DGS-OCTF: Oil and Chemical Tanker Familiarisation

Introduction and Objectives

Introduction

The purpose of the course is to meet the requirement of Tanker Familiarization training. The
course satisfies the standards of the STCW A-V/1-1, Table A-V/1-1-1 for Basic Oil and Chemical
Tanker Cargo operations.

The course has been designed following the “Requirement Guidelines for Qualification for STCW
Endorsements for Officers and Ratings on Oil, Chemical, and Liquefied Gas Tankers.

Course General Learning Objectives

After going through this  course, students should be able to,

 Understand the basic terminologies used for tanker operations

 Understand the nature of the business of waterborne transportation of bulk dangerous

liquid

 Understand the physical and chemical properties of oil and chemicals that are important
for carriage on vessels

 Know the constructional features of tankers carrying dangerous liquids

 Know the various processes involved in cargo operation, e.g., loading, discharging,
ballasting 

 Understand the importance of tanker safety culture in inculcating a safety mindset

 Know the hazards associated with tanker operations

 Know the various ways to control shipboard hazards

 Know the function and use of gas measuring and similar instruments

 Know the use of safety equipment and protective devices

 Know the safe working practices and procedures for personal safety

 Know the basic First-Aid measures on tankers, in reference to MSDS

 Know the emergency actions, shutdown systems and procedures to be followed under
emergency situations on board

 Understand the effects of oil and chemical pollution on human and marine life

 Know the shipboard procedures to prevent pollution from tankers

 Understand the measures to be taken in the event of cargo spillage

  Learn the safety precautions to be undertaken from case studies on oil and NLS ship
emergencies

Basic Knowledge of Tankers

Specific Learning Objectives

After going through this topic, student should be able to,

 Describe various types of tankers for carrying dangerous liquids

 Explain the constructional features of oil carrying tankers

 Explain the constructional features of chemical carrying tankers

Introduction
Both oil and chemical cargoes are dangerous liquids and termed as such can be treated under a
common category of liquids transported on tankers. Tankers transport a wide variety of liquids in
bulk (unpackaged). These fall under three broad classifications: Petroleum liquids, chemical
liquids, and special liquids.

Petroleum Liquids: Petroleum liquids consist of naturally occurring crude oil and the various
products derived (refined) from this crude that includes the following:

 Gasoline

 Fuel oil

 Diesel

 Residual fuel oil

 Kerosene

 Jet Fuel

 Lubricants

 Asphalt

 Coke

Petroleum Cargoes: International Classification

In many safety-related rules and regulations, petroleum cargoes are broadly classified as volatile
liquids and non-volatile liquids.

Volatile liquids: Petroleum liquids that have closed-cup flash points below 140℉ (60℃) are
considered volatile. Over the normal range of ambient temperatures encountered during
transport, cargoes in this category are capable of producing gas/air mixtures within and above
the flammable range. For this reason, volatile cargoes are frequently transported in a tank with
a controlled (inerted) atmosphere.
Nonvolatile liquids: These are petroleum products that have closed-cup flash points of
140℉ (60℃) and above. Over the normal range of ambient temperatures encountered during
transport the atmosphere above these cargoes (headspace) typically contains gas concentrations
below the lower flammable limit. Cargoes associates with these cargoes, however, the
application of heat is often necessary during the voyage. Caution must be exercised with heated
cargo, as the creation of a flammable atmosphere is possible if it is heated to or near the flash
point.

Chemical Liquids
A liquid chemical is any substance used in, or obtained by, a chemical process. There are literally
hundreds of different chemicals transported by tank vessels. These substances are derived from
many sources and have diverse characteristics. They may be categorized as organic or inorganic
chemicals. Table shows a sampling of each.
Chemical Liquids

Organic Chemicals Inorganic Chemicals

Aromatic hydrocarbons Boric acid

Vinyl chloride Sulfuric acid

Acetone Phosphoric acid

Acetic acid Caustic soda

Styrene monomer Hydrochloric acid

Acrylonitrile Molten sulfur

Special Liquids
Liquid substances other than those classified as petroleum or chemical are described as special
liquids. Table shows some examples.
Special Liquids

Animal/Vegetable Oils Miscellaneous Liquids

Palm oil Freshwater

Soybean oil Beer

Sunflower oil Wine

Other vegetable oils  

Animals oils  

Tallow and greases  

 Molasses  

From the above, you realise that while the tankers are either carrying oil or chemicals in liquid
form, the cargoes can be quite different in their individual characteristics and as such,
understanding of the cargo properties will be essential for ship's crew to transport them safely.

As of January 2017, there were 52,183 ships in the world's merchant fleets. The tanker sector
stands at 14,512 ships, making it count for more than a quarter of the world fleet.

 Oil Tankers 7,244

 LNG 1,850

 Chemical Tanker 5,418

In this course we shall talk about Oil and Chemical tankers. The importance of tankers are
further underscored with the following statistics:

 In 2015, total world petroleum and other liquids supply was about 96.7 million barrels per
day (b/d).

 EIA estimates that about 61% that amount (58.9 million b/d) traveled via seaborne trade.

 Oil tankers accounted for almost 28% of the world’s shipping by deadweight tonnage in
2016 (UNCTAD)

Trading of Oil and Chemicals by Tankers

Oil Tankers
Oil tanker is designed for the bulk transport of oil. Basic types of tankers include crude tanker
and product tanker.

Crude tanker transports unrefined crude oil from extraction locations to refineries while product
tanker ships refined products to points close to consuming markets.

The oil value chain shows the movement from the oil fields to the consumer:
Crude oil tankers have a vital role to play within the energy value chain. Their main role is to
transport crude oil from production point to refinery, although they are also sometimes used for
storing crude oil post production. Crude tankers can also be used for carrying oil products such
as fuel oil. Any clean products that come out of the refinery are carried on 'clean' or 'product'
tankers, which are smaller in size due to the smaller parcel sizes in which these products are
traded.

Crude oil tankers come in various sizes, the biggest standard size being a Very Large Crude
Carrier – or 'VLCC'. These tankers take up to 2 million barrels of crude oil per shipment, while
the second largest size is the 'Suezmax' which takes around half of that amount and is the
largest size ship that can sail through the Suez Canal fully laden. The smallest size of dedicated
crude oil tankers is an 'Aframax' which can carry around 600,000 barrels of oil. There are
smaller tankers in the market, but these tend to carry refined oil products and fuel oil, not crude
oil.

The dynamics of the oil market

Tanker shipping provides an economical and convenient way to transport liquid bulk for
international seaborne trade. But the tanker earnings are influenced by many factors, but the
shipowners have to maneuver within all the market challenges to remain operational and
profitable.

Many maritime economists believe that the supply of tanker shipping operates under perfect
competition and is characterized by several conditions. The first feature is number of shipping
service providers. There are a number of ship owners who own tankers that provide identical
shipping services. The second characteristic is the availability of information. In the tanker
market, information on freight rate can be searched via such means as the Baltic Index (Tanker
indices). Hence, shipping service providers are unable to manipulate the price. Obstacles to
entry to and exit from the industry exist but these challenges can be managed. Entry barriers,
such as government regulations, economic factors, and marketing condition, are not present in
the tank shipping industry. On the one hand, huge capital investment is needed to acquire ships
(new ships from the new building market or second-hand ships from the sales and purchase
market) to enter the industry. On the other hand, shipping firms may withdraw from the market
by selling their assets (i.e., ships) in the second-hand vessel sale and purchase market.

The tanker shipping market brings shippers and carriers together to determine the supply of
shipping capacity (i.e., fleet size) and demand for shipping services. Hence, demand for shipping
service plays a significant role in the shipping industry.

Although oil prices have experienced a sharp decrease, there is still a continuing growth in the
global demand. The increase in quantity demand for shipping services due to growth in seaborne
trade volume leads to rise in freight rate. Freight rate motivates shipping firms to adjust their
fleet sizes by placing orders for new vessels or scrapping their serving vessels. It also affects
vessel prices.

And, regardless of the talk about alternative sources of energy – oil demand continues to grow.
The International Energy Agency (IEA) forecasts global oil demand to grow by 1.3m bpd in
2018.

By far the biggest factor influencing the crude tanker trade in 2018 will be the ongoing
oversupply of vessels, coupled with another year of high deliveries, which will continue to put
pressure on the market over the course of the year.

One oil expert commented, that the current state of the tanker market was a “supply crisis”.

The impact of policy can influence the oil market and takes many forms. Such as:

 The building of strategic petroleum reserves in the US, China and India 

 The resumption of crude oil exports from the US 

 Rapidly increasing refinery capacity in the Middle East

 Impact of the available supply of low sulfur fuel due to IMO regulations

These are major market policy events that will impact the tanker market and its trading lanes;
apart from the oversupply of the tankers that keeps the tanker market greatly depressed.
Global oil transportation and choke points

The Transfer of oil from one country to another is a very large task.   Billions of barrels of oil a
day are shipped in Oil Tankers to various destinations all over the world.  There are many
different shipping routes, but there are eight major transit choke points which deal with the
most traffic of oil tankers and are areas of high risk for something to go wrong with the oil
transfer.  These are huge security concerns and cause sharp rise in energy price in case
something goes wrong at those points.

Chemical Tankers
The flourishing chemical industry and increasing use of water transportation (sea and inland
waters) for transferring chemicals from one place to another across the globe are the major
driving factors for the growth of the chemical tankers market. In 2016, the U.S. accounted for
approximately 15% of the worldwide chemical shipments. The global chemical tanker shipping
market is anticipated to reach USD 2.50 trillion by 2025, according to a research finding. The
growing chemical trade because of increasing manufacturing activities across the world is
projected to augment market demand.
Organic chemicals such as acetic acid, alcohols, propane, benzene, salt, benzyl acetate,
methanol, formic acid, and phenol are some of the vital substances shipped through chemical
tankers across the world. The U.S., China, India, Germany, and Russia are some of the major
exporters of chemicals and are expected to foster the global chemical trade over the coming
years.

Chemicals by Product Type:

 Organic Chemicals

 Inorganic Chemicals

 Vegetable Oils & Fats

 Others (Additives, Lube Oils, and Molasses)

Chemical tankers by Fleet Size:

 Inland Chemical Tankers (1,000-4,999 DWT)

 Coastal Chemical Tankers (5,000-9,999 DWT)

 Deep-Sea Chemical Tankers (10,000-50,000 DWT)

Key findings from a recent research:

 The global chemical tanker shipping market was valued at USD 2.07 trillion in 2016 and is
estimated to grow at a growth rate of 2.1% from 2017 to 2025 to reach a market
valuation of USD 2.50 trillion

 Deep sea chemical tanker shipments accounted for the most significant share in 2016 and
is projected to grow at the highest CAGR over the coming years on account of extensive
international trade

 IMO III cargo type accounted for the largest volume share in 2016 due to high shipment
of vegetable oils & fats and other non-volatile chemicals across regions

 Asia Pacific accounted for the most significant volume share due to presence of major
manufacturing countries such as China and India which have a strong foothold in the
chemical industry

 Chemical tanker shipping companies are expanding their fleets to cater to the growing
chemical trade business globally. New entrants in the market are expected to result in
excess supply of tankers in the industry, thereby reducing charter rates.

 Some of the significant chemical tanker charters include Navig8 Group, Odfjell SE, Stolt
Nielsen, MSC, Stena Bulk, and Maersk Tankers
Types of Chemical Cargoes
Organic chemicals segment is the leading segment in this industry due to its increasing demand
from pharmaceuticals, food & beverages, pesticides, crop protection, fertilizers, water treatment,
personal care products & cosmetics, polymers, gasoline additives, and other products. Shale gas
boom in North America and China has triggered the organic chemical production in the region,
with ethylene being the key raw material.
Vegetable oils & fats segment is expected to emerge as the second fastest growing segment
owing to its increasing usage in culinary applications, biodiesel, pet food additives, as well as
manufacturing soaps, perfumes, candles, skin products and other personal care products.
Products such as palm oil included in this segment are traded on a large scale, especially for
biodiesel production.

Inorganics account for 17.7% of the global shipments. These products find demand from several
applications such as pigments, catalysts, coatings, surfactants, fuels, medicines and agricultural
applications. These chemicals are used as additives, finished products, and industrial processes.

Shipment Routes
The deep-sea tanker volume in 2016 was recorded at 24,722.8 kilotons and estimated to derive
a demand of 56.479.6 kilo tons by the end of the period 2017-2027. The growth rate predicted
for this segment is 4.8% in the eyes of the uncertainty of the dollar rate value which has
appreciated significantly during 2015-2016, but currently showing signs of decline.

The highest growth rate in this segment was attributed to deep-sea tankers. Chemical trade for
the construction & building and automotive manufacturing industries are the factors attributing
the growth of this sector.

The most significant crude oil and derivative export volume in North America remain in the Gulf
of Mexico. East coast ports include Portland ME, Philadelphia and New York. West coast ports
include Long Beach, California, San Francisco and Vancouver. Petrochemicals and crude oils are
transported along the coast by either barrage or ship.

Coastal tankers demand coming in from China and India is expected to have positive growth in
near future owing to its restructuring of policy and infrastructure. Indian workforce is highly
competitive in terms of skills and wages. India and China are also strategic gateways to import
products in the Asia Pacific making it a valuable destination as well a suitable market for
chemical tankers.

Tanker Terminology

Specific Learning Objectives:

After going through this topic, student should know,
  Basic terminologies used on oil tankers for carrying dangerous liquids, involving petroleum
cargoes

 Basic terminologies used on chemical tankers for carrying dangerous liquids, involving
chemical cargoes

Introduction
Two sets of terminologies are included for student reference for understanding various tanker
terms. As student is introduced to tanker operation and familiarisation of various tanker terms, it
will be difficult to remember all those foreign terms. This topic should be used as a ready-
reckoner and a reference point for students as they study this course. After you have completed
the course, you must make sure you are completely familiar with all the tanker terms detailed
within this topic.

Some Terms

 Crude oil - is a naturally occurring, unrefined petroleum product composed of

hydrocarbon deposits and other organic materials. 

 Refined products - are derived from crude oils through processes such as catalytic
cracking and fractional distillation. Refining is a necessary step before oil can be burned as
fuel or used to create end products

Terminology for Tankers Carrying Oil

Definitions

Administration - Means the government of the state whose flag the ship is entitled to fly. 

ALARP - As low as reasonably practicable. 

Antistatic additive - A substance added to a petroleum product to raise its electrical
conductivity to a safe level above 50 picoSiemens/meter (pS/m) to prevent accumulation of
static electricity. 

Approved equipment - Equipment of a design that has been tested and approved by an
appropriate authority, such as a government department or classification society. The authority
should have certified the equipment as safe for use in a specified hazardous or dangerous area.

Auto-ignition - The ignition of a combustible material without initiation by a spark or flame,

when the material has been raised to a temperature at which self-sustaining combustion occurs. 

Bonding - The connecting together of metal parts to ensure electrical continuity. 

Cathodic protection - The prevention of corrosion by electrochemical techniques. On tankers,
it may be applied either externally to the hull or internally to the surfaces of tanks. At terminals,
it is frequently applied to steel piles and fender panels. 

Clingage  - Oil remaining on the walls of a pipe or on the internal surfaces of tanks after the
bulk of the oil has been removed.

Closed operations - Ballasting, loading or discharging operations carried out without recourse
to opening ullage and sighting ports. During closed operations, ships will require the means to
enable closed monitoring of tank contents, either by a fixed gauging system or by using portable
equipment passed through a vapour lock. 

Cold Work - Work that cannot create a source of ignition. 

Combination carrier (also referred to as Oil/Bulk/Ore (OBO), Oil/Ore (0/0)) - A ship that is
designed to carry either a petroleum cargo or a dry bulk cargo on separate voyages. 

Combustible (also referred to as 'Flammable') - Capable of being ignited and of burning.

For the purposes of this Guide, the terms 'combustible' and 'flammable' are synonymous. 

Combustible gas indicator (also referred to as 'Explosimeter') - An instrument for

measuring the composition of hydrocarbon gas/air mixtures, usually giving the result as a
percentage of the Lower Flammable Limit (LFL). 

Company - The owner of a ship or any other organisation or person, such as the manager or
the bareboat charterer, who has assumed the responsibility for the operation of the ship from
the owner of the ship, including the duties and responsibilities imposed by the ISM Code.

Competent person - A person who has been adequately trained to undertake the tasks they
are required to perform within their job description. For personnel in the shipping industry, they
should be able to demonstrate this competence by the production of certificates recognized by
the ship's administration. 

Dangerous area - An area on a tanker which, for the purposes of the installation and use of
electrical equipment, is regarded as dangerous. (For terminal, see 'Hazardous area'.) 

Dry chemical powder - A flame inhibiting powder used in fire-fighting. 

Earthing (also referred to as 'Grounding') - The electrical connection of equipment to the

main body of the 'earth' to ensure that it is at earth potential. On board ship, the connection is
made to the main metallic structure of the ship, which is at earth potential because of the
conductivity of the sea. 
Enclosed space - A space that has limited openings for entry and exit, unfavorable natural
ventilation, and that is not designed for continuous worker occupancy. This includes cargo
spaces, double bottoms, fuel tanks, ballast tanks, pump rooms, cofferdams, void spaces, duct
keels, inter-barrier spaces, engine crankcases and sewage tanks. 

Entry permit - A document issued by a Responsible Person allowing entry into a space or
compartment during a specific time interval. 

Explosimeter - See 'Combustible gas indicator'. 

Explosion-proof (also referred to as 'Flame-proof') - Electrical equipment is defined and

certified as explosion-proof when it is enclosed in a case that is capable of withstanding the
explosion within it of a hydrocarbon gas/air mixture or other specified flammable gas mixture. It
must also prevent the ignition of such a mixture outside the case either by spark or flame from
the internal explosion or as a result of the temperature rise of the case following the internal
explosion. The equipment must operate at such an external temperature that a surrounding
flammable atmosphere will not be ignited. 

Explosive range - See 'Flammable range'. 

Flame arrester - A permeable matrix of metal, ceramic or other heat-resisting materials which
can cool even an intense flame, and any following combustion products, below the temperature
required for the ignition of the flammable gas on the other side of the arrester. 

Flame-proof - See 'Explosion-proof'.

 
Flame screen - A portable or fitted device incorporating one or more corrosion resistant wire-
woven fabrics of very small mesh, which is used for preventing sparks from entering a tank or
vent opening or, for a short time, preventing the passage of flame. (Not to be confused with
'Flame arrester'.) 

Flammable (also referred to as 'Combustible') - Capable of being ignited and of burning.

For the purposes of this Guide, the terms 'flammable' and 'combustible' are synonymous. 

Flammable range (also referred to as 'Explosive range') - The range of hydrocarbon gas
concentrations in air between the Lower and Upper Flammable (explosive) Limits. Mixtures
within this range are capable of being ignited and of burning. 

Flashlight - See 'Torch'. 

Flashpoint - The lowest temperature at which a liquid gives off sufficient gas to form a
flammable gas mixture near the surface of the liquid. It is measured in a laboratory in standard
apparatus using a prescribed procedure. 

Flow rate - The linear velocity of flow of liquid in a pipeline, usually measured in meters  per
second (m/s). The determination of the flow rates at locations within cargo pipeline systems is
essential when handling static accumulator cargoes. 
Foam (also referred to as 'Froth') - An aerated solution that is used for fire prevention and
fire-fighting. 

Foam concentrate (also referred to as 'Foam compound') - The full strength liquid
received from the supplier which is diluted and processed to produce foam. 

Foam solution - The mixture produced by diluting foam concentrate with water before
processing to make foam. 

Free fall - The unrestricted fall of liquid into a tank. 

From the top, or Overall - See 'Loading over the top'. 

Froth - See 'Foam'. 

Gas free - A tank, compartment or container is gas free when sufficient fresh air has been
introduced into it to lower the level of any flammable, toxic or inert gas to that required for a
specific purpose, e.g. Hot Work, entry etc. 

Gas free certificate - A certificate issued by an authorized Responsible Person confirming that,
at the time of testing, a tank, compartment or container was gas free for a specific purpose. 

Grounding - See 'Earthing'. 

Halon - A halogenated hydrocarbon used in fire-fighting that inhibits flame propagation. 

Hazardous area - An area on shore which, for the purposes of the installation and use of
electrical equipment, is regarded as dangerous. Such hazardous areas are graded into hazardous
zones depending upon the probability of the presence of a flammable gas mixture. (For ships,
see 'Dangerous area'.) 

Hazardous task - A task other than Hot Work which presents a hazard to the ship, terminal or
personnel, the performance of which needs to be controlled by a risk assessment process such
as a Permit to Work system or a controlled procedure.

Hazardous zone - See 'Hazardous area'. 

Hot Work - Work involving sources of ignition or temperatures sufficiently high to cause the
ignition of a flammable gas mixture. This includes any work requiring the use of welding, burning
or soldering equipment, blow torches, some power driven tools, portable electrical equipment
which is not intrinsically safe or contained within an approved explosion-proof housing, and
internal combustion engines. 

Hot Work Permit - A document issued by a Responsible Person permitting specific Hot Work to
be done during a particular time interval in a defined area. 

Hydrocarbon gas - A gas composed entirely of hydrocarbons. 

Inert condition - A condition in which the oxygen content throughout the atmosphere of a tank
has been reduced to 8 per cent or less by volume by the addition of inert gas. 

Inert gas - A gas or a mixture of gases, such as flue gas, containing insufficient oxygen to
support the combustion of hydrocarbons. 

Inert gas plant - All equipment fitted to supply, cool, clean, pressurize, monitor and control the
delivery of inert gas to the cargo tank systems. 

Inert Gas System (IGS) - An inert gas plant and inert gas distribution system together with
means for preventing backflow of cargo gases to the machinery spaces, fixed and portable
measuring instruments and control devices. 

Inerting - The introduction of inert gas into a tank with the object of attaining the inert
condition. 

Insulating flange - A flanged joint incorporating an insulating gasket, sleeves and washers to
prevent electrical continuity between ship and shore. 

Interface detector - An electrical instrument for detecting the boundary between oil and
water. 

International Safety Management (ISM) Code - An international standard for the safe
management and operation of ships and for pollution prevention. The Code establishes safety
management objectives and requires a Safety Management System (SMS) to be established by
the Company and audited and approved by the flag administration. 

Intrinsically safe - An electrical circuit, or part of a circuit, is intrinsically safe if any spark or
thermal effect produced normally (i.e. by breaking or closing the circuit) or accidentally (e.g. by
short circuit or earth fault) is incapable, under prescribed test conditions, of igniting a prescribed
gas mixture. 
Loading over the top (also referred to as 'Loading overall') - The loading of cargo or
ballast through an open-ended pipe or by means of an open-ended hose entering a tank through
a deck opening, resulting in the free fall of liquid. 

Loading rate - The volumetric measure of liquid loaded within a given period, usually expressed
as cubic meters per hour (m3/hr) or barrels per hour (bbls/hr). 

Lower Flammable Limit (LFL) - The concentration of a hydrocarbon gas in air below which
there is insufficient hydrocarbon to support and propagate combustion. Sometimes referred to
as Lower Explosive Limit (LEL). 

Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) - A document identifying a substance and all its
constituents. It provides the recipient with all necessary information to manage the substance
safely. The format and content of an MSDS for MARPOL Annex I cargoes and Marine Fuel Oils are
prescribed in IMO Resolution MSC.150(77). 

Mercaptans - A group of naturally occurring organic chemicals containing sulfur. They are
present in some crude oils and in pentane plus cargoes. They have a strong odor. 

Naked lights - Open flames or fires, lighted cigarettes, cigars, pipes or similar smoking
materials, any other unconfined sources of ignition, electrical and other equipment liable to
cause sparking while in use, unprotected light bulbs or any surface with a temperature that is
equal to or higher than the auto-ignition temperature of the products handled in the operation. 

Non-volatile petroleum - Petroleum having a flashpoint of 60°C ( 140 Deg F) or above, as

determined by the closed cup method of test. 

Odor threshold - The lowest concentration of vapor in air that can be detected by smell. 

Oxygen analyzer or oxygen meter - An instrument for determining the percentage of oxygen
in a sample of the atmosphere drawn from a tank, pipe or compartment. 

Packaged cargo - Petroleum or other cargo in drums, packages or other containers. 

Pellistor - An electrical sensor unit fitted in a flammable gas detector for measuring
hydrocarbon vapors and air mixtures to determine whether the mixture is within the flammable
range. 

Permit (to work) - A document issued by a Responsible Person which allows work to be
performed in compliance with the ship's Safety Management System. 
Permit to Work system - A system for controlling activities that expose the ship, the terminal,
personnel or the environment to hazard. The system will provide risk assessment techniques and
apply them to the varying levels of risk that may be experienced. The system should conform to
a recognized industry guideline. 

Petroleum - Crude oil and liquid hydrocarbon products derived from it. 

Petroleum gas - A gas evolved from petroleum. The main constituents of petroleum gases are
hydrocarbons, but they may also contain other substances, such as hydrogen sulfide or lead
alkyls, as minor constituents. 

Phase of oil - Oil is considered to have three phases in which it can exist depending on the
grade of oil and its temperature. The three phases are the solid phase, the liquid phase and the
vapor phase. The phases do not exist in isolation and operators must manage the carriage of oil
with an understanding of the combinations of the phases of oil in the cargo being carried. 

Pour point - The lowest temperature at which a petroleum oil will remain fluid. 

Pressure surge - A sudden increase in the pressure of the liquid in a pipeline brought about by
an abrupt change in flow rate. 

Pressure/vacuum relief valve (P/V valve) - A device that provides for the flow of the small
volumes of vapor, air or inert gas mixtures caused by thermal variations in a cargo tank. 

Pump purging - The operation of clearing liquid from submerged pumps. 

Purging - The introduction of inert gas into a tank already in the inert condition with the object
of further reducing the existing oxygen content and/or reducing the existing hydrocarbon gas
content to a level below which combustion cannot be supported if air is subsequently introduced
into the tank. 

Pyrophoric iron sulfide - Iron sulfide capable of a rapid exothermic oxidation causing

incandescence when exposed to air and potential ignition of flammable hydrocarbon gas/air
mixtures. 

Reid Vapor Pressure (RVP) - The vapor pressure of a liquid determined in a standard manner

in the Reid apparatus at a temperature of 37.8°C and with a ratio of gas to liquid volume of 4:1.
Used for comparison purposes only. See 'True Vapor Pressure'. 

Relaxation time - The time taken for an electrostatic charge to relax or dissipate from a liquid.
This time is typically half a minute for static accumulator liquids. Not to be confused with
'Settling time' — see definition. 
Responsible Officer (or Person) - A person appointed by the Company or the Master of the
ship and empowered to take all decisions relating to a specific task, and having the necessary
knowledge and experience for that purpose. 

Resuscitator - Equipment to assist or restore the breathing of personnel overcome by gas or

lack of oxygen. 
Safety Management System (SMS) - A formal, documented system required by the ISM
Code, compliance with which should ensure that all operations and activities on board a ship are
carried out in a safe manner. 

Self-stowing mooring winch - A mooring winch fitted with a drum on which a mooring wire or
rope is made fast and automatically stowed. 

Settling time - The time it takes for tank contents to stop moving once filling has stopped, and
therefore the cessation of further static electricity generation. Typically, this time is 30 minutes.
Not to be confused with 'Relaxation time' — see definition. 

SOLAS - The International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea 1974 and its Protocol of
1988, as amended. 

Sounding pipe - A pipe extending from the top of the tank to the bottom through which the
contents of the tank can be measured. The pipe is usually perforated to ensure the level of liquid
in the pipe is the same as the level of liquid in the body of the tank and to prevent the possibility
of spillages. The pipe should be electrically bonded to the ship's structure at the deck and at its
lower end. 

Sour crude oil or products - A term used to describe crude oil or products containing
appreciable amounts of hydrogen sulfide and/or mercaptans. 

Spiked crude oil - A crude oil blended with a liquefied gas or condensate. 

Spontaneous combustion - The ignition of material brought about by a heat producing

(exothermic) chemical reaction within the material itself without exposure to an external source
of ignition. 

Spread loading - The practice of loading a number of tanks simultaneously to avoid static
electricity generation when loading static accumulator cargoes. 

