiency of the electric
𝑊̇𝑠ℎ
𝑊 ̇
motor is 𝑚 , then the required electric power input 𝑊̇𝑒𝑙 =  𝑖𝑑 .
 𝑚 𝑓

For the typical performance characteristics of an axial fan and a centrifugal fan, the fan produces a large
increase in the static pressure, followed slow decreases as the airflow rate increases, and a very sharp and rapid
decrease in static pressure at higher flow rates. The fan power, which is proportional to the product of the static
pressure rise and the volume flow rate, increase up to a point, and then decreases at higher flow rates. The ideal
power approaches zero at very low and very high flow rates, results in the efficiency variation.

Fan laws
They are a group of approximate relationships that may be used to predict the effect of certain design and
operating variables, and the fan laws may be derived by dimensional analysis. For the volume flow rate 𝑄̇ , total
pressure 𝑝𝑡 , the work input 𝑊̇ are grouped individually with the density 𝜌, the characteristic dimension 𝐷, and
the rotating speed 𝜔, we have

𝑄̇ 𝑝 𝑊̇
= 𝑐1 ; 𝜌𝐷2𝑡𝜔2 = 𝑐2 ; 𝜌𝐷5𝜔3 = 𝑐3 , where the dimensionless constants 𝑐1, 𝑐2 and 𝑐3 are the same for two
𝐷3 𝜔
aerodynamically similar fans. This condition allows us to predict the fan performance under different operating
conditions.

Fan-duct network interaction

Referring to the simple duct network in Figure 5, we have duct sections and fittings before and after the fan. For
duct sections 1-2 and 3-4:

𝐿 1 1
∆𝑃1−2 = 𝑝0 − 𝑝2 = [∑𝑛 𝑓𝑛 𝐷𝑛 (2 𝜌𝑉𝑛2 ) + ∑𝑛 𝑐𝑛 (2 𝜌𝑉𝑛2 )] ;
𝑛 1−2
𝐿 1 1
∆𝑃3−4 = 𝑝3 − 𝑝0 = [∑𝑛 𝑓𝑛 𝐷𝑛 (2 𝜌𝑉𝑛2 ) + ∑𝑛 𝑐𝑛 (2 𝜌𝑉𝑛2 )] . (5)
𝑛 3−4
where 𝑝0 is the uniform pressure of the space to which the inlet and outlet of the duct system are connected at
locations 1 and 4, respectively.

68
Figure 5. A simple duct network with a fan.
𝑄
The velocity 𝑉𝑛 = 𝐴 at a section with an area of 𝐴𝑛 . Substituting for the velocities in term of flow rate in (5),
𝑛
we have

∆𝑃1−2 = 𝑝0 − 𝑝2 = 𝑐12 𝑄 2 and ∆𝑃3−4 = 𝑝3 − 𝑝0 = 𝑐34 𝑄 2; where 𝑐12 and 𝑐34 are terms involving various
friction factors, duct dimensions and the loss coefficients of the fittings, and the two terms can be assumed
constant for a particular system.

We have ∆𝑝𝑑𝑠 = 𝑝3 − 𝑝2 = (𝑐12 + 𝑐34 )𝑄 2, and the variation of the total pressure loss in the duct system
∆𝑝𝑑𝑠 with the volume flow rate 𝑄 is the system curve. Ideally, the system curve is parabola.

The operation of the duct-fan system also depends on the fan characteristics, which is the variation of the
pressure generated by the fan with the flow rate, at a fixed value of the fan speed. The point of intersection of
the fan characteristic and the system curve gives the fan pressure and flow rate under steady operating
conditions, i.e. the operating point of the system.

(a) (b)

Figure 6. Flow rate control by (a) damper control; and (b) fan speed control.

Two basic air flow rate control methods

 Damper control – as the damper closes, the system curves changes. The new fan power, which is
proportional to the product of the fan pressure and the flow rate may not decrease much from the initial one.
 Variable speed drive – this changes the fan speed, and the fan characteristics change as a result. The new fan
power is significantly reduced.

69
Many AHUs operate under part-load conditions much of the year except during peak load conditions. Using
variable speed drive can reduce energy use. In a VAV system, both damper control and variable speed drive are
used, hence VAV systems can reduce significantly fan power under part-load conditions.

Design methods for duct systems

The main requirements of a duct system are:
 It supplies the specified rates of air flow to the different zones;
 It is economical in initial cost, operating cost and also the cost of the building space
 The noise level is acceptable.

Two methods are discussed here, i.e. the equal friction method and the static regain method. Other two other
methods are the velocity method and the T-method.

Figure 7. An example for design methods of duct networks

Equal friction method

In this method, the frictional pressure loss per unit length (unit pressure loss) is assumed to be the same for all
sections of the duct network. Pressure losses through any fittings in the duct section are not included in the
assumed unit pressure loss. The ASHRAE 2013 Fundamentals recommended the selected pressure drop be
within the enclosed region of the duct friction chart as earlier.

Using the system shown in Figure 7 as an example, here is how the method works.
(i) The flow rates to the zones 𝑄3 , 𝑄4 and 𝑄5 are estimated from the thermal loads of the zones. If the
air density is assumed constant, then the flow rate from the fan is 𝑄 = 𝑄3 + 𝑄4 + 𝑄5 .
(ii) The layout of the duct network is based on the location of the zones, and AHU. For each duct
section, the length, and the number and type of fittings are specified.
(iii) The pressure for each zone is also specified. Usually, all the zones are at the same pressure.
(iv) An initial unit frictional pressure loss 𝑝0 is chosen. This value is applied to all duct sections of the
duct network.
(v) Obtain the diameter and the air velocity from the duct friction chart based on the flow rate 𝑄 and
pressure loss.
(vi) As the value of 𝑝0 is usually chosen based on past design experience, the duct sizes obtained in (v)
may not always deliver the specified flow rates to the three zones. This has to be checked by
calculating the total pressure loss from 1 to exits at 6, 8 and 10, ∆𝑝𝑡,1−6, ∆𝑝𝑡,1−8,and ∆𝑝𝑡,1−10. The
three total pressure losses must be equal to deliver the specified flow rates.
(vii) If the pressure losses are not equal, then dampers may have to be installed at the exit of some ducts
to increase the pressure drop artificially to achieve the desired flow rates to the zones. An alternative
70
 approach is to change the diameter of some branches of the network to obtain the desired pressure
losses.

Static regain method

It only applies to supply air duct systems as shown in Figure 7. The aim is to maintain the same static pressure
at all the entry points to the fittings where the air flowing through the network diverges. Maintaining a low
static pressure throughout the entire duct system helps minimize duct leakage and also reduce stresses in the
duct wall.

We illustrate the design procedure be referring to the section 1-6. The total pressures at locations 2, 4 and 6
may be expressed as
1 1 1
𝑝𝑡2 = 𝑝𝑠2 + 2 𝜌𝑉12 ; 𝑝𝑡4 = 𝑝𝑠4 + 2 𝜌𝑉22 ; 𝑝𝑡6 = 𝑝𝑠6 + 2 𝜌𝑉32 (1)

In this method, we make all static pressure the same at all locations, i.e. 𝑝𝑠2 = 𝑝𝑠4 = 𝑝𝑠6 (2)
Hence
1 1
𝑝𝑡2 − 𝑝𝑡4 = 2 𝜌𝑉12 − 2 𝜌𝑉22 = ∆𝑝𝑡𝑒𝑒−𝑠,23 + ∆𝑝𝑓𝑟,34 + ∆𝑝𝑓𝑖𝑡,34 ;
1 1
𝑝𝑡4 − 𝑝𝑡6 = 2 𝜌𝑉12 − 2 𝜌𝑉32 = ∆𝑝𝑡𝑒𝑒−𝑠,45 + ∆𝑝𝑓𝑟,56 + ∆𝑝𝑓𝑖𝑡,56 ; (3)
1 1
Also 𝑄2 = 4 𝜋𝐷22 𝑉2 ; 𝑄3 = 4 𝜋𝐷42 𝑉3 (4)

Here are major steps

(i) The flow rates to the zones 𝑄3 , 𝑄4 and 𝑄5 are estimated from the thermal loads of the zones.
(ii) The layout of the duct network is based on the location of the zones, and AHU. For each duct section,
the length, and the number and type of fittings are specified.
(iii) The pressure for each zone is also specified. Usually, all the zones are at the same pressure.
(iv) A velocity 𝑉1is selected for the main duct section 1-2. The pressure loss terms on the RHS of (3) are
functions of velocity and duct diameter, which are related by (4). (3) and (4) can be iteratively solved to
obtain the unknown velocities and diameters.

