Military science

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Military science is the study of military

processes, institutions, and behavior,
along with the study of warfare, and the
theory and application of organized
coercive force.[1] It is mainly focused on
theory, method, and practice of producing
military capability in a manner consistent
with national defense policy. Military
science serves to identify the strategic,
political, economic, psychological, social,
operational, technological, and tactical
elements necessary to sustain relative
advantage of military force; and to
increase the likelihood and favorable
outcomes of victory in peace or during a
war. Military scientists include theorists,
researchers, experimental scientists,
applied scientists, designers, engineers,
test technicians, and other military
personnel.

Military personnel obtain weapons,

equipment, and training to achieve specific
strategic goals. Military science is also
used to establish enemy capability as part
of technical intelligence.

In military history, military science had

been used during the period of Industrial
Revolution as a general term to refer to all
matters of military theory and technology
application as a single academic
discipline, including that of the deployment
and employment of troops in peacetime or
in battle.

In military education, military science is

often the name of the department in the
education institution that administers
officer candidate education. However, this
education usually focuses on the officer
leadership training and basic information
about employment of military theories,
concepts, methods and systems, and
graduates are not military scientists on
completion of studies, but rather junior
military officers.

History

CLASS IN TELEPHONY: ENLISTED MEN, U. S. ARMY.

The telephone in modern warfare has robbed battle of
much of its picturesqueness, romance, and glamor; as
the dashing dispatch rider on his foam-flecked steed
is antiquated. A message sent by telephone
annihilates space and time, whereas the dispatch

rider would, in most cases, be annihilated by shrapnel.

Published 1917.

Even until the Second World War, military

science was written in English starting
with capital letters, and was thought of as
an academic discipline alongside Physics,
Philosophy and the Medical Science. In
part this was due to the general mystique
that accompanied education in a World
where as late as the 1880s 75% of the
European population was illiterate. The
ability by the officers to make complex
calculations required for the equally
complex "evolutions" of the troop
movements in linear warfare that
increasingly dominated the Renaissance
and later history, and the introduction of
the gunpowder weapons into the equation
of warfare only added to the veritable
arcana of building fortifications as it
seemed to the average individual.

Until the early 19th century, one observer, a

British veteran of the Napoleonic Wars,
Major John Mitchell thought that it
seemed nothing much had changed from
the application of force on a battlefield
since the days of the Greeks.[2] He
suggested that this was primarily so
because as Clausewitz suggested, "unlike
in any other science or art, in war the
object reacts".[2]

Until this time, and even after the Franco-

Prussian War, military science continued
to be divided between the formal thinking
of officers brought up in the "shadow" of
Napoleonic Wars and younger officers like
Ardant du Picq who tended to view fighting
performance as rooted in the individual's
and group psychology[3] and suggested
detailed analysis of this. This set in motion
the eventual fascination of the military
organisations with application of
quantitative and qualitative research to
their theories of combat; the attempt to
translate military thinking as philosophic
concepts into concrete methods of
combat.

Military implements, the supply of an army,

its organization, tactics, and discipline,
have constituted the elements of military
science in all ages; but improvement in
weapons and accoutrements appears to
lead and control all the rest.[4]

The breakthrough of sorts made by

Clausewitz in suggesting eight principles
on which such methods can be based, in
Europe, for the first time presented an
opportunity to largely remove the element
of chance and error from command
decision making process.[5] At this time
emphasis was made on the Topography
(including Trigonometry), Military art
(Military science),[6] Military history,
Organisation of the Army in the field,
Artillery and Science of Projectiles, Field
fortifications and Permanent fortifications,
Military legislation, Military administration
and Manoeuvres.[7]

The military science on which the model of

German combat operations was built for
the First World War remained largely
unaltered from the Napoleonic model, but
took into the consideration the vast
improvements in the firepower and the
ability to conduct "great battles of
annihilation" through rapid concentration
of force, strategic mobility, and the
maintenance of the strategic offensive[8]
better known as the Cult of the offensive.
The key to this, and other modes of
thinking about war remained analysis of
military history and attempts to derive
tangible lessons that could be replicated
again with equal success on another
battlefield as a sort of bloody laboratory of
military science. Few were bloodier than
the fields of the Western Front between
1914 and 1918. Fascinatingly the man
who probably understood Clausewitz
better than most, Marshal Foch would
initially participate in events that nearly
destroyed the French Army.[9]