Static accumulator oil - An oil with an electrical conductivity of less than 50
picoSiemens/metre (pS/m), so that it is capable of retaining a significant electrostatic charge. 
Static electricity - The electricity produced by movement between dissimilar materials through
physical contact and separation. 

Static non-accumulator oil - An oil with an electrical conductivity greater than 50
picoSiemens/metre (pS/m), so that it is incapable of retaining a significant electrostatic charge. 

Stripping - The final operation in draining liquid from a tank or pipeline. 

Tank cleaning - The process of removing hydrocarbon vapors, liquid or residue from tanks.
Usually carried out so that tanks can be entered for inspection or Hot Work or to avoid
contamination between grades.
 
Tanker - A ship designed to carry liquid petroleum cargo in bulk, including a combination carrier
when being used for this purpose. 

Tension winch (automated or self-tensioning mooring system) - A mooring winch fitted with a
device that may be set to maintain the tension on a mooring line automatically. 

Terminal - A place where tankers are berthed or moored for the purpose of loading or
discharging petroleum cargo. 

Terminal Representative - A person designated by the terminal to take responsibility for an
operation or duty. 

Threshold Limit Value (TLV) - Airborne concentrations of substances under which it is

believed that nearly all workers may be exposed day after day with no adverse effect. TLVs are
advisory exposure guidelines, not legal standards, and are based on industrial experience and
studies. There are three different types of TLV:

 Time Weighted Average (TLV-TWA) — The airborne concentration of a toxic substance

averaged over an 8 hour period, usually expressed in parts per million (ppm).

 Short Term Exposure Limit (TLV-STEL) — The airborne concentration of a toxic

substance averaged over any 15 minute period, usually expressed in parts per million
(ppm)

 Ceiling (TLV-C) — The concentration that should not be exceeded during any part of the
working exposure. 

Topping-off - The operation of completing the loading of a tank to a required ullage.

 
Topping-up - The introduction of inert gas into a tank that is already in the inert condition with
the object of raising the tank pressure to prevent any ingress of air. 
Torch (also referred to as 'Flashlight') - A battery operated hand lamp. An approved torch is
one that is approved by a competent authority for use in a flammable atmosphere. 

Toxicity - The degree to which a substance or mixture of substances can harm humans or
animals. 

 'Acute toxicity' involves harmful effects to an organism through a single short term
exposure. 

 'Chronic toxicity' is the ability of a substance or mixture of substances to cause harmful

effects over an extended period, usually upon repeated or continuous exposure,
sometimes lasting for the entire life of the exposed organism. 

True Vapor Pressure (TVP) - The absolute pressure exerted by the gas produced by
evaporation from a liquid when gas and liquid are in equilibrium at the prevailing temperature
and the gas liquid ratio is effectively zero. See 'Reid Vapor Pressure'. 

Ullage - The space above the liquid in a tank, conventionally measured as the distance from the
calibration point to the liquid surface. 

Upper Flammable Limit (UFL) - The concentration of a hydrocarbon gas in air above which
there is insufficient oxygen to support and propagate combustion. Sometimes referred to as
Upper Explosive Limit (UEL). 

Vapor - A gas below its critical temperature. 

Vapor Emission Control System (VECS) - An arrangement of piping and equipment used to
control vapor emissions during tanker operations, including ship and shore vapor collection
systems, monitoring and control devices and vapor processing arrangements. 

Vapor lock system - Equipment fitted to a tank to enable the measuring and sampling of
cargoes without release of vapor or inert gas pressure. 
Volatile petroleum - Petroleum having a flashpoint below 60°C as determined by the closed
cup method of test. 

Water fog - A suspension in the atmosphere of very fine droplets of water usually delivered at a
high pressure through a fog nozzle for use in fire-fighting. 

Water spray - A spray of water divided into coarse drops by delivery through a special nozzle
for use in fire-fighting. 

Reference: 
ISGOTT – Fifth edition, 2006

Terminology for Tankers Carrying Chemicals

DEFINITIONS

Acute Toxic Effect - The effect on humans of a single exposure of short duration to
high concentrations of a toxic compound or toxic vapor (see also Chronic Toxic Effect).

Alcohol Resistant Foam (Alcohol-type Foam) - A multi-purpose fire fighting foam effective
against many water soluble cargoes. It is also effective against many non-water soluble cargoes.
This is the most commonly used type of fire fighting foam on chemical tankers.

Anaesthesia - A total loss of feeling and consciousness, or the loss of power or feeling over a
limited area of skin.

Anaesthetics - Chemicals which produce anaesthesia.

Approved Equipment - Equipment of a design that has been tested, approved and certified by
an appropriate authority, such as an administration or classification society, as safe for use in a
specified hazardous atmosphere.

Aqueous - Indicating that the compound is in solution in water.

Asphyxia - The condition arising when the blood is deprived of an adequate supply of oxygen/
so that loss of consciousness may follow.

Asphyxiant - A gas or vapor, which may or may not have toxic properties, which when present
in sufficient concentrations excludes oxygen and leads to asphyxia.

Auto-ignition Temperature  - The lowest temperature to which a solid, liquid or gas requires
to be raised to cause self-sustaining combustion without initiation by a spark or flame or other
source of ignition (see also Flash Point).

BCH Code - The IMO Code for the Construction and Equipment of Ships Carrying Dangerous
Chemicals in Bulk (for Chemical Tankers constructed before 1 July 1986)

Boiling Point - The temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid equals that of the
atmosphere above its surface; this temperature varies with pressure.

Boiling Range - Some liquids which are mixtures, or which contain impurities, boil over a range
of temperatures known as the boiling range. When this occurs, the range will be stated on the
data sheet. The low temperature is that at which components within the liquid start to boil.

Bonding (electrical) - The connecting together of metal parts to ensure electrical continuity.
Bulk - The term 'in bulk' refers to carriage of cargo in tanks or pressure vessels which are
constructed as part of the ship, the contents being loaded and discharged by the ship's installed
handling system.

Cargo Area - That part of the ship which contains the whole cargo system and cargo
Pumprooms, and includes the full beam deck area over the length of the ship above the cargo
containment system. Where fitted, the cofferdams, ballast or void spaces at the after end of the
aftermost cargo space or at the forward end of the forward cargo space are excluded from the
cargo area.
Cargo Handling (Cargo Operations) - The loading, storing, discharging, circulating and
transferring of bulk liquid cargo, and associated tank cleaning and gas freeing.

Cargo Information Form - See Data Sheet.

Catalyst - A substance that starts or changes the rate of a reaction without being itself
chemically changed. A catalyst, which reduces the rate of a reaction, is known as a negative
catalyst.

Certificate of Fitness - A certificate issued by the flag administration confirming that the
structure, equipment, fittings, arrangements and materials used in the construction of a
chemical tanker are in compliance with the relevant IMO Chemical Codes. Such certification may
be issued on behalf of the administration by approved classification societies.

Certified Gas Free - Certified gas free means that a tank, compartment or container has been
tested by an authorized person using an approved testing instrument, and found to be in a
suitable condition - i.e. not deficient in oxygen and sufficiently free from toxic or flammable
gases - for a specified activity such as hot work, and that a certificate to this effect has been
issued.

Chemical Absorption Detector (Gas Absorption Detector) - An instrument used for the
detection of vapors, which works on the principle of a reaction between a vapor and the chemical
agent in the apparatus; either the vapor discolors the agent or the agent dissolves some of the
vapor.
Chronic Toxic Effect - The cumulative effect on humans of prolonged exposures to low
concentrations of a toxic compound or toxic vapor or of intermittent exposures to higher
concentrations (see also Acute Toxic Effect).

Closed Gauging System (Closed Ullaging) - A system whereby the contents of a tank can be
measured by means of a device which penetrates the tank, but which is part of a closed system
and prevents tank contents from being released. It can be mechanical, electronic, magnetic or
pressure operated (see also Open Gauging System and Restricted Gauging System).
Combustible (Flammable) - Capable of being ignited and of burning. For the purposes of this
Guide the terms combustible and flammable are synonymous.

Combustible Gas Indicator (Explosimeter) - An instrument for detecting a combustible

gas/air mixture, usually measuring its concentration in terms of the Lower Flammable Limit
(LFL).

Corrosive Liquids - Liquids which can corrode normal constructional materials at an excessive
rate. Usually they also cause serious damage to human tissue and eyes.

Data Sheet (Cargo Information Form) - A document, in accordance with the IMO Codes and
usually from the manufacturer of the cargo that contains necessary information about the
properties of the chemical for its safe carriage as cargo.

Density - Mass per unit volume, measured in a vacuum (see also Liter Weight).

Endothermic - A process which is accompanied by absorption of heat.

Exothermic - A process which is accompanied by evolution of heat.

Explosimeter - See Combustible Gas Indicator.

Explosion Proof Equipment/Flame Proof Equipment - Equipment or apparatus which will

withstand, without damage and in accordance with its prescribed rating, any explosion of a
prescribed flammable gas to which it may be subjected under practical operating conditions, and
which will prevent the transmission of flame to the surrounding atmosphere.

Explosive Limits - See Flammable Limits.

Explosive Range - See Flammable Range.

Filling Ratio (for Liquids) - That volume of a tank, expressed as a percentage of the total
volume, which can be safely filled by liquid when allowing for the possible expansion of the
liquid.

Flame Arrester - A device used to arrest the passage of flame in a pipeline.

Flame Proof Equipment - See Explosion Proof Equipment.

Flame Screen (Gauze Screen) - A portable or fitted device incorporating one or more
corrosion resistant wire woven fabrics of very small mesh used for preventing sparks from
entering a tank or vent opening. For a short period of time a flame screen will prevent the
passage of flame, yet permit the passage of gas.
Flammable (Combustible) - Capable of being ignited and of burning. For the purposes of this
Guide the terms combustible and flammable are synonymous.

Flammable Limits (Explosive Limits) - The minimum and maximum concentrations of

vapor in air which form flammable (explosive) mixtures are known as the lower flammable limit
(LFL) and upper flammable limit (UFL) respectively. These terms are synonymous with lower
explosive limit (LEL) and upper explosive limit (UEL) respectively.

Flammable Range (Explosive Range) - The range of flammable vapor concentrations in air

between the lower and upper flammable limits. Mixtures within this range are capable of being
ignited and of burning.

Flash Point - The lowest temperature at which a liquid gives off sufficient vapor to be ignited.
This temperature is determined by laboratory testing in a prescribed apparatus (see also Auto-
ignition Temperature).

Foam - A froth creating an air-excluding blanket, and used for fire fighting.

Freezing Point (Melting Point) - The temperature at which the liquid state of a substance is in
equilibrium with the solid state, i.e. at a higher temperature the solid will melt and at a lower
temperature the liquid will solidify. Freezing point and melting point may not always coincide,
but they are sufficiently close to enable the difference between them to be ignored for the
purposes of this Guide.

Gas - This term is used to cover all vapor mixtures or vapor-and-air mixtures.

Gas Absorption Detector - See Chemical Absorption Detector.

Gas Free - Gas free means that a tank, compartment or container has been tested using
appropriate gas detection equipment and found to be not deficient in oxygen and sufficiently
free, at the time of the test, from toxic, flammable or inert gases for a specified purpose.

Gauging - See Closed Gauging System, Open Gauging System and Restricted Gauging System.

Gauze Screen - See Flame Screen.

Hazardous Area - An area in which vapor may be present continuously or intermittently in

sufficient concentrations to create a flammable atmosphere or an atmosphere which is
dangerous for personnel.

Health Hazard - A general descriptive term for a danger to the health of personnel.

Hot Work - Work involving flames, incendive sparks or temperatures likely to be sufficiently
high to cause ignition of flammable gas. The term includes any work involving the use of
welding, burning or soldering equipment, blow torches, some power driven tools, portable
electrical equipment which is not intrinsically safe or contained in an explosion proof housing,
and equipment with internal combustion engines.

Hot Work Permit - A document issued by an authorized person permitting specified work to be

done for a specified time in a defined area, employing tools and equipment which could cause
ignition of flammable gas (see Hot Work).

IBC Code - The IMO International Code for the Construction and Equipment of Ships Carrying
Dangerous Chemicals in Bulk (for Chemical Tankers constructed on or after 1 July 1986)

Ignition Temperature - See Auto-ignition Temperature.

IMO - The International Maritime Organization; a specialized agency of the United Nations.

IMO Codes - See BCH Code and IBC Code. 

Incendive Spark - A spark of sufficient temperature and energy to ignite a flammable

atmosphere.

Inert Gas - A gas or vapor containing insufficient oxygen to support combustion.

Inerting - The introduction of inert gas into a space to reduce and maintain the oxygen content
to a level at which combustion cannot be supported, or to maintain the quality of the cargo.

Ingestion - The act of introducing a substance into the body via the digestive system.

Inhibited Cargo - A chemical cargo to which an inhibitor has been added.

Inhibitor - A substance used to prevent or retard cargo deterioration or a potentially hazardous

chemical self-reaction, e.g. polymerization.

Insulating Flange - An insulating device placed between metallic flanges, bolts and washers, to
prevent electrical continuity between pipelines, sections of pipelines, hose strings and loading
arms, or equipment or apparatus.

Intrinsically Safe - Intrinsically safe equipment, instruments or wiring are incapable of

releasing sufficient electrical or thermal energy under normal or abnormal conditions to cause
ignition of a specified hazardous atmospheric mixture in its most easily ignited concentration.

Irritating Liquid - A liquid which on direct contact with the eyes or skin will cause severe
irritation, injury or burns.

Irritating Vapor - A vapor, which will cause irritation of the eyes, nose, throat and respiratory
tract.
ISGOTT - The International Safety Guide for Oil Tankers and Terminals.

LFL or LEL - See Flammable Limits.

Liter Weight - Mass per unit volume, measured in air (see also Density).

Loading Overall (Over the Top) - Loading through hatches or other deck openings by means
of portable open ended pipes or hoses.

Manifold Valves - Valves in a tanker's piping system immediately adjacent to the ship/shore
connecting flanges.
MARPOL - The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships 1973, as
modified by its Protocol of 1978.

Melting Point - See Freezing Point.

MFAG - The IMO Medical First Aid Guide for Use in Accidents Involving Dangerous Goods.

Miscibility - The ability of a liquid or gas to dissolve uniformly in another liquid or gas. Gases
mix in all proportions but the miscibility of liquids depends upon their chemical properties.
Similar chemicals mix in all proportions (e.g. alcohol and water) but others are only partly
miscible (e.g. benzene and water). Many gases are miscible with liquids.

MSDS or Material Safety Data Sheet - See Data Sheet.

Mucous Membranes - Those surfaces of the human respiratory system lined with secretion; for
example, the inside of the nose, throat, windpipe and lungs. Can also be applied to the eyes.

Naked Lights - Open flames or fires, exposed incandescent material or any other unconfined
source of ignition.

Narcosis - A condition of profound insensibility, resembling sleep, in which the unconscious

person can only be roused with great difficulty but is not entirely indifferent to sensory stimuli.

Odor Threshold - The smallest concentration of gas or vapor, expressed in parts per million
(ppm) by volume in air, that most people can detect by smell.

Open Gauging System - A system of measuring the contents of a tank, which makes use of an
opening in the tank and may expose the gauger to the cargo or its vapor (see also Closed
Gauging System and Restricted Gauging System).

Over the Top - See Loading Overall.

Oxidizing Agent - An element or compound that is capable of adding oxygen or removing
hydrogen or one that is capable of taking one or more electrons from an atom or group of atoms
(the opposite of a Reducing Agent).

Oxygen Analyzer - An instrument used to measure oxygen concentrations, expressed as a

percentage by volume.

Padding - Filling and maintaining the cargo tank and associated piping system with an inert
gas, other gas or vapor, or liquid, in order to separate the cargo from air.

Peroxides - Compounds formed by the chemical combination of cargo liquid or vapor with

atmospheric oxygen, or oxygen from another source. These compounds may in some cases be
highly reactive or unstable and constitute a potential hazard.

pH - A scale which indicates the acidity or alkalinity of a solution. Its range is 0 to 14. pH 7
represents absolute neutrality. A value of 0 represents high acidity (e.g. concentrated acids) and
14 represents high alkalinity (e.g. a caustic soda solution).

Poison - A very toxic substance which when absorbed into the human body by ingestion, skin
absorption, or inhalation produces a serious or fatal effect.

Polymerization - The phenomenon whereby the molecules of a particular compound link

together into a larger unit containing anything from two to many thousands of molecules, the
new unit being called a polymer. A compound may thereby change from a free flowing liquid into
a viscous one or even a solid. A great deal of heat may be evolved when this occurs.
Polymerization may occur spontaneously with no outside influence, or it may occur if the
compound is heated, or if a catalyst or impurity is added. Polymerization may, under some
circumstances, be dangerous but may be delayed or controlled by the addition of inhibitors.

Pour Point - The lowest temperature at which a liquid will remain fluid.

Pressure - Force per unit area. Usually expressed as gauge pressure relative to atmosphere (as
shown on a gauge that registers zero at atmospheric pressure) or absolute pressure.

Pressure/Vacuum Valve (P/V Valve) - A dual purpose valve commonly incorporated in the
cargo tank venting system of tankers, the operation of which, when appropriately set,
automatically prevents excessive pressure or vacuum in the tank or tanks concerned.

Putrefaction - The natural decomposition, over time, of animal or vegetable oils, accompanied
by offensive smells. Sometimes called 'going off.
Reducing Agent - An element or compound that is capable of removing oxygen, or adding
hydrogen or one that is capable of giving one or more electrons to an atom or group of atoms
(the opposite of an Oxidizing Agent).

Reid Vapor Pressure (RVP) - The vapor pressure of a liquid determined by laboratory testing

in a standard manner in the Reid Apparatus at a standard temperature of 100T (37.8°C)
expressed in pounds per square inch absolute, and commonly written 'RVP..... lb.'.

Relative Vapor Density - The relative weight of the vapor compared with the weight of an
equal volume of air at standard conditions of temperature and pressure. Thus vapor density of
2.9 means that the vapor is 2.9 times heavier than an equal volume of air, under the same
physical conditions.
Respiratory Tract - The human air passages from nose to lungs inclusive.

Responsible Officer - The master or any officer to whom the master has delegated
responsibility for an operation or duty.

Responsible Terminal Representative - See Terminal Representative.

Restricted Gauging System - A system employing a device which penetrates the tank and
which, when in use, permits a small quantity of cargo vapor or liquid to be exposed to the
atmosphere: when not in use, the device is completely closed (see also Closed Gauging System
and Open Gauging System).

Safety Relief Valve - A valve fitted on a pressure vessel to relieve overpressure.

Self-reaction - The tendency of a chemical to react with itself, usually resulting in

polymerization or decomposition. Self-reaction may be promoted by contamination with small
amounts of other materials.

Short Term Exposure Limit (STEL) - See Threshold Limit Value.

SOLAS - The International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea 1974, as modified by its
Protocol of 1988.

Solubility - The ability of one substance (solid, liquid or gas) to blend uniformly with another.
Solubility is usually understood as the maximum weight of substance which will dissolve in water
in the presence of undissolved substance. The value is usually expressed as the number of
grams of substance dissolving in 100 grams of water. In the case of liquid dissolving in another
liquid, the term miscibility is often used instead of solubility.

Specific Gravity - The ratio of the weight of a volume of a substance at a given temperature to
the weight of an equal volume of fresh water at the same temperature or at a different given
temperature. Since temperature affects volume, the temperature at which a specific gravity
comparison is made needs to be known, and is stated after the ratio.

Spontaneous Combustion - Ignition of a combustible material is termed 'spontaneous' if the

inherent characteristics of the material cause a heat producing (exothermic) chemical action and
thus ignition without exposure to external fire, spark or abnormal heat.

Static Electricity - The electrical charge produced on dissimilar materials through physical
contact and separation, such as is caused by a fluid passing through a pipeline or into a tank.

Stern Discharge Line - A cargo pipeline over the deck to a point terminating at or near the
stern of the tanker.
Stripping - The final operation in pumping bulk liquid from a tank or pipeline.

Sweeping (Squeegeeing or Puddling) - The manual pushing of semi-liquid residues of animal

fat or vegetable oil cargoes towards the pump suction during the final stages of discharge, using
sweeping sticks or squeegees.

Systemic Toxic Effect - The effect of a substance or its vapor on those parts of the human
body with which it is not in contact. This presupposes that absorption has taken place. It is
possible for chemicals to be absorbed through skin, lungs or stomach, producing later
manifestations which are not a result of the original direct contact.

Tank Vent System (Vent Line) - The piping system and associated valves, installed to prevent
overpressure or underpressure (vacuum) in cargo tanks.

Terminal Representative -  A person designated by the terminal to take responsibility for an

operation or duty.

Threshold Limit Value (TLV) (Short Term Exposure Limit) - The time weighted average
(TWA) concentration of a substance to which it is believed workers may be repeatedly exposed,
for a normal 8 hour working day and 40 hour working week, day after day, without adverse
effect. It may be supplemented by other limits.

Topping Off - The operation of completing the loading of a tank to a required ullage.

Toxic - Poisonous, i.e. causing bodily harm that may be severe (see also Acute Toxic Effect and
Chronic Toxic Effect).

Toxic Liquid - A liquid which if ingested or absorbed through the skin causes bodily harm that
may be severe.

Toxic Vapor - A vapor which if inhaled causes bodily harm that may be severe.
UFL or UEL - See Flammable Limits.

Ullage - The depth of free space left in a cargo tank above the liquid level.

Vapor - One or more of the components of chemical products when in the vapor phase.

Vapor Pressure - The pressure exerted by the vapor above the liquid, at a given temperature.
It is expressed as absolute pressure.

Venting - The release of cargo vapor or inert gas from cargo tanks and associated systems.

Vent Line - See Tank Vent System.

Viscosity - The property of a liquid which determines its resistance to flow.

Volatile Liquid - A liquid which evaporates readily at ambient temperatures.

Volatility - The tendency for a liquid to vaporize.

Water Fog - Very fine droplets of water generally delivered at a high pressure through a fog
nozzle.

Water Spray - Water divided into coarse drops by delivery through a special nozzle.

Water Spray System - A system of sufficient capacity to provide a blanket of water droplets to
cover the cargo manifolds, deck storage tanks, and boundaries of superstructures and
deckhouses.

Types of Tankers

Tankers carrying dangerous liquid cargoes in bulk are crude oil, oil products, chemicals, molten
sulfur etc. The nature of their cargo requires special forms of construction and outfitting.
Although LNG and LPG can be grouped as  Dangerous Liquid cargoes, they are treated
separately under "Liquefied Petroleum Gas and Liquefied Natural Gas" categories that needs
different types of crew certification .

So, Tankers for Oil and Chemicals carrying dangerous liquid cargo can be divided into : oil
tankers, chemical tankers, and combination carriers.

Crude oil tanker is an oil tanker engaged in the trade of crude oil. Product tanker is an oil
tanker engaged in the trade of oil other than crude oil. A clean product tanker carries light
petroleum products, a dirty product tanker carries heavy petroleum products. The product
tanker is intended for transportation and distribution of crude oil derivatives from the refineries
to consumers. The main difference between a product tanker and a crude carrier is, that with the
former, several batches of cargo of different kinds are transported simultaneously and the
respective cargo quantities are smaller. It requires a large number of cargo tanks and a
complicated pumping and piping system to facilitate a separate handling process for each type of
cargo. Combination carriers can carry oil and ore in alternate voyages, but are much less in
use today.

High heat tankers are product carriers for the transportation of molten sulfur, bitumen, dirty
petroleum products, coal tar, pitch and coal tar products. They maintain a cargo temperature
between the ranges of 160°C and 240°C, which places very heavy demands on the heating,
insulation of the tanks and pipework, as well as associated valves and pumps.

Chemical tankers are ships constructed to carry a cargo of noxious liquid substances (NLS) in
bulk. There are two kinds of chemical tankers: one is an exclusive chemical tanker for
carriage of an exclusive cargo, and the other one is a parcel chemical tanker capable of
carrying many kinds of chemical cargoes. The two distinct categories of chemical tanker
comprise vessels with all or most of the cargo tanks fabricated from stainless steel, and those
vessels embodying only coated, mild steel tanks.An oil tanker, also known as a petroleum
tanker, is a merchant ship designed for the bulk transport of oil. Two basic types of oil tankers
are found in the industry, namely, crude oil tankers and product tankers. The crude oil tankers
are normally bigger in size compared to the other. They carry oil unrefined towards the
refineries where it is refined to different products such as petrol, diesel, etc. These refined
products are then carried by the product tankers from the refineries and to the consumer.

Crude tankers, move large quantities of unrefined crude oil from its point of extraction to
refineries. Product tankers, are generally much smaller, and are designed to move refined
products from refineries to points near the consuming market.

Tanker Cargo Tanks

The features of a cargo tank on tankers are as below:

 A tanker is normally fitted with 3 cargo tanks abreast, this would mean that these vessels
have a centre tank and two side (called wing tanks) tanks, done by constructing two
longitudinal bulkheads that run from the engine room to the collision bulkhead.

This diagram shows two tanks abreast.

 Tanker arrangement

 Tank bulkheads are strengthened to withstand oil pressure during carriage, this is done
with the help of strength members like web frames, transverse webs and stringers.

 Tanks are fitted with a wash bulkhead (a bulkhead that extends from the deck to about 3
quarter of the vessels depth, does not extend from deck to tank top) if it exceeds 0.1 of
ships length or 15 meters to reduce free surface effect

 Tanks do not exceed 0.2 of ship’s length, this helps prevent the free surface effect

 Tanks are fitted with vent lines for the purpose of releasing over pressure in the tanks. 

 Cargo tanks, are provided with stairways to allow for inspection. 

 Cargo tank entrances are watertight, a characteristic of a type A (vessels that carry only
liquid cargoes as defined by the Loadline Convention) vessel. 

 There are butterworth manholes used to lower down the portable washing machine (these
machines are used on smaller product tankers) in case of tank cleaning or other
operations. On large crude oil tankers fixed machines are used for crude oil washing.
 Cargo tanks

Specialized compartments are designed, as part of the ship structure, to be able to carry the oil
cargo in bulk. They have arrangements for loading, carrying and discharging the cargo they are
designed for. High capacity pumps make it possible to rapidly load and discharge large quantities
of liquid cargo. The pumps are located at the aft end of the cargo tanks and forward of the
engine room. A maze of pipelines, valves and other installations are found on deck and in the

pump room.
Single hull tankers
This design of tankers has one hull structure which itself is divided into cargo tanks using
longitudinal and transverse bulkheads. The hull acts as a single skin between the cargo in the
tank and the sea. These types are not permitted to be constructed nowadays by regulation. The
existing single hull ships are phased out systematically by regulation.

Double hull tankers

One of the major changes imposed by regulations to the design of oil tanker is the introduction
of double hull design. A number of maritime accidents involving oil tankers and the resulting
pollution to the environment made it necessary for such a design. 

Double hull tankers typically have an inner and an outer hull structure. The inner hull is divided
into tanks for carrying oil cargo while the space between the two hulls is divided strategically
into a number of ballast tanks for stability during non-loaded voyages. 
This design offers an extra layer of protection in case of accident damage to the hull. It is
assumed that only the outer hull would be damaged in case of an accident, preventing
catastrophic oil spills from the cargo tanks.

Following are some extracts from Reg-19 of Marpol Annex I which prescribes the double hull
design requirements:

Wing tank or spaces extent to full height of the ship side or from the uppermost deck to the top
of the double bottom. A rounded gunwale is disregarded where fitted. The cargo tanks should be
located at a distance not less than 'w' inboard of the moulded line of the ship shell plating. “w” is
measured at right angles to the side shell at any cross section as follows:

w = 0.5 + (m) or w = 2.0 m, whichever lesser.

Minimum value of w = 1.0 m.

The height of the double bottom measured at any of the cross sections should be such that the
distance ‘h’ between the moulded line of the bottom shell plating and the bottom of the cargo
tank is not less than: 

h = B/15 (m) or h = 2.0 m, whichever is the lesser.

Minimum value of h = 1.0 m.

Some structures may protrude beyond the boundary line defined by 'h' from the cargo tank into
the double bottom such as suction wells provided they are designed as small as practicable and
the distance between the bottom shell plating and well bottom is not less than 0.5h.