Additionally, not covered here include the duct system optimization, consideration of air distribution, e.g. by
basic principles or using computational fluid dynamics.

Example 1. The supply duct of an air conditioning system, shown in Figure 8 delivers 0.8 m3/s of air at 20oC
dry-bulb temperature. The diameter of the duct is 0.4 m, and the total length of the straight duct sections from 1
to 10 is 80 m. The fan generates a total pressure of 125 Pa at section 1.

Figure 8. A supply air duct section for Example 1.

The loss coefficient for each right angle bend is 0.1. The friction coefficient is 0.0186. The density of air is 1.2
kg/m3.

71
Calculate

(a) The static pressure and velocity pressure at section 1

(b) The total frictional pressure loss from 1 to 10;
(c) The pressure loss in the fittings from 1 to 10.
(d) The total static and velocity pressure at section 10
(e) The static and velocity pressure heads at section 1
(f) The total mechanical energy loss per unit mass of air from 1 to 10; and
(g) The rate of mechanical energy loss from 1 to 10.

𝑄 𝑄 4×0.8
Solution: The air velocity through the duct is 𝑉 = 𝐴 = 1 = 3.14×0.42 = 6.37 m/s
𝜋𝐷 2
4
1 1
(a) The velocity pressure at section 1 is 𝑝𝑣1 = 2 𝜌𝑉 = 2 × 1.2 × 6.372 = 24.34 Pa
2

Hence the static pressure 𝑝𝑠1 = 𝑝𝑡1 − 𝑝𝑣1 = 125 − 24.34 = 100.9 Pa
𝐿 1 1
(b) and (c) The total pressure loss ∆𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑓 ( 𝜌𝑉 2 ) + ∑𝑛 𝑐𝑛 ( 𝜌𝑉𝑛2 )
𝐷 2 2
80 1 1
∆𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑡,1−10 = 0.0186 × 𝐷0.4 (2 × 1.2 × 6.37 ) + (4 × 0.1) (2 × 1.2 × 6.372 ) = 90.56 + 9.73 = 100.3
2

Pa;
(d) The total pressure at section 10, 𝑝𝑡,10 = 𝑝𝑡1 − ∆𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑡,1−10 = 125 − 100.3 = 24.7Pa
𝑝𝑠10 = 𝑝𝑡10 − 𝑝𝑣1 = 24.7 − 24.34 = 0.36 Pa
𝑝𝑠1 100.9 𝑝𝑣1
(e) The static pressure head at 1 𝐻𝑠1 = = 1.2×9.81 = 8.57 m; and the velocity heat at 1 is 𝐻𝑣1 = =
𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔
24.34
= 2.06 m;
1.2×9.81
(f) The mechanical energy loss per kg of air from 1 to 10 is
∆𝑝 100.3
∆𝐸𝑚,1−10 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡,1−10 = = 83.58 J/kg;
𝜌 1.2
(g) The rate of mechanical energy loss from 1 to 10
∆𝑊𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝑄∆𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑡,1−10 = 0.8 × 100.3 = 80.24 W. Thus the mechanical energy loss or conversion to
heat results in a rise in temperature of air of about 0.08 oC.

Example 2. The dimension of a duct system, supplying air at 20oC to two zones 5 and 6 are shown in Figure
2.1. The flow rates to the two zones are 1.4 m3/s and 1.0 m3/s respectively. The fan generates a total pressure of
285 Pa at the entrance section 1. Calculate (a) (i) the velocity pressures in the duct sections; (ii) the total
pressures at all sections from 1 to 6. (b) If a damper is installed just upstream of section 5 to make the total
pressures at 5 and 6 equal, calculate the required pressure loss through the damper.

Figure 2.1 A supply air duct system.

Solution: The air velocities in the duct sections 1-2, 3-5 and 4-6 are given by
72
 𝑄 4×2.4 𝑄 4×1.4 𝑄 4×1.0
𝑉12 = 𝐴12 = 3.14×0.62 = 8.49 m/s; 𝑉35 = 𝐴35 = 3.14×0.52 = 7.13 m/s; 𝑉46 = 𝐴46 = 3.14×0.42 = 7.95 m/s
12 35 46
The velocity pressure in the duct sections are
1 2 1 2
𝑝𝑣12 = 𝜌𝑉12 = 0.5 × 1.2 × 8.492 = 43.2Pa; 𝑝𝑣35 = 𝜌𝑉35 = 0.5 × 1.2 × 7.132 = 30.5Pa;
2 2
1 2 2
𝑝𝑣46 = 𝜌𝑉46= 0.5 × 1.2 × 7.95 = 37.9Pa.
2
The frictional pressure losses in the straight duct sections can be calculated (See below Appendix A)
∆𝑃𝑓12 = 53.5 Pa; ∆𝑃𝑓35 = 42.7 Pa; ∆𝑃𝑓46 = 120.8 Pa

The loss for the 90 bend 4-6, diverging tee-junction 2-3-4
1 2 1
∆𝑝𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑−46 = 2 𝑐𝑜 𝜌𝑉46 = 2 × 0.11 × 1.2 × 7.952 = 4.17 Pa;
1 2 1
∆𝑝𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡−23 = 2 𝑐𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝜌𝑉12 = 2 × 0.14 × 1.2 × 8.492 = 6.05 Pa;
1 2 1
∆𝑝𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑−24 = 2 𝑐𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝜌𝑉12 = 2 × 1.2 × 1.2 × 8.492 = 51.89 Pa;

The total pressure at different sections are

𝑝𝑡1 = 285 Pa; 𝑝𝑡2 = 𝑝𝑡1 − ∆𝑝𝑓12 = 285 − 53.5 = 231.5Pa;
𝑝𝑡3 = 𝑝𝑡2 − ∆𝑝𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡−23 = 231.4 − 6.05 = 225.35Pa; 𝑝𝑡4 = 𝑝𝑡2 − ∆𝑝𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑−24 = 231.4 − 51.89 = 179.5a;
𝑝𝑡5 = 𝑝𝑡3 − ∆𝑃𝑓35 = 225.35 − 42.7 = 182.65Pa; 𝑝𝑡6 = 𝑝𝑡4 − ∆𝑃𝑓46 = 179.5 − 120.8 = 58.7Pa;

Hence the required pressure loss through the damper at section 5 is

∆𝑝𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟 = 𝑝𝑡5 − 𝑝𝑡6 = 182.65 − 58.7 = 123.95Pa.

Appendix A: We assume that the roughness 𝜖 = 0.3 mm. The friction coefficients can be obtained from the
Moody diagram.
𝜌𝑉12 𝐷12 1.2×8.49×0.6 𝜖 0.0003
For duct 12, 𝐿12 = 45m; 𝐷12 = 0.6m; Re= = = 3.36 × 105 ;𝐷 = = 0.0005; hence
𝜇 1.82×10−5 12 0.6
𝑓 = 0.0165.
𝜌𝑉35 𝐷35 1.2×7.13×0.5 𝜖 0.0003
For duct 35, 𝐿35 = 40m; 𝐷35 = 0.5m; Re= = = 2.35 × 105 ;𝐷 = = 0.0005; hence
𝜇 1.82×10−5 12 0.6
𝑓 = 0.0175.
𝜌𝑉46 𝐷46 1.2×7.95×0.4 𝜖 0.0003
For duct 46, 𝐿46 = 70m; 𝐷46 = 0.4m; Re= = = 2.10 × 105 ;𝐷 = = 0.0005; hence
𝜇 1.82×10−5 12 0.6
𝑓 = 0.0182.
1 𝐿 2
Thus, the pressure droplet can be obtained, e.g. ∆𝑃𝑓12 = 2 𝑓 𝐷12 𝜌𝑉12 .
12

73
Example 3. The breath and height of the outlet diffuser of a centrifugal fan are at 0.62 m and 0.32 m
respectively. The fan delivers 1.6 m3/s of air when the rotational speed is 205 rpm. The static pressure at the
outlet is 540 Pa. (a) Calculate the ideal power output required to operate the fan; (b) if the efficiency of the
motor and drive is 72%, calculate the power input to the motor.
𝑄 1.6
Solution: The outlet velocity of the air is given by 𝑉𝑜 = 𝐴 = 0.62×0.32 = 8.06 m/s.
𝑜
1 1
The velocity pressure at the outlet of the fan is 𝑝𝑣𝑜 = 2 𝜌𝑉𝑜2 = 2 × 1.2 × 8.062 = 39.0 Pa
The total pressure at the outlet 𝑝𝑡𝑜 = 39 + 540 = 579 Pa
The ideal power input 𝑊𝑖𝑑 = 𝑄𝑝𝑡𝑜 = 1.6 × 579 = 926.4 W.
𝑊 926.4
Actual power 𝑊𝑎𝑐 =  𝑖𝑑 = 0.72 = 1287W.
𝑚𝑑

Example 4. Ambient air at 20oC and density 1.2 kg/m3 enters a fan rotating at 180 rpm. The total pressure of
the air delivered by the fan is 11.5kPa, and the volume flow rate 4.5 m3/s.
(a) Calculate the ideal power input to the fan;
(b) Calculate the volume flow rate, the pressure rise and the power input; if the fan speed is increased to 200
rpm with the same density; or if the speed remains constant but the ambient air temperature increases to
40oC.