It is not however true to say that military

theorists and commanders were suffering
from some collective case of stupidity;
quite the opposite is true. Their analysis of
military history convinced them that
decisive and aggressive strategic
offensive was the only doctrine of victory,
and feared that overemphasis of firepower,
and the resultant dependence on
entrenchment would make this all but
impossible, and leading to the battlefield
stagnant in advantages of the defensive
position, destroying troop morale and
willingness to fight.[10] Because only the
offensive could bring victory, lack of it, and
not the firepower, was blamed for the
defeat of the Imperial Russian Army in the
Russo-Japanese War. Foch thought that
"In strategy as well as in tactics one
attacks".[11]

In many ways military science was born as

a result of the experiences of the Great
War. "Military implements" had changed
armies beyond recognition with cavalry to
virtually disappear in the next 20 years.
The "supply of an army" would become a
science of logistics in the wake of massive
armies, operations and troops that could
fire ammunition faster than it could be
produced, for the first time using vehicles
that used the combustion engine, a
watershed of change.[12] Military
"organisation" would no longer be that of
the linear warfare, but assault teams, and
battalions that were becoming multi-
skilled with introduction of machine gun
and mortar, and for the first time forcing
military commanders to think not only in
terms of rank and file, but force structure.
Tactics changed too, with infantry for the
first time segregated from the horse-
mounted troops, and required to cooperate
with tanks, aircraft and new artillery
tactics. Perception of military discipline
too had changed. Morale, despite strict
disciplinarian attitudes, had cracked in all
armies during the war, but best performing
troops were found to be those where
emphasis on discipline had been replaced
with display of personal initiative and
group cohesiveness such as that found in
the Australian Corps during the Hundred
Days Offensive. The military sciences'
analysis of military history that had failed
European commanders was about to give
way to a new military science, less
conspicuous in appearance, but more
aligned to the processes of science of
testing and experimentation, the scientific
method, and forever "wed" to the idea of
the superiority of technology on the
battlefield.

Currently military science still means many

things to different organisations. In the
United Kingdom and much of the
European Union the approach is to relate it
closely to the civilian application and
understanding., for example Belgium's
Royal Military Academy, military science
remains an academic discipline, and is
studied alongside Social Sciences,
including such subjects as Humanitarian
law. The United States Department of
Defense defines military science in terms
of specific systems and operational
requirements, and include among other
areas civil defense and force structure.

Employment of military skills

In the first instance military science is
concerned with who will participate in
military operations, and what sets of skills
and knowledge they will require to do so
effectively and somewhat ingeniously.
Military organization …

Develops optimal methods for the

administration and organization of military
units, as well as the military as a whole. In
addition, this area studies other
associated aspects as
mobilization/demobilization, and military
government for areas recently conquered
(or liberated) from enemy control.

Force structuring …

Force structuring is the method by which

personnel and the weapons and
equipment they use are organized and
trained for military operations, including
combat. Development of force structure in
any country is based on strategic,
operational, and tactical needs of the
national defense policy, the identified
threats to the country, and the
technological capabilities of the threats
and the armed forces.

Force structure development is guided by

doctrinal considerations of strategic,
operational and tactical deployment and
employment of formations and units to
territories, areas and zones where they are
expected to perform their missions and
tasks. Force structuring applies to all
Armed Services, but not to their supporting
organisations such as those used for
defense science research activities.

In the United States force structure is

guided by the table of organization and
equipment (TOE or TO&E). The TOE is a
document published by the U.S.
Department of Defense which prescribes
the organization, manning, and equipage
of units from divisional size and down, but
also including the headquarters of Corps
and Armies.

Force structuring also provides

information on the mission and
capabilities of specific units, as well as the
unit's current status in terms of posture
and readiness. A general TOE is applicable
to a type of unit (for instance, infantry)
rather than a specific unit (the 3rd Infantry
Division). In this way, all units of the same
branch (such as Infantry) follow the same
structural guidelines which allows for
more efficient financing, training, and
employment of like units operationally.

Military education and training …

Studies the methodology and practices

involved in training soldiers, NCOs (non-
commissioned officers, i.e. sergeants and
corporals), and officers. It also extends
this to training small and large units, both
individually and in concert with one
another for both the regular and reserve
organizations. Military training, especially
for officers, also concerns itself with
general education and political
indoctrination of the armed forces.