Ballast related piping including sounding and vent pipes should not pass through the cargo
tanks. Similarly cargo related piping should not pass through the ballast tanks.
If the tanker is designed such that the pressure exerted by the cargo along with the vapour
pressure on the bottom shell plating does not exceed the hydrostatic water pressure of the sea
where the shell plating forms a single boundary between the cargo and sea, the double bottom
can be dispensed with. 

If a horizontal partition is used to fulfil the requirements, it should be located a height of not less
than 6m or B/6, whichever is lesser and not more than 0.6 times the moulded depth amidships.

Design and construction of oil tankers other than those as per these requirements also can be
accepted as alternatives if they can offer the same level of protection against oil pollution in case
of collision or grounding. Such design has to be approved in principle by the MEPC based on
guidelines developed by the IMO.

Cargo tanks are constructed with suction and discharge pipelines, entry ladders, and crude oil
washing arrangements inside the tanks. The vapour vents together with pressure vacuum vents
(PV valves) and sounding pipes are fitted on deck.

Arrangements of Oil Tanker

Oil Tanker
Pump Rooms
The cargo pump rooms for oil, chemical and other hazardous cargoes shall be so arranged as to
ensure the following:

 The pump rooms must have clear passage without restrictions from any ladder or any
floor; there must be guard railings on ladders and all the platforms. 

 All necessary valves for cargo work must have clear access without restrictions,
particularly for persons wearing protective equipment.

 A stretcher must be rigged permanently for hoisting an injured person with a rescue line.

 Leakages and drainages from the cargo pumps and valves shall have drainage to the
bilge. The bilge of the pump room shall be operable from the outside and shall be fitted
with a high level alarm and warning. A shore connection pipe line with a standard Marpol
coupling flange shall be provided on deck, for transferring contaminated liquids to the
shore facility.

 Contaminated bilge water or tank washings should be stored in one or more slop tanks
provided in front of the pump room.

 Where powered prime movers for driving pumps are separated through a bulkhead, gas
tight seals shall be fitted in the way of bulkheads.

Pump Room of Oil Tanker

Pump rooms are normally located at the forward of the engine room. They are categorised as
hazardous area.

A Pump-room is provided on most tankers between the cargo compartments and the
accommodation. It separates the machinery space from the cargo compartments, a safety
constructional feature of the tanker so that cargo vapor is prevented from coming into the
accommodation. (separating the cargo space from the accommodation by a thermal and
structural boundary, a SOLAS design feature).
The arrangement of the pump room shall be such that:

 The passage from any platform, ladder and the floor is unrestricted at all times.

 All valves involved in cargo handling should be accessible without restrictions for a person
wearing required PPE.

 Arrangements for hoisting an injured person using a rescue line without bumping on
obstructions shall be permanently available.  

 All ladders and platforms shall be fitted with guard rails.

 Vertical ladders shall not be used for normal access and platforms at suitable intervals
should be incorporated.

 A bilge system should be provided to deal with possible leakages from valves and pumps.
The bilge system should be capable of being operated from outside the pump room.

 For the purpose of storing tank washings or contaminated bilge water, one or more slop
tanks shall be provided. Arrangements like standard coupling must be provided for
transferring the contaminated liquids to shore reception facilities.

 There must be arrangement to read the pump discharge pressures from outside the pump
room.

 If the driving unit of pump room machinery is located in the engine room with the shaft
passing through the bulkhead, gas tight seals with efficient lubrication shall be fitted.

The integrity of pumps and pipelines is important and must be maintained. Any leaks should be
detected in time and rectified. Visual examination of pipelines should be carried out and pressure
testing done to verify their condition. Other means of testing and examination like ultra-sonic
thickness measurement may be used, but should not completely substitute visual examination.

A high level alarm should be fitted in the cargo pump room bilge and should activate audio and
visual alarms in the CCR, ER and the navigation bridge.

There have been accidents in the past where the force of explosion killed people as they were
attempting to escape from a space. A trunk way should be provided which is stiffened equivalent
to the adjacent bulkheads. A series of short lengths of ladders should be provided with platforms
at regular heights. Ventilation and lighting should be available within the trunk way and the top
should lead outside the pump room above the deck housing. 

The main cargo pumps, stripping pumps, eductors, ballast pumps and various valves, lines are
fitted and interconnected in this room for the purpose of cargo loading and discharging
operations and for ballasting/de-ballasting and tank cleaning operations among others.
As oil cargo releases hydrocarbon gas, this gas will at times be present in the pump room. One
must note that hydrocarbon gas is flammable and toxic, and it needs to be removed before man
entry.  

The pump-room is therefore fitted with equipment to ventilate and detect these gases as well as
equipment to be used in case of an emergency to save life if necessary. They are as below:

 Exhaust fans

 Gas detectors 

 Alarms

 CCTV 

 Emergency telephone 

 Emergency Escape Breathing Device

 Fire detecting and extinguishing systems

A skylight on top of the pump room provides for additional ventilation and the provision of
natural light during the day. 

Slop Tanks
Slop tanks are fitted on tankers to collect tank draining’s, tank washings and other cargo oil
mixtures. It is fitted with cargo pipe lines to discharge, transfer and strip oil wastes. 

It may have overflow system that is designed to transfer excess oil wastes to another other slop
tank.

Slop tanks are mandated to be provided for on oil tankers greater than 150 tons gross. 
Tankers of greater than 70,000 tons deadweight and above are to be provided with at least two
slop tanks. 

Tank washings after cleaning cargo tanks and dirty ballast residues are transferred into the slop
tanks. 

Slop tanks are used to decant (separate) the oil and water mixture and for this purpose they are
normally fitted with heating coils, as heat helps in the separation of oil and water. Decanting
requires time and must be done in calm waters. After decanting is completed (takes about 24
hrs) the oil water interface is detected and the water that settles below the oil layer in the slop
tank can be pumped overboard. 

Note: Allow a margin of safety when pumping out the decanted water, i.e. stop pumping slightly
before the detected oil water interface.

Slop tank location

The total capacity of all slop tanks shall be enough to retain all slop generated by the operation
of the vessel. The capacity in any case shall not be less than 3% of the oil carrying capacity of
the ship, except if the administration agrees in the following cases:

 2% of the oil carrying capacity of the ship where the tank washing arrangement is such
that the slop tanks once filled is sufficient to complete the washing, including driving the
eductors without having to take in additional water.

 2% of the oil carrying capacity of the ship where dedicated clean ballast tanks or
segregated ballast tanks are available as per the MARPOL Annex I or where a crude oil
washing system is available as per the MARPOL Annex I. This can  be further reduced to
1.5% if one or more slop tanks can be charged and same water used to complete
washing, including driving eductors, without having to take in additional water.

 For combination carriers where cargo is carried only in tanks with smooth walls it is 1%. It
can be further reduced to 0.8% if one or more slop tanks can be charged and the same
 water used to complete washing, including driving eductors without having to take in
additional water.

In the diagram shown below, A, B, C and D are the cargo lines connecting to tanks 1, 2, 3, 4 and
5. Except for No.2 tank all other tanks have a centre tank, port tank and starboard tank. Slop
tanks are generally located aft of all the cargo tanks on port and starboard side to collect oily
water mixtures from tank washings. The capacity of the slop tanks should be atleast 3% of the
deadweight carrying capacity of the oil tanker.

Cofferdams

Manholes for entry and inspection are provided in the cofferdam. The cofferdam should normally
be dry but sounding pipes are provided to be able to detect any leaks from the adjacent tanks. 

They are provided between fuel oil tanks, lube oil tanks and fresh water tanks in the engine
room. They are also constructed all around main engine lube oil sump tank, to separate it from
other double bottom tanks. Cofferdams are also found in the engine room, for example to
provide access to the holding down bolts for the main engine.

On an oil tanker, additional to the above, cofferdams are also provided between the cargo
carrying space and the machinery space. The pump room is accepted as a cofferdam between
the cargo tanks and the engine room. All enclosed space entry procedures must be followed
when entering a cofferdam, even though the space is not meant for carrying any cargo or other
toxic substance.

A cofferdam helps prevent cargo contamination, as when two different liquids are loaded in
adjacent tanks an oil leak in one of these tanks drains into the cofferdam, if one is fitted
between these tanks.

Some the features of a cofferdam on an oil tanker are as follows:

 They are provided with manholes for entry and inspection

 They are provided with a sounding pipe to check for oil leakage 

 They must be maintained in a dry condition to detect oil leakage.

 On chemical tankers, tank stiffening in within the cofferdam, helps prevent cling-age in
the cargo tanks (required as some chemical cargoes are very hazardous and after
discharge, cargo residues must be a little as is practicable)

 Pump rooms and ballast tanks are accepted as cofferdams; however ballast tanks
encircling a slop tank are not cofferdams
In Oil Tankers cofferdams are fitted:

 Between the cargo space and the machinery space, on vessels that do not have a pump
room 

As a cofferdam is an enclosed space enclosed space entry precautions must be taken before man
entry.

Deep Tanks
Deep tanks are sometimes found on tankers and they are located aft of the collision bulkhead.
On board tankers, deep tanks are used to carry extra bunkers which enables the ship to
undertake long international voyages without the need for bunkering enroute. 

The deep tanks extend to the entire breadth and depth of the ship aft of the collision bulkhead.
A void space known as the cofferdam is found forward and aft of the deep tank.
 
The cofferdam and the deep tank are subdivided by longitudinal bulkheads and are fitted with
heating and pumping systems. The fore and aft watertight bulkhead plating is made thicker at
the bottom so that it can withstand the head pressure exerted by the liquid.

The centreline bulkhead and the other fore and aft bulkheads must be made of adequate
strength to withstand the free surface effect. The deep tanks are provided with heating coils and
pumping arrangements.

They should also have means for measuring sounding, temperature, etc. An air pipe should be
fitted for breathing of the tank and all openings should be of the watertight closing type.

Tank Coating
Oil Tankers
The tank coating requirements developed by IMO for the purpose of preventing corrosion in
cargo oil tanks are in the form of performance standards and these standards are mandatory by
SOLAS amendment- regulation II-1 /3-11; Crude Oil Tankers – cargo oil tanks corrosion
protection (adopted as per resolution-MSC 291(87). 

This applies to new crude oil tankers of 5000 dead weight and above, engaged on International
Voyages from January 2016.

The cargo tanks are coated with epoxy paints; every step in the process of the coating system
should be planned as per the requirement and preference of coating material and
recommendation of makers. The planning has to include surface preparation, dehumidification,
ventilation work scheduling, application of paint, inspection, thickness of each coating, water
testing, holiday spots and touch up, etc.

Tank coating jobs are generally covered by a guarantee by the makers of the coating. Improper
coating’s life is short and results in expensive renewal of the coating.

The coating of cargo oil tanks is the main option during construction of the ship according to
standards for protective coatings for cargo oil tanks of crude oil tankers. The coating intended to
be used should be tested according to the Marpol annex.
The compatibility of the coatings with the primer should be demonstrated and the system type
approval certificate should record it. The application of the coating system is subject to extensive
controls by the ship's classification and the shipyard. A suitably qualified coating inspector must
ensure compliance of the application with respect to the regulation. The yard is responsible to
maintain record of the specifications of the coating in the 'coating technical file'. It should also
contain a record of all coating work, inspection, maintenance, repair, criteria for coating
selection and job specifications.

Corrosion, especially on the bottom areas, can be fast and dangerous due to sulphur compounds
in the cargo reacting with water forming acidic solutions. Corrosive water droplets can develop
on tank ceilings due to hydrogen sulphide. Inert gas used to purge empty tanks contains may
also contain sulphur compounds.

As a measure to improve the corrosion resistance of the ship structure, corrosion resistant steel
is being developed, which is more resistant to corrosion compared to normal shipbuilding steel.
Different grades of steel are developed depending on the intended application at either top or
bottom of the tank.

Oil Tanker - Cargo Piping System

The design of piping system has undergone lots of changes, evolving over a long period of time.
The piping system on a crude oil tanker is simple and straight forward, whereas, a more
complicated design is adopted in product tankers to cater to many different grades of cargo.
The layout of piping can be classified as:

 Free flow system

  Direct line system

 Ring main system

Each design has its own advantages and is suited for a particular type of tanker.

Pipelines
The rate of pumping is taken into consideration to decide the cross-sectional size of the
pipelines. Generally they are found to be between 25 and 90 centimetre diameter. Short bays of
pipes are joined together, using flange joints or expansion joints. Custom designed curved
sections form part of bends.

Branch lines and bell mouth

Branch lines are short lengths of pipe that branch out from the main line to end inside each
tank. The branch lines have a valve inside each tank known as tank valves. The flow of cargo
to/from that tank can be controlled using this valve. The opening of a pipe inside the tank is in
the shape of a bell and is called a bell mouth. It is also referred to as the suction or elephant
foot. 

Manifold
The deck pipeline openings on either side amidships of the deck area, where the shore hoses are
connected to transfer cargo to/from the ship, are called the manifold. A valve is situated at the
end of each manifold, immediately inside the connecting flange.

Main and cross-over lines

The main lines are the cargo pipelines running fore and aft. They are isolated into sections by
using master valves. Crossover lines are short lengths of pipelines running athwart ship, making
a connection between two main lines. A crossover valve controls the flow through these
crossover lines.

Drop lines
Drop lines are vertical pipelines connecting the deck cargo lines with the tank main lines. This
helps to route the cargo to the tank main lines by-passing the pumps during loading operation.
These lines are found in the pump room or near the manifold. The line can be isolated using
drop valves.
Free flow system
This system helps to reduce the length of pipeline needed to operate a tanker especially on long
vessels like VLCC or ULCC. It is a very simple system wherein bulkhead valves are fitted at the
aft end of each tank at the bottom also known as sluice valves. When these valves are opened,
the cargos from all tanks flow by gravity towards the aftermost set of tanks where the suction is
located.
If free flow is the only system installed on a ship for pumping cargo, it would be permitted to
carry only one grade of cargo, so it is normally combined with a piping system as well. For
example, wing tanks have piping arrangement but the centre tanks have a free flow system.

Cargo is loaded using drop lines which directly serve only a few tanks and the remaining tanks
are loaded using bulkhead valves. Stripping can be done by means of a separate set of lines
installed for this purpose.

The free flow system has the following advantages:

 Less piping involved which results in reduced cost

 No restriction to the flow of cargo results in faster loading/discharging

 Draining of tanks is efficient.

 Failure of one pump will slow down the rate but all tanks can be discharged.

In contract to the advantages, it has a major disadvantage:

 The system does not allow for two-valve separation; so multiple grade cargoes cannot be
carried.

Direct line system

This system makes use of a network of pipelines, but is most suitable for a single or limited
number of grades of cargo. It is commonly found on VLCC and ULCC where multi-grade cargoes
are not frequently carried; it is used to carry one, two or three grades of cargo, which they do
occasionally. The stripping of tanks is achieved by installing a separate set of pipelines for this

purpose.
Advantages of the direct line system

 Not many bends in the pipeline system, which results in less pipe friction, better pump
suction, thereby enabling faster loading and discharging
  Number of valves, crossovers and bends in the pipelines is less, resulting in cheap and low
maintenance.

 A user friendly layout for simple operations

 Joints and elbows are less which minimizes leaks

 Line washing is less and can be executed rapidly. 

Disadvantages of the direct piping system

 Provision to carry only few grades of cargo simultaneously - lacking in versatility

 Coping with failure of pump, valve or pipeline leaks are difficult

 Lack of circular system for depositing washings makes line-washing difficult

 Need for separate stripping system adds to the installation cost.

Ring main system

Commonly found on older ships, it was best suited to vessels which frequently carried multiple
grades of cargo. The pipeline is laid out in the form of ring. The inner ring connects the after
tanks to the system and the outer ring connects the forward tanks to the system by using
connections between the two rings at approximately mid-length of the vessel.

Maintaining a two-valve separation between different grades of cargo is the norm in such vessels
and it is achieved by installing master valves forward of each crossover line and installing
crossover valves at each branching of the ring lines.
The system is given further flexibility by installing crossover on the suction and discharge side of
the pumps inside the pump room. The stripping of cargo tanks is achieved using the main
pipeline branching into smaller suctions. Drop lines in the pump room are used for loading cargo
and hence the order of loading different grades must be planned well.

Advantages of the ring main system

 Possibility to discharge any tank using any pump gives high level of versatility

 Tank washing and line washing operations are simple, using circular layout of lines

 Separate stripping line system is not required, saving installation cost.

Dis-advantages of the ring main system

 Requires high level of maintenance owing to greater number of valves, elbows, joints, etc

 Line friction reduces pumping rates

 Line-washing requirements are extensive.

Combined or cruciform system

It is used in most modern product carriers and it allows a greater degree of versatility than the
ring main system, especially during loading, by virtue of the direct drop lines that avoid the
pump room area and enter each bottom line at two different points. In this system, the inner
ring serves principally the centre tanks and the outer ring serves the wing tanks, with the
crossover facility between the two rings at every set of tanks. 

Stripping system
This system uses low capacity pumps usually of the reciprocating type and/or eductors. The
eductors are driven by the flow of oil, which can be diverted through them, whilst being sucked
into the main cargo pumps during discharge. At their discharge side are options for pumping into
the slop tank or discharge mains. On crude oil carriers, these pumps/eductors usually have their
own pipeline system consisting of piping of a smaller bore than that of the main system, so the
main discharge process is not interrupted by the stripping requirements. They can also be linked
into the main lines in order to drain them. On product carriers, they have the capability of being
linked into the main piping system and drain the tanks by this route.

Ballast system
The vessel’s complete ballast capacity requirements can be taken care of in either a totally
segregated system or by permanent ballast tanks in conjunction with the vessel’s cargo tanks. 
Modern tankers employ the former and, in operational terms, this system permits ballasting and
deballasting to be done without encroaching upon the cargo operations schedule. In the latter
case, a separate ballast pump and lines are employed for filling and discharging the permanent
ballast tanks, whilst ballast to and from the cargo tanks is dealt with by the cargo pumps
through the cargo lines. 

Valves
Nowadays the vast majority of valves are controlled automatically from a cargo control room.
They are usually operated by hydraulic power and are of the butterfly type, which simply
comprises a circular metal plate on a spindle, which rotates through 90 degrees within the
pipeline. 

Gate valves
Gate valves operate on a screw spindle which raises or lowers a valve gate across the pipeline to
open or close the section. They are used in key positions, such as manifold valves, either side of
cargo pumps or as sea valves. It offers no resistance to the flow of liquid and enables high flow
rates. They provide a good sealing when closed but overhauling is not easiest among valves and
throttling is not effective.

Function of Gate Valve

Butterfly valves
Butterfly valves have a disc fixed at the centre on a spindle, turning 90 degrees to close and
open. When closed, a rubber lining along the circumference provides a seal. This type of valve is
good for throttling the flow, is easier to overhaul and occupies less space in the system. It is also
possible to have one end of the spindle extending out to give an indication of the position of the
disc inside. The rubber lining used for the sealing tends to not hold at very high flow rates but is
suitable for the purpose on tankers. An actuator can be easily mounted on it so that it can be
remotely operated.

Function of Butterfly Valve

Some other types are globe valves, no-return globe valves, ball valves, etc. Globe valves are
used for throttling purposes and are often used in the control systems because of accurate
measure of flow control necessary for most control systems.

Function of Globe Valve

There are many types of valves that will satisfy one or more functions identified above. The
mechanism of controlling the flow can vary based on how the valve is designed. Regardless of
the type, all valves have components like: the body, bonnet, trim (internal elements), actuator,
and packing. They have their bodies furnished with flanged or screwed ends (or ends prepared
for welding) for connection to the joining pipes.
It is important to also know about control valves with actuator, relief valve, cocks and quick
closing valves since they are extensively used in ships. There are non return check valves which
are either self operated or controlled by the spindle operation (Screw Down Non Return or
SDNR) and here, the control of flow is maintained by the pressure of the fluid which can be
permanently set or preset with external arrangements. (Non-return globe valve, swing type flap
valve etc).

Piping Arrangement in Pump Room

On a crude oil tanker, the pump room piping is the main link between the cargo tank lines and
the cargo deck lines all the way to the manifold where the shore connection is made. The main
bottom cargo lines inside the tank run straight all the way to the cargo pumps in the pump
room.

We can divide the pump room into two parts. One is known as the cargo pump’s free flow side
and the other part is known as the cargo pump’s discharge side. They are also commonly known
as suction side and pressure side.

The bottom lines reach the cargo pumps on the suction side. There are some cross over lines on
this side to make the system more versatile. They are marked as “x-over” on the piping
diagrams and help to discharge cargo from system no.2 using COP no.3 and so on.

As we get closer to the COP, we find a valve on each of these lines normally known as the
bulkhead valves. The name is so because they are located close to the bulkhead separating the
system as cargo tank side and the pump room side. There is also another cross-over line
connecting the sea water suction. Two sea chests are found on either side and are used to pump
sea water for the purpose of water washing in cargo tanks and lines.
Coming to the delivery side of the pumps, we find a valve immediately after the pump which is
normally referred to as the discharge valve, or delivery valve or throttling valve. This valve can
be used to control the back pressure when operating the cargo pump.

Centrifugal pumps perform best when operated under a load or when a back pressure is
maintained. The delivery valve helps to achieve this. The pipeline on the delivery side rises up
vertically leading to the main deck. On the way, we can find the crude oil washing crossover,
also known as the bleed off cow. 

Using the bleed off cow, we can divert part of the cargo being discharged for the purpose of cow
washing. The same can be used for supplying drive liquid for the eductors during stripping.
Another cross-over line leads to a higher inlet in the port slop tank and to a pipeline called the
'high overboard'.

This high overboard line is the one used for overboard discharge of washing water after passing
through the ODMCS. There are many more cross over lines on the delivery side that enable use
of any of the riser lines with any pump. 

There are many other equipments fitted in the pump room for cargo handling as well as ballast
operations. A dedicated ballast pump is fitted in the case of a segregated ballast system. In a
segregated ballast system, the ballast tanks, pumps and lines are completely isolated from the
cargo system.
The ballast system has its own sea suction, so that the entire ballast system can be operated
without involving any part of the cargo system.

A stripping pump is fitted, which helps to strip the last remaining cargo from the tanks, cargo
pumps and the pipelines and discharge ashore through a small diameter line. This stripping
pump is a positive displacement pump which does not have a high rate but has its own
advantages over the main cargo pump.

An eductors is fitted in addition to the stripping pump, which is very efficient in stripping cargo
from the tanks during cow washing or water washing.

Arrangements of Chemical Tanker

Type 1

A ‘type 1’ chemical tanker is intended to transport

Chapter 17 cargoes of the IBC Code that have very severe environmental and safety hazards
which require maximum preventive measures to preclude an escape of such cargo.

Type 1 chemical tanker

Type 2
 A ‘type 2’ chemical tanker is intended to
transport Chapter 17 cargoes of the IBC Code with appreciably severe environmental and safety
hazards which require significant preventive measures to preclude an escape of such cargo.

Type 2 Chemical Tanker

Type 3

A ‘type 3’ chemical tanker is designed to transport

Chapter 17 cargoes of the IBC Code with sufficiently severe environmental and safety hazards
which require a moderate degree of containment to increase survival capability in a damaged
condition.
 

Type 3 Chemical Tanker

Categories of Cargo
Cargo Categories ‘X’, ‘Y’, ‘Z’ and other substances
Category X – Noxious liquid substances which if discharged into the sea from tank cleaning or
de-ballasting operations, are deemed to present a major hazard to either marine resources or
human health and therefore, justify the prohibition of discharge into the marine environment;
Category Y – Noxious liquid substances which if discharged into the sea from tank cleaning or
de-ballasting operations, are deemed to present a hazard to either marine resources or human
health or cause harm to amenities or other legitimate uses of the sea and therefore justify a
limitation on the quantity of the discharge into the marine environment;
Category Z – Noxious liquid substances which if discharged into the sea from tank cleaning or
de-ballasting operations, are deemed to present a minor hazard to either marine resources or
human health and therefore, justify less stringent restrictions of discharge into the marine
environment;
and 
Other Substances -  substances which have been evaluated and found to fall outside Category
X, Y or Z because they are considered to present no harm to marine resources, human health,
amenities or other legitimate uses of the sea when discharged into the sea from tank cleaning or
de-ballasting operations.  The discharge of bilge or ballast water or other residues or mixtures
containing these substances are not subject to any requirements of Annex II.

Chemical Tanker - Tank Arrangement

Chemical tankers or product tankers carry liquid chemicals and petroleum products in bulk; the
arrangement of tanks is similar to small oil tankers, i.e., the cargo tanks are arranged forward of
the Bridge. The deck longitudinals and transverse frames are arranged on the exposed side of
the deck. 

Numerous difficulties are faced when handling noxious liquid chemicals in bulk. The risk of
contaminating cargo is high when a single pump is used for several tanks and the proper
draining is not done before changing to different cargoes.

Modern tankers are of double hull type and are often equipped with individual submersible cargo
pumps (Framo hydraulic pumps) to avoid contamination of various cargoes carried as parcels.
The contamination can still take place if they are connected to common or shared lines.

Chemical cargoes are reactive in nature; therefore, many of the tanks have individual pumps,
pipe lines and valves. 

Cargo tanks should be segregated from accommodation, service and machinery spaces and from
drinking water and stores for human consumption, by means of a cofferdam, void space, cargo
pump-room, pump-room, empty tank, oil fuel tank or other similar space.
Cargo Tanks
The following coding system is used by the IBC code to identify different types of tanks used in
the chemical tankers:
      1: Independent tank
      2: Integral tank
      G: Gravity tank

      P: Pressure tank 
The following three kinds of tanks are found on chemical tankers:

 1G - Independent-Gravity

 1P - Independent-Pressure

 2G - Integral-Gravity
Independent tank
Independent tanks are a type of envelope to contain cargo which does not form as part of the
hull structure. This type of cargo containment system is developed specifically to prevent or
minimize any stress arising due to the stressing or motion of the hull structure. The ship’s hull
can be complete in structure without the independent tank.

The independent type of tank does not transfer the load pressure to the hull structure when they
are loaded but only the tank weight is supported by the hull through cradles or support points.
They are built with supports to prevent them slipping forward, astern, to the side or floating
upwards.

Integral tank
Integral tanks are those which form part of the hull structure. Stresses and loads are
experienced by the tank similar to that of the hull structure. Unlike the independent tank, the
integral tank is essential for the completeness of the hull structure. The weight and pressure of
the cargo is absorbed by the ship’s hull because the tank forms part of the hull.

Gravity tank
A tank having a design pressure not exceeding 0.7 bar gauge at the top of the tank is called a
gravity tank. Both independent and integral types of gravity tanks are used. The standards of
the administration, temperature and relative density of the cargo are taken into account when
constructing a gravity tank.

Pressure tank
A tank having a design pressure exceeding 0.7 bar gauge at the top of the tank is called a
pressure tank. Only an independent tank can be made into a pressure tank. The configuration of
such tanks should be such that the pressure vessel design criteria can be applied to the
standards of the Administration.
 Independent tank – (Pressure)

Tank Arrangements/Piping
Isolation method of cargo tanks and piping systems for chemical tankers /product
tankers

 The carriage of single parcel cargo in several tanks having a common pipe line system
poses containment problems within each tank and depends upon the tightness of the
single inlet valve. Therefore, it is recommended to have 2 valve separations between the
completed tanks and pressure pipe line. 

 Completed tanks must be checked to ensure the level of cargo regularly.

 It is a requirement that pumps and piping of cargo and venting system are separated
when loading toxic cargoes, in order to prevent contamination and the exposure to crew.

 Many chemical tankers have a common pipe line wherein separation can be done by
inserting blind flanges (blank) in the pipes. When these are used attention should be
made to restore to the original system when segregation is not in use.

 The pipe line arrangement of submerged cargo pumps for chemical tankers consist of
cargo pipe lines and hydraulic pipe lines for providing power for the prime mover of the
pump. 

The common line configuration on a chemical tanker used to be the ring main system.

However nowadays, chemical tankers use deep-well pumps that are submerged (drive shaft
submerged in the cargo tank with the pump) to discharge cargo. They have the flexibility of
being located either in the cargo tank or in the pump room (on chemical tankers they are in the
cargo tank). The pump operates in a well or a casing, and is self-priming as long as the well is
full of fluid. 

Deep well pumps on a chemical tanker are installed in all cargo tanks (one in each tank). Each
pump has its own set of pipelines to discharge the cargo, this prevents contamination.