Solution: The ideal power input is 𝑊̇1 = 𝑄1 𝑝𝑡1 = 4.5 × 11.5 = 51.75 kW.

If the fan speed increases from 180 rpm to 200 rpm (density is constant)
74
 𝜔 200
𝑄̇2 = 𝜔2 𝑄̇1 = 180 × 4.5 = 5.0 m3/s
1
𝜔 2 200 2
𝑝𝑡2 = (𝜔2 ) 𝑝𝑡1 = (180) × 11.5 = 14.2 kPa
1

𝜔 3200 3
𝑊̇2 = (𝜔2 ) 𝑊̇1 = (180) × 51.75 = 71 kW
1

If the speed remains constant but the ambient air temperature increases to 40oC, we assume the air is an ideal
gas, 𝑝 = 𝜌𝑅𝑇, hence
𝜌2 𝑇 𝑇 273+20
= 𝑇1 ; , 𝜌2 = 𝜌1 (𝑇1 ) = 1.2 × (273+40) = 1.123 kg/m3.
𝜌1 2 2
The flow rate is independent of the density, so remains constant. For the same fan seed

𝜌 1.123
𝑝𝑡2 = (𝜌2 ) 𝑝𝑡1 = ( ) × 11.5 = 10.76 kPa;
1 1.2
𝜌2 1.123
𝑊̇ = (𝜌 ) 𝑊̇1 = ( ) × 51.75 = 48.4kW.
1 1.2

Example 5. Figure 5.1 shows a supply air duct system and all ducts are circular. The flow rates and duct lengths
are indicated in the figure. The loss coefficient for the duct exists is 0.6.
(a) Use the equal friction method to size all ducts;
(b) Determine where dampers should be located to achieve the desired air flow rates to the spaces;
(c) Can the pressure losses in the duct runs be balanced by changing the duct diameters?

Figure 5.1. The duct network for Example 5.

Solution
(a) The flow rates (m3/s) through the different duct sections are as follows.
𝑄̇12 = 4.5; 𝑄̇34 = 3.5; 𝑄̇56 = 1.5; 𝑄̇78 = 1.5; 𝑄̇9,10 = 2.0; 𝑄̇11,12 = 1.0

To apply the equal friction method, we assume air velocity in section 1-2 is 9m/s. On the friction chart, we
obtain the duct diameter as 0.8 m, and unit pressure loss as 0.93 Pa/m, which all within the recommended
bounds.

Using the same unit pressure loss for all other duct sections, and their flow rates, we obtain their duct diameters.
We than calculate their velocities, velocity pressure and losses in Table 4.1.

Table 4.1 The chosen duct diameters and other parameters for each section

75
 Section 𝐿, m 𝑄, m3/s 𝐷, m 𝑉, m/s 𝑃𝑣𝑒𝑙 , Pa 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 , Pa
1-2 15 4.5 0.8 9.0 48.3 13.95
11-12 7 1.0 0.45 6.2 23.3 6.5
3-4 12 3.5 0.73 8.4 42.7 11.2
9-10 6 2.0 0.59 7.36 32.6 5.58
5-6 20 1.5 0.53 6.87 28.4 18.6
7-8 8 1.5 0.53 6.87 28.4 7.4

(b) Based on the flow rates and duct diameters, we obtain the loss coefficients of the two diverging tee-
junctions, and the 90 bend from tabulated data set.
𝑐2,3 = 0.13; 𝑐2,11 = 2.4; 𝑐4,5 = 0.14; 𝑐4,9 = 1.5; 𝑐6,7 = 0.11.
The total pressure losses in different duct runs are
 𝑃1 − 𝑃8 = 𝑃12 + 𝑃23 + 𝑃34 + 𝑃45 + 𝑃56 + 𝑃67 + 𝑃78 + 𝑃𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡 = 13.95 + 0.13 × 48.3 + 11.2 + 0.14 ×
42.7 + 18.6 + 0.11 × 28.42 + 7.4 + 0.6 × 28.42 = 83.6Pa;
 𝑃1 − 𝑃12 = 𝑃12 + 𝑃2,11 + 𝑃11,12 + 𝑃𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡 = 13.95 + 2.4 × 48.3 + 6.5 + 0.6 × 23.3 = 150 Pa;
 𝑃1 − 𝑃10 = 𝑃12 + 𝑃23 + 𝑃34 + 𝑃4,9 + 𝑃9,10 + 𝑃𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡 = 13.95 + 0.13 × 48.3 + 11.2 + 1.5 × 42.7 +
5.58 + 0.6 × 32.64 = 120.6 Pa.

The fan has to deliver the largest pressure loss of 150 Pa for section1-12. To balance the pressure losses in the
three duct runs, dampers have to be installed along section 7-8 and 9-10 to artificially introduce additional
pressure losses, i.e. with magnitudes of ∆𝑃7−8 = 150 − 83.6 = 66.4Pa, and ∆𝑃9−10 = 150 − 120.6 = 29.4Pa.

(c) We can reduce the duct 7-8 and duct 9-10 diameters to increase their pressure losses. After some
calculations, the solutions are for section 7-8, the diameter is reduced to 0.37 m so that velocity = 13.4 m/s and
pressure in 1-8 is 120 Pa. For section 9-10, the diameter is reduced to 0.42 m so that velocity = 14 m/s and
pressure in 1-10 is 145 Pa. Note that these changes bring the unit pressure loses in 7-8 and 9-10 to the boundary
of the recommended region in the friction chart.

Example 6. A return air duct network, shown schematically in Figure 6.1, is made of round sheet metal ducts.
The flow rates and lengths are indicated in the figure.
(a) Use the equal friction method to size this circular duct system;
(b) Determine where dampers should be located to achieve the desired air flow rates from the spaces.

Figure 6.1. The return air duct network for Example 6.

Solution: The flow rates (m3/s) through the different duct sections are as follows.

76
𝑄̇12 = 1.45; 𝑄̇34 = 1.45; 𝑄̇56 = 1.9; 𝑄̇78 = 2.35; 𝑄̇9,10 = 0.45; 𝑄̇11,12 = 0.45

To apply the equal friction method, we shall use a unit pressure drop of 0.90 Pa/m, which is closer to the lower
bound of the recommended values.

Using the same unit pressure loss for all other duct sections, and their flow rates, we obtain their duct diameters.
We than calculate their velocities, velocity pressure and losses in Table 6.1.

Table 6.1 The chosen duct diameters and other parameters for each section

Section 𝐿, m 𝑄, m3/s 𝐷, m 𝑉, m/s 𝑃𝑣𝑒𝑙 , Pa 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 , Pa

1-2 9.2 1.45 0.524 6.7 27.2 8.28
3-4 4.6 1.45 0.524 6.7 27.2 4.14
5-6 4.6 1.9 0.581 7.2 31.0 4.14
7-8 9.5 2.35 0.629 7.55 34.4 8.55
9-10 9.2 0.45 0.337 5.04 15.3 8.28
11-12 9.2 0.45 0.337 5.04 15.5 8.28

(b) Based on the flow rates and duct diameters, we obtain the loss coefficients of the two diverging tee-
junctions, and the 90 bend from tabulated data set.
𝑐2,3 = 0.11; 𝑐4,5 = 0.36; 𝑐10,5 = −0.28; 𝑐6,7 = 0.25; 𝑐12,7 = 0.21.
The total pressure losses in different duct runs are
 𝑃1 − 𝑃8 = 𝑃12 + 𝑃23 + 𝑃34 + 𝑃45 + 𝑃56 + 𝑃67 + 𝑃78 = 8.28 + 0.11 × 27.2 + 4.14 + 0.36 × 31 +
4.14 + 0.25 × 34.4 + 8.55 = 48Pa;
 𝑃9 − 𝑃8 = 𝑃9,10 + 𝑃10,5 + 𝑃56 + 𝑃67 + 𝑃78 = 8.28 − 0.28 × 31 + 4.14 + 0.25 × 34.4 + 8.55 = 21 Pa;
 𝑃11 − 𝑃8 = 𝑃11,12 + 𝑃12,7 + 𝑃78 = 8.28 + 0.21 × 34.4 + 8.55 = 24 Pa.