Military concepts and

methods
Much of capability development depends
on the concepts which guide use of the
armed forces and their weapons and
equipment, and the methods employed in
any given theatre of war or combat
environment.

Military history …

Military activity has been a constant

process over thousands of years, and the
essential tactics, strategy, and goals of
military operations have been unchanging
throughout history. As an example, one
notable maneuver is the double
envelopment, considered to be the
consummate military maneuver, first
executed by Hannibal at the Battle of
Cannae in 216 BCE, and later by Khalid ibn
al-Walid at the Battle of Walaja in 633 CE.
Via the study of history, the military seeks
to avoid past mistakes, and improve upon
its current performance by instilling an
ability in commanders to perceive
historical parallels during battle, so as to
capitalize on the lessons learned. The
main areas military history includes are
the history of wars, battles, and combats,
history of the military art, and history of
each specific military service.

Military strategy and doctrines …

Current major security alliances
   NATO, ESDP
   SCO, CSTO
   PSC
   SADC

Main articles: Military strategy, Military

doctrine

Military strategy is in many ways the

centerpiece of military science. It studies
the specifics of planning for, and engaging
in combat, and attempts to reduce the
many factors to a set of principles that
govern all interactions of the field of battle.
In Europe these principles were first
defined by Clausewitz in his Principles of
War. As such, it directs the planning and
execution of battles, operations, and wars
as a whole. Two major systems prevail on
the planet today. Broadly speaking, these
may be described as the "Western" system,
and the "Russian" system. Each system
reflects and supports strengths and
weakness in the underlying society.

Modern Western military art is composed

primarily of an amalgam of French,
German, British, and American systems.
The Russian system borrows from these
systems as well, either through study, or
personal observation in the form of
invasion (Napoleon's War of 1812, and The
Great Patriotic War), and form a unique
product suited for the conditions
practitioners of this system will encounter.
The system that is produced by the
analysis provided by Military Art is known
as doctrine.

Western military doctrine relies heavily on

technology, the use of a well-trained and
empowered NCO cadre, and superior
information processing and dissemination
to provide a level of battlefield awareness
that opponents cannot match. Its
advantages are extreme flexibility, extreme
lethality, and a focus on removing an
opponent's C3I (command,
communications, control, and intelligence)
to paralyze and incapacitate rather than
destroying their combat power directly
(hopefully saving lives in the process). Its
drawbacks are high expense, a reliance on
difficult-to-replace personnel, an enormous
logistic train, and a difficulty in operating
without high technology assets if depleted
or destroyed.

Soviet military doctrine (and its

descendants, in CIS countries) relies
heavily on masses of machinery and
troops, a highly educated (albeit very
small) officer corps, and pre-planned
missions. Its advantages are that it does
not require well educated troops, does not
require a large logistic train, is under tight
central control, and does not rely on a
sophisticated C3I system after the
initiation of a course of action. Its
disadvantages are inflexibility, a reliance
on the shock effect of mass (with a
resulting high cost in lives and material),
and overall inability to exploit unexpected
success or respond to unexpected loss.

Chinese military doctrine is currently in a

state of flux as the People's Liberation
Army is evaluating military trends of
relevance to China. Chinese military
doctrine is influenced by a number of
sources including an indigenous classical
military tradition characterized by
strategists such as Sun Tzu, Western and
Soviet influences, as well as indigenous
modern strategists such as Mao Zedong.
One distinctive characteristic of Chinese
military science is that it places emphasis
on the relationship between the military
and society as well as viewing military
force as merely one part of an overarching
grand strategy.
Each system trains its officer corps in its
philosophy regarding military art. The
differences in content and emphasis are
illustrative. The United States Army
principles of war are defined in the U.S.
Army Field Manual FM 100–5. The
Canadian Forces principles of war/military
science are defined by Land Forces
Doctrine and Training System (LFDTS) to
focus on principles of command, principles
of war, operational art and campaign
planning, and scientific principles.