A Deep well pump is normally driven by a hydraulic motor (submerged pump) or by an electric
motor housed (not favoured on a chemical tanker) on deck. 

The Framo pumping system uses submerged deep-well pumps in cargo tanks for facilitating
discharge.

The Framo hydraulic cargo pumping system is designed for a flexible and safe cargo and tank
cleaning operation on chemical tankers. It consists of one hydraulic motor driven cargo pump
installed in each cargo tank, ballast pumps, tank cleaning pumps, portable pumps and other
consumers, all connected via a hydraulic ring line system to a hydraulic power unit as shown in
figure below. 

The submerged cargo pump is a single

stage centrifugal pump with the impeller close to the tank top, giving a good pumping
performance of all kinds of liquids and with excellent stripping performance.

The Framo pumping system

Pump Rooms
The arrangement of the pump room shall be such as to ensure:

 Unrestricted passage is always from the floor and any ladder platform.

 Access without restriction to all valves involved in cargo operation to personnel wearing
proper PPE. 

Permanent arrangements should

be available for hoisting an injured person using a rescue line and there should be no obstacles
projecting in the path.

All ladders and platforms must have guard railings installed. The ladders used for normal access
should not be vertical and platforms at suitable intervals must be incorporated.

Suitable means should be provided to deal with any possible leakage from cargo pumps or
valves and drainage. 

It should be possible to operate the pump room bilge system from outside the pump room.

Slop tanks should be provided for storage of contaminated bilge water or tank washings.

A standard coupling shore connection or other similar arrangement should be provided for
onshore reception of contaminated liquids.

Pump discharge pressure gauges should be available outside the cargo pump room.

Gas tight seals with effective lubrication or other means ensuring gas tight seal must be fitted on
the bulkhead or deck wherever a machinery drive shaft passes through it.
Slop Tanks
Any tanker which is carrying Noxious Liquid Substances (NLS) in bulk must strictly comply with
the provisions of Marpol Annex II and follow procedures as described and approved in the P&A
manual, when discharging slops. These regulations must be available on board for reference
before loading such cargo.  

The P&A Manual gives procedures relating to pollution prevention when cleaning of cargo tanks
and discharge of residues that arise from tank washing mixed or not mixed with the washing
medium.

The Officers involved in cargo related operations should read and understand the contents of the
P&A manual specific to that ship and strictly follow the procedures there in.

Compatibility between cargoes should be an important consideration when it comes to stowage

of slop. Retaining slops of viscous or vegetable oils in slop tanks with zinc coating must be
avoided.

All operations with respect to slops resulting from NLS like discharge into the sea or removal by
ventilation or discharge to shore reception facility must be recorded in the cargo record book
properly. 

The NLS in bulk, which are harmful to the environment, are categorised as X, Y, Z and OS. NLS
listed under category X poses the greatest threat and category Z poses little threat to the
environment.

When different cargo tanks contain different incompatible cargoes, washing of each tank should
be carried out separately and the washings should be pumped to the shore separately. 

Great care should be taken not to collect slops from incompatible cargoes into the same tank.
Additionally, the tank coating too has to be compatible with that cargo.

The regulatory requirements of slop tanks under Marpol Annex I will apply if the chemical tanker
carries a cargo or even part cargo of oil in bulk.

Various types of Chemical cargo tank coatings

Cargo tank coating on chemical carriers have two main roles, first to create a separation barrier
to avoid direct contact between the mild steel (tank construction) and the corrosive cargo
substance. Secondly, it must have smooth/slippery surface to provide easy tank cleaning
operation.

Chemical cargo tank coatings can be categorized into two main groups:

 Inorganic coatings - zinc silicates and ethyl silicate types.

Generally, the life of this coating is proportional to the thickness of the coat.
This coating is one-layer coating, comprising of inorganic silicates pigmented with high
percentage of zinc powder.

 Organic coatings – epoxy and modified epoxy systems.

This type of coating consists an organic resin system, which form strong chemical bonds
between the resin molecules. This coating type has the ability to resist strong acids or
alkalis but they tend to absorb significant quantities of cargo and contamination problems
can occur.

A chemical tanker’s cargo tanks are coated with epoxy paints unless they are made of stainless
steel. 

The main reasons for coating are: 

 Reduced risk of contamination and easier cleaning

 Properly applied and maintained coatings may last for ten years.

 On the practical operation side, a single mistake in cargo selection may ruin a coating. 

There are three types of coatings, namely:

 Epoxy

 Zinc silicate

 Resin
 The paint manufacturers have
their own resistance list stating approved cargoes, temperature and time limitations etc. 

Epoxy coatings 

 Generally, epoxy coatings are found to have good resistance to wine, vegetable oils,
alkalis, seawater, lube oils, gas oils, jet fuels, crude oils, gasoline and weak acids.

 A limited resistance against aromatic hydrocarbons is seen ('solvents' such as benzene,

toluene, alcohols and ketones and some esters.) 

 Sometimes, resistance to stronger acids also is observed. But, considering the holidays in
the applied coating film, it may not be suitable for highly corrosive liquids.

 Suffering stress beyond the resistance level from strong solvents, epoxy coatings tend to
soften. Enough time should be allowed for the coating to weather out the trapped solvents
and recover before introducing cargo or water again.
  Pencils of different hardness can be used as reference to establish hardness of epoxy
coatings in standardized tests.

 Temperatures beyond 60-80 degrees Celsius should be avoided with epoxy coatings
during steaming and tank washing. Still lower temperatures should be kept during loaded
voyages.

 Except in emergency or heavy weather conditions, ballasting of cargo tanks with sea
water should be avoided. It is best to use epoxy coating in such situations.

 Before ballasting, defects should be touched up to avoid severe pitting caused by cathodic
effect of SS fittings in the tank due to temperature of water and chloride content in it.

Zinc silicate coatings for cargo tanks

 Zinc coatings are next best to epoxy coatings. Most zinc coatings are difficult to clean to a
high standard because they tend to hold or trap previous cargo. The coating maker’s
recommendations have to be followed for cleaning. 

 Using caustic soap mixtures or caustic acid for cleaning can damage the coating and even
complicate the entire cleaning operation.

 Zinc coating cleaning depends not only on the last cargo carried but other factors such as
the age and condition of the coating (blistering, areas of open rust).

 The porous nature of dark coloured liquids, high melting point and viscous slops make it
difficult for cleaning.

 Certain coatings have governmental approval for edible oils; pH-limitations have to be
checked in such cases.

 Long time exposure to sea water is not advisable for zinc silicates because it will unduly
reduce its life span. 

 A thorough cleaning is recommended in zinc silicate coated tanks after carrying molasses
because sour cargo may damage the coating by remaining in the tank bottom.

Resin coating

 Phenolic resins were introduced relatively recently as a tank coating on a chemical tanker.
Their resistance applies wide which includes some strong solvents which are not tolerated
by the epoxy. Almost all the products that can be loaded in zinc silicate coated tanks can
be loaded in phenolic resin coated tanks.

 Having a fair resistance to weak acids and alkalis, polyester coatings have poor resistance
against solvents. They are not widely used on board chemical tankers.
Maintenance of tank coatings

 The most important aspect in maintaining these coatings is not to allow contact with
incompatible cargoes. The makers’ recommendations must be checked always. Coatings
have limitations with regard to maximum temperature, pH values, maximum storage time
and they should be adhered to. Epoxy coatings should be allowed to harden if found soft. 

 Coating epoxy on top of a previous old coating is generally not worthwhile.

 If a patch of coating is to be applied, the area should be ground with a rotating grinder
with grain 80-120 until reaching a bright steel finish with the edges smoothened. A proper
film thickness of 200 to 300 microns is achieved by applying 1 or 2 coats of primer plus
and 3 or 4 final coats. To avoid condensation on the surface, the tank wall can be heated
from behind. Preferably, the tank wall should be warmer than the tank atmosphere.

Pumps and Eductors

Oil Tanker - Cargo Pumps

Cargo oil pumps

The cargo oil pump (COP) is a

single stage or multi stage centrifugal pump driven by steam turbine or electric motor drive; the
prime mover’s coupling shaft is separated by the pump room bulkhead through a shaft sealing.
There may be many pumps for cargo discharge in a pump room. The pipe lines of the cargo
discharge pumps are inter connected. 

Standard practice for operating centrifugal cargo oil pumps

  The cargo pumps are centrifugal type pumps. As a recommended practice they are
operated at their rated or nominal speed (rpm) during discharge of liquid cargoes. The
efficiency and pumping rate of the pumps decrease with the reduction of speed below the
nominal speed.

 At low levels of the cargo tank, it is recommended to control the pump by partially closing
the butterfly discharge valve rather than reducing the pump speed for reducing the flow
rate (during topping up etc.); this is done to prevent cavitation damage to the pump’s
impeller through the pump sucking gas instead of liquid, or the formation of vortex.
Cavitation is one of the causes of pump vibrations.

 When the butterfly discharge valve is open fifty percent it will allow approximately the
same flow rate as when the valve is fully open.

 In the cargo control

room, a cargo officer must be present at all times to note the discharge pressure and
speed of the pump and to control or shut off the pumps when needed.

Caution note – The inert gas plant should be in operation during the discharging operation and
there should be continuous monitoring of O2 level. 

Different types of pumps for cargo operations

Centrifugal pumps:
Centrifugal pumps are extensively used for pumping cargo because the characteristics are found
to be most suitable. The centrifugal pumps are also referred to as hydro-dynamic pumps.
The pump consists of an impeller and a casing around it. The impeller is made to spin at a high
speed imparting kinetic energy to the liquid which then will be converted into pressure energy by
the design of the casing. 

One must remember that a centrifugal pump does not create suction but only pushes the liquid
that reaches the pump and build up pressure on the delivery side. They are most suitable for
high rates of discharge and require a back pressure to normally function.

The liquid to be pumped is directed to the suction side of the pump and allowed to enter the
pump through the eye of the impeller. The liquid is made to reach the pump either by gravity or
by the use of a separate priming pump. 

Once the pump is started, the impeller swirls the liquid inside and centrifugal force causes it to
move outward away from the centre. The impeller is designed with backward curving vanes and
the rotation gives the liquid a combination of circular and radial movement.

The shape of the volute casing is such that the section between the impeller and the casing
increases gradually towards the delivery line acting as a diffuser. This design converts the kinetic
energy into pressure energy and sealing is achieved by use of gland packing and mechanical
sealing.

Positive displacement pumps

Positive displacement pumps are found on oil tankers for stripping purpose. There are two main
types of positive displacement pumps:

 Reciprocating type

 Rotary type

Unlike the centrifugal pumps, the positive displacement pumps give a steady rate of flow for a
given speed of operation irrespective of the discharge pressure. A positive displacement pump
should never be operated with the discharge valve closed because it will continue to pump liquid
towards the discharge side resulting in severe damage to the pump and the line.

For this reason, a safety relief valve, either internal or external, becomes absolutely necessary
on the discharge side. An internal valve should be regarded as a safety precaution and it is
recommended to have an external relief valve with a return line back to the suction side.

The most common type of stripping pump on oil tankers is the reciprocating steam driven
positive displacement pump used for stripping cargo tanks and draining cargo pumps; the
pipelines are the final stage of discharging operations.  

Reciprocating pump
A reciprocating pump uses a piston in a cylinder to create a suction and discharge effect to
discharge oil. These are used primarily for stripping (removing the last remnants of oil). The
piston in this pump moves forwards and backwards (reciprocates), creating a suction and
discharge effect. 

A suction effect is created when there is a decrease in pressure (when the piston moves away
from the suction valve), while a discharge effect is created when there is an increase in pressure
(when the piston moves towards the discharge valve).

There are two types of reciprocating pumps, single action (only one suction and discharge cycle
for each piston cycle) or double action (two suction and discharge cycles for each piston cycle).
 These pumps are normally steam driven and
are positive displacement pumps (A Positive Displacement Pump has an expanding cavity on the
suction side and a decreasing cavity on the discharge side. Liquid flows into the pumps as the
cavity on the suction side expands and the liquid flows out of the discharge as the cavity
collapses. The volume is a constant given each cycle of operation).

Reciprocating pump

Vacuum strip system

The vacuum strip system was developed on oil tankers to be used along with the centrifugal
pumps to overcome certain limitations of the centrifugal pump.

Centrifugal pumps work efficiently when there is a good level of liquid in the tank providing the
necessary head on the suction side. But as the liquid level falls in the tank, the head also
reduces and at a certain stage, it brings down the pressure on the suction side so low that the
boiling point of the liquid falls to the present liquid temperature.

This causes the liquid to boil and form vapour bubbles which eventually enter into the pump.
These vapour bubbles collide with the impeller and the casing of the pump at very high speeds
causing damage to the surface of the impeller and casing.

When this happens, a very loud noise is produced from the pump as if a load of sand particles
has entered into the pump and is called cavitation.

If the operator is careless to cause cavitation too often, then in a long term, the smooth surface
of impeller and the casing will become rough with pitting, reducing the efficiency of the pump
considerably. 

The vacuum strip system helps to operate the centrifugal pump even with low levels of liquid in
the tank and without causing cavitation damage. A tall chamber is installed on the suction side
of the pump also known as separator. 

The liquid level is maintained at a positive head inside the separator by the use of a vacuum
pump located at the top of the pump room. Hence the pump gets a positive head on the suction
side even though the level of liquid in the tank is low.

The vacuum pump is made to start and stop by receiving signals from level sensors located in
the separator. While this helps to maintain the liquid level inside the separator, the discharge
valve, which is also made automatic, opens and closes according to the level of liquid in the
separator. 

All of these components of the vacuum strip system when in working order can easily bring
down the liquid in the tank to stripping level without the need for a person to throttle and watch
over the pump continuously. On double hull ships, the suction wells below the bell mouth makes
it even more effective by almost emptying the tank.

Cargo pump temperature monitoring

it is ideal that temperature sensors should be fitted to the main cargo pumps such that the
temperature of casing, bulkhead seals and bearings can be read remotely.

Local trips for cargo pumps

Manual trip activation for the main cargo pumps must be available at the bottom level of the
pump room. 

Eductors
On tankers, the eductor is used for stripping oil or water from the tank, lines and pumps. It is
used to continuously recover the washed oil from the tanks during crude oil washing. The cargo
pump is used to supply the drive liquid for the eductor to function. Normally, the discharge from
the eductor leads to one of the slop tanks.

Whenever a liquid is pressurised using a pump and then directed through a nozzle on the drive
end of the eductor, a low pressure is created at the suction end. The liquid suffers a low
pressure and high velocity at the throat further improving the suction. The velocity again slowly
decreases and the pressure increases in the diffuser. This explains the flared shape of the
eductor.

Advantages of using an eductor

 It is almost completely maintenance free since it has no moving parts.

 Very minimum preparations are required before using it being a very simple system.

 It can strip crude oil of high vapor pressure with very good performance. 

Disadvantages of using an eductor

 The eductors use has limitations during the discharge of multiple grades of oil. The drive
liquid and the stripped cargo cannot be of different grades.
  The slop tank accumulates more sediment sludge.

 Sometimes, very high vibrations are experienced, even leading

to damage of gauges and pipes in rare cases.

Chemical Tanker - Cargo Pumps

Normally, one will find chemical tankers fitted with one cargo pump in each tank and a separate
line running from the pump discharge right up to the manifold. This arrangement is to avoid the
risk of mixing or contamination of different cargoes.

The cargo pumps are the submersible type and usually made of stainless steel.

The submersible pumps are located at the aft end of each tank so that efficient stripping can be
done.

Deep well pumps

This is the most common type of cargo pump found on chemical tankers. The impeller is located
at the bottom of the cargo tank and driven by a drive shaft and electric motor. 
The liquid is discharged through the shaft vertically upwards to deck. Up to three impellers are
sometimes used and then they are called multi stage deep well pumps. The discharge valve and
the motor can be controlled from the cargo control room.

Framo pumps
Framo pumps are located inside the cargo tank designed as a vertical centrifugal pump. The
pump is driven by hydraulic pressure motor which helps to eliminate electric hazards. The
hydraulic pressure is generated by hydraulic power unit which is located on the deck or in a
pump room. 

Cargoes such as phenol, palm fatty acid distillates, lauric and stearic acid, have high melting
points and tend to form lumps inside the cargo tank. Hence, it is recommended that the cargo
pump should be turned at regular intervals during the voyage and before the discharging begins.
This will help to avoid surprises in the last minute at discharge port. The lines used for
loading/discharging such cargoes should be blown back.

Cargo heating System

Following processes explained:

 In crude oil carrier the purpose of heating, tank heating arrangement , oil temperature
required, heating coil arrangement, coil material.

 In product carrier the recommended international code of practice on tank heating

arrangement, temperature control, heating procedure in port.

 Ship staff responsibility in respect of cargo oil heating monitoring and cargo oil heating
planning.

Crude Oil Carrier

Purpose of heating
The optimum temperature to which the cargo should be heated is largely dependent upon the
pour point, cloud point, total wax content and the viscosity of the cargo. Furthermore, it may be
necessary to heat the cargo required for Crude Oil Washing to a higher temperature than bulk
cargo. Heavy fractions, such as fuel oil become very thick and sluggish when cold, and in order
that such oils can be loaded and discharged without delay, it is necessary to keep them heated.

Today the oil trade is so vast and wide spread, that the average oil tanker may be trading in the
tropics one voyage, and in Arctic conditions the next. It is therefore, necessary that cargo
heating systems be designed to cope with extreme conditions.
The ambient weather and sea conditions also influence the heating requirements. Due to the fact
that a loaded tanker has comparatively little freeboard, the temperature of the sea water
through which the vessel is passing is of major significance. Cold water washing around the
ship’s side and bottom, and across the decks, rapidly reduce the temperature of the cargo and
makes the task of heating it much harder. Warm sea water, however, has the reverse effect,
and can be very useful in helping to maintain the temperature of the cargo with a minimum of
steam.

Heating arrangement
Steam is used to heat the oil in ships tank. It is piped from the boilers along the length of the
vessel’s deck. Generally, the catwalk is used for this purpose, the main cargo heating steam and
exhaust pipes being secured to either the vertical or horizontal girder work immediately below
the foot treads. At intervals, manifolds are arranged from which the steam for the individual
cargo tank is drawn. Each tank has its own steam and exhaust valves, which enables the steam
to be shut off or reduced on any of the tanks at will. Generally the main steam lines are well
lagged, but obviously it would not be a practical proposition to lag the individual lines leading
from the manifold to the cargo tanks.

The heating arrangements in the actual cargo tanks consist of a system of coils which are spread
over the bottom of the tank at a distance of six to eighteen inches from the bottom plating. In
wing tanks, it is the usual practice to extend the coil system as far as the turn of the bilge but
not up the ship’s side.

When it becomes necessary to heat the cargo, the steam is turned on the individual tanks. The
coils in the bottom of the tanks become hot, heating the oil in the immediate vicinity. The warm
oil rises slowly and is replaced by colder oil, thus setting up a gradual circulation system in each
tank.

The wing tanks insulate the centre tanks on both sides, while they are subject themselves to the
cooling action of the sea not only through the bottom plating, but through the ship’s side. It is,
therefore, advisable to set the steam valves so that the wing tanks obtain a larger share of the
steam vessels, where the coils are passed through the longitudinal bulkheads between the
centre and wing tanks.

Oil temperature
Heavy fuel oils are generally required to be kept at a temperature ranging between 50deg C, and
58deg C. Within this temperature range, they are easy to handle. Lubricating oils of which the
heavier types require heating, are always the subject of special instructions as they vary widely
in quality, gravity and viscosity. Some types of Heavy Gas Oil have very high pour points, and it
is necessary to keep the cargo well heated to avoid it going solid. Provided the temperature of
this type of oil is twenty to thirty degrees above its pour point, it offers no difficulty when
loading or discharging though a wax skin will form on the sides and bottom of the ship.

Some crude oils which contain paraffin wax or have high-pour points are also heated when
transported by sea. The main reason for this is to stop excessive deposits of wax forming on
cooling surfaces. The heating requirements for such cargoes varies considerably. Waxy crudes
with pour points over 38deg. C may require heating to 45deg.C to 55deg.C .

Bitumen cannot normally be carried in ordinary ships, as it requires more heat compared to the
normal cargo system. For this reason, bitumen ships are generally designed so that the cargo
tanks are insulated by wing tanks which are reserved for ballast, and by double bottom under
the cargo tanks. This coupled with extra coils, arranged on platforms at different levels, helps to
keep the bitumen heated.

Economical heating
Heating of fuel oil and certain crude oil cargoes is normally only required to ensure suitable
viscosity. When loading part cargo which has to be heated, the centre tanks should preferably be
used in order to reduce heat loss to the sea. The cargo should be so placed that as few tanks as
possible are slack.

Heating of cargo is an operation common to the deck and engine departments. Careful plans
shall be made to ensure that the heating procedure and control of heating is arranged in the
most practical and economical manner. For all heated cargoes, temperatures shall be checked
throughout the voyage and a record made thereof in the temperature book. On those voyages
where heating of cargo is required, the charter party will contain provisions about the extent to
which heating is to be undertaken.

The nature of the cargo and the weather conditions on the voyage may be such that the
temperature with advantage can be reduced to the minimum allowed for the particular cargo. At
a suitable time before the arrival at the port of discharge steps shall be taken to begin raising
the temperature to that required for discharge. The aforesaid procedure must not be used,
however, except by arrangement with the company.
To supplement the heating instructions, the master shall on arrival at the loading port try to
obtain directions (if possible in writing) from the shippers about heating of the cargo. Such
directions should indicate the minimum temperature to which the cargo may be allowed to fall
on the voyage. The directions shall be communicated verbatim to the company which in return
will inform the master whether or not the cargo temperature may be allowed to drop on the
voyage to the minimum indicated.

It is of essential importance to the economical result of the voyage that heating in accordance
with charterer’s/shipper’s instructions/directions is carried out with the lowest consumption of
bunkers.

Heating Coils and water separator

When steam is admitted to heating coils, the admission shall commence at a slow rate to avoid
shocks in the pipelines and consequent risk of bursting of packings and pipes.

Heating coils are divided up in several sections in each tank, and in each section is provided with
a water separator and an inlet and outlet valve. When a heating coil section is in use, both inlet
and outlet valves shall be fully open so that the water separator governs the flow of steam in the
heating coil section. Adjustment of cargo temperature is carried out by opening/closing one or
more sections. In order to utilize the heating surface to the full and thereby achieve a fair
economy during cargo heating, it is important that the water separator functions correctly, and
care must therefore be taken to ensure that the valve and the filter incorporated in the water
separator are clean.

Steam drains
As soon as the steam has been supplied to a section of heating coils and before the return water
is passed to the observation tank, the return water must be examined by opening the test cocks
on deck. If any oil is found in the water, steps must at once be taken to ensure that such oil , as
far as possible, is not transferred to the observation tank, and oily return water must not in any
circumstance be fed to the boilers.

Coil material
Heating coils in both product carriers & tankers can interact with the products being transported.
In ships carrying heavy lubricating oils which require heating, the coils are generally ordinary
steel pipe, but vessels carrying crude oils which have to be heated, are now equipped with cast
iron or alloy coils. The reason for this is that the heating surfaces are subjected to excessive
corrosion from the lighter fractions in the crude, and ordinary steel pipe does not stand up to the
corrosive action so well as the other materials mentioned. Copper based heating coils in crude oil
tankers need special attention to prevent excessive tank to pitting or other galvanic corrosion
problems.

Product Carrier
The following is the recommended International code of practice for the storage and transport of
all crude or processed edible fats and oils in bulk.

Tank Materials

 All materials used in the construction of tanks and for ancillary equipment including
heating facilities should be inert to oils and fats, and should be suitable for use in contact
with food.

 Stainless steel is the most preferred metal for the construction of tanks. It is particularly
recommended for the storage and transport of fully refined oils and fats. Tanks of mild
steel should preferably be coated with an inert material on the inside, for example
phenolic epoxy resins. Their suitability for contact with foodstuffs, particularly oils and
fats, should be obtained from coating manufacturers. Zinc silicate coatings for mild steel
tanks are also suitable, but it should be noted that deterioration of the oil can take place if
used with crude oils and fats with high acid values.

 Copper and its alloys such as brass, bronze or gun metal should not be used in the
construction of the storage installation or in a ship or road/rail tanker used for transport
that has contact with the oils or fats such as piping, pipe connections, seals, valves,
heating coils, strainers, pumps, temperature gauges or in sampling apparatus.
Temperature gauges containing mercury should not be used.

Note:
Stainless steel heating coils in product tankers carrying naphtha require special attention in the
new building and commissioning stage to ensure that the surfaces are in good condition and are
correctly passivated using suitable chemical treatment before the vessel enters service.

Heating arrangement
Heating coils should be of stainless steel construction. Heating coils constructed from alloys
containing copper are not suitable. Use of means of heating should be by design, construction
and procedures, such as to avoid contamination and damage to the oil.
Suitable means of heating are as follows:
  Bare Hot Water Pipes - Heating by hot water (about 80°C) circulated through coils is the
best procedure because it is least likely to cause local overheating. Coils should be self
draining or mechanical or vacuum pump draining.

 Bare Steam Pipes - Heating by steam with pressure up to 150 kPa (1.5 bars) gauge
(temperature of 127°C) can also be used. Coils should be self draining or mechanical or
vacuum pump draining.

Temperature control
All ships and storage tanks with heating facilities should be equipped with temperature sensors
and control devices to prevent overheating of oil in the tank and associated lines. Thermometers
must be carefully sited and away from heating coils. It is useful to have automatic recording
type thermometers to provide records of temperature control. The recorder should be installed in
a conspicuous location such as the supervisor's office or the ship's operations room.

Steam tracing
In temperate and cold climates, pipelines used for oils and fats which may solidify at ambient
temperatures should preferably be lagged and also provided with heating, for example by steam
tracing lines or electrical heating tape. When clearing pipelines in such climates, steam may be
used.

Heating procedure in port

While loading and unloading before transfer, solid, semi-solid and high viscosity oils and fats in
storage tanks, shore tanks, ship tanks and subsequent means of transport should be heated
slowly so that they are liquid and completely homogeneous. Heating should start at a time
calculated to give the required pumping temperature without ever exceeding the maximum rate
of 5°C over a 24 hour period. If steam is used, the steam pressure should not exceed 150 kPa
(1.5 bars) gauge to prevent localised over-heating. The coils should be covered completely
before heating of the tank begins. To prevent excessive crystallisation and solidification during
short-term storage and shipping, oil in bulk tanks should be maintained within the specified
temperature ranges. The temperatures apply to both crude and refined oils in each grade.

The temperatures are chosen to minimise damage to the oil or fat. Heating can be limited to the
extent requested by receiver, or to those few cargoes, which are not “pumpable” in cold. In
newly found design on heating by means of deck mounted heat exchangers and forced
circulation by Framo (pdf) submerged cargo pumps such problems have been avoided.

Maintenance
Regular maintenance checks should be made, preferably as part of a properly planned
maintenance programme. They should include functioning of steam pressure regulation valves;
all steam supply valves and steam traps for leakage; thermometers, thermostats, recording
thermometers, weighing equipment and any gauge meters for function and accuracy; all pumps
regulated by thermostat for leakage; integrity of tank coatings; hoses (internal and external)
and condition of tanks and ancillary equipment.

Shipstaff responsibility
Cargo oil heating monitoring
Heating of tanks properly according to the Charterer’s instructions, if any.

 The Chief Officer is responsible for monitoring the temperatures and will liaise with the
Chief Engineer for the operation of the cargo heating system.

 The Chief Engineer is responsible for the correct operation and adjustment / maintenance
of the cargo heating system.

 The boiler cascade tank shall be monitored regularly and alarms where fitted should be in
good operational condition.

 Chief Engineer also should consider extra fuel consumption for heating cargo.

Cargo oil heating Plan

 Prepare a suitable heating plan & maintain/monitor heating record

 Consider the following factors when preparing the heating plan:

 Adjacent Cargo / Ballast tank temperatures and condition (loaded/empty).

 Ambient air temperature, sea condition & spray on deck, causing cooling effect on heated
cargoes

 Condition & technical limitations of steam coils / lines with respect to: 

 Steam trap blockages

 Limitation of machinery & equipment design

 Selection of first discharging tanks

 Adjustment of steam valves based on daily cargo tank temperature record

 Steam main line pressure and the number / degree of opening of steam valve to cargo
tanks (recorded in “Heating Record”). 