The fan has to deliver the largest pressure loss of 48 Pa for section1-8. To balance the pressure losses in the
three duct runs, dampers have to be installed along section 9-10 and 11-12 to artificially introduce additional
pressure losses, i.e. with magnitudes of ∆𝑃9−10 = 48 − 21 = 27Pa, and ∆𝑃11−12 = 48 − 24 = 24Pa.

Note: as in the last example, we could also adjust the diameters of ducts section 9-10 and 11-12 to increase the
pressure losses in the duct runs 9-8 and 11-8 for balance.

Example 7. A circular supply air duct system is shown schematically in Figure 7.1. The flow rate through
section 1-2 is 40 m3/s, and the air velocity is 18 m/s. The section 3-4 with a 90
Bend is 12 m long. The flow rate through section 3-4 is 24 m3/s. Determine the diameter of section 3-4 using
the static regain method.

77
Figure 7.1 The circular supply air duct for Example 7.
1 1
4𝑄̇1 2 4×40 2
Solution: Section 1-2 diameter 𝐷1 = ( ) =( ) = 1.68 m
𝜋𝑉2 3.14×18
Applying the modified Bernoulli’s equation between 2 and 4
1 1 𝐿 1 1
𝑝𝑠2 + 2 𝜌𝑉22 = 2 𝑘𝑠 𝜌𝑉22 + 𝑓34 𝐷34 𝜌𝑉32 + 2 𝑘𝑏 𝜌𝑉32 + 𝑝𝑠4 + 2 𝜌𝑉32 ; (1)
3
Where 𝑘𝑠 and 𝑘𝑏 are the loss coefficients of the straight section of the tee-junction 2-3-5 and the 90 bend of
section 3-4.
1 1
For static regain method, 𝑝𝑠2 = 𝑝𝑠4 . As 𝑄̇1 = 4 𝜋𝐷12 𝑉2; 𝑄̇2 = 4 𝜋𝐷22 𝑉3
Equation (1) becomes
(1−𝑘𝑠 ) 𝑄̇1 2 (1+𝑘𝑏 ) 𝐿34 (1−𝑘𝑠 ) 40 2 (1+𝑘𝑏 ) 12𝑓34
(𝑄̇ ) = + 𝑓34 ; with numerical values (24) = + (2)
𝐷14 2 𝐷24 𝐷25 1.684 𝐷24 𝐷25

Equation (2) can be numerically solved for the diameter 𝐷2 . However, the loss coefficient 𝑘𝑠 for the tee-
𝑄̇ 𝐴 𝐷 2
junction is a function of 𝑄̇2 and 𝐴2 = (𝐷2 ) . The loss coefficient for the 90 bend is a function of the diameter
1 1 1
𝐷2 .

The main steps in a numerical solution are as follows: Guess an initial value of 𝐷2 . Obtain 𝑘𝑠 and 𝑘𝑏 . Obtain the
friction factor 𝑓34 . Iterate using simple methods such as bifurcation, then we can obtain 𝐷2 = 142.6 cm.

Air distribution in building ventilation

Ventilation is about air flow – air flow and transport phenomena are inherently associated with buildings as the
primary function of buildings is to create an adequate indoor environment for the occupants or equipment therein.
The velocity, turbulence, temperature and humidity are all important thermo-fluid parameters for thermal comfort,
and indoor air quality. One of the basic ventilation problems is in the design of air distribution systems.

Figure 8 show sketches of three different ventilation systems, i.e. mixing ventilation, displacement ventilation
and kitchen local exhaust ventilation using a range hood. The three systems involve a broad range of airflow
phenomena, including wall jets, thermal plumes, gravity currents, and natural convection along vertical walls.

Mixing ventilation Displacement ventilation Kitchen local exhaust

ventilation

Figure 8. A sketch of air distribution pattern in three ventilation systems.

The airflow in these systems may be analyzed using two different approaches. Let us take displacement
ventilation as an example:
78
 If our interest is to ensure that the location of the interface between the lower clean zone and the upper
polluted zone, a macroscopic approach involving the use of the macroscopic mass balance equations can be
used. The location of the interface is approximately taken where the total upward flow rate of the plume and
the vertical boundary layer is equal to the supply airflow rate.
 However, if the detailed air velocity and turbulence level in the occupied region (particularly close to the
supply register) is of interest, a microscopic approach involving the use of the differential governing
equations of airflow will have to be solved.

There are categories of ventilation problems:

 Macroscopic problems, in which the objective is to develop overall relationships between some lumped
flow parameters. Examples include the required exhaust flow rate (fan power) for achieving a 100% capture
efficiency in kitchen range hoods ; dependence of air change rate on the pressure difference across a
building envelope, and heating and cooling load of a house due to air infiltration, etc.
 Microscopic problems, in which the objective is to obtain detailed distribution or primitive airflow
variables, such as the velocity distribution rather than volumetric flow rate, the spatial temperature
distribution rather than total heat gain or loss.

Non-dimensional parameters - One difficulty when attempting to analyze ventilation in buildings is that there
are many geometrical and physical parameters which govern or influence the flow. These parameters can be the
geometry, type and location of the air supply registers and exhaust openings, supply air velocity, heat
generation in the room, etc.

The upper limit of length scale may be duct diameter, dimension of supply register and room, or the dimension
of furniture causing the flow disturbance. Let this typical length dimension be L. The characteristic velocity, U,
which can be the supply air velocity or some kind of average velocity. The characteristic overall convection
L
time scale, tc ,for a fluid element to be advected along the dimension L by the velocity U is t c  . A second
U
L2
characteristic time scale due to viscous diffusion may also be defined as: t d  .

Almost in all airflow problems, a question can be asked about which of these two time scales dominate the
flow. Reynolds number, Re, is defined as the ratio between these two time scales.
t UL
Re  d  (1)
tc 
Reynolds number plays an important role in airflow analysis. The airflow in a round ventilation duct is laminar
when Re is small, and it is turbulent when Re is larger than 2300. The rapidity at which mass and momentum
can be transferred in a turbulent flow compared to that in a laminar low is a very important feature of
turbulence.

On the other hand, many building airflow problems are driven by thermal buoyancy forces. In a thermally
driven flow, another non-dimensional parameter can be derived. Consider an airflow between two horizontal
plates with the lower plate at temperature T+T and the upper plate at T. Due to the thermal expansion of the
fluid, a fluid element will thus experience a buoyancy force per unit mass (i.e. acceleration) of
g
  gT (2)

where g is the acceleration of gravity and is the thermal expansion coefficient.

79
If the air element is allowed to accelerate freely from the lower to upper surfaces, it would reach a convection
velocity uc: u c  gTL (3)

where L is the vertical distance between the two surfaces. The time scale due to thermal convection for a length
L L
scale L, is ttc   (4)
uc g T
A thermal diffusion time scale can be obtained by analogy to that due to viscous diffusion
L2
ttd  (5)

where is the thermal diffusivity,  = k/cp, k is the thermal conductivity, and cp is the specific heat capacity at
constant pressure.

Rayleigh number is defined as the product of the ratio ttd / ttc .

 g TL3
Ra  (6)

The convection flow driven by the buoyancy forces between the horizontal plates is laminar when Ra is small.
The flow is turbulent at Ra values between 105 – 107.

In air-conditioned rooms, flows are often driven by both mechanical ventilation and temperature differences. If
U is the supply air velocity and L the characteristic length (e.g. room length), the square of the ratio between ttc
and tc defines the Archimedes number, which is widely used in the ventilation community.
2
t  g TL
Ar   c   2
(7)
 
ttc U
In the mixed convection literature, Ar is written as Gr/Re2, where Grashof number is defined as:
 2 g TL3
Gr  (8)
 2

The Grashof number plays a special role in the study of many natural convection flows, e.g. flow in a room with
two differentially heated vertical walls. It should be noted that Ra = Gr Pr, where Pr is the Prandtl number, and
Pr = .

In general, the Archimedes number is a measure of the relative importance of buoyant and inertia forces. The
Archimedes number is important in building airflows because it combines two important air conditioning design
parameters – supply air velocity and room temperature difference. The relative roles of Re and Ar is evident
from the following example.