Russian Federation armed forces derive

their principles of war predominantly from
those developed during the existence of
the Soviet Union. These, although based
significantly on the Second World War
experience in conventional war fighting,
have been substantially modified since the
introduction of the nuclear arms into
strategic considerations. The Soviet–
Afghan War and the First and Second
Chechen Wars further modified the
principles that Soviet theorists had divided
into the operational art and tactics. The
very scientific approach to military science
thinking in the Soviet union had been
perceived as overly rigid at the tactical
level, and had affected the training in the
Russian Federation's much reduced forces
to instil greater professionalism and
initiative in the forces.

The military principles of war of the

People's Liberation Army were loosely
based on those of the Soviet Union until
the 1980s when a significant shift begun
to be seen in a more regionally-aware, and
geographically-specific strategic,
operational and tactical thinking in all
services. The PLA is currently influenced
by three doctrinal schools which both
conflict and complement each other: the
People's war, the Regional war, and the
Revolution in military affairs that led to
substantial increase in the defense
spending and rate of technological
modernisation of the forces.

The differences in the specifics of Military

art notwithstanding, Military science
strives to provide an integrated picture of
the chaos of battle, and illuminate basic
insights that apply to all combatants, not
just those who agree with your formulation
of the principles.

Military geography …

Military geography encompasses much

more than simple protestations to take the
high ground. Military geography studies
the obvious, the geography of theatres of
war, but also the additional characteristics
of politics, economics, and other natural
features of locations of likely conflict (the
political "landscape", for example). As an
example, the Soviet–Afghan War was
predicated on the ability of the Soviet
Union to not only successfully invade
Afghanistan, but also to militarily and
politically flank the Islamic Republic of Iran
simultaneously.

Military systems
How effectively and efficiently militaries
accomplish their operations, missions and
tasks is closely related not only to the
methods they use, but the equipment and
weapons they use.

Military intelligence …

Military intelligence supports the combat

commanders' decision making process by
providing intelligence analysis of available
data from a wide range of sources. To
provide that informed analysis the
commanders information requirements
are identified and input to a process of
gathering, analysis, protection, and
dissemination of information about the
operational environment, hostile, friendly
and neutral forces and the civilian
population in an area of combat
operations, and broader area of interest.
Intelligence activities are conducted at all
levels from tactical to strategic, in
peacetime, the period of transition to war,
and during the war.

Most militaries maintain a military

intelligence capability to provide analytical
and information collection personnel in
both specialist units and from other arms
and services. Personnel selected for
intelligence duties, whether specialist
intelligence officers and enlisted soldiers
or non-specialist assigned to intelligence
may be selected for their analytical
abilities and intelligence before receiving
formal training.

Military intelligence serves to identify the

threat, and provide information on
understanding best methods and weapons
to use in deterring or defeating it.

Military logistics …

The art and science of planning and

carrying out the movement and
maintenance of military forces. In its most
comprehensive sense, it is those aspects
or military operations that deal with the
design, development, acquisition, storage,
distribution, maintenance, evacuation, and
disposition of material; the movement,
evacuation, and hospitalization of
personnel; the acquisition or construction,
maintenance, operation, and disposition of
facilities; and the acquisition or furnishing
of services.

Military technology and equipment …

Military technology is not just the study of

various technologies and applicable
physical sciences used to increase military
power. It may also extend to the study of
production methods of military equipment,
and ways to improve performance and
reduce material and/or technological
requirements for its production. An
example is the effort expended by Nazi
Germany to produce artificial rubbers and
fuels to reduce or eliminate their
dependence on imported POL (petroleum,
oil, and lubricants) and rubber supplies.

Military technology is unique only in its

application, not in its use of basic
scientific and technological achievements.
Because of the uniqueness of use, military
technological studies strive to incorporate
evolutionary, as well as the rare
revolutionary technologies, into their
proper place of military application.

Military and Society

This speciality examines the ways that
military and society interact and shape
each other. The dynamic intersection
where military and society meet is
influenced by trends in society and the
security environment[13]. This field of study
can be linked to works by Clausewitz ("War
is the continuation of politics by other
means"[14]) and Sun Tzu ("If not in the
interest of the state, do not act" [15]). The
contemporary multi and interdisciplinary
field traces its origin to World War II and
works by sociologists and political
scientists.[13] This field of study includes
"all aspects of relations between armed
forces, as a political, social and economic
institution, and the society, state or
political ethnic movement of which they
are a part". [16] Topics often included
within the purview of military and society
include: veterans, women in the military,
military families, enlistment and retention,
reserve forces, military and religion [17],
military privatization, Civil-military
relations[18], civil-military cooperation,
military and popular culture, military and
the media, military and disaster
assistance, military and the environment
and the blurring of military and police
functions.