 Additionally when high cargo temperatures are to be attained:

 Design & structural limitations and capability of cargo steam heating system
  In case of vapor segregation, rapid rise in temperature could lead to high inert gas/vapor
pressure build up inside tanks (Limitation – IN PORT)

Note: Inform the company / operator promptly in case of such temperature discrepancy.

Inert Gas System

An inert gas system is required to be fitted on crude oil tankers of above 20,000 tonnes
deadweight. The inert (not chemically reactive) gas system delivers inert gas to the vessel’s
cargo tanks and serves two purposes which are:

 Reducing the fire and explosion risk in the cargo tank

 Inhibiting corrosion in the cargo tank (as rust forms in the presence of Oxygen) 

Inert gas on a tanker is normally produced by processing flue gas wastes from boiler uptakes. It
could also be produced by means of an inert gas generator that burns gas oil to generate the
gas. 

The flue gas from the sources mentioned above is then delivered to a scrubber through an
isolating valve. 

In the scrubber the gas is cooled and cleaned (sulphur dioxide and particulate soot removed)
using seawater. The scrubber has a demister unit whose function is to remove water droplets
from the cooled & cleaned gas.

The gas is then delivered to the cargo tanks through blowers. A gas pressure regulating valve is
fitted after the blowers to regulate the flow of gases to the cargo tanks. The deck water seal, is
the non-return valve that prevents back flow of gas delivered. 

A liquid-filled pressure vacuum breaker is fitted to prevent excessive pressure or vacuum from
causing structural damage to the cargo tanks. It releases gas when there is excess pressure or
takes in air when there is a vacuum created because of deficient pressure.

A vent provided for between the gas pressure regulating valve and the deck water seal is to vent
any leakage of gas when the IG plant is shut down.

The inert gas is delivered to the cargo tanks by an inert gas deck main line. This line runs from
forward of the deck mechanical non-return valve and the isolating valve (both these valves are
mandatory SOLAS requirements) for the length of the cargo deck. From this main line, inert gas
branch lines lead to the top of each cargo tank to deliver the gas. 

The inert gas system is used during cargo discharge, de-ballasting, tank cleaning and for topping
up gas pressure as and when required during the voyage.

Schematic
Diagram of inert gas plant
Inert gas system
The purpose of the inert gas system plant is to prevent unforeseen fire and explosion by filling
the cargo oil tank with a gas of sufficient low oxygen content.

Crude oil and fractions of crude oil always contain volatile elements, and these will evaporate
from the cargo oil surface, to form explosive gas air mixtures in the ullage space.

There are two elements to take place a fire or explosion of these air mixtures, and one of them
is in the condition that the gas / air mixture is within the explosive range and the others is
presence of flame or a spark of sufficient energy and temperature.

At only one case of raising these two elements simultaneously, a fire or explosion takes place. It
is inert gas system to eliminate a fire or explosion by replacing the oxygen rich air in ‘ullage’
with inert gas.

Composion of inert gas:

Design specification on the assumption that boiler exhaust gas having the following composition
is supplied:

 Carbon di oxide : 12 – 14 %

 Oxygen : 2 – 4 %

 SO2 : 0.3 – 0.5 %

 Nitrogen : remainder.

 Water vapour : 5 %

 Solid particles : 250 mg / Nm3

The flue gas are allowed to pass through the scrubber at inlet temperature 400°C and are
designed to be inert gas having the following composition: 

 Carbon di oxide : 12 – 14 %

 Oxygen : 2 – 4 %

 SO2 : 0.03 %

 Nitrogen : remainder.0

 Water vapour : saturated condition

 Solid particles : 8 mg / Nm3

 Water : 0.125 % weight (max)

Source:

 The ‘true’ inert gases, i.e., helium, argon, krypton, neon etc. are ruled out due to high
cost.

 The ‘semi-inert’ gases i.e., CO2 and nitrogen are also expensive. Nitrogen is employed
with certain cargo types. The main disadvantage of CO2 is that it generates intense
electrostatic field in the cargo space. CO2 when dissolved in water produce weak acid.

 Product of combustion of fuels from following sources :-

 Internal combustion engines – The combustion gasses from such engines contains high
excessive CO2 and are not suitable.

 Boiler.

 Inert gas generators burning heavy fuel oil or diesel fuel oil.

 So, production of inert gas using the products of combustion from boiler and inert gas
generator are only used.

Advantages / Disadvantages: 

 No explosive mixtures can form in the tank.

 Reduces corrosion.

 Voyage cleaning of tanks is unnecessary.

 Reduces pumping time because of positive pressure in the tanks at all times.

Cargo Measurement Systems

The purpose of cargo measurement is to verify the quantity said to have been loaded in the
tanks from shore and the quantity of free water upon completion of loading. However the bill of
lading is made based on the quantity of cargo measured from shore tanks.

The measurements of shore tank are normally witnessed by a petroleum inspector who is
independent. Sometimes a loss control auditor may be present employed by the shipper and
occasionally the cargo insurer too sends a representative. It is obvious that different parties will
benefit by manipulating the quantity of cargo, any gross exaggeration can be easily detected.

Manipulation can be done either way by choosing the next lower or higher degree of
temperature and also by choosing to read the next lower or higher mark when the reading falls
between two graduations.
If this practice is applied consistently, a significant net gain can be produced without violating
any law or contract.

Numerous studies on petroleum loss control have shown that most of the cargo losses in transit
were not actually losses but inaccuracies in calculation of quantity. 

The Ship’s Officer needs to be well versed with the calculations involved in quantifying the cargo
onboard. The volume of cargo in the ship’s tanks is determined by measuring the ullage. Ullage
is the vertical distance from the surface of liquid to a fixed datum point in the tank top or the
ullage pipe.

Even though it is not difficult, close attention is necessary when measuring ullage since it can
result in inaccuracies. Normally inaccuracy in ullage can result because of one of the following
reasons:

 Measuring technique improper

 Worn-out or non-standard equipment for measuring

 Accuracy in ullage and temperature insufficient

Many inaccuracies are likely during measurement. The ship itself is floating on water and there is
liquid cargo in the tanks. It results in motion of the surface of the cargo during measurement.
The datum point for ullage may be eroded due to years of service.

An old ullaging tape may be elongated or the eye connecting the bob may be worn out
increasing the overall length. Bad weather or darkness can increase the inaccuracies if observed
by tired or inexperienced crew. 

Appropriate steps must be taken to minimize these inaccuracies so that the ship’s figure of cargo
quantity correlates with the shore figures.

Ullage measurement
Measurement of cargo quantity on board tanker ships is a necessity as part of the operations.
The obtained quantity must be accurate because inaccurate measurement can lead to
discrepancies between interested parties and also pose a threat to the marine environment.
Cargo measurement is important not only at the start and end of a loading/discharging
operation but also to continuously monitor the progress and to prevent overflowing.
There are many different methods of ullaging a cargo tank. Let us discuss some of the
commonly found devices. 

Float gauges
It is a very simple type of ullaging device and widely used on tankers. It consists of a float which
is suspended inside the tank by tape. The float always remains at the liquid surface and the
length of tape inside the tank indicates the ullage. The ullage can be read locally on the device
or remotely from the cargo control room. Isolation valve is fitted below the device so that
maintenance can be carried out on the float and tape mechanism on top. 

Radar gauges
This method of ullaging uses the principle of the radar. Most modern tankers nowadays use this
type of ullaging owing to its reliability and accuracy. Very high frequencies in the range of 11
GHz are used. The location of the transmitter is important for accurate results.

A few advantages of using the radar gauge as follows:

 Highly accurate and reliable

 Limited moving parts

  Radar waves are unaffected by the
atmosphere in the tank.

Ultrasonic gauge
  
The working principle of the ultra sonic gauges closely resembles that of the echo sounder. They
are normally designed to measure the ullage of a tank but can also be used to measure the
sounding. The receiver is accordingly located either at the tank top or the tank bottom. This type
of ullaging is not very reliable compared to some other methods. Variation in temperature and
pressure can influence the accuracy of measurement.  

UTI indicators

      
This is a portable device and is widely used on crude oil tankers. As the name suggests, this
device can measure ullage, temperature and interface all at once. It is useful especially during
the final stages of a loading operation when topping up the tanks. It is an electronic instrument
mounted on the tank top. A sensor is lowered into the tank by a graduated tape. The sensor
activates a beep sound when in contact with oil and another distinct beep when in contact with
water. The ullage can be read from the graduations on the tape.

Conversion Factors

To convert from: To: Multiply by:

(Numbers in boldface
type are exact values.)
barrels cubic feet 5.614583
barrels cubic meters 0.15898729
barrels gallons (U.S.) 42
barrels liters 158.98284
Bars psi 14.5
centimeters Inches 0.39370079
centimeters meters 0.01
centimeters millimeters 10
cubic feet barrels 0.1781076
cubic feet cubic inches 1,728
cubic feet cubic meters 0.028316847
cubic feet gallons (U.S.) 7.4805195
cubic inches cubic centimeters 16.387064
cubic meters barrels 6.289811
cubic meters cubic centimeters 1,000,000
cubic meters cubic feet 35.314667
cubic meters cubic inches 61,023.74
cubic meters gallons (U.S.) 264.17205
cubic meters liters 999.972
fathoms feet 6
fathoms meters 1.8288
feet centimeters 30.48
feet fathoms 0.166667
feet inches 12
feet meters 0.3048
gallons (U.S.) cubic inches 231
gallons (U.S.) liters 3.785306
inches centimeters 2.54
inches millimeters 25.4
 inches of water (4°C) kg/cm2 0.002539927
inches of water millimeters of water 25.4
inches of water (4°C) psi 0.03612625
kilograms pounds (avdp) 2.2046226
kilograms tons (metric) 0.001
2
kg/cm inches of water (4°C) 393.7122
kg/cm2 millimeters of water (4°C) 10,000.28
2
kg/cm psi 14.223343
liters cubic centimeters 1,000.028
liters cubic inches 61.02545
liters cubic meters 0.001000028
liters gallons (U.S.) 0.2641794
meters centimeters 100
meters fathoms 0.54680665
meters feet 3.2808399
meters inches 39.370079
meters millimeters 1,000
millimeters inches 0.039370079
millimeters of water (4°C) kg/cm2 0.00009999709
millimeters of water inches of water 0.039370079
millimeters of water (4°C) psi 0.001422293
pounds (avdp) kilograms 0.45359237
psi inches of water (4°C) 27.6807
psi kg/cm2 0.070306958
psi millimeters of water (4°C) 703.089
tons (long) kilograms 1,016.0469
tons (long) pounds (avdp) 2,240
tons (long) tons (metric) 1.1060469
tons (metric) kilograms 1,000
tons (metric) pounds (avdp) 2,204.6226
tons (metric) tons (long) 0.98420653
Physical and chemical properties of oil and chemicals

Specific Learning Objectives

After going through this topic, student should be able to,

 Describe different types of oils to be transported

 Explain the physical properties of oil and chemicals that are important for cargo carrying
on tank ship
  Explain the chemical properties of oil and chemicals that are important  for cargo carrying
on tank ships

 Explain the possible generation of Electrostatic charge

Introduction
Bulk transportation of oil and chemical on tank ships is the best economical way to transport
such cargoes. But while carrying a massive amount of dangerous liquids as cargo in ship's tank,
they exhibit a number of physical and chemical behavior, based on their individual
characteristics. Most oils gassify and create a vapor pressure on top of the tank. They also get
viscous with drop in temperature. The emitted cargo vapor could be toxic and poisonous. Some
cargoes get contaminated if the tanks have not been prepared correctly before filling up with
new cargo. There are many issues that arise from their density, vapor pressure, toxicity, pour
point and such other properties. It will be important for you to study the oil and chemical
properties to get the basic idea of the nature of the cargo and how perhaps to carry them on
board and transport them safely across the sea.

Classification of Oil cargoes:

Crude Oil
Raw crude oil is pumped directly into a ship’s cargo tank. It varies widely in chemical
composition, sulphur, and water content. Depending on its chemical composition, the prevailing
components of crude oil are naphthenic, paraffinic, or aromatic hydrocarbons. Crude oils
are carried in bare steel tanks and tanks coated with epoxy coal tar or epoxy paints.

White Oil
This group of liquid cargoes consists mainly of aliphatic hydrocarbon products and includes
gasoline, diesel oils, kerosene, virgin stock, aviation fuels, heating oils, etc. These cargoes are
not very aggressive, and they usually are shipped in conventional epoxy coated tanks. However,
some unleaded gasolines may require a modified epoxy or zinc silicate coating system.

Solvents and Chemicals

This complex group of liquid cargoes includes alcohols, ketones, glycols, esters, ethers,
aromatic hydrocarbons, chlorinated hydrocarbons, etc. These cargoes vary from mild to very
aggressive. They are shipped in tanks coated with epoxy, modified epoxy, and zinc silicate.
Some of these products require extreme care in the choice of coating and cargo handling.

Vegetable and Animal Oils

Vegetable and animal oils may vary in composition. The most important factor is their free
fatty acid content, which greatly affects the suitability of coatings. Refined vegetable oils with
low acid value are usually acceptable for carriage in conventional epoxy-coated tanks. Those
with a higher acid value are more aggressive and may require a more resistant coating system.
Crude vegetable oils, fatty acids, and by-products (fatty acid distillates and acid oils) may pose
serious problems for carriage in coated tanks. Water content and loading/unloading
temperatures can make these cargoes even more aggressive.

Lube Oils and Additives

This group of cargoes (excluding halogenated, phosphated, and ester types) usually poses no
problems for carriage in coated cargo tanks, but contamination of cargo may be a problem,
requiring thorough cleaning and drying of tanks before loading. These products usually can be
carried in tanks coated with conventional epoxy

Physical Properties

The physical properties are most commonly used in petroleum are as under:

 Density

 Specific gravity

 Volume

 Viscosity

 Refractive index

 Fluoresence

 Optical activity

 Colour

 Odour

 Boiling point

Specific Gravity

 Specific gravity of oil generally lies in between 0.73 and very slightly above 1.0

 The gravity was formerly expressed in degrees of the European Beaumé scale read
directly hydrometer this means the degree goes up as the density goes down. The high
gravity is not a heavy oil.

 The value of API Gravity is high correspond to low Specific Gravity.

  And the low API Gravity value correspond to High Specific Gravity.
Between oils in the same reservoir rocks but in separate traps.
And between oils within the same reservoir rocks but different structural position. 

 The most favorite grade of crude oil is about 37° API, equivalent to a relative density of
0.84.

 Very light crude above 40° API, occur in large quantity in Algeria, south eastern Australia
and in some Indonesian and Andean fields.

 Very heavy crudes dominant production from California, Mexico,Venezuela and Sicily.

Gravity of Crude oil at different temperature

Gravity at 60 °F change in gravity for each 1°F change in T.

Specific gravity API Specific gravity

0.90 25.7 0.00036
0.80 45.4 0.00039
0.70 70.6 0.00049
 
Colors

 Paraffinic oils are light color: Yellow to Brown by transmitted light.

 Asphalt-base oils are commonly brown to black; many of them are known as “Black oils”.
Color is commonly determined with the Saybolt Colorimeter.

Refractive Index

 Absolute refractive index (RI) of a substance is the inverse ratio of the speed of light.

 The range of refractive indices for petroleum is from 1.42 to 1.48.

 The lower indices are the lighter oils. The refractive index is dependent on the density of
the oils, the heavy (lower API Gravity) oils have the higher indices.

Refractive Indices of Representative Oils

Refractive
API Degrees Density
Index
6 1.029 1.566
32 0.918 1.509
44 0.802 1.448
58 0.742 1.417
72 0.691 1.390
Fluorescence

 The all oils show more or less fluorescence. The aromatic oils being the most fluorescent.
The fluorescent colors of crude oils range from Yellow through Green to Blue.

 Fluorescence is observed under ultraviolet radiation that most generally used for
Petroleum having wavelengths of 2,537 and 3,650 angstrom unit.

Odor

 Due to the light hydrocarbons some oils is agreeable like gasoline odor.

 Aromatics impart pleasant odors.

 Oils containing sulfur and certain nitrogen compounds usually a disagreeable odor.

Viscosity

 Viscosity is the internal friction of fluid causing it is resistant put change of form.(viscosity
is conventionally defied by the Greek letter eta, η).

 It is the ratio of stress to shear per unit time. Shear with liquid is not a constant but is
proportional to time viscosity is defined by the ratio, force*distance / area*velocity

 The CGS unit of viscosity is the poise which is too larger unit of practical purpose in the oil
industry. Viscosity of oil are therefore conventionally measured in centipoises.

 Such a unit is a saybolt universal second(SUS):

SUS = viscosity in centipoises*4.635 / relative density

 Hydrocarbons having viscosity higher then 10,000 mPa are now to be called natural tar.

 A useful indicator of the viscosity of a crude oil is it pour point. This is the lowest
temperature at which the crude will flow under described controlling conditions. pour point
is above 40 degree(more than 100 F) a relatively common among crudes having highest
contents of paraffin's wax.

Volume

 Oil in the reservoir contains dissolved gas, and the volume of the solution depends upon
the formation gas-oil ratio and the reservoir pressure.

 Gas may be dissolved in oils under increasing pressure and increase the volume in
solution.

 The volume of liquid petroleum, at constant pressure.

 The volume of surface equivalent gas will dissolve in a unit volume of reservoir oil.
Increases as the reservoir pressure increases until the oil is finally saturated with gas and
no more gas will dissolve in the oil.
Boiling Point

 Atmospheric true boiling point (TBP) data are obtained through distillation of a petroleum
mixture using a distillation column with 15-100 theoretical plates at relatively high reflux
ratios (1-5 or greater).

 The high degree of fractionation in these distillations gives accurate component

distributions for mixtures. The lack of standardized apparatus and operational procedure is
a disadvantage, but variations between TBP data reported by different laboratories for the
same sample are small.

Pressure and Temperature

True Vapor Pressure
All crude oils and the usual petroleum products are essentially mixtures of a wide range of
hydrocarbon compounds. The boiling points of these compounds range from -162°C (methane)
to well in excess of +400°C, and the volatility of any particular mixture of compounds depends
primarily on the quantities of the more volatile constituents.

The volatility (the tendency of a crude oil or petroleum product to produce gas) is characterized
by the vapor pressure. When a petroleum mixture is transferred to a gas free tank or container,
it starts to vaporize, that is it liberates gas into the space above it.

There is also a tendency for this gas to re-dissolve in the liquid, and equilibrium is ultimately
reached with a certain amount of gas evenly distributed throughout the space. The pressure
exerted by this gas is called the equilibrium vapor pressure of the liquid, usually referred to
simply as the vapour pressure.

The vapor pressure of a pure compound depends only upon its temperature. The vapor
pressure of a mixture depends on its temperature, constituents and the volume of the gas
space in which vaporization occurs; that is, it depends upon the ratio of gas to liquid by volume.

The True Vapor Pressure (TVP), or bubble point vapor pressure, is the pressure exerted
by the gas produced from a mixture when the gas and liquid are in equilibrium at the prevailing
temperature. It is the highest vapor pressure that is possible at any specified temperature.

As the temperature of a petroleum mixture increases, its TVP also increases. If the TVP exceeds
atmospheric pressure, the liquid starts to boil.
The TVP of a petroleum mixture provides a good indication of its ability to give rise to gas.
Unfortunately, this is a property that is extremely difficult to measure, although it can be
calculated from a detailed knowledge of the composition of the liquid. For crude oils, it can also
be estimated from the stabilization conditions, making allowance for any subsequent changes of
temperature or composition. In the case of products, reliable correlations exist for deriving TVP
from the more readily measured Reid Vapor Pressure and temperature.

Reid Vapor Pressure

The Reid Vapor Pressure (RVP) test is a simple and generally used method for measuring the
volatility of petroleum liquids. It is conducted in a standard apparatus and in a closely defined
way. A sample of the liquid is introduced into the test container at atmospheric pressure, so that
the volume of the liquid is one fifth of the total internal volume of the container. The container is
sealed and immersed in a water bath where it is heated to 37.8°C. After the container has been
shaken to bring about equilibrium conditions rapidly, the rise in pressure due to vaporization is
read on an attached pressure gauge. This pressure gauge reading gives a close approximation,
in bars, to the vapor pressure of the liquid at 37.8°C.

RVP is useful for comparing the volatility of a wide range of petroleum liquids in a general way.
It is, however, of little value in itself as a means of estimating the likely gas evolution in specific
situations, mainly because the measurement is made at the standard temperature of 37.8°C and
at a fixed gas/liquid ratio. For this purpose, TVP is much more useful and, as already mentioned,
in some cases correlations exist between TVP, RVP and temperature.

Saturated vapor pressure
Vapor above the surface of oil exerts a pressure called vapor pressure which varies directly with
the concentration of vapor above the liquid. It is therefore zero when no vapor is present and
maximum when the space is saturated. Maximum vapor pressure at the existing temperature is
known as saturated vapor pressure (SVP). If the temperature of the oil increases, the vapor
concentration increases and causes the SVP to rise.

Important Fuel Properties when using on Board

In todays shipping, the operation cost is high due to high fuel price and owners not likely to
reduce it. The fuel oil extracted by fluid catalytic cracking vis-a-vis breaking, has produced
residual fuel of very poor quality. The proper analysis will give properties and characteristics of
fuel oil. The operating engineer should know the source of crude oil and refinery process and its
properties and characteristics. You should also be aware of the harmful constituents, their
effects on the engine components and the remedies to counter the harmful properties.
Carbon residue, asphaltenes
Asphaltenes are components of asphalt which are made of macro molecules of high molecular
weight, which consists of poly nuclear hydrocarbon derivatives containing hydrogen, nitrogen,
oxygen, carbon, sulfur and metals like iron, nickel and vanadium.

The Carbon residue is the tendency of fuel oil to form carbon deposits during combustion and is
measured by Conardson Carbon Residue (CCR) or Micro Carbon Residue (MCR).
Combustion of fuels having high levels of carbon residue lead to formation of carbon deposits
and other materials in the combustion chamber and exhaust system. This affects exhaust
valves, turbocharger exhaust gas sections etc. The maximum limit of carbon residue content in
fuel is 22 %.

Asphaltenes in fuel oil contributes to the energy released during combustion of fuel. A high level
contents of carbon residues and asphaltene affect the fuel oil combustion quality E.g : Ignition
delay, after burning of carbon deposits which lead to wear and fouling of engine and engine
components causing reduction in efficiency and performance of engine.

Paraffin derivatives are added in fuel to make asphaltenes soluble to prevent formation of
sludge in storage tank, filters and centrifugal purifiers etc good quality fuel has up to 8%
asphaltenes and standard heavy fuel oil will have up to 14 % asphaltenes.

Sulfur
Sulfur in fuel oil present in varying forms and concentrations. Oxides in sulfur combine with
water to form highly corrosive sulfuric acid which is detrimental cylinder liner and piston rings. 
Source of water may emerge from water present already in fuel oil or condensed water vapor in
the combustion chamber or moisture from scavenges air system.

As sulfur is soluble in oil and cannot be eliminated from fuel by centrifuging method, so sulfur
content can be reduced by adding alkaline additives in cylinder lubricating oils

High sulfur content in fuel leads to ignition lag and poor fuel combustion and subsequently
exerts high pressure on cylinder lubricating oil film in combustion chamber with resultant effect
of formation of more corrosive acids, more un burnt carbon and increase in wear rate of cylinder
liners and piston rings. Post combustion of sulfur in fuel emits sulfur oxides (SOx) to
atmosphere. By using alkaline cylinder lubricating oil of right or appropriate base number sulfur
content in fuel oil can be neutralized.
Increased rate of abrasive wear of cylinder assembly is evident when low sulfur content fuel is
used with high alkalinity cylinder lubricating oil, as excess of alkaline additive material forms
hard and abrasive deposits during combustion, leading to increased abrasive wear of cylinder
liners and piston rings. Thus, when burning low sulfur content fuel, the lube oil with low Total
Base Number (TBN) should be used.

Sodium and Vanadium

Sodium in fuel can come from various sources, during handling and storing activities involved
right from time fuel leaves the refinery to the delivery of the bunkers.  Sodium is found in
combined form of common salt, NaCL, which is an alkaline, metallic element. It is soluble in
water and can be eliminated by centrifuging separators.

Vanadium contents in the fuel vary broadly depending on the crude oil source or crude oil mixes
used in the refinery process. Vanadium is a metallic element soluble in oil and it can be
neutralized during combustion by the use of chemical inhibitors such as magnesium or silicon.

Sodium and vanadium when chemically combined with fuel cannot be removed by centrifuging.
They react with each other at combustion temperature to form a highly corrosive molten ash,
which can lead to high temperature corrosion, formation of deposits in the turbocharger,
overheating, and eventual burning away of exhaust valves, valve faces, and piston crowns. This
results in low compression pressure and loss of engine efficiency.

Alumina and Silica (Catalytic Fines)

Alumina and silica are porcelain-like particles used for petroleum refining. Their presence in fuel
oil is regarded as presence of catalytic fines (cat fines). Cat fines cause high abrasive wear to
piston rings and cylinder liner. Catalytic fines of the size 10 to 20 microns damage most. With
proper centrifuging of fuel oil, alumina and silica contents can be reduced to tolerable quantities
of 15mg/kg. For proper treatment the throughput quantity should be reduced and fuel oil input
temperature to centrifuge is maintained at 980c.

Ash / Sediments
The ash in the oil includes metallic content, other non-combustibles and solid contaminants.

Ash content after fuel combustion includes solid foreign materials, such as rust sand and
catalytic particles, and dissolved inorganic materials, such as iron, calcium, nickel, sodium,
vanadium etc.
Ash deposits on exhaust valves, cylinder liners surface can cause localized over heating and can
lead to corrosion. Excessive ash deposits may clog the fuel injectors and nozzles. And also lead
to abrasive wear of piston rings, cylinder liners, valve seats and injection pumps.

Soluble metal compounds which are disbursed in fuel, cannot be removed by centrifuging. And
these metal compounds can form hard deposits on cylinder heads around exhaust valves, piston
crowns and valve faces and valve seats.

Sediment is another fuel contaminant, which includes rust, weld slag, scale, dirt etc. Sediments
in fuel can come from various sources during shipping, storage or in pipe line. Most of the
sediments are removed by settling or filtering, or centrifuging on boardship.

Sediment removal is vital to minimize high ash or particulate contamination of a fuel, as both
can contribute to high level of deposits, corrosion or abrasive wear.

Water
Fuel oil may be contaminated with fresh or salt water during shipment or as a result of
condensation during prolonged storage. Salt water in fuel can cause fouling, deposits and
corrosion of engine components. It can also cause excess amount of sludge volume due to
water/sludge emulsification during centrifuging.

Fuel contamination with water may lead to microbial matter growth in fuel, which may corrode
filters, strainers and separators. Addition of chemical “biocide” additives in fuel can kill the
growth of microbial matter for short range solution. 

For long range solution, centrifuging, draining of storage, settling and service tanks are the best
method of reducing water content in fuel oil.

Water content in fuel should be removed in order to reduce the quantity of catalytic fines and
sodium in the fuel oil. To achieve a good separation, the throughput and the temperature of the
fuel must be adjusted in relation to the viscosity. With high viscosity fuels, the separating
temperature must be increased whereas the throughput must be decreased in relation to the
nominal capacity of the separator.

Physical Properties of Chemicals

Chemical tankers are required to transport a wide range of different cargoes, and many tankers
are designed to carry many segregated products simultaneously. In a single voyage many
cargoes with different properties, characteristics and inherent hazards may be carried. Moreover,
in port several products may be handled simultaneously at one berth, typically including
different operations such as discharge and loading as well as tank cleaning. Even the less
sophisticated chemical tankers are more complex to operate than oil tankers. Thus,
understanding the physical properties of the so called dangerous liquid (DL) cargoes will be
important for safe handling and vessel operations. 