Example 8. Two commonly used air distribution systems for ventilation and air conditioning are the mixing
and displacement systems. Assuming the air temperature in the occupied zone of an office is 23oC, and using
the supply parameters below:
 Mixing ventilation system – register length scale 0.1 m, supply air velocity 4 m s-1 and supply air
temperature 14oC;
 Displacement ventilation system – register length scale 0.5m, supply air velocity 0.2m s-1 and supply air
temperature 19oC.

80
Estimate the Reynolds number and the Archimedes number for the two ventilation systems respectively.
Assume the following air properties:  = 1.84×10-5 Pa∙s,  = 1.189 kg m-3.

Solution: For air, the thermal expansion coefficient  = 1/T.

UL 1.189  4  0.1
For the mixing ventilation system, Re    2.585 10 4
 1.84 10 5

g  LT 9.8  0.1  23  14 

Ar    0.0019
U2 (23  273.15)  42

UL 1.189  0.2  0.5

For the displacement ventilation system, Re    6.5 103
 1.84 10 5
g  LT 9.8  0.5   23  19 
Ar    1.7
U2 (23  273.15)  0.22

The apparent differences in the two non-dimensional parameters indicate that the airflow in the two systems
will be different. The supply flow of a mixing system is often of a jet type (large Re), while the supply flow of
displacement ventilation is often of a gravity current type (large Ar). In a jet type flow, the motion is governed
by the initial momentum of the supply air which may be influenced by the gravity force. In contrast, in a gravity
current, the motion is governed by the gravity force.

Table 1. Estimated ranges of thermal and flow parameters in ventilated rooms.

Parameters Ranges
Occupied zone air temperatures 16oC-26 oC
Occupied zone air temperature gradient <3 K m-1
Surface temperature of radiators <80 oC
Supply air temperature 9 oC-50 oC
Supply air velocity
- mixing ventilation 2.0-8.0 m s-1
- displacement ventilation 0.1-0.4 m s-1
Occupied zone air velocity <0.15-0.25 m s-1
Supply flow rate <20 ACH (often 0.5-5 ACH)
Room surface convective heat transfer coefficient 0.5-7 W m-2 K-1
Ratio of radiative to convective heat transfer from a surface 0.7-5
Jet Reynolds number (based on supply data)
- mixing ventilation 2000-10000
Archimedes number
- Buoyancy-controlled mixing ventilation <0.01
- Buoyancy-controlled displacement ventilation >0.5

81
 , cos =-1
Macroscopic equations The integral (air) mass balance
equation for the simple room in Figure 9 becomes at n1
steady state v1
1vm1 A1   2 vm 2 A2 (9)
If the density is constant, 2, it becomes A1
vm1 A1  vm 2 A2 (10) n2
v2
In ventilation airflows, we often deal with contaminants in A2
air. The word concentration c is used for either partial Figure 9. A room as a controlvolume.
density (kg m-3) or volume fraction (m3 m-3). = 0, cos =1

d d
For (pollutant) mass balance, 
dt V
cdV    cv  d A or
A dt V
cdV  c1vm1 A1  c2 vm 2 A2

If concentration c is constant within the control volume V, which is also a constant,

dc
V  c1vm1 A1  c2 vm 2 A2 (11)
dt

Example 9. Ventilation flow rate is conventionally measured as air change rate with a unit of ACH (air change
per hour). For a room with air change rate of n, calculate the time required for changing the room air with
outside air by 90%, assuming that the room air is perfectly mixed.

Solution: We call the room air at time t =0, “old air” and the outside fresh air “new air”. With this notation, at
time t = 0, the concentration c of “old” air in the room is 100%. As the room airflow is assumed perfectly
mixed, which means that the concentration c2 of the extract air is the same as the concentration c of the room
dc
air. From equation (11), V  cvm 2 A2
dt
v A
From the definition of air change rate, n  m 2 2
V
dc
Solution of V  cvm 2 A2 with initial condition t = 0, c = 1, we have c  e  nt . Thus, when c = 0.1, we have
dt
1 1
t   ln 0.1  2.3 . It will take 2.3 times the nominal time 1/n to change the room air with outside air by 90%.
n n
Thus, an air change rate of n ACH does not necessarily mean that the room air in a building can be changed
with the fresh air by n times per hours. The concept of air change per hour is sometimes misleading.

Example 10. For a room of volume V (m3), the amount of pollutant generated in the room is G (kg s-1). The
outdoor air supply rate is q (m3 s-1) and the concentration of pollutant in the outdoor air is co. Calculate the
indoor pollutant concentration at time t, assuming a perfect mixing flow in the room.

Solution: Considering the source generation, the equation (11) becomes

dc
V  G  qco  qc
dt

The initial condition is c = cI at t = 0. We can obtain the general its solution.

82
  
c   cG  co  1  e nt  cI e  nt

where n = q/V is the specific flow rate (m3 s-1m-3) and cG = G/q the virtual generation concentration. This
solution is of very fundamental use in building ventilation, which can be simplified under some conditions. For
example, when co = 0 and G = 0, the solution is c  cI e  nt , which is the simple decay equation, commonly used
in measuring ventilation flow rates through a building envelope when a tracer gas technique is used.

Example 11. The basic physical principles of displacement ventilation are based on the properties of stratified
flow. Ventilation air with lower temperature (usually around 19oC) than the mean room air temperature is
introduced at floor level. Due to low supply velocity and large gravitational force, the supply airflow is of the
gravity current type. Plumes are generated from the heat sources in the room and a vertical temperature gradient
is therefore generated. The ceiling is warmer than other surfaces and this gives rise to radiation heat transfer
from the ceiling, mainly to the floor. As a result, this makes the floor warmer than the air layer adjacent to the
floor. The air temperature at floor level and the vertical temperature gradients in the room are important comfort
parameters.

Assuming the following:

 flow is divided into a cold gravity current zone and a stratified region (i.e. two control volumes);
 air temperature in the stratified region is linear;
 supply air spread over the floor without entrainment. This is a property of the cold gravity current in a
stratified environment;
 surface temperature of the ceiling is equal to the near ceiling air temperature and the extract air
temperature;
 radiation equations are linearized due to moderate temperature differences;
 room is perfectly insulated.

Derive expressions for the extract air temperature, floor surface temperature, floor air temperature and vertical
temperature gradient.
Te = Tc

Ts Tfa Tf

Figure 10. The three-node model of heat transfer process in a room ventilated by displacement ventilation.

Solution: The integral energy balance for the room as a whole:

q c p Te  Ts   E (12)
where q is the supply airflow rate, and E is the total heat power in the room.

The integral energy balance for the floor surface and the cold gravity current are:
hr A Te  T f   h f A T f  T fa  (13)

83
   
q  c p T fa  Ts  h f A T f  T fa  (14)

where the left hand side of equation (1.56) represents the radiative heat flux between the floor surface and the
ceiling, and the radiative heat transfer coefficient is obtained with linearization, hr  4To3 , To is calculated
approximately by an assuming floor and ceiling temperature.

From equations (12-14), we obtain and define

1
T fa  Ts  qc p  1 1  
      1 (15)
Te  Ts  A  h f hr  
The mean vertical temperature gradient is then be calculated to be
E
s  1    (16)
 c p qH
The calculated values of the convective heat transfer number,  which are the relative increase in temperature
of floor air, are found to be in rather good agreement with measurements as a function of ventilation airflow
rates per unit floor area (q/A).

The temperatures of Te , T fa and T f can be calculated as

hrTe  h f T fa
 T ; T   Te  Ts   Ts ; T f 
E
Te  a

cp q s f hr  h f

The above is the three-node model of displacement ventilation. It should be noticed that the assumptions of
equal ceiling surface and near ceiling air temperature may not be appropriate, and a near ceiling warm gravity
zone can be added to the model. This is the four-node model.

Application of computational fluid dynamics (CFD) The differential equations of fluid flow, in which the
conservation principles are applied over a small control volume (infinitesimal fluid element) can be solved, by
numerical methods, and this is CFD. Most airflows encountered in buildings are turbulent Simply speaking,
turbulent motion is irregular and chaotic. Experiments show that at any fixed point in a fully developed
turbulent flow, the instantaneous velocity, pressure and/or temperature fluctuate about a mean value, over a
sufficiently long time period. Statistical methods are usually used for describing such flows. Most CFD
simulations for engineering applications aim to predict the mean velocity field in a given flow situation.