Recruitment and Retention …

In an all volunteer military, the armed

forces relies on market forces and careful
recruiting to fill its ranks. It is thus, very
important to understand factors that
motivate enlistment and reenlistment.
Service members must have the mental
and physical ability to meet the challenges
of military service and adapt to the
military's values and culture.[13] Studies
show that enlistment motivation generally
incorporates both self-interest (pay) and
non-market values like adventure,
patriotism, and comradeship.[19][20][21]

Veterans …

The study veterans or members of the

military who leave and return to the society
is one of the most important subfields of
the military and society field of study.
Veterans and their issues represent a
microcosm of the field. Military recruits
represent inputs that flow from the
community into the armed forces, veterans
are outputs that leave the military and
reenter society changed by their time as
soldiers, sailors, marines and airmen. Both
society and veteran face multiple layers of
adaptation and adjustment upon their
reentry [22][23].

The definition of veteran is surprisingly

fluid across countries. In the US veteran’s
status is established after a service
member has completed a minimum period
of service. Australia requires deployment
to a combat zone [24]. In the UK “Everyone
who has performed military service for at
least one day and drawn a day’s pay is
termed a veteran.” [25] The study of
veterans focuses much attention on their,
sometimes, uneasy transition back to
civilian society. “Veterans must navigate a
complex cultural transition when moving
between environments,” and they can
expect positive and negative transition
outcomes. [26] Finding a good job and
reestablishing a fulfilling family life is high
on their resettlement agenda. [27]

Military life is often violent and dangerous.

The trauma of combat often results in
post-traumatic stress disorder as well as
painful physical health challenges [28]
which often lead to homelessness, suicide,
drug and alcohol abuse and family
dysfunction. [29] [30] Society recognizes its
responsibilities to veterans by offering
programs and policies designed to redress
these problems. Veterans also exert an
influence on society often through the
political process.[31][32] For example, how
do veterans vote and establish party
affiliation? During the 2004 presidential
election veterans were basically
bipartisan.[33] Veterans who fought in
Croatia’s war of independence voted for
the nationalist parties in greater numbers.
[34]

Reserve Forces …

Reserve Forces are service members who

serve the armed forces on a part-time
basis. These men and women constitute a
“reserve” force that countries rely on for
their defense, disaster support, and some
day-to-day operations etc. In the United
States an active reservist spends a
weekend a month and two weeks a year in
training. The size of a county’s reserve
force often depends on the type of
recruitment method. Nations with a
volunteer force tend to have a lower
reserve percentage.[35]

Recently the role of the reserves has

changed. In many countries it [has] gone
from a strategic force, largely static, to an
operational force, largely dynamic.[36] After
WWII, relatively large standing forces took
care of most operational needs. Reserves
were held back strategically and deployed
in times of emergency for example during
the Cuban missile crisis.[37] Subsequently,
the strategic and budget situation changed
and as a result the active duty military
began to rely on reserve force, particularly
for combat support and combat service
support.[38] Further large-scale military
operation, routinely mobilize and deploy
reservists [39]

Lomsky-Feder et al (2008p. 594)

introduced the metaphor of reserve forces
as Transmigrants who live “betwixt and
between the civilian and military
worlds”.[40] This metaphor captures “their
structural duality” and suggests dynamic
nature of reservist experience as they
navigate commitments to their often
conflicting civilian and military worlds.[41]
[42] Given their greater likelihood of lengthy
deployment, reservists face many of the
same stresses as active duty but often
with fewer support services.[43]