Specific gravity
Cargo tanks on a chemical tanker are normally designed to carry cargoes of a higher specific
gravity than an oil tanker. Sometimes the design strength even differs between tanks on the
same ship. The master must be familiar with any restrictions that may be imposed on loading
heavy cargoes. Especially important is the risk of slack loading a tank because this can lead to
sloshing forces that may cause damage to the tank structure or its equipment. Likewise, the
tank's design capacity must be strictly observed: exceeding it is dangerous. Note that the
cargo's specific gravity and its vapor pressure must be considered together.

The following media explains about the Density of Liquids

The oil and gas industry, especially in the United States, often uses specific gravity instead of
density. Specific gravity is used by the American Petroleum Institute (API) to classify various
“weights” of oil. The density of a crude or refined product is thus measured as API gravity
(ºAPI), which equals (141.5/specific gravity)—131.5.

Finding Specific gravity by hydrometer:

Finding API Gravity by Hydrometer: Watch the YouTube Video Click here

Vapor pressure and boiling point

Vapor pressure explained:

The oil and gas industry, especially in the United States, often uses specific gravity instead of
density. Specific gravity is used by the American Petroleum Institute (API) to classify various
“weights” of oil. The density of a crude or refined product is thus measured as API gravity
(ºAPI), which equals (141.5/specific gravity)—131.5.
At any given temperature every liquid exerts a pressure called the vapor pressure. The liquid will
boil when its vapor pressure equals the external atmospheric pressure.

In a closed cargo tank a liquid will boil when the vapor pressure is equal to the external vapor
pressure plus the pressure setting of the pressure/vacuum (P/V) valve. The tanks and vent
systems are designed to withstand this pressure, plus the hydrostatic pressure of the cargo.

Cargoes that exceed the normal atmospheric pressure at 37.8°C (100°F) should not be loaded
into a tank that is not specially designed for that duty.

Vent line systems must be checked for correct operation at regular intervals, as structural
damage can easily result from malfunction or blockage due to freezing of cargo vapor, polymer
build-up, atmospheric dust or icing in adverse weather conditions. Flame screens are also
susceptible to blockage, which can cause similar problems.

The higher the vapor pressure the more vapors will be released, a fact that may require use  of
personal protective equipment.

Freezing point
Most liquids have a defined freezing or solidification point, sometimes described as the melting
point. Some products, such as lubricating oil additives, vegetable and animal oils, polyols etc. do
not have a defined point, but a freezing or melting range. For such cargoes, viscosity is used as
a measurement of the product's liquidity or handling characteristics, and the term pour point is
used instead.

Cargoes with a freezing point higher than the ambient temperature of the ship's trading area will
need to be heated in order to remain liquid.

Freezing point explained:

Temperature effects
The structure and equipment of a ship normally impose a limitation on the carriage of heated
cargoes. Exceeding this limitation could damage the tank coating or its structure. Excessive heat
will also create thermal stresses, and the risk of cracking will increase. (Note that moderate heat
increases steel strength; it is expansion forces that are the immediate limiting factor.) Caution
should be exercised when carrying high heat products because cargo in non-insulated pipes and
vents may freeze and clog the systems. Heating arrangements must be operated in accordance
with design safety precautions; for example, pressures inside heating coils in tanks must be kept
higher than the cargo pressure, and any interceptor tanks between heating return lines and the
engine room must be checked regularly to detect any contamination. For certain cargoes,
heating coils must be blanked off in accordance with IBC Code requirements. Uninsulated cargo
pipes used for high heat products pose a further safety hazard, as they may cause severe burns
if touched.

Example of change of State due to increase in temperature:

Change of state by increase of temperature:

Simple example of temperature expansion of metals by heating:

Cubic expansion
Liquids will expand as temperature rises, or contract when temperature falls. Sufficient space
must be allowed in the tank to accommodate any cubic expansion expected during the voyage. A
useful formula is: 

Filling ratio (% full) = 100 (1 - RT) - S

where R = coefficient of expansion per °C (from cargo data sheet)

T = expected maximum temperature rise in °C (during voyage)

S = safety margin, usually 2% of tank capacity.

Vent line systems must be checked at regular intervals. Their design capacity is based on vapor
flow only; structural damage may result if vent systems become full of cargo liquid due to
thermal expansion.

Vapor density 
Vapor density is expressed relative to the density of air, as heavier or lighter. It is weight of a
unit volume of gas or vapor compared to (divided by) the weight of an equal volume of air (or,
sometimes, hydrogen). Substances lighter than air (such as acetylene, methane, oxygen) are
said to have vapor densities less than 1.0 and substances heavier than air (such as butane,
chlorine, ethane) are said to have vapor densities higher than 1.0..Most chemical cargo vapors
are heavier than air. Caution must therefore be exercised during cargo operations, as vapor
concentrations are likely to occur at deck level or in lower parts of cargo pump rooms.

Solubility
Solubility is expressed in different ways: either as a simple yes or no, as slight, or as a
percentage, but always in relation to water. Solubility is temperature dependent. A cargo with
low solubility will form a layer above or below a water layer depending on its specific gravity.

Most non-soluble chemicals are lighter than water and will float on top but some others, such as
chlorinated solvents, are heavier and will sink to the bottom. Chemicals that are heavier than
water can cause a safety risk in pump rooms when the overlying water is disturbed, and in drip
trays. Even in cargo tanks they may be trapped under water in pump wells, and pose a danger
even after the tank atmosphere is tested and found safe for entry.

Solubility of Gas in Liquid:

Solubility Explained:

Electrostatic charging
Certain cargoes are known as static accumulators and become electrostatically charged when
handled. They can accumulate enough charge to release a spark that could ignite a flammable
tank atmosphere.

Viscosity
The viscosity of a cargo determines how easy it is to pump, and the amount of residue that will
be left after unloading. Viscosity is related to temperature and, in general, a substance will
become less viscous at higher temperatures, but note that certain cargoes (such as lube oil
additives) show increased viscosity when heated. IMO standards define high and low viscosity
substances and require cargo tanks that have contained substances with a high viscosity to be
pre-washed and the washings discharged to shore reception facilities.

Viscosity Explained:
Temperature Effects of Viscosity

Extract of a shipment document of Vinyl Chloride, a dangerous chemical cargo: Click

here to open PDF

Chemical Properties

Chemical properties of Petroleum

 Hydrocarbons are found in nature in many different forms, mainly as:

 Liquid Petroleum: known as “crude oil” to distinguish it from “refined oil”. It is most
important commercially.

 Natural Gas: which is the lighter fraction of hydrocarbons, can be free or dissolved.

 Asphalt, Tar, Pitch: these are solid or semi-solid forms of hydrocarbons, the heavy
fraction.

Hydrocarbon Series

 A saturated hydrocarbon (sometime called Alkane) is one which the valence of all the
carbon atoms is satisfied by single bonds For each carbon atom is connected to each other
carbon atom by a single covalent bond e.g Parrafins.

 An unsaturated hydrocarbon is one in which the valence of some of the carbon atom is not
satisfied by single bond, so that these atoms are connected to one another with two or
more covalent bonds e.g Benzene.

 It is generally agreed that Hydrocarbons of Four different Series or Types are present in
important Quantities in Petroleum.

Parafins

 Paraffins are also called alkanes and have the general formula of CnH 2n+2, where n is the
number of carbon atoms.

 Paraffins from C1 to C40 usually appear in crude oil and represent up to 20% of crude by
volume. Since paraffins are fully saturated (no double bond), they are stable and remain
unchanged over long periods of geological time.

Napthenes

 Naphthenes or cycloparaffins are ring or cyclic saturated hydrocarbons with the general
formula of CnH2n.
  Thermodynamic studies show that naphthene rings with five and six carbon atoms are the
most stable naphthenic hydrocarbons. The content of cycloparaffins in petroleum may
vary up to 60%.

Aromatics

 Aromatics are an important series of hydrocarbons found in almost every petroleum

mixture from any part of the world.

 This series of aromatics is called alkylbenzenes and have a general formula of CnH 2n-6
(where n ≥ 6).

 Its example are Benzene C6H6

Asphaltenes

 They are composed of fused benzene-ring network, but they contain impurity atoms and
are not true hydrocarbons.These impurities are the high in moleculer weight compound
previously referred to as NSO compounds.

 Asphaltenes are heavy compounds of crude oil and the major components in many natural
tars and asphalts.

Chemical composition of typical Petroleum

Element Natural Gas Crude oil Asphalt

Carbon 65-80 82-87 80-85
Hydrogen 1-25 12-15 9-11
Sulfur 0.2 0.1-6 2-8
Nitrogen 1-15 0.1-2 0-2
Oxygen 0 0.1-5 0

Classification of crude oils

Crude oil may be classified by their relative enrichment in the four hydrocarbon groups or series
describe above.most normal crude oils fall within only three of these fields. They can be either.

 Paraffinic oil: rich in paraffins.

 Paraffinic-Nephthenic Oil: They can have nearly equal amounts of Paraffins and
naphthenese which togeather make up more than 50% of the crude.

 Aromatic intermediate Oil: They can have subequal amount of Paraffins and nephthenes,
which total less than 50% and the composition is dominated by the aromatics and
asphaltenes.

Organic Chemistry of Oil Products

Fuel Chemistry is made of a mixture of different hydrocarbons, namely alkenes, these are also
sometimes knows as branched or linear hydrocarbons.

The following media explains about the Alkenes:

A significant percentage of the remaining chemical compound is the made up of aromatic

hydrocarbons and cycloalkanes. Additionally it also contains several more complex hydrocarbons
such as asphaltenes.

Each oil field will produce a raw fuel with a different combination of molecules depending upon
the overall percentage of each hydrocarbon it contains, this directly affects the coloration and
viscosity of the petroleum chemistry.

The below media will explain the structure of Aromatic hydrocarbons.

The primary form of hydrocarbons in the chemistry of fuel are the alkanes, which are also
often named paraffins. These are termed saturated hydrocarbons and  exhibit either branched or
straight molecule chains.

The following media explains about the Alkanes

The paraffins are very pure hydrocarbons and contain only hydrogen and carbon; it is the
alkanes which give petroleum chemistry its combustible nature. Depending upon the type of
alkanes present in the raw petroleum chemistry it will be suitable for different applications. For
fuel purposes only the alkanes from the following groups will be used: Pentane and Octane will
be refined into gasoline, hexadecane and nonane will be refined into kerosene or diesel or used
as a component in the production of jet fuel, hexadecane will be refined into fuel oil or heating
oil.

When it comes to the chemistry of petroleum which does not contain a significant quantity of the
kinds of paraffin required to produce a combustible fuel, then things become simpler, as many
non-fuel applications of petroleum are far more lenient in the chemical compound of the raw
petroleum.
The exception to this are the petroleum molecules which have less than five carbon atoms, these
are a form of natural petroleum gas and will either be burned away or harvested and sold under
pressure as LPG (Liquid Petroleum Gas).

The cycloalkanes, which are also often referred to as the napthenes are classed as a saturated
form of hydrocarbon. By saturated we mean the molecule contains either one or several carbon
rings with atoms of hydrogen attached to them. These hydrocarbons display almost identical
properties to paraffin but have a much higher point of combustion.

The following media explains about the Chemistry of Cycloalkanes

Finally, the aromatic hydrocarbons are another form of unsaturated hydrocarbon. The specific
difference between the other hydrocarbons in the petroleum molecule is that the aromatic
hydrocarbons will contain benzene rings, with atoms of hydrogen attached to them. Aromatic
hydrocarbons tend to produce far more emissions when burnt, many will have a sweet, sickly
smell to them, hence the name aromatic hydrocarbons.

The quantity and percentages of the specific types of hydrocarbons in raw fuel chemistry can be
determined by testing in a laboratory. The process involves extracting the, molecules using
some form of solvent and then separating them using gas chromatography. Finally an
instrument such as a mass spectrometer will be used to examine the separate molecules in the
chemical compound of the sample.

Chemical Symbols of Petroleum

Petroleum or crude oil is a naturally occurring, flammable, complex and variable mixture of
hydrocarbons plus other organic compounds in the liquid state. Petroleum contains 83- 87%
carbon, 10 to 14% hydrogen, with trace amounts of nitrogen, oxygen and sulfur. The sulfur
content of oil can be as high as 6%. In general, crude oil with sulfur content in excess of 1% is
considered sour crude. Under 0.05% content of sulfur, the crude oil is considered sweet, and
less costly to refine, so it commands a higher price.

Crude oils vary dramatically in color, odor, and flow properties. There are light and heavy crude
oils; they are sweet or sour (i.e., have high or low sulfur content, with an average of 0.65%).
The number of carbon atoms in these compounds can vary from one to over a hundred. The
complexity of the molecules, their molecular weights, and their carbon numbers increase with
the boiling point.
Each fraction of distilled petroleum is a complex mixture of chemicals, but these mixtures can be
somewhat categorized. A certain sample of straight-run gasoline (light naphtha) might contain
nearly 30 aliphatic (containing no benzene ring), noncyclic hydrocarbons; nearly 20
cycloaliphatic hydrocarbons (mainly cyclopentanes and cyclohexanes), sometimes called
Naphthenes; and 20 aromatic compounds (such as benzene, toluene, and xylene).

FRACTIONS OF PETROLEUM
Approximate bp Name Uses
(°C)
SOURCE: Wittcoff, Harold A., and Reuben, Bryan G. (1996). Industrial Organic
Chemicals. New York: John Wiley.
<20°C Gases Similar to natural gas and useful for fuel
and chemicals.
20–150°C Light naphtha  Fuel and chemicals, especially gasoline.
150–200°C Heavy naphtha Fuel and chemicals.
175–275°C Kerosene  Jet, tractor, and heating fuel.
200–400°C Gas oil  Diesel and heating fuel. Catalytically
cracked to naphtha and steam-cracked to
alkenes.
>350°C Lubricating oil Lubrication. May be catalytically cracked to
lighter fractions.
>350°C Heavy fuel oil Boiler fuel. May be catalytically cracked to
lighter fractions.
Asphalt Paving, coating, and structural uses.

Petroleum Fractions
The PNA classes (paraffinic, naphthenic and aromatics) of petroleum fractions are common
classifications of the most common components in petroleum. Paraffins include the alkane
series, naphthenes include the cycloalkanes and aromatics include the all compounds that
contain one or more ring structures similar to benzene.

Hydrocarbons in Crude Oil

Thus, There are four main types of hydrocarbons found in crude oil.

 paraffins (15-60%)

 naphthenes (30-60%)

 aromatics (3-30%)
  asphaltics (remainder)

The hydrocarbons primarily are alkanes, cycloalkanes, and aromatic hydrocarbons.

Elemental Composition of Petroleum

Although there is considerable variation between the ratios of organic molecules, the elemental
composition of petroleum is well-defined:

 Carbon - 83 to 87%

 Hydrogen - 10 to 14%

 Nitrogen - 0.1 to 2%

 Oxygen - 0.05 to 1.5%

 Sulfur - 0.05 to 6.0%

 Metals - < 0.1%

The most common metals are iron, nickel, copper, and vanadium.

Chemical Symbols
Alkanes

The series have single carbon bonds with the general formula,  . All alkanes after
ethane have isomers, which have the same number of carbon and hydrogen atoms, with single
bonded carbon atom. The n-butane is the normal single chain of carbons, while the i-butane has
a Y arrangement, or a branched chain molecular structure. The isomers have identical molecular
structure, but somewhat different properties.
   

Cycloalkanes
As the name suggests, these are similar to the alkanes, however there is one or more ring
structures. The elements of the cycloalkanes are bound by single bonds.

      

Aromatics
Often referred to as the benzene series, because the series has a similar cyclic structure to
benzene. Benzene is  the first compound of this series. The structure of benzene is shown in the
two diagrams below. Both show six carbon atoms connected in a hexagonal geometry. One
hydrogen atom is linked to each carbon atom The diagram on the left is more correct, as there is
no double bond in benzene. 

The C-C bonds, were shown from X-ray diffraction to have all the same length. The electrons for
the C-C bonds are equally distributed. Thus, to show the delocalization nature of bonding, the
bonds are conceptually shown as a circle. This structure is common in organic chemistry.

The aromatics such as benzene, toluene, and xylene are important industrial chemicals, used in
drugs, solvents, plastics, synthetic rubber and dyes.

Benzene is a well known carcinogen and as such, its use in gasoline is limited. 
      
Benzene with dislocated C-C bonds      Benzene with alternative double bonds

Other non-hydrocarbon elements

Sulfur is found to some extent in all crude oils and produced gas. It may be in the form of free
sulfur, H2S and organic sulfur compounds. The lower API gravity crude oils are more likely to
contain sulfur.

Nearly all crude oils contain small quantities of nitrogen.

Oxygen is also found in crude oils either as free oxygen or as part of a radical of a larger
compound

Octane Number
One cannot talk about the chemistry of gasoline without understanding octane numbers. When
gasoline is burned in an IC engine to  and , there is a tendency for many gasoline mixtures to
burn unevenly. Such combustion creates a "knocking" in the engine. 

Certain rules have been developed for predicting the octane number of different types of
gasoline, depending on the ratio of different types of hydrocarbons in the mixtures:

 The octane number increases as the amount of branching or the number of rings
increases.
  The octane number increases as the
number of double and triple bonds increases.

Knowledge and Understanding of tanker safety culture and safety management

After going through this topic, student should be able to,

 Explain the meaning of a safety culture

 Describe various ways to measure it

 Explain the need for reporting accidents, near misses and non-conformities

 Discuss the process of development of a positive safety culture

 Explain the relationship of safety culture and safety management system

Introduction

What is a safety culture?

A safety culture is an organizational culture that places a high level of importance on safety
beliefs, values and attitudes—and these are shared by the majority of people within the
company or workplace. It can be characterized as ‘the way we do things around here’. A positive
safety culture can result in improved workplace health and safety (WHS) and organizational
performance.
Shipping is known as one of the most dangerous and international occupation in the world. The
maritime industry has witnessed catastrophic accidents throughout the years such as Herald of
Free Enterprise, Costa Concordia and Deep Water Horizon. Regulatory bodies developed the
International Safety Management (ISM) code in order to avoid reoccurrence of these accidents.

Following the implementation of the ISM Code, which became mandatory for all ships via the
SOLAS Convention between 1998 and 2002, there has been a significant reduction in maritime
casualties, serious oil spills, and – most importantly – the number of lives lost on board
international cargo ships. However, a number of recent high-profile incidents suggest that the
absence of a fully implemented safety culture is still an issue which some shipping companies
may need to address with additional rigor.

Unfortunately, the maritime industry traditionally adopted a reactive approach to eliminate these
errors therefore none of these measures provide the desired level of safety. Only recently, the
maritime industry has started to adopt proactive approaches by developing an appropriate
safety culture.

There is a vital need for all concerned to understand the relationship between unsafe acts and
serious incidents that may cause loss of life or serious damage to property and the environment.
The importance of changing behavior and avoiding negative attitudes or complacency towards
safety and environmental protection is also underlined.

Accident investigation reports attribute the majority of marine accidents to human errors and
extensive organizational checklists and regulatory paperwork. None of these efforts provide the
desired safety level. Currently, the maritime industry is starting to implement proactive
approaches and has tried to avoid reoccurrences by implementing an appropriate safety culture.
One unique way to internalize the concept of Safety culture is to define it as “ how an
organization behaves when no one is watching”. The safety culture approach describes
humans as a means for improving safety rather than someone to blame for failure. A positive
safety culture with commitment from all levels in the company can achieve the required safety
levels in the maritime industry

Safety culture is a concept defined at group or higher level and reflects on the shared values
among all the shipboard, shore side, and organization members.

 Safety culture is concerned with formal safety issues within an organization.

 Safety culture emphasizes the contribution from everyone at all levels of the organization.
  The safety culture of an organization has an impact on its employees’ behavior at work
and potentially away from work.

 Safety culture may be reflected by the relationship between the reward system and safety
performance.

 Safety culture is reflected in the organization’s willingness to develop and learn from
errors, incidents, and accidents.

 Safety culture embraces communication and teamwork.

Safety Culture comprise of 5 significant levels

 Pathological: Employees only react to the safety matters not to get caught by regulatory
compliance.

 Reactive: Employees do not follow the basic safety instructions. The importance of safety
is understood only after a serious accident.

 Calculative: There is an effort within the company to collect the safety associated data
and arrange regular audits. Employees have more understanding about “how the system
works”, but the data are not analyzed to enhance safety.

 Proactive: This stage focus more on “what might go wrong in the future” instead of
analyzing occurrence data. The interaction between employers and employees increases.

 Generative: This is the
most advanced stage a company can have. The company uses human errors to improve
safety rather than apportion blame.There is a really good feedback and reporting system
between all workers within the company. The company is always prepared for the
unexpected.
Individual is the key  
FIRST, you need to have the know-how for the job. If you don’t know what you are doing, don’t
know your limits, then you are putting yourself and others at risk. You’re the hazard. So you
need to be honest about what you know you can do safely. Keep your skills up to date. Make
sure you have the know-how for the job.

SECOND, you’ve got to co-operate with the people working alongside you. Be open, share your
knowledge and experience, if something doesn’t look safe, then say so. Be willing to listen. If a
colleague has something to say to you about safety, then learn from them. That is called
cooperation.

THIRD, you’ve got to remember, you always have a choice. Every day you can choose, to cut
corners, to take risks, or you can chose to think safe. You can think about the hazards. Think
about what you have to lose, and then you can choose to do the right thing, the safe thing. So,
it is your choice.

 Your know-how

 Your cooperation

 Your choice

That is what we mean about a personal responsibility for safety. It starts with us, but it ends
with you!

The Role of Safety Culture in

Preventing ‘Accidents’

The above illustrative model can be used to show the concept of causal factors combining to lead
to an accident. The model uses the concept of ‘swiss cheese slices’ to represent barriers,
physical and procedural, that are placed by the company to prevent accidents.
At the risk of stating the obvious, the underlying purpose of a Safety Management System
(SMS) that embraces an effective safety culture is to prevent ‘accidents’. Accidents and
unintended pollution incidents do not just happen – they are caused, usually by more than one
factor coming together at a particular place and time. Change any one of these factors, even
slightly, and the accident would probably not occur. Instead one would experience what is
termed a ‘hazardous occurrence’ or a ‘near miss’ – in other words a ‘near accident.

The introduction of the ISM Code in the 1990s was an attempt by governments to create a
culture of self regulation of safety and pollution prevention,  in which the application of a safety
culture goes beyond unthinking compliance with externally imposed rules. The ISM Code places
particular emphasis on internal management of safety, and requires companies and their
personnel to establish targets for performance.

Culture of compliance
A development through the  20th Century which involved the regulation of safety by
prescription, where the industry was given sets of rules and regulations to follow. For example,
the provisions of the SOLAS, MARPOL and STCW Conventions, together with the Collision
Regulations, Load Line Convention and various specialist IMO Codes, provide the basis of the
external regulatory framework for international shipping. This stage was an advance because it
was designed to attack known points of danger before actual harm occurred. This has led to the
modern culture of compliance with external rules. However, a number of serious maritime
accidents during the 1980s confirmed that compliance with regulation was not always enough to
achieve safety and pollution prevention. Although still of utmost importance, adherence to
external rules is no longer seen as an end in itself.

Culture of self-regulation
The adoption by IMO of the ISM Code, and its mandatory enforcement by flag states,
represented a most important step towards the creation of a new culture of self-regulation in
shipping, albeit imposed through a mandatory regime. Self-regulation alone is not, however,
wholly effective.    In order to achieve safer seas and environmental protection it is necessary
for all three approaches to regulation to coexist. Each stage of regulatory development still plays
a significant part in influencing company and individual behavior.

A safety culture will also help to eradicate any tendency towards behavioral complacency, when
the need to adhere strictly to safety and pollution prevention procedures can be overlooked,
either on shore or at sea, because of the misconception that if a particular type of accident has
never previously happened it may never occur. Analysis of serious accidents in shipping has
demonstrated that the personnel involved are usually highly trained, competent and
experienced, and that the underlying cause of the accident, which could have been prevented,
was a failure to follow established procedures.

The key to maintaining a safety culture is for all concerned to recognize that it is a matter of
enlightened self interest. The crew will be less likely to be the victims of accidents, and the
company can use safety culture as a  means  of  maximizing the financial benefit and cost
savings that may be derived from implementing effective Safety Management Systems.

It is important that companies recognize that investment in safety produces financial savings
and is thus not a ‘cost’. It is  a fact that the improvement of safety saves lives as well as money.

Commitment from the Top

As identified by the ISM Code, commitment from the highest level of the company is vital to
ensure that personnel will act safely at all times. Without commitment from senior management
the efforts of everyone else in support of the Safety Management System will be wasted. To
develop the commitment of senior management it is essential that they completely understand
the full cost of accidents in human, environmental and financial terms.

It may sometimes be questioned why safety should be the first priority when compensation for
accidents and pollution is often met by insurance, and many safety measures appear at first
sight to be expensive to implement. However, it is
important for senior managers and sea staff to appreciate that:
Insurance seldom covers all losses and becomes more expensive following accidents;

 Criminal penalties for negligence can be considerable;

 During repair periods, vessels are not earning;

 Accidents and pollution fines damage a company’s reputation with charterers,

shareholders and personnel, including those at  sea;

 Accidents lead to increased scrutiny by flag administrations and port state control
inspectors; and

 Accidents and prosecutions adversely affect  the public’s perception of the company and of

the industry as a whole.

To  reiterate, commitment from the top to the fostering of an effective safety culture is a matter
of enlightened self interest. Apart from the tragic human costs of death or serious injury, it is
estimated that the indirect financial costs of accidents for a company are generally about
three times those of insurance claims involving personnel, cargo damage or pollution.

Key Features and Measurement of an Effective Safety Culture

 Recognition that all accidents are preventable and only usually occur following unsafe
actions or a failure to follow established  procedures.

 Management and personnel who think constantly about safety. 

An effective safety culture will support a shipboard environment that encourages and
requires all on board to proactively consider their own and others’ safety. In this way
individual seafarers assume responsibility for safety rather than relying on others to
provide it. Through mutual respect, increasing confidence in the value of the safety
culture results in a more effective Safety Management System.

 Always setting targets for continuous improvement, with a goal of zero accidents and ISM
Code  non-conformities.

There are perhaps three key components to developing an effective safety culture:

 Commitment  from  the top;

 Measuring current performance and behaviour; and

 Modifying behavior.

Measuring Current Performance and Behavior 

In order to achieve an effective safety culture it is essential to have the means to monitor
the company’s current performance in order to identify ways in which safety can be improved.
While the SMS required by the ISM Code provides such a mechanism, a readily comprehensible
means of monitoring the effectiveness of particular safety regimes and policies is the Lost Time
Incident (LTI)  rate, which is commonly used across many industries to measure personnel
injuries 

A Lost Time Incident is an incident which results in absence from work beyond the date or shift
when it occurred. The   LTI rate is usually calculated as the number of LTIs that occur during one
million working hours, although sometimes different multiples are  used.

Following the introduction of the ISM Code, research by P&I Clubs has demonstrated that if the
number of personnel accidents is reduced then the number of other accidents, such as those
involving  damage  to  property or the environment will also be reduced. The goal of a company
should therefore be to reduce the LTI rate to zero. Companies regarded as being at the cutting
edge of safety culture seek to achieve negligible LTI rates.

The most common forms of LTIs are ‘slips, trips and falls’. By adopting a culture that will prevent
these and other minor injuries from occurring, lives will ultimately will saved.

More strikingly, research has also shown that for approximately every 330 unsafe acts or non-
conformities, 30 are likely to result in minor injury. Of these 30 injuries one is statistically likely
to be an LTI. Thus the prevention of 330 unsafe acts is likely to prevent a
significant injury. Statistics  also suggest that the prevention of 30 LTIs is likely to result with the
saving of a  life!

This concept is illustrated by the

safety pyramid diagram below:

Also known as the Lost Time Accident (LTA) or Lost Time Injury (LTI).

Companies will also need to ensure compliance with the ILO Maritime Labour Convention,
including its requirements on health and safety protection and accident prevention (Title 4, Reg
4.3). Companies should also take account of the ‘ILO Code of Practice on Accident Prevention on
Board Ships at Sea and in Port’ and other national guidance on preventing occupational injuries.
The ISF Guidelines on the Application of the ILO Maritime Labour Convention provides
comprehensive advice.

There are a number of  performance  monitoring  techniques that measure different accident
data, or  which  are  derived from statutory reporting requirements within national legislation. It
is most important that companies employ some means of monitoring their safety performance
over time.