Jets, plumes and gravity currents There are two types of turbulent flows which are fundamental in ventilation
engineering. These are the free shear flows (Figure 11) and wall shear flows (Figure 12). For the free shear
flows the extent of the turbulent region always grows downstream. It is generally accepted that at distances far
from the origin, these flows develop some universal characteristics, so-called self-preserving or self-similar. In
a similar state, the flow depends only on local quantities, e.g. mean velocity. For the wall shear flows, the
presence of a wall has a dominant effect. Both flows are very important in building airflows.

y
y
y d d
x d
x
x

84
 A jet flow A mixing layer flow A wake flow

Figure 11. Examples of free shear flows.

y y

 x x

Inlet region fully developed

(a) Flat boundary layer (b) Channel or pipe flows

Figure 12. Examples of wall shear flows.

The conventional design of air distribution in a room is often based on the data obtained from the physical
model tests or on the study of jets, plumes and boundary layer flows that defines the airflow in the room. The
primary air streams are in general assumed to be in an infinite or semi-infinite space. When a jet or a plume is
discharged into an infinite space, the continuity is satisfied by entrainment of air from infinity and this air is
returned back to infinity. Therefore the pressure in the ambient is assumed to be constant. However, in rooms
considered as confined spaces, and the room air is partially or fully encircled by these primary streams, the
room air-flow cannot be readily determined from the primary streams but depends on them, while they in turn
are influenced by the room air. These interactions cause the primary air streams themselves to change.

Most of the basic flow elements of interest can be analyzed by the boundary layer approximations, e.g. jets and
plumes. Both the wall shear flows and free shear flows have been investigated extensively in fluid mechanics.
One useful analytical treatment of these flows is the combination of similarity analysis, integral methods and
dimensional analysis (not shown here).

Let’s first consider a jet flow into a stagnant room, and we consider two directions of air supply, the vertical and
the horizontal, when the supply air temperature differs from that of the room air. Here, the buoyancy force will
g  L(To  Ta ) Gr
influence the flow. Here the Archimedes number is written as Ar   2 , where Ta is the room
U2 Re
air temperature, To is the supply air temperature and U is the supply air velocity.

For vertical jets/plume, there are at least four basic types of flows (see Figure 13):
 Pure jet: the effect of buoyancy is negligible and Ar=0. It can also be termed as non-buoyant jet or
simply jet.
 Warm buoyant jet: the buoyancy force acts in the direction to the jet. It is also called the force plume, or
positive buoyant jet.
 Cold buoyant jet: the buoyancy force acts in the opposite direction of jet. It is also called negative
buoyant jet.
 Pure plume: the effect of initial momentum is negligible and the buoyancy effect is dominant, Ar>>0.

For horizontal flows, the situation is different due to the fact that the buoyancy force acts perpendicular to the
flow direction. There are at least five types of flows (see Figure 14).

85
  Pure jet: the effect of buoyancy is negligible and Ar=0. There is certainly no physical difference
between a horizontal pure jet and a vertical pure jet.
 Warm buoyant jet: The supply air is warmer and the buoyancy force acts in the upward direction (0≤Ar
≤1).
 Cold buoyant jet: The supply air is colder than the buoyancy force acts in the downward direction (-
1≤Ar ≤0).
 Warm gravity current: The supply air is warmer and the buoyancy force dominant in the upward
direction (Ar>>1).
 Cold gravity current: The supply air is colder and the buoyancy force dominant in the downward
direction (Ar<<-1).

Ta
Ta

u0,T0 T0<Ta
u0,T0 T0=Ta
Ar < 0
Ar=0
d d

(a) Pure jet (b) Positive buoyant jet (forced plume)

Ta Ta

u0,T0 T0>Ta E
Ar >0
d Ar = 0
d
(c) Negative buoyant jet (d) Pure plume
Figure 13. Basic vertically supplied flow streams.

u0,T0 (Ar <<-1)

Ta (Ar >> 1)
d T0<Ta
u0  0 d Ta
T0>Ta
u0,T0
u0  0

(a) Cold gravity current (d) Warm gravity current

86
 u0,T0 (-1<<Ar <0) (Ar = 0) (0<Ar <<1)
u0,T0 Ta
d T0>Ta
d

Ta d
Ta
T0<Ta
T0=Ta
u0,T0

(b) Cold buoyant jet (c) (pure) jet (e) Warm buoyant jet

Figure 14. Basic horizontally supplied flow streams.

From an engineering viewpoint, the jet width, decay in the centreline velocity and temperature, and the
distribution of velocity and temperature across the jet are of practical interests. It is beyond the scope of this
chapter to provide a full analysis.

When air supplied from an opening that is bounded by a flat wall surface on one side, and the velocity is
directed in parallel to the wall surface, a wall jet occurs. The wall jet is referred to as the semi-contained jet.
When there is a distance between the nozzle and the wall surface, the entrainment of air on the wall side causes
a pressure differences across the jet. The jet is curved towards the wall. This is known as the Coanda effect. A
wall jet has a longer throw than a free jet. A wall jet along the ceiling of a room can be applied to avoid high-
velocity in the occupied region, i.e. draught. Two simple wall jets are the plane wall jet and the round wall jet.

Water distribution systems

Water distribution systems, also called hydronic systems, have several practical advantages over air
distribution: (a) the size of hear source is smaller; (b) water pipes requires less space than air ducts; and (c) for
heating applications, higher temperature are more practical with water than with air. Air distribution is
commonly used in residential and small commercial applications where the distances from the heat source to the
conditioned spaces are usually short. For large central air conditioning systems, it is more common to use hot
water and chilled water as distribution media.

Energy equation for hydronic systems

We commonly use the pressure head form of the energy equation, with total pressure head as follows
𝐸𝑚 𝑝 𝑉2
𝐻= = 𝜌𝑔 + 2𝑔 + 𝑧;
𝑔
Two simple systems, i.e. open loop and close loop systems.

For open loop, between 1 and 2,

𝑝 𝑉2 𝑊𝑖𝑛 𝑝 𝑉2 𝑊𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
(𝜌𝑔1 + 2𝑔
1
+ 𝑧1 ) + = (𝜌𝑔2 + 2𝑔
2
+ 𝑧2 ) + ; (1)
𝑔 𝑔

Where 𝑊𝑖𝑛 [J/kg] is the work input by the pump per unit mass of fluid. The mechanical energy loss per unit
mass, 𝑊𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 includes frictional losses I the pipe and dynamic losses in the fittings. Note for the open loop
system, one part is in direct contact with air, as in the cooling tower water loop of the air conditioning system as
shown in Figure 15.

87
Figure 15. Two types of water distribution systems, i.e. (a) open loop and (b) closed loop systems.

For close loop, between 1 and 2,

𝑊𝑖𝑛 𝑝1 𝑉12 𝑝2 𝑉22 𝑊𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
=( + )−( + )= ; (2)
𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝑔

note that change in elevation for the close loop system is generally negligible. The chilled water loop is an
example of a close loop system.

Head losses
∆𝑃𝑓 𝐿 𝑉2
Frictional loss in straight pipes ∆ℎ𝑓 = = 𝑓 (𝐷) (2𝑔)
𝜌𝑔
𝑉2
Dynamic loss in fittings ∆ℎ12 = 𝑘 (2𝑔)
𝐿 𝑉2 𝑉2 𝐿 𝑉2
Total head loss ∆ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝑓 (𝐷) (2𝑔) + 𝑘 (2𝑔) = [𝑓 (𝐷) + 𝑘] (2𝑔)
𝑉2 𝐿 𝑉2 𝑘𝐷 𝑘
Equivalent length 𝑘 (2𝑔) = 𝑓 ( 𝐷𝑒𝑞) (2𝑔), we have 𝐿𝑒𝑞 = 𝑓
= ( ) 𝐷.
𝑓

88
Figure 16. Friction pressure loss chart for water flowing in Schedule 40 steel pipes. Water temperature is 20oC,
and absolute roughness = 0.00046.

89
Pump characteristics
The most commonly used pumps are centrifugal pumps, similar in operation to the centrifugal fans, and a
schematic diagram is shown Figure 17. The impeller with blades is driven b=in the clockwise direction by
electric motor.

(a) (b)

Figure 17. (a) Schematic of centrifugal pump; (b) performance curves for a typical centrifugal pump.

The rotating blades impart a high radial velocity to the water entering the impeller at
the center. The diffusing section at the periphery of the impeller converts the high
velocity head of water to a static pressure rise.

Typical profiles of total pressure head, work input and efficiency with flow rate are
shown in Figure 18. The head across the pump is a maximum when the flow rate is
zero. As the flow rate increases, the head decreases progressively until at the
maximum flow rate the head becomes zero. The power input at zero flow rate is
used to stir the fluid in the pump and is all converted into thermal internal energy.
The power input increases near linearly with flow rate.