University studies
Universities (or colleges) around the world
also offer a degree(s) in military science:
Belgium: Royal Military Academy
(Belgium)- BA Social and Military
Science; MA Social and Military Science
Israel:
Tel Aviv University – MA in Security.
Bar-Ilan University – MA in Military,
Security and Intelligence.
France:
Sciences Po, Paris School of
International Affairs - Master in
International Security.
New Zealand:
Massey University, Centre for Defence
and Security Studies – BA in Defence
Studies.
 Victoria University of Wellington –
Centre for Strategic Studies – Master
of Strategic Studies (MSS).
Slovenia:
University of Ljubljana, Faculty of
Social Studies – BA, MA and PhD in
Defence studies; PhD in Military-
Social Sciences
United Kingdom:
King's College London – MA in
International Security and Strategy;
MA, MPhil/PhD in Defence Studies
University of Hull – MA in Strategy
and International Security
 University of St Andrews - MLitt in
Strategic Studies
United States:
United States Air Force Academy –
Major in Military and Strategic
Studies; Minor in Nuclear Weapons
and Strategy
United States Military Academy –
Major in Defense and Strategic
Studies
Hawaii Pacific University – Major in
Diplomacy and Military Studies
Missouri State University – Minor in
Military Studies
Finland:
 National Defence University –
Bachelor, Master, and PhD in Military
science
Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka Military Academy -
(Bachelor and Masters degree in
Military Studies) Military training
school Diyatalawa, Sri Lanka

International Military
Sciences or Studies
Associations
There are many international associations
with the core purpose of bringing scholars
in the field of Military Science together.
Some are inter-disciplinary and have a
broad scope, whilst others are confined
and specialized focusing on more specific
disciplines or subjects. Some are
integrated in larger scientific communities
like the International Sociological
Association (ISA) and the American
Psychological Association (APA) where
others have grown out of military
institutions or individuals who have had a
particular interest in areas of military
science and are military, defense or armed
forces oriented. Some of these
associations are:

American Psychological Association;

Division 19: Society for Military
Psychology (APA-Div19)[44]
European Research Group on Military
and Society (ERGOMAS)[45]
Inter-University Seminar on Armed
Forces and Society (IUS)[46]
International Congress on Soldiers
Physical Performance (ICSPP) [47]
International Military Testing
Association (IMTA)[48]
International Society of Military
Sciences (ISMS)[49]
International Sociological Association;
RC01 Armed Forces and Conflict
Resolution[50]
Military studies journals
The following are notable journals in the
field:[51]

Armed Forces & Society

Contemporary Security Policy
Defense & Security Analysis
European Security
International Journal of Intelligence and
Counterintelligence
International Peacekeeping
International Security
Joint Forces Quarterly
Journal of Strategic Studies
Military Psychology
Military Review
Nonproliferation Review
Orbis (journal)
Parameters (journal) Quarterly Journal of
the US Army War College
Scandinavian Journal of Military Studies
Security Dialogue
Security Studies (journal)
Small Wars & Insurgencies
Survival (journal)
The Journal of Security Strategies
The RUSI Journal
The Washington Quarterly
See also
Military doctrine
Military theory
War
List of basic military science and
technology topics
List of military inventions
List of military writers

Citations and notes

1. Jordan, 2013. p. 880.
2. Gat 1992, p. 12
3. p. 29, Gat
4. p. 194, Lodge
 5. p. 12, Dupuy
. taught by a Professor of Military Art at
the Staff School in France, p. 248,
Barnard
7. p. 248, Barnard
. p. 113, Gat
9. p. 15, Dupuy
10. p. 138, Gat
11. pp. 138–139, Gat
12. p. 50, Thompson
13. Shields P.M. (2020) Dynamic
Intersection of Military and Society. In:
Sookermany A. (eds) Handbook of
Military Sciences. Springer, Cham.
 doi:10.1007/978-3-030-02866-4_31-1
https://link.springer.com/referencewor
kentry/10.1007/978-3-030-02866-
4_31-1
14. Clausewitz, C. V. (1984). On War
(trans. and ed.: Howard, M., & Paret,
P.). Princeton: Princeton University
Press.
15. Tzu, The Art of War, XII.17
1 . Forster, A. (2005). Armed forces and
society in Europe. p. 9. Cham,
Switzerland: Springer.
17. Levy Y. (2020) Military and Religion. In:
Sookermany A. (eds) Handbook of
 Military Sciences. Springer, Cham
doi:10.1007/978-3-030-02866-4_32-1
1 . Pion-Berlin D., Dudley D. (2020) Civil-
Military Relations: What Is the State of
the Field. In: Sookermany A. (eds)
Handbook of Military Sciences.
Springer, Cham doi:10.1007/978-3-
030-02866-4_37-1
19. Eighmey, J. (2006). Why do youth
enlist?: Identification of underlying
themes. Armed Forces & Society,
32(2), 307–328.
20. Bury, P. (2017). Recruitment and
retention in British Army reserve
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