Many companies find it useful to compare their safety records with those of other similar
companies or industries. Members of the Oil Companies International Marine Forum (OCIMF),
and the Informal Tanker Operators’ Safety Forum (ITOSF), for example, compare their safety
statistics, as do members of the International Support Vessel Owners’ Association (ISOA). It is
recognized that conditions existing   in different trades cannot be readily compared, but it can be
productive to establish informal arrangements with other companies operating in broadly similar
circumstances to exchange information and  experience.

Modifying Behavior
A key aim of a safety culture should be to modify the behavior, where required, of company
personnel so that they ‘believe in safety, think safety and are committed to safety’.

Developing an effective safety culture based  on  the concept of continuous improvement,

personal commitment  and responsibility by all, is a long term process and involves much hard
work and effort. Experience gained through the proper implementation of an SMS should result
in changes in behavior, but other measures may also be required. Some companies may wish to
conduct ‘behavioral assessment’ programs, using outside consultants to oversee changes to the
company’s safety culture.

Reporting Accidents, Near Misses and Non-conformities

When a major incident occur it is common for considerable time, effort and money to be spent
establishing what happened. Following the investigation, when the causal factors are known, it is
often discovered that these were apparent and visible long before the incident occurred.

Reporting such events at an early stage, followed by appropriate remedial action, can prevent
accidents that lead to pollution, damage, injury or loss of life.

With the objective of improving safety and pollution prevention, the ISM Code requires the
company to ensure that the SMS includes procedures to investigate and analyze ‘non-
conformity, accidents and hazardous situations’.

The need to record accident data is universally accepted. However, it is also important for the
company and personnel to recognize the importance and value of reporting non-conformity and
hazardous occurrences, so called ‘near misses’. In particular, it is important to ensure that all
personnel, both ashore and at sea, understand that when a non-conformity or near miss is
reported that the intention is not to find someone to blame or punish. Rather, the identification
of non-conformity or ‘near misses’ provides an opportunity to investigate why they occurred,
since the causal factors underlying ‘near misses’ are fundamentally the same as those which
lead to accidents resulting with injury, loss of life, or pollution.

By having an understanding of why incidents have occurred, sometimes gained by interviewing

those involved, it is possible to introduce corrective action. Once a corrective action has been
taken, the chances of    an actual accident, resulting in injury, damage or pollution, will be
greatly reduced.

Every effort should therefore be made to modify behavior by reassuring those who fear that
reporting incidents could have negative consequences.

IMO Guidance on Near Miss Reporting
A near miss is defined by IMO as “a sequence of events and/ or conditions that could have
resulted in loss. This loss was prevented by a fortuitous break in the causal chain of events
and/or conditions”. IMO Guidance provides examples of near miss incidents and notes that
barriers may be created against near miss reporting, particularly where a blame culture exists.
Ship and shore staff should be encouraged to study the IMO Guidance in detail (IMO Guidance
on Near Miss Reporting (MSC-MEPC.7/Circ.7, October 2008).

It includes the following general advice on near miss reporting:

 The ultimate objective of near miss reporting, and investigating is to identify areas of
concern and implement appropriate corrective actions to avoid future losses. To do so
requires that reports are generated, shared, read, and acted upon. Companies are
encouraged to consider whether their reports should be disseminated to a wider audience;

 It may take years for safety trends to be discerned, and so reporting should be archived
and revisited on a timely basis. Near miss reports should be considered along with actual
casualty or incident reports to determine trends.

 There should be consistency in the identification and terms used to describe causal factors
across near miss and casualty/incident reports.

The ‘Just Culture’ Approach
The IMO Guidance referred to above also addresses the question of ‘blame culture’ by
recommending that the industry should instead develop a ‘just culture’ approach.
A ‘just culture’ features an atmosphere of responsible behavior and trust whereby people are
encouraged to provide essential safety related information without fear of punishment. However,
this is qualified by recognizing that a distinction must be drawn between acceptable and
unacceptable behavior. Unacceptable behavior cannot be ignored, and individuals must still face
consequences if they engage in it.

Within the context of a ‘just culture’ it is essential that   the company clearly defines the
circumstances under which they will guarantee a non-disciplinary outcome and confidentiality. It
is important that companies provide training and information about their approach to adopting a
‘just culture’ for sea staff, as well as for shore management and superintendents.

Assessment of Safety Culture

Recent research finding in Europe identified that communication, fatigue, language skills

and intercultural cooperation have a crucial impact on shipping safety at an individual level.
The study indicated that seafarers need proper training to understand other cultures and learn
how to communicate with them effectively to enhance the maritime safety.

In another study, which was performed by Havold (2005), results demonstrated

that management attitude to safety, safety behavior, knowledge, attitudes towards safety
rules/instructions and employee satisfaction were the most crucial factors in the 10 factors.

Table 1. Overall scores of shore staff and crew members. Scores for shore staff (%)
/Scores for crew members (%)

 Communication 82.56 /75.7

 Employer-Employee Trust 85.1/ 76.8

 Feedback 84.5/ 77.3

 Involvement 81.7 /79.5

 Mutual Trust 77.8/ 74

 Problem Identification 77.2/ 76.6

 Promotion of Safety 76.6 /71.7

 Responsiveness 74/ 71.5

 Safety Awareness 78.7/ 77.1

 Training and Competence 82.9/ 78.2

Av. score 80.11/ 75.84

The detail of the 10 attributes are explained herewith for your further explorationClick
here 

The aim of the safety culture assessment and improvement framework is to identify the
safety related problems of any shipping company, address the vulnerabilities and develop
improvement strategies to enhance the maritime safety. After a detailed review of assessment
tools in the maritime industry, ABS’s safety culture assessment methodology was used to assess
a companies’ safety culture.

An overview of the assessment methodology can be seen in Figure below.

The research found that there is a requirement for continuous consideration, effort and action to
enhance the safety culture in a shipping company. The safety culture assessment framework
requires commitment from all of the bodies in a shipping company for successful
implementation.

The study concluded that the Crew members, needed further efforts and hard work in order to
enhance their safety culture. Crew member overall scores was lower than for the shore staff.
Insufficient training, communication issues due to multicultural crews onboard, the inadequate
manning levels on the ships as well as the unsatisfactory provision of time of rest to the
employees are detected as the main weaknesses.

Significant efforts are made to eliminate these errors in the maritime industry, but after each
catastrophic accident, the maritime industry adopts a reactive approach which results in new
regulations and an excessive.

Importance of Measurement
Some measurement techniques focus on attitudes, values and opinions, where others focus on
behavior and work activities. The goal of a positive safety culture is the fostering of professional
behavior in routine and emergency situations, but assessing behavior is not straightforward
because:

 People have a tendency to change their behavior when they know they are being watched

 Apparent routine behavior may not be sustained in an emergency, or stressful situations

 Behavior assessment can be very time-consuming

  Behavioral assessment requires corroboration by assessments of attitudes and values.

Attitudes, values and should be drawn out as they are central to most definitions of safety
culture. If direct observation of behavior is excluded, then it should be included indirectly by
asking employees about their perceptions of their own and coworker’s behavior. There may be a
reluctance to comment on others behavior unless anonymity is guaranteed.

To identify if and where perceptions differ at various levels within an organization, it may be
important to conduct a safety culture survey at various levels of the organization’s operations.
Usually, the higher an individual is on the organization chart, the more optimistic he or she will
be about the company's program. Upper management generally understands the program's
intent and is cognizant of its cost and ‘feel’ that it must be working. Higher ranking crew
members may tend to have a more practical view and provide more critical feedback on actual
implementation of any safety recommendations. This feedback may be also based on maritime
experience, corporate memory, and cultural influences. Lower ranking crew members may be
most apt to respond to “what really happens on board”, however these responses may be
influenced by the lack of maritime experience where their judgment is based on their previous
employers or different cultural norms/expectations.

The results of the safety culture assessment should be used in the organization’s continuous
improvement program. There are three primary reasons for this:

 The personnel who shared their views and contributed to the safety culture assessment
will feel a certain amount of ownership of the project and will expect improvements based
on their efforts and activities. If no changes are attempted, they could feel that their input
and effort have been disregarded. This could negatively affect safety culture.

 The analysis is likely to uncover areas for improvement that require addressing for
a lasting improvement in safety.

 The analysis is likely to uncover areas of organizational strength that require action to
ensure these strengths are sustained.

Safety Culture Leaflet from ASF

SMS and the Safety Culture

The goals of the International Safety Management (ISM) Code, and the goals of
Safety Management Systems (SMS) are the attainment of peak safety performance (i.e.
no operational incidents, no personal injuries, and no harm to the environment). The maritime
industry is still some way from achieving this goal since these codes and practices no doubt help
in bringing down the losses and casualties, they do not necessarily transition into a mature
safety culture where everyone does what he/she is supposed to do even when no one is looking,
so to say. 

There is a general recognition in the industry that more rules, regulations, and procedures are
unlikely to improve safety performance. Instead, the industry needs a better understanding of
the social and organizational factors that foster professionalism in the seafarer in  routine and
emergency situations. The impact of safety culture on the outcome of safety performance is
well documented and notes that operational incidents are not a result of human error, technical
failures, or environmental factors alone, but a combination of those and other causes such as
failure of management, employees not performing their duties, and a breakdown in documented
systems.

A mature safety culture ensures that the working environment cultivates safe attitudes and
behaviors benefiting safety performance. There should be a close relationship between an
organization’s safety culture and a Safety Management System (SMS). An effective SMS has to
take account of all factors that have an impact on safety including the human and organizational
factors; and conversely, the safety culture influences the way in which the SMS is implemented.
Consequently, the assessment of safety culture and the SMS should be complementary.
Development of Positive Safety Culture

Safety Culture Development at Maersk Line Limited (MLL)

Maersk experience shows a direct correlation between safety and operational performance.
Safety standards mitigate risk, thereby safeguarding operational performance.

To maintain a safe and hazard-free environment at sea, MLL tracks LTAs, grades their severity,
and institutes behavior-based safety techniques. Several of MLL ships have gone over 1,000
days LTA-free. MLL attains the highest level of safety onboard the vessels through
implementation of innovative safety programs. At its own expense, MLL conducts quarterly
Safety Boot Camps for officers and unlicensed mariners to build and improve the culture of
safety across the fleet on a continuous basis.

Each of MLL’s vessels has safety management and environmental protection procedures that
dictate required drills, tests, inspections, and critical systems maintenance. These procedures
provide checklists, which must be completed and retained for safety and environmentally
sensitive activities such as entering and leaving port, confined space entry, working aloft,
working overside and electrical system tag-out.

A Safety Competency Framework , a  process borrowed from the Australian Construction
industry, identified nine broad behaviors, or culture actions, that are considered essential to the
development of a positive safety culture. These are listed below.

 Communicate company values

 Demonstrate leadership

 Clarify required and expected behavior

 Personalize safety outcomes

 Develop positive safety attitudes

 Engage and own safety responsibilities and accountabilities

 Increase hazard/risk awareness and preventive behaviors

 Improve understanding and effective implementation of safety management systems

 Monitor, review and reflect on personal effectiveness.

The detail of the Culture actions to inculcate a positive safety cultureClick here 
Conclusion
There is no one method to develop and maintain a supportive safety culture. The shipping
companies must know and accept their existing company culture ( this is the biggest hurdle and
often an external consultant will be necessary who could give them an unbiased feedback on
that. That is a good start. Often times, the fault lies with the shore-based management staff that
includes the CEO, CFO, Fleet managers and the Ship managers at all company departments. It
will be important for the CEO to be genuinely interested in finding where he is with his people
and how company-wide communication is at play. How much are the power distances that
stratifies people and their behavior; is there a companywide ethos about implementation of
safety practices across the fleet? An honest understanding of that will be key to slowly stich the
gaps and celebrate the gradual development of a genuine safety culture across the company; for
a shipping company, it tends to be easier with the prescribed safety regimes that must be
followed. Thus, what to do is clear: why it is not being done as always, will be the question to
ask. The answer comes from patient collection of safety data, accidents and near misses and
then identifying the root causes behind people behavior that leads to safety violation and
improper operational practices. The cause could be incompetence, lack of communication,
cultural and language barriers, power distances, fatigue and lack of rest, complacency and
deliberate non-adherence of safe practices, and so on. The central challenge is how to change
people behavior at the work place, irrespective of all the individual differences that must exist
amongst people. It is to do with meticulous implementation of the SOP no doubt, but more
importantly it is the nurturing of a no-fear attitude amongst people where crew will admit to
making mistakes without losing face or, being reprimanded. It is to do with inculcation of mutual
respect between people irrespective of their ranks- easily said, than done! It is thus important to
have punitive as well as regulatory measures to work side-by-side: it is a necessary evil, until
the self- sustaining “just culture” emerges from all the good efforts  and consciousness that we
observe across our industry today.

Hazards

Specific Learning Objectives

After going through this topic, student should be able to,

 Describe various types of hazards that may occur while carrying dangerous liquid on tank
ships

 Describe the effect of those hazards on health, environment and personal safety

Introduction
Tanker operation creates different types of hazards namely, health hazards, environmental
hazard, reactivity hazards, flammability hazards, electrostatic hazards, toxicity hazards and so
on. Major number of these  are extremely dangerous for human health and the rest can damage
and destroy the vessel itself and some cause long term environmental damage when spilled or
leaked. It is important to identify the nature of such hazards so that we can think of
preventative measures to combat them. We should learn all the prevention and control
measures in the next topic, but here, you must identify all the possible situations on board that
can compromise your personal well-being and that of the ship as well as the environment.

Health hazards

Nitrogen Asphxiation - Some chemical cargoes release nitrogen, an inert gas which is non-
flammable, non-toxic and colourless. As nitrogen is an inert gas it could lead to death, if inhaled
(because of lack of oxygen). One must note that it is undetectable to the human senses. 

Be constantly vigilant during operations involving Nitrogen.

Toxic and poisonous – is the property of a substance to harm you when it enters your body,
at times it could be fatal (can kill). Chemical cargo vapours can enter your body – through
inhalation; by skin contact and by; swallowing the liquid. 

Use proper personal protective equipment to protect yourself.

Chemical tankers also carry vegetable oils and the hazards associated with these cargoes are as
follows:

 Burns – as these cargoes are carried at high temperatures

 Slips and falls caused by escaping oil from pipelines

 Asphyxiation & toxic poisoning, as these cargoes have a tendency to oxidise, therefore
tank atmospheres may be oxygen deficient as during oxidation, oxygen is absorbed; and
if they decompose, these oils release gases like methane, carbon dioxide and hydrogen
sulphide that are toxic

 Carbon monoxide (CO) could be produced when these cargoes are heated, CO is a
colourless and odourless toxic gas

 Take enclosed space entry precautions when going into a vegetable oil tank

Precautions to be taken with Vegetable oils are as below:

  Follow enclosed space entry procedures when entering tanks containing remains of these
cargoes

Tank coatings carrying these cargoes must be of the non-absorbent type

Corrosive liquids

 Health – when contacted, destroys human tissues – accompanied by severe pain or in

lesser cases only an irritation.

Hazards of oil cargoes

The hazards of chemical cargoes are 

 Exposure to human health(ships crew)

 Contact to skin, eye and inhalation

 Threshold limit value (TLV) being low

 Environmental hazards

Marine pollution is a major hazard of oil cargoes and is a cause of growing international concern.
The various causes of marine pollution are discharge of oil, chemical residue, prohibited packing
material, garbage, sewage and emission of engine exhaust gas beyond acceptable limits. The
MARPOL Convention is the main international convention covering prevention of pollution of the
marine environment by ships.

Oil pollution from ships, whether incidental and intentional, is viewed as a very serious offence
around the world. Nowadays, the shipowners are heavily penalized and punitive action is taken
against the Master, crew member(s) responsible for the incident and the ship. Every individual
on board should ensure that the ship complies with the pollution regulations at all times. It is the
responsibility of every watch keeper to ensure that adequate precautions are taken to avoid
pollution, mitigate oil discharge in case of pollution, maintain pollution prevention equipment,
report all instances of pollution promptly and maintain proper records, as required by the
regulations.

 Damage to marine environment and living resources

 Sea water pollution

 Damage to other ships

Reactivity Hazards
Some cargoes could be self-reactive; react with air; react with other cargoes or with water.
When they react it could cause a chemical reaction, that could lead to any of the following:

 Generation of heat

 Produce a rise in pressure because of expansion

 Release dangerous vapours

 Increase the danger of fire or explosion

 Causes polymerization (solidification)

 Can affect the quality of cargo

The possibility of cargo reaction is removed by

 Separation and segregation of cargo tanks and systems

 For self-reactive cargoes, separation from adjacent heated cargo and the adjacent of a
chemical inhibitor to the cargo make it more stable and safe

 Inerting the cargo space with nitrogen to prevent cargo coming into contact of air

 Avoid the use of metals, or other materials, in the cargo system that the cargo may react
with

 By carrying water reactive cargoes, in type 1 and type 2 ships to ensure complete
segregation from the ship side plating

 By blanking off steam heating coils in tanks carrying water reactive cargoes

 By avoiding drip tray contamination/mixing

Reactive cargoes are carried in stainless steel or coated tanks, provided the cargo does not react
with the tank material. When reactive cargoes can react with moisture in the air the tanks
receiving them must be super dry, which is achieved by using air or nitrogen with a very low
dew point.

Chemical reaction

 Reaction with air (air pollution)

 Reaction with hold coating 

 Reaction may produce heat that may accelerate the reaction

 May cause formation of flammable or harmful vapours

  Self-reaction (e.g. polymerisation) may be promoted by contact with other chemicals, air
or certain types of metals

 Reaction with another chemical upon mixing. Reaction with water.

Corrosion hazards

Hazards associated with the carriage of chemical cargoes, and methods of controlling these
hazards

Corrosive – would mean that they can destroy human tissue, that could be permanent, they can
corrode tank construction materials, they could become flammable when in contact with other
materials. 

One must wear personal protective equipment; if you are splashed with corrosive liquid, remove
your clothes and wash with plenty of water. Report all accidents to the duty officer.

Corrosive liquids

 Corrosivity – corrode most of the material used for construction. Tanks to be constructed
with compatible material. Fire – during corrosion hydrogen may be produced, which forms
flammable mixture with air

 Health – when contacted, destroys human tissues – accompanied by severe pain or in

lesser cases only an irritation.

Explosion hazards

Oil cargo is highly flammable and toxic. It is not the liquid which is susceptible to ignition but the
vapour given off by the liquid is inflammable. 

For this vapour to ignite and burn as a visible flame, it needs to mix with the right proportions of
air.

The vapour cannot ignite if there is too little or too much petroleum gas concentration. This
limitation is expressed as a percentage by volume of petroleum gas in air, also known as upper
and lower flammable limits. When the temperature of a liquid reaches the lower flammable limit,
it is known as the flash point of the liquid.

LEL, LFL, UEL

Lower explosive limit (LEL): It is the lowest concentration (percentage) of a gas or a vapour in
air capable of producing a flash of fire in the presence of an ignition source (arc, flame, heat).
The term is considered by many safety professionals to be the same as the lower flammable
limit (LFL). 

The LFL usually expressed in volume percent is the lower end of the concentration range over
which a flammable mixture of gas or vapour in air can be ignited at a given temperature and
pressure.

The maximum concentration of a gas or vapour that will burn in air is defined as the Upper
Explosive Limit (UEL). Above this level, the mixture is too 'rich' to burn. The range between the
LEL and UEL is known as the flammable range for that gas or vapour.

Tankers should follow certain safe procedures, which minimize the chances of an accident. Such
procedures include a restriction on smoking, the use of a naked flame, restrictions for
conducting hot work, the operation of fixed and portable lamps, the use of hand tools for
carrying out maintenance, the use of anodes in cargo tanks, entry into enclosed spaces and
pump rooms, etc.

Oil tankers calling at ports for either loading or discharging operations should exchange
information with the terminal. This information exchange benefits both parties and removes
doubts and ambiguity. The tanker should be aware of berthing and mooring details. Similarly,
the terminal should know the condition of the ship's tanks, the ship’s draft and trim before and
after the operations, the ship's manifold details, the location of fire wires (emergency towing off
wires), etc.

Chemical fire hazards

 Flammable hazards (flammable cargo and combustible cargo)

 Combustion product of chemical cargo 

 Behaviour in fire

 Electrical fire

Some chemical cargoes are flammable, observe no smoking and other precautions to prevent
the ignition of cargo vapour. 

Fire & explosion in unprotected cargo tanks of oil tanker can have wide variety of
causes-
  One specific instances is the use of high capacity tank washing machines and
consequential of high levels of static electricity.

 Spillage due to cargo handling with ignition possibilities.

 Vapours from lifting or leaking cargo tank relief valves with ignition from lighting
discharge.

 Empty tank gases ignited during cleaning or collision resulting an explosion and rupture
on the main deck.

 Very rich vapour expelled from tank opening during last stage of loading which after
dilution may be ignited by accommodation ignition sources or the like.

 Auto-ignition – the vapour from flammable liquids ( including oil fuel and lubricating oil )
may ignite if the liquid comes into contact with a surface heated above the auto-ignition
temperature ( e.g., steamlines, overheated equipment ) despite the absence of external
flame or sparks.

General precautions

 Before any power tool is used, and before any hot work, hammering, chipping etc., the
area to be treated and satisfy himself that such work can be safely under taken. To
ensure that:

 The area is free of flammable vapour ( less than 1%LFL),

 No flammable vapour can be introduced to the common vent pipes,

 Adequate fire extinguishers are readily available.

 Non sparking hand tools to be used. Portable electrical equipment should not be used
inside cargo tanks, cargo pump or adjacent spaces unless : a) the compartment also the
adjacent compartment is free of flammable vapour, b) all other compartments that are
not free of flammable vapour are closed.

 Matches & lighters – personnel should not carry matches or, more particularly lighters.

 Communication equipments should not be used unless certified safe. Main radio
transmitter should not be used during cargo operation.

 Aluminium equipment should not be dragged or rubbed across the steel since it is possible
to cause an incendive spark.

 The equipment circuit and extension cable are intrinsically safe.

  Air driven lamps of an approved type may be used in non-gas free atmosphere, although
to avoid the accumulation of static electricity on the lamp it should be either earthed or
hose should have a resistance low enough to allow static dissipation.

 Only approved safety torches or hand lamps should be used.

 Pipe lines and equipments may still contain cargo even though the tanks have been
declared gas free, and hot work on should not be permitted until they are found safe.

 To avoid auto ignition immediate steps should be taken to remove any leakage which may
result in the liquid coming in contact with hot surfaces. Care should also be taken to avoid
rags or other materials soaked in oil or chemical from coming in contact with hot surfaces,
and lagging should not become saturated with oil. For this reason, cotton waste, canvas
bedding or similar absorbent materials in bulk, bales or bundles should be not be left lying
on jetty, on deck on or around pipe lines etc., and should not be stowed near oil, paint
etc.

 Smoking – Smoking should be permitted only under controlled conditions at times and in
places specified by master.

Fire and Explosion Details

The vapour given off by a flammable liquid will burn when ignited provided it is mixed with air in
the correct proportion.

 The proportions expressed as a percentage of flammable vapour in air are known as the
Lower Flammable (Explosive) Limit (LFL or LEL) and

 Upper Flammable (Explosive) Limit (UFL or UEL).

The data sheet for individual cargoes will give the limits.

Concentrations below LEL (too-lean) or above UEL (too-rich) are incapable of burning.
Combustion of vapour and air mixture may result in expansion of gases, which if constricted in
an enclosed space may raise pressure rapidly to the point of explosive rupture. Also, it must be
borne in mind that the proportion of a mixture is not necessarily even in an entire cargo tank, as
a gas does not distribute equally in the tank.

The cargo must be at or above a temperature high enough for it to give sufficient vapour for
ignition. This temperature is known as Flash Point. With increase in temperature, the vapour
pressure and vapour concentration above the liquid increases.
The more readily the liquid vapourizes, the lower the temperature at which the LEL is reached.
Some cargoes form flammable mixture at all ambient temperatures, others only at higher
ambient temperatures and others only when heated.

For the purposes of the safe handling procedures dealt with in this guide, the flammability
characteristics of cargoes are divided into three broad categories according to the flash point: -

 Flammable cargoes - those with a flash point below 60°C

 Combustible cargoes - those with a flash point above 60°C .

Non-Combustible cargoes - those which have no flash point and do not burn.

The above description of flammability considers cargo vapour mixed with air.

When inert gas is introduced into a cargo tank’s vapour space, it will exclude oxygen. This
ensures that the mixture is no longer capable of supporting the combustion of chemical vapour.
However, It must be noted that an inerted mixture may become flammable on mixing with air,
for instance, on venting the mixture to atmosphere or during gas freeing with air.

Rules and Regulations

As per SOLAS For Ships carrying chemicals or oils in bulk, it require a fixed deck foam system
for extinguishing fires on deck or in tanks. In principal, the systems required are identical.
however, for chemical tankers, IMO type 2 and 3, the foam system is considerably lager than for
crude oil tankers, due to the higher risk of fire in chemicals.

If the cargo is not compatible for foam then other arrangements are made to the satisfaction of
administration. Regular protein foams should not be used.

The arrangements for providing foam should be capable of delivering foam to the entire cargo
tanks deck area as well as into any cargo tank, the deck of which is assumed to be ruptured.

The deck foam system should be capable of simple and rapid operation.

The main control station for the system should be suitably located outside of the cargo area,
adjacent to the accommodation spaces and readily accessible and operable in the event of fires
in the areas protected.
Flammability Hazards

Fire hazards and prevention

Fire hazard, defined by flash point, boiling point, flammability limits and auto ignition
temperature of the chemical.

Many chemicals are flammable and potentially explosive. Additionally, many of them are
corrosive and toxic. Vapors from cargo may be very toxic as well as flammable.

The vapours from some cargo reacts strongly with oxygen so that there is violent combustion.
Fires in a few chemicals are almost impossible to extinguish and there are restrictions on the
type of fire fighting medium that may be used.

Some cargoes, which are toxic substances, absorbed through the skin or by ingestion
(swallowing). To give oxygen to someone who has breathed in such fumes would produce
unpleasant results.

The effects and remedies are so diverse that Reference Books are necessary and available, these
containing data on the different hazards and methods of combating them.

Liquid residues in tanks and pump rooms must be considered as potentially dangerous. They
may not be easily identifiable (many corrosive liquids have nothing to distinguish them from
water) and the content can only be guessed at from knowledge of previous cargo. Such liquid
may be corrosive, or a poison which can be absorbed through the skin. If volatile, the vapor may
be toxic or flammable.

Pump room in chemical tankers are very dangerous because of the risk of leakage from pump
glands, of toxic / flammable vapor and corrosive or otherwise harmful liquids. To make them
suitable for chemical pumping there will be a different gland arrangements and shaft bearings of
Teflon.

Sources of ignition

 The risk of fire and explosion is very high in a tanker ship. The necessary precautions are
to be taken to avoid a source of ignition and a flammable atmosphere being present in the
same place at the same time.
  In the case of cargo compartments, pump rooms, and at times the tank deck, flammable
gases are to be expected and the strict elimination of all possible sources of ignition in
these locations is essential.

 Cabins, galleys and other areas within the accommodation block inevitably contain ignition
sources such as electrical equipment, matches and cigarette lighters. While it is sound
practice to minimise and control such sources of ignition, it is essential to avoid the entry
of flammable gas.

 In engine and boiler rooms, ignition sources such as those arising from boiler operations
and electrical equipment cannot be avoided. It is therefore essential to prevent the entry
of flammable gases into such compartments. The contamination of bunker fuel by volatile
cargo through bulkhead leaks, pipeline mixture or any other cause will introduce an
additional danger.

 The routine checking of bunker spaces for flammability by tanker and terminal personnel
is therefore to be encouraged.

 It is possible, by good design and operational practice, for both flammable gases and
ignition sources to be safely controlled in deck workshops, store rooms, forecastle, centre
castle, dry cargo holds etc. The means for such control must, however, be rigorously
maintained. In this connection it should be realized that an additional danger would be
introduced into such areas by the contamination of bunker tanks with volatile cargo.

Although the installation and the correct operation of an inert gas system provides an added
measure of safety.

Precautions must be taken to eliminate potential sources of ignition. 

They are as follows:

Smoking is prohibited by Company's regulation outside the smoking spaces designated by
Master.
No portable electrical non-intrinsically safe equipment should be used within cargoes areas or
compartments. These include but are not limited to mobile phones, radios, radio pagers,
calculators, photographic equipment, torches etc. The adjacent compartments must also be gas-
free, inerted or filled with water or a safe liquid.
Illumination shall be obtained only from explosion proof lamps.
All communication equipment or equipments used on deck shall be intrinsically safe.
Precautions for tank washing and gas freeing equipment shall be complied with.
Work Permits shall be issued as per company requirements
Dangerous cargo stains may cause gas to evaporate, which may lead to other hazards such as
fire, explosion, or poisonous vapor.
Suitable portable fire-extinguishing equipment for the products to be carried should be provided
and kept in good operating order.

Cargo pump-rooms
The cargo pump-room is provided with a fixed fire extinguishing system carbon dioxide system
as specified in regulation of SOLAS.

The system is only to be used for fire extinguishing and not for inerting purposes, due to the
electrostatic ignition hazard.

The alarms as per SOLAS amendments should be safe for use in a flammable cargo vapor-air
mixture.

The usage and fire fighting in cargo pump room is similar to tanker.

Electrostatic Hazards

Introduction to Charges of Electricity

All matters in universe are made up of atom. An Atom has a nucleus which constitutes of proton
and neutron. Further they have surrounding shell which is made up of electron. Basically the
protons are positive charged, and electrons are negative charged, and neutrons are neutral.

An atom is said to be neutral if the number of protons and electrons are equal. If the number of
protons and electrons are not same then an atom is said to be an ion. If the number of protons
in an ion is more than number of electrons then it is said to be positively charged ion. If it has
more electrons than protons then it is negatively charged ion.

Various Sources of Static Electricity

If you rub a glass rod with a silk cloth or if you rub a piece of amber with wool, the glass and
amber will develop a static charge that can attract small bits of paper or plastic. When two such
materials come in contact with each other the transfer of electrons takes place. The material
which gains electrons becomes negatively charged. The material which loses electrons turns to
be positively charged. The gaining and losing of electrons from the materials depends on how
strong an atom holds its electron. This is called triboelectric property. Based on this property of
the materials Triboelectric Series is formed. In Triboelectric Series, the materials are listed on
the basis of their electronegative or electropositive property. The accumulation of charges
continues if the materials are rubbed with each other. Hence static electricity of high voltage
range can also be produced.

Static electricity is commonly produced in the following cases 

 Flow of liquid through a pipe or hose

 Pouring of liquid

 Filtering of liquid

 Conveyor belts

The media given below shows some of the common sources of static electricity.

The media given below explains how the presence of static charges in a material can
be illustrated. Liquid Transmission Through Pipelines

Liquid Transmission Through Pipelines 

Effects of Static Electricity in Cargo shipping
The static electricity is a major hazard in cargo shipping in case of carrying petroleum or other
flammable products. This static electricity is generated when the inflammable liquid to be carried
comes in contact with other materials such as pipe lines which carries the liquid from one place
to another, walls of the tank in which the liquid is stored and sprinkling of liquids against a solid
surface. When two particular, dissimilar materials come in contact with each other a chemical
bond is formed between them. This leads to transfer of electrons between the materials. The
material which gains electron becomes more negative and the material loosing electron becomes
more positive. The strength of charge accumulation on materials depends on the friction
between the two materials. If the friction is more then strength of the charge is high in
materials.  

Piping of oil Products

The static electricity build up takes place in piping of oil products. The materials associated with
static electricity build up are the pipe line and the liquid flowing through the pipe. The charge
accumulation occurs when the liquid moves in contact with pipelines. The discharge of
accumulated charge will be in the form of spark. The static electricity will be severe during the
following circumstances in cargo loading process,

 Splashing the fluid from nozzle at the beginning of tank loading operation.
  At the filtering unit especially in micropore filtering.

 Presence of impurities such as water, rust etc inside the tank.

Loading of tank from the top causes deliver of charged liquid into the tank. This charge delivery
produces a charged mist and increases the hydrocarbon gas concentration.

The same scenario is repeated during unloading the cargo. The unloading is done by
transporting the fluid through pipes. The static electricity discharge will be high when the tank
level is low.

Spark Discharge
The charges accumulated at a particular place get discharged in the form of Incendive sparks
which is the minimum spark level capable of igniting the flammable liquids. This incendive spark
produces adequate energy to ignite flammable substance. The discharge will be some times in
the form of “Corona”.

The media given below deals with the serious hazards of Static Electricity caused
during fuel loading in cargo.

Static Electricity On Board:

It is possible for a static charge to build up in the cargo system on materials with low resistance,
e.g. pipework that are electrically insulated from each other. A sufficiently large potential
difference between the piping system and the hull may result in a discharge of static electricity,
which may cause a spark which could result in the ignition of a flammable gas / air mixture. To
minimise the risks of static discharges the cargo system must be properly bonded through to the
hull. This will normally be done by the fitting of bonding straps at each flange in the cargo
pipework and on the mounting of pumps and valves.

Toxicity hazards

TOXICITY
Toxicity is a measure of poisonous nature and potential health risks associated with oil cargoes.

Threshold Limit Value -Time Weighted Average (TLV-TWA)

The term threshold limit value-time weighted average (TLV-TWA) is used in the oil industry to
express the toxicity of vapors from a substance. The TLV-TWA of a substance is usually
expressed as the number of parts per million (ppm) by volume of vapor in air. Threshold Limit
Values refer to airborne concentrations of substances and represent conditions under which it is
believed that nearly all workers may be repeatedly exposed day after day without adverse health
effects. When expressed as a time weighted average, the concentration is considered over a
normal eight-hour workday and a forty-hour workweek. 

Permissible Exposure Limit - Time Weighted Average (PEL-TWA)

The permissible exposure limit (PEL) of a substance is a regulatory value that must not be
exceeded in the workplace. 

Threshold Limit Value-Short-Term Exposure Limit (TLV-STEL)

The threshold limit value-short-term exposure limit (TLV-STEL) defines the concentration of a
substance to which workers can be exposed continuously for a short period of time, provided
that the daily TLV is not also exceeded.

The STEL is a fifteen-minute time weighted average exposure that should not be exceeded at
any time during the workday, even if the eight-hour time weighted average is within the TLV.

Exposures at the STEL may not be longer than fifteen minutes and cannot be repeated more
than four times per workday. There must also be at least sixty minutes between successive
exposures at the STEL. 

Threshold Limit Value-Ceiling (TLV-C)

The threshold limit value-ceiling (TLV-C) is the maximum concentration of vapor in air,
expressed as either a TLV or PEL, that must not be exceeded even for an instant. Where there is
no established limit, the TLV STEL is used.

Toxic Hazards of HydroCarbon Vapors

Petroleum gas is noxious and harmful to the body.
 
HydroCarbon Gas concentration
(Volumetric Proportion in Air) Effects on the Human body

0.02% 300ppm Industry Permissible concentration (TLV-TWA for 8 Hrs) or 2% LEL

0.1% 1,000ppm Irritation in the eyes within an hour.
0.2% 2,000ppm Irritation in the eyes, nose or throat within 30 minutes, dizziness and
unsteadiness.
0.7% 7,000ppm Signs of giddiness within 15 minutes.
1.0% 10,000ppm Sudden giddiness occurs and if the body is exposed to the same conditions
continuously, unconsciousness results, and can sometimes lead to death.
2.0% 20,000ppm Sudden giddiness, unconsciousness, resulting in death.

HYDROGEN SULFIDE (H2S)

Characteristic of Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S)
H2S is a Highly toxic, corrosive and flammable gas that in low levels will smell like rotten eggs.
It is Colorless and Heavier than Air, having relative vapor density of 1.189. Exposure to high
levels of H2S can be fatal after a very short period of time. 

H2S Gas Concentration

(ppm by Vol. in air) Physiological Effects on the Human body

0.1 – 0.5 ppm First Detected by smell

10 ppm May cause some nausea, minimal eye irritation
25 ppm Eye and respiratory tract irritation. Strong odour
50 – 100 ppm Human sense of smell starts to break down. Prolonged exposure to concentrations
at 100 ppm induces a gradual increase in the severity of these symptoms and death may occur
after 4 – 48 hours of exposure
150 ppm Loss of sense of smell in 2 – 5 minutes
350 ppm Could be fatal after 30 minutes of inhalation 700 ppm RAPIDLY induces consciousness
(few minutes) and death. Causes seizures, loss of control of bowel and bladder. Breathing will
stop and death will result, if not rescued promptly.
> 700 ppm IMMEDIATELY FATAL

Precautions for Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S)

In cases where H2S concentrations are known to be greater than 100 ppm in the vapor space
and likely to be present in the atmosphere, Emergency escape Breathing Apparatus shall be
made available to personnel working in the hazardous area, who, should already have a Personal
(pocket-able) H2S gas monitoring alarm / instrument. 

Vapour leaks and clouds

From liquefied gas cargoes:

If there is no immediate ignition of a spill, a vapour cloud may form. The vapour cloud is long,
thin, cigar shaped and, under certain meteorological conditions, may travel a considerable
distance before its concentration falls below the lower flammable limit. This concentrate is
important, for the cloud to ignite and burn, with the flame travelling back towards the originating
pool.

The vapour is denser than air and thus, at least initially, hugs the surface. Weather conditions
largely determine the cloud dilution rate, with a thermal inversion greatly lengthening the
distance travelled before the cloud becomes non-flammable.

The major danger from a vapour cloud occurs when it is ignited. The heat from such a fire is a
major problem. A deflagration (simple burning) is probably fatal to those within the cloud and
outside buildings but is not a major threat to those beyond the cloud, though there will be burns
from thermal radiations. 

Basic knowledge of hazard controls

Specific Learning Objectives

After going through this topic, student should be able to,

 Explain what the hazards can do to compromise the ship and personal safety

 Describe various ways that the hazards can be controlled like Inerting, padding,
ventilation, segregation of cargo, etc.

 Know how to use the MSDS for cargo operation.

Introduction

There are a number of systemic controls by way of ship  and equipment design to provide
hazard safety or control of hazardous situations going out of hand. Controlling the tank
environment by adding inert gas on top of the cargo carried is one such innovation. Even
padding by water on top of a highly oxidizing cargo could be a preventative control. There are a
number of processes and equipment that ensures such hazard control: among them are, tank
drying, monitoring of tank environment and status, tank ventilation, segregation of cargoes, and
checking  and following the MSDS are among the measures that are discussed. Beyond the
systemic controls, the crew competency in adhering to the standard operating procedures (SOP)
will be fundamental in being able to control hazards around you at work on a tanker.

Inerting

Tanker loading, transportation and discharging operations involve risks due to pollution, fire and
explosion. Oil carried in tanks have risks associated with it and one risk could lead to another.
These hazards can be avoided by the application of simple but effective rules. Oil cargo is highly
flammable and toxic. It is not the liquid which is susceptible to ignite but the vapor given off by
the liquid. For this vapor to ignite and burn as a visible flame, it needs to mix with the right
proportions of air.

The vapor cannot ignite if there is too little or too much petroleum gas concentration. This
limitation is expressed as a percentage by volume of petroleum gas in air, also known as upper
and lower flammable limits. The temperature at which a liquid gives of sufficient vapour to reach
lower flammable limit, is known as the flash point of the liquid.

LEL, LFL ,UEL  & FLASH POINT

Lower explosive limit (LEL): The lowest concentration (percentage) of a gas or a vapor in air
capable of producing a flash of fire in presence of an ignition source (arc, flame, heat) is termed
as LEL. The term is considered by many safety professionals to be the same as the lower
flammable limit (LFL). 

The LFL usually expressed in volume percent is the lower end of the concentration range over
which a flammable mixture of gas or vapor in air can be ignited at a given temperature and
pressure.

The maximum concentration of a gas or vapor that will burn in air is defined as the Upper
Explosive Limit (UEL). Above this level, the mixture is too “rich” to burn. The range between the
LEL and UEL is known as the flammable range for that gas or vapor.

The flash point of an oil is that temperature at which it will form an inflammable vapor. Example
the flash point of kerosene may be between 70 and 150 degrees Fahrenheit, depending upon the
grade. 

The graphical illustration below shows the lower and upper range of flammable limits
for a particular petroleum oil.
Tankers should follow certain safe procedures, which minimise the chances of an accident. Such
procedures include a restriction on smoking, the use of a naked flame, restrictions for
conducting hot work, the operation of fixed and portable lamps, the use of hand tools for
carrying out maintenance, the use of anodes in cargo tanks, entry into enclosed spaces and
pump rooms etc.

Oil tankers calling ports for either loading or discharging operations should exchange information
with the terminal. This information exchange benefits both parties and removes doubts and
ambiguity. The tanker should be aware of berthing and mooring details. Similarly, the terminal
should know the condition of the ship's tanks, the ship’s draft and trim before and after the
operations, the ship's manifold details, the location of fire wires (emergency towing off wires)
etc.

Spontaneous combustion
Certain types of petroleum cargo are susceptible to spontaneous combustion and auto ignition.
Spontaneous combustion is the phenomenon where materials soaked with oil ignite without any
external application of heat. Auto ignition is caused when petroleum liquids ignite when heated,
without the application of a naked flame.

General Precautions
All tankers while alongside a petroleum berth should comply with procedures and precautions
that enhance tanker safety. Tanker and terminal personnel contact should be clearly identified
before the operations begin.
Other precautions include:

 Adequate man power and fire fighting equipment on board

 Means of communication between the ship and shore

 Safe access to the ship

 Access control

 Display of warning posters

Schematic
Diagram of inert gas plant

"General Precautions" (PDF, 195kb) are to be observed for cargo and ballast operations.

Water Padding
Padding - by filling the cargo tank (after loading) and associated piping systems with a liquid,
gas or vapour which separates the cargo from the air, and maintaining that condition.

The gas should be introduced into the cargo tank through a connection at the top of the tank
feeding directly into the ullage space.  Compressed gas must not be introduced into the vessel
tank through the manifold or pump stack since doing so invites relatively larger volumes (and
higher pressures) of gas, thus creating increased risks of displacing cargo into the venting
system and overpressurizing the vessel. Specific carriage instructions must be complied with and
the vessel must ensure she has adequate supplies of nitrogen for the period the cargo(es) will be
on board. Each tank will require to have an operational manometer and the daily nitrogen log
must be completed.

Water padding on  a chemical tanker

Carbon disulphide: Carbon disulphide may be carried either under a water pad or under a
suitable inert gas pad as specified in the following
paragraphs.

Carriage under water pad procedures:

 Provision shall be made to maintain a water pad in the cargo tank during loading,
unloading and transit. In addition, an inert-gas pad shall be maintained in the ullage
space during transit.

 Water or inert-gas displacement may be used for discharging cargo, provided the cargo
system is designed for the expected pressure and temperature.

Nitrogen Padding
Nitrogen is a colourless odourless gas which can cause you to lose consciousness in as little as
20 seconds, death follows rapidly.

Nitrogen is not a poisonous gas. It only serves to dilute the action of oxygen in air. Nitrogen
exposure causes cyanosis—change of skin colour to dark blue due to lack of oxygen and loss of
red blood.

Nitrogen is chemically inert due to its non polar nature and high ionization energy. It is only
slightly soluble in water. It is a food antioxidant.

Uses:
For quality control of cargo (reduced oxidation)
To retard dangerous reactions
To remove moisture from tank
To avoid explosion (inerting)

Nitrogen is lighter than air and will rise and remain on top of the tank. Do not waste nitrogen by
not understanding that heavier oxygen in tank must be removed from bottom by lighter nitrogen
from top.

When nitrogen padding, each tank must have its own pressure guage.

Prior to loading cargo requiring either a nitrogen blanket or an inerted tank, the whole tank
should be pressurised to approximately the PV valve opening pressure. Any leaks noted should
be rectified. (Silicon sealant should only be used where tank packings are suspect and there are
no spares on board, or if hatches are not in good condition as silicon can damage good
packings.)

NITROGEN BOTTLE BANK

There are usually 30 to 40 bottles on board for padding purposes only. The bottles on board are
usually of 68 litrescapacity. Storage temp of nitrogen bottles should never exceed 52C. The
number of bottles should be > 5% of the total volume of cargo space to be inerted.

Nitrogen you have in the bottle bank on a chemical tanker is industrial dry by fractional
evaporation of liquid air. Chemical dry is expensive and not used. There is a filter, regulator and
relief valve. The regulator has a drain cock. There is a check nut to be loosened prior adjusting
the regulator. The nitrogen on board is reduced from 200 bars to 4 bars and then to 0.15 bars.
For topping up at sea or padding in port the 0.15 bars reducing valve is used. The relief valve is
set at 0.2 bars. There are two lines –one of them only for emergency use.

The small dia, nitrogen line system should be regularly blown through, to ensure that no
contaminants are in the lines. A 68 litre nitrogen cylinder at 200 bars pressure can give out
about 13.6 cubic metres of free gaseous nitrogen. Compressed nitrogen gives 200 times free
nitrogen. Liquid nitrogen is not used on chemical tanker as they can be stowed only in insulated
tanks (-196 deg c.)

Drying agents

Whenever a water-reactive cargo has to be carried, the cargo tank atmosphere must have all
moisture and water vapour removed before loading to prevent an unsafe reaction with the
cargo. To achieve this, the cargo tank is dried, generally with nitrogen or with specially dried air,
and then the tank and associated piping and equipment are filled with moisture-free gas or
vapour that has a dew point of -40°C or less. The dry conditions should be established prior to
loading, and maintained during loading, transport by sea and discharge. 

Monitoring Techniques

Specific Precautions
Exchange of information between the tanker and the terminal has to be clear and concise.
Information regarding loading, discharging or even bunkering should be clearly understood by all
concerned parties. Some of the points discussed between the tanker and terminal are as follows:

 Approved loading / discharging plan and maximum loading or discharging rates, number
and size of loading arms, manifold connections available for different grades etc.

 Quantity of cargo to be loaded or discharged and the location of tanks

 Characteristics of cargo including the toxicity, flash point and estimated loading /
discharging temperatures

 Type of venting procedure and method of handling ballast during cargo operations

Continuous lines of communication between the tanker and the terminal is of paramount
importance for safe and smooth cargo operations. All concerned parties should be fully aware of
the various signals used to indicate the starting and stopping of loading and discharging, slowing
down and emergency stops. Remote shut off arrangements, also known as quick closing valves,
are provided to shut off the fuel oil supply in the event of a fire. The remote shut off valves are
located either at the entrance to the engine room or in remote fire control stations.

"Specific precautions" (PDF, 370kb) are to be observed for cargo and ballast operations.

The Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) of the petroleum cargo to be loaded is provided by the
loading terminal, gives the chemical, physical and flammable properties of the Cargo.

Anti-static measures

Introduction
You have already learnt about static electricity, its generation and sources. In some cases, static
electricity causes damage to components of printed circuit boards and electrical appliances and
often leads to shock in human who are working on those components. Lightning is a form of
tremendous static electricity discharge, causing untold damages in many cases. In relevant to
our course, the hazards of static electricity in cargo loading system are quite serious, which will
be discussed in this topic.

Liquid Transmission Through Pipelines

The static electricity results in fire and explosion hazards while handling flammable liquids and
also during tanker operations like cleaning, dipping, ullaging and sampling. During certain
operations, electric charges are released instantaneously and the electrostatic discharge with the
sufficient amount of energy required for igniting the flammable product gas/air mixtures. Thus it
is very important to handle the static charges during liquid transmission through pipelines as it
may lead to severe electrostatic hazards.

The static charge accumulation, hazards of static charges and methods to prevent them during
fuel loading in cargo ships is explained in the following animation.

Bonding and Grounding

Bonding is a process of creating an electrical connection between the conductors, in which
charge accumulation takes place. The electrical connection is made with the use of wire or rod.
Due to bonding, the connected conductors are maintained in the same potential level. Therefore
occurrence of static sparking is reduced. In bonding, the charges are not eliminated.

Grounding is a particular form of bonding in which one or more conductive materials are
connected between ground and the conductor, in which the charges are generated. Since the
conductors are grounded directly, the static charges drain out quickly as they are produced and
hence accumulation is avoided. For proper grounding system there should be a designated
ground source. The motive of grounding and bonding is to prevent incendive discharge
(discharge which causes ignition).

The most important countermeasure that must be taken to prevent an electrostatic hazard is to
bond all metallic objects together to eliminate the risk of discharges between objects that might
be charged and electrically insulated. To avoid discharges from conductors to earth, it is normal
practice to include bonding to earth (‘earthing’ or ‘grounding’). On ships, bonding to earth is
effectively accomplished by connecting metallic objects to the metal structure of the ship, which
is naturally earthed through the sea. 

Some examples of objects which might be electrically insulated in hazardous situations and
which must therefore be bonded are: 

 Ship/shore hose couplings and flanges, except for the insulating flange or single length of
non-conducting hose required to provide electrical isolation between the ship and shore. 

 Portable tank washing machines. 

 Manual ullaging and sampling equipment with conducting components. 

  The float of a permanently fitted ullaging device if its design does not provide an earthing
path through the metal tape.

The best method of ensuring bonding and earthing will usually be a metallic connection between
the conductors. Alternative means of bonding are available and have proved effective in some
applications, for example semi-conductive (dissipative) pipes and ‘O’ rings, rather than
embedded metallic layers, for GRP pipes and their metal couplings. 

Any earthing or bonding links used as a safeguard against the hazards of static electricity
associated with portable equipment must be connected whenever the equipment is set up and
not disconnected until after the equipment is no longer in use. 

Avoiding Loose Conductive Objects

Certain objects may be insulated during tanker operations, for example: 

 A metal object, such as a can, floating in a static accumulating liquid. 

 A loose metal object while it is falling in a tank during washing operations. 

 A metallic tool, lying on a piece of old lagging, left behind after maintenance. 

Every effort should be made to ensure that such objects are removed from the tank since there
is evidently no possibility of deliberately bonding them. This necessitates careful inspection of
tanks, particularly after shipyard repairs. 

Other Methods
Humidification
The static electricity disappears when the humidity of the environment is more. Hence installing
humidifier and increasing the air humidity to 40-50% will reduce the development of static
charge.

Static Collectors
A static collector is a device that collects Static electricity. Static collectors are mostly used in
moving nonconductive materials like conveyor belts, drive belts which carry static charges. The
static collectors generally used are needle pointed copper comb, spring copper brushes, tinsel
bars. These static collectors are placed near the source that produces static electricity. If static
charges are accumulated on a material, it is collected by this static collector and spark discharge
is prevented. The static collectors should be properly grounded so that the collected static
current can be discharged properly.

Additives
Additives are anti static substances which when mixed with liquids reduces the resistance and
increases conductivity. The increase in conductivity reduces the time of flow of the static charges
to the ground.

Ventilation

The enclosed space must be thoroughly ventilated

before entering. Factors influencing the time to ensure thorough ventilation are the size of the
enclosed space, the capacity of the system used, the degree of contamination and the capacity
of the ventilation system. 

After the space has been thoroughly ventilated, the following points should be checked in the
enclosed space:

 Content of oxygen should be tested with a suitable and reliable detector: For entering an
enclosed space, 21% oxygen is necessary. One should thoroughly understand the
principle of calculating the appropriate levels of oxygen in a confined space and
interpretation of the value obtained. Atmospheric air consists of 21% of life-sustaining
oxygen and other gases constitute about 79% that are breathable, but do not sustain life.
Therefore it should be confirmed that the atmosphere in the enclosed space consists of
21% oxygen.

 A combustible gas indicator should be used in case of suspecting the presence of a

flammable cargo vapour. The content of flammable cargo vapour may be as low as
practicable, but should not exceed 1% LFL in the atmosphere.
  If suspecting the presence of a toxic gas, an
appropriate toxic gas detector should be used to check the level to ensure that it is below
the safe operational exposure limit, based on the nature of the substance carried in that
space.

Ventilation should be stopped about 10 minutes before starting the tests and should not be
restarted until completing the tests. Breathing apparatus may be required to test the
atmosphere. Before judging the space to be safe, number of samples must be collected from
different locations. 

Measurements should be done at several levels like top, middle and bottom levels. This is
because the suspected vapours having higher relative density than air will be found at the
bottom and the vapours having low relative density than air will be found at the top of the
enclosed space. Suspected vapours may also be present where the ventilating air flow is least
effective.

Personnel trained in using the equipment and with adequate knowledge in understanding the
obtained results should only perform sampling and measurement. It is vital to use the
appropriate instruments because a combustible gas indicator will neither indicate oxygen
deficiency nor the presence of toxic gas or flammable vapour in inert gas. 
Only approved equipment should be used for testing the atmosphere. Such equipment must also
be correctly maintained and prepared for use as per the manufacturer's guidance. Regular
check-tests must be conducted against standard samples.

Even after the atmosphere is checked free of toxic vapours and found to contain enough oxygen,
the presence of local pockets of gas should always be suspected. Tank coatings or residual scale
may contain cargo residues. Even after the removal of loose scale, the possibility of generation
of new vapour should be considered. 

Therefore a person should remain alert to face the possible need to perform further testing when
moving to different areas of a tank or compartment, or moving to the lower part after working in
the upper part.

Cargo Segregation

Isolation method of cargo tanks and piping systems for chemical tankers /product tankers

 The carriage of single parcel cargo in several tanks having a common pipe line system
poses containment problems within each tank and depends upon the tightness of the
single inlet valve. Therefore, it is recommended to have 2 valve separations between the
completed tanks and pressure pipe line. 

 Completed tanks must be checked to ensure the level of cargo regularly.

 It is a requirement that pumps and piping of cargo and venting system are separated
when loading toxic cargoes, in order to prevent contamination and the exposure to crew.

 Many chemical tankers have a common pipe line wherein separation can be done by
inserting blind flanges (blank) in the pipes. When these are used attention should be
made to restore to the original system when segregation is not in use.

 The pipe line arrangement of submerged cargo pumps for chemical tankers consist of
cargo pipe lines and hydraulic pipe lines for providing power for the prime mover of the
pump. 

Cargo Inhibition

In certain conditions of heat, pressure and in the presence of Oxygen, some chemical cargo
types can become viscous and possibly solid and dense in nature. This self reaction can cause
some cargoes, especially in the presence of high temperatures and Oxygen, to begin an
exothermic reaction, becoming self heating and rapidly expanding which may result in possibly
disastrous consequences for the vessel.
As a precaution against this, a chemical inhibitor may be added to prevent the cargo from
bonding with itself, however, one aspect of inhibitors is that they sometimes require Oxygen to
activate them and this means that the tank cannot be inerted.

There are many inhibitor types, most of which are toxic and need to be handled with care.
Usually the inhibitor is added by the Terminal personnel during the loading programme.

Shippers of inhibited cargoes must advise the vessel (and present an inhibitor certificate
onboard prior to loading) of the quantity of inhibitor added, the hazards of the inhibitor, the time
validity of the inhibitor, the temperature parameters within which the inhibitor will work and the
emergency actions should these be exceeded. Masters are to check that the Inhibitor validity is
sufficient for the voyage length.

The temperature of inhibited cargoes must be checked and recorded daily in order to be able to
note any abnormal rise that may indicate either inhibitor failure and/or polymerisation.

Inhibited cargoes often need the presence of some oxygen in the tank atmosphere in order to
permit the inhibitor to work properly. The minimum level of oxygen is usually stated on the
inhibitor certificate but, as a general rule, a cargo containing an inhibitor that needs oxygen
should not be carried in an inerted tank.

Cargo Compatibility

There are various risk factor involved in transporting of dangerous and noxious liquid chemicals
in bulk. Between some chemicals violent reactions may occur if the chemicals are mixed in
certain proportions. The result may possibly be an eruption and tank rupture. Such an
occurrence must be prevented.

Leakages through bulkheads occur at times in any tanker. Normally, however, such leakages are
only minor seepages. They will not cause any violent reaction due to the great disproportion in
mixture from dangerous proportions. Regulations prohibit the placement of inter-reactive
cargoes on both sides of a bulkhead. There must be an empty tank, a cofferdam or a tank with a
cargo neutral to both products in between. 

There must be complete separation of piping systems so that one product cannot inadvertently
be pumped into another. To this effect strategic pipe bends may have to be removed and blind
flanges fitted on each pipe end. Modern chemical tankers