Following equation (2), the ideal work input to the fluid per Denis Papin (1647 – c. 1713), French physicist,
unit mass of fluid by the pump mathematician and inventor, developed the first
∆𝑃 true centrifugal pump in 1687, long before
𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 = 𝜌 𝑡 = 𝑔∆ℎ𝑡 , where 𝜌 is the density of fluid, and Bernoulli equation in 1738.
∆ℎ𝑡 is the total head.
The ideal power input to the fluid by the pump
𝑚̇∆𝑃
𝑊̇𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 = 𝜌 𝑡 = 𝑄̇ 𝜌𝑔∆ℎ𝑡 ;
The actual work input per unit mass, 𝑊𝑎𝑐𝑡 is larger than the ideal work.
𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑔∆ℎ𝑡 𝑄̇ 𝜌𝑔∆ℎ𝑡
The pump efficiency 𝑡 = = =
𝑊𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑊𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑊̇𝑎𝑐𝑡

With liquid pumps, difficulties arise if the pressure inside the pump becomes very low. At low pressures, liquids
vaporize and pockets of vapor may be formed if the pressure falls below the saturation vapor pressure
corresponding to the prevailing temperature. Vapor bubbles are carried along with the liquid until a region of
high pressure is reached, where they suddenly collapse. If vapor bubbles are near to a solid surface, when they

90
collapse, the forces exerted by the liquid rushing into the cavities create very high local pressure causing serious
erosion of the solid surfaces. This phenomenon is known as cavitation.

In any application, the available suction head has to exceed a parameter called the net positive suction head
(NPSH) to avoid cavitation. The available NPSH is as follows.
𝑣2
NPSH𝑎𝑣𝑎 = ℎ𝑠 + 2𝑔𝑠 − ℎ𝑣 ; where ℎ𝑠 and 𝑣𝑠 are the head and the velocity at the impeller entrance and ℎ𝑣 is the
vapor pressure of the liquid at the prevailing temperature.

Note that system-pump interaction and flow control is similar to those for fan-duct systems. Dampers in fan-
duct system are replaced by valves in the hydronic systems.

Figure 18. Typical characteristics of a centrifugal pump.

Design of water distribution systems

A typical system consists of straight pipes, fittings like bends and tee-joints, valves, heat exchangers, an
expansion tank, and pumps.

For close systems, two arrangements are possible, i.e. the two-pipe direct-return systems, and two-pipe reverse-
return systems. They are called two-pipe systems because there are separate supply and return pipe systems.

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 (a) (b)
Figure 19. Pipe networks. (a) direct-return system; (b) reverse-return system.

In the direct return pipe system, the terminal units in the zones A, B and C are supplied with hot water from a
boiler or chilled water from a chiller plant, depending on the application. Its drawback is that the available
pressure to the three terminal units are different due to the different lengths of the supply and return pipes to and
from the units. More water would be supplied to A, e.g. if the A pipes are much shorter. If the available
pressures differ significantly, then it would be difficult to ensure the desired flow rates to the three units, even
with the help of control valves.

In the reserve-return system, the total lengths of the piping from the boiler or the chiller to the three terminal
units, including the supply and return pipe lengths, are approximately equal. Therefore, the available pressures
and the flow rates to the three units will not differ by much. Its disadvantage is the additional pipe required.

An open-loop system has at least one section where the water is in contact with atmosphere air. Therefore, the
pressure at any other point in the pipe network can be determined by knowing pressure difference between the
point and the air-water contact surface.

A closed loop system is normally operated with the entire system above atmospheric pressure to prevent air
leakage into the system. Moreover, the total volume of closed loop systems change with temperature due to the
different coefficients of thermal expansion of water and the pipe materials. An expansion tank is installed in
close-loop systems to accommodate such volume changes, and to provide a reference pressure to prevent
cavitation in the pump. The design procedures for expansion tanks is given elsewhere.

Pipe network design

Guidelines are available in ASHRAE Handbook 2013 Fundamentals. The factors that determine the maximum
and minimum velocities in water pipes are the noise level, erosion level, installation cost and operating cost.

If the pipes are too small, the resulting high velocities lead to unfavorable noise levels, erosion levels and
pumping costs. Too large pipes lead to excessive installation cost. For pipes of nominal diameter 50 mm or less,
the recommended velocity limit is 1.2 m/s. For pipe diameters >50mm, a unit pressure loss limit of 400 Pa/m is
recommended.

The main steps in the design of pipe networks are listed below:
1. Determine the layout of the pipe network with all the necessary fittings;
2. Size the pipes in all sections of the system based on the anticipated maximum flow rate;
3. Determine the head loss through the different loops of the pipe network;
4. Obtain the head requirement of the pump based on the largest head loss from step 3 above;
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 5. Adjust the pipe diameters of the branches so that all the loops in step 3 have the same head loss as that
used to selected the pump in step 4.

Example 12. Water at 70oC flows at the rate of 3.2 L/s through a horizontal steel pipe of nominal diameter of
50 mm and length 45 m. The absolute roughness of commercial steel is 0.000046. The viscosity and density of
water at 70oC are 0.406 mPas and 977.7 kg/m3. Calculate (a) the total head loss through the pipe; (b) the
velocity head, and (c) the change in static head.

Solution: The actually inner diameter of the pipe with a nominal diameter 50 mm is 52.5 mm. For steel pipe
and the Reynolds number, 𝑓 = 0.0206.
4𝑄 4×3.2×10−3
Velocity 𝑉 = 𝜋𝐷2 = 3.14×(52.5×10−3 )2 = 1.478 ms/.
𝑓𝐿 𝑉2 0.0206×45×1.4782
The friction head loss ∆𝐻𝑓𝑟 = ( 𝐷 ) (2𝑔) = 52.5×10−3 ×2×9.81 = 1.97m;
𝑣2 1.4792
The constant velocity head in the pipe is 𝐻𝑣 = (2𝑔) = 2×9.81 = 0.111m;
𝑝 𝑉2 𝑝 𝑉2 𝑊𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
For a straight pipe, the change in the total head is equal to the friction head loss, (𝜌𝑔1 + 2𝑔
1
) − (𝜌𝑔2 + 2𝑔
2
)= .
𝑔
𝑉2
1 𝑉2
2
As 2𝑔 = 2𝑔 , hence the change in static head is ∆𝐻𝑠𝑡 = ∆𝐻𝑓𝑟 = 1.97m.

Example 13. Water at 20oC is distributed through the pipe network shown in Figure 13.1. The lengths,
diameters, and flow rates of the different pipe sections are indicated in the figure.
(a) Calculate the total pressure losses from 1-6, 1-8 and 1-0.
(b) If the pressures at the pump suction 0 and the exit sections 8, 6 and 10 are atmospheric, estimate the
required delivery pressure of the pump at 1;
(c) If the efficiency of the pump is 75%, calculate the required power input to the pump.

Figure 13.1. The pipe network for Example 13.

4𝑄
Solution: (a) The water velocity in a pipe section: 𝑉𝑖 = 𝜋𝐷2𝑖
𝑖
𝑓𝐿 𝑉2
The friction loss in the pipe section: ∆𝐻𝑓𝑟 = ( 𝐷 ) (2𝑔)

Table 2.1 Friction head losses in pipe sections

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 Section 𝐿, m 𝐷, mm 𝑄, L/s 𝑉,m/s 𝐻𝑣𝑒𝑙 , m 𝑓𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐻𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡 , m
1-2 20 75 9.5 2.15 0.236 0.0198 1.244
3-4 15 50 6.5 3.3 0.558 0.021 3.157
5-6 22 40 4 3.18 0.515 0.0223 6.336
7-8 30 35 3 3.12 0.495 0.0231 9.809
9-10 25 35 2.5 2.6 0.345 0.0234 5.755

The loss coefficients for the fittings are obtained. Hence for the two tee-junctions
𝑘2,3 = 0.9; 𝑘2,7 = 1.23; 𝑘4,5 = 0.9; 𝑘4,9 = 1.4;

For the 90 elbows, in section 7-8, 𝐷 = 35mm, 𝑘 = 1.26; in section 9-10, 𝐷 = 35mm, 𝑘 = 1.26

The corresponding velocity heads are the same as in Table 2.1. Hence
 𝐻𝑡1 − 𝐻𝑡6 = ∆𝐻12 + ∆𝐻23 + ∆𝐻34 + ∆𝐻45 + ∆𝐻56 = 1.244 + 0.9 × 0.236 + 3.517 + 0.9 × 0.558 +
6.336 = 11.8m;
 𝐻𝑡1 − 𝐻𝑡8 = ∆𝐻12 + ∆𝐻27 + ∆𝐻𝑒𝑙𝑏𝑜𝑤 + ∆𝐻78 = 1.244 + 1.23 × 0.236 + 1.26 × 0.495 + 9.809 =
11.97m;
 𝐻𝑡1 − 𝐻𝑡8 = ∆𝐻12 + ∆𝐻23 + ∆𝐻34 + ∆𝐻49 + ∆𝐻𝑒𝑙𝑏𝑜𝑤 + ∆𝐻9,10 = 1.244 + 0.9 × 0.236 + 3.517 + 1.4 ×
0.558 + 1.26 × 0.345 + 5.775 = 11.96m.

(b)The total head loss through the three sections are nearly equal. We can select the pump to deliver 9.5 L/s of
water at a total head of about 12 m. The ideal work input under these operating conditions is 𝑊̇𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 =
(∆𝐻𝜌𝑔)𝑄̇ = 12 × 998 × 9.81 × 9.5 × 10−3 = 1116W, and
𝑊 1116
(c) 𝑊𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 = .75 = 1488W.

𝑡

Example 14. In the air conditioning system, shown schematically in Figure 14.1, the evaporator supplies chilled
water at 6oC to two cooling coils A and B with cooling capacities of 32 kW and 25 kW respectively. The rise in
temperature of the chilled water in each coil is 3oC.

The pipe lengths of different sections of the network are also shown in the figure. Schedule-40 steel pipes with
threaded fittings are used. The pressure losses through the coils A and B are 1.8 m and 1.5 m respectively. The
pressure losses through the evaporator is 3.6 m.

(a) Size the pipes for this system;

(b) Determine pump flow rate and the head required.

Solution: First we calculate the chilled water flow rates through the two cooling coils.
𝑄 32 𝑄 25
𝑄𝐴 = 𝑉𝐴 𝜌𝑐𝑤 ∆𝑡𝐴 ; 𝑉𝐴 = 𝜌𝑐 𝐴∆𝑡 = 1000×4.2×3 = 2.54 L/s and 𝑉𝐵 = 𝜌𝑐 𝐵∆𝑡 = 1000×4.2×3 = 1.98 L/s
𝑤 𝐴 𝑤 𝐵
Total flow rate through the evaporator 𝑉𝑒 = 𝑉𝐴 + 𝑉𝐵 = 2.54 + 1.98 = 4.52L/s.

Using the guideline from ASHRAE, using the friction chart, we choose the following pipe diameter, velocity
and unit pressure loss for each section:
 Evaporator line: flow rate 4.52 L/s; diameter 65 mm, velocity 1.36 m/s, unit pressure loess 306 Pa/m
 Coil B line: flow rate 1.98 L/s; diameter 50 mm, velocity 1 m/s, unit pressure loess 242 Pa/m
 Coil A line: flow rate 2.54 L/s; diameter 55 mm, velocity 1.07 m/s, unit pressure loess 240 Pa/m

All diameter satisfies the limit on velocity and unit pressure loss.
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We then calculate the total pressure loss across each of the pipe sections with constant flow rate, i.e. section 1-2,
7-8, 5-6 and 3-4.

The relevant loss coefficients for the fittings:

 For 𝐷 = 65mm pipe, k-globe valve = 6.5, k-90 elbow = 0.85, k-tee-junction-straight = 0.9; k-tee-junction-
branch = 1.3;
 For 𝐷 = 55mm pipe, k-globe valve = 0.17;
 For 𝐷 = 50mm pipe, k-globe valve = 0.17, k-90 elbow = 1.0.

Figure 14.1. The chilled water supply system for Example 10.

The head losses in different pipe sections are given by

∆𝐻27(𝐴) = ∆𝐻25 + 2∆𝐻𝑔𝑎𝑣 + ∆𝐻𝑐𝐴 + ∆𝐻𝑓56 + ∆𝐻67;
∆𝐻27(𝐵) = ∆𝐻23 + 2∆𝐻𝑔𝑎𝑣 + 2∆𝐻𝑒𝑙𝑏 + ∆𝐻𝑐𝐵 + ∆𝐻9,10 + ∆𝐻𝑓34 + ∆𝐻47 ;
∆𝐻12 = ∆𝐻𝑒𝑣𝑝 + ∆𝐻𝑔𝑙𝑣 + ∆𝐻𝑒𝑙𝑏 + ∆𝐻𝑓12;
∆𝐻78 = 3∆𝐻𝑒𝑒𝑙𝑏 + ∆𝐻𝑔𝑙𝑣 + ∆𝐻𝑓78 .
The head developed by the pump is
∆𝐻𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 = 𝐻1 − 𝐻8 = ∆𝐻18;
Under steady operating conditions
∆𝐻𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 = ∆𝐻18 = ∆𝐻12 + ∆𝐻27 + ∆𝐻78 .

The computer head losses are summarized in Table 3.1

Component Length/number Head loss Component Length/number Head Component Length/number Head
(m) loss (m) loss (m)
Pipes 1-2 and 9.7m 0.3038 Pipes 5-6 2m 0.0489 Pipes 3-4 9m 0.2228
7-8
Evaporator 1 3.6 Gate valves 2 0.0198 Gate 2 0.0176
valves
90 elbows 4 0.3215 Cooling coil 1 1.8 Cooling 1 1.5
A coil B

95
 Globe valves 2 1.2294 Tee-branches 2 0.2459 90 elbows 2 0.1037
2-5, 6-7
Tee- 3 0.2553
branches 2-
3, 4-7, 9-10
∆𝐻78 + ∆𝐻12 5.4547 ∆𝐻27 via 5-6 2.1146 ∆𝐻27 via 3-4 2.0994

The total head loss from 2 to 7 through two paths Coil A 2-5-6-7 and Coil B 2-3-4-7 are nearly equal. If the two
were unequal, then the gate valves in the circuit could be used to provide additional head loss to balance the
flow.

The total head developed by the pump is ∆𝐻𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 = ∆𝐻18 = ∆𝐻12 + ∆𝐻27 + ∆𝐻78 = 5.455 + 2.115 = 7.57m.

And the required flow rate is 4.52 L/s.

Example 15. A water-cooled condenser of a water chiller plant rejects 145 kW of heat to the atmosphere
through a cooling tower as shown in Figure 15.1. The rise in temperature of the cooling water in the condenser
is 6oC. The total length of piping from the pump exit 1 to spray header 2 of the cooling tower is 14 m. The
length of piping from the cooling tower sump 3 to the pump inlet 4 is 12 m.

The vertical distance between the spray header and the water surface in the sump is 1.2 m. The pipe inlet in the
sump has a square inlet. The head loss through the condenser is 2.2 m. The head loss through the spray nozzles
in the cooling tower is negligible. The pipe network uses schedule-40 steel pipes with threaded fittings.
(a) Size the pipes for this system;
(b) Calculate the rise in total head required at the pump.

Figure 15.1. The cooling water piping system for Example 11=5.

Solution: First we calculate the water flow rate through the condenser.
𝑄 145
𝑄 = 𝑉𝜌𝑐𝑤 ∆𝑡; 𝑉 = 𝜌𝑐 ∆𝑡 = 1000×4.2×6 = 5.75 L/s
𝑤

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Using the guideline from ASHRAE, using the friction chart, we choose the following pipe diameter, velocity
and unit pressure loss for the pipe. The diameter satisfies the limit on velocity and unit pressure loss.

 Flow rate 5.75 L/s; diameter 70 mm, velocity 1.49 m/s, unit pressure loess 333 Pa/m

We then calculate the total pressure loss across each of the pipe sections. The relevant loss coefficients for the
fittings:
 For 𝐷 = 70mm pipe, k-globe valve = 6.3, k-90 elbow = 0.83, k-square inlet = 0.5

The computer head losses are summarized in the following table.

Component Length/number Head loss (m) Component Length/number Head loss (m)
Pipe 1-2 14 m 0.476 Pipe 3-4 12m 0.408
Condenser 1 2.2 Globe valves 1 0.717
90 elbows 4 0.378 90 elbows 3 0.283
Globe valves 1 0.717 Square pipe entrance 1 0.057
𝐻1 − 𝐻2 3.77 𝐻3 − 𝐻4 1.465

The pressure in the cooling tower between 2 and 3 is atmospheric and (𝐻2 − 𝐻3 ) = 1.2m. We also have
(𝐻1 − 𝐻4 ) − (𝐻2 − 𝐻3 ) = 3.77 + 1.465 = 5.235m;

Therefore the required pump head (𝐻1 − 𝐻4 ) = 6.44m.

-End-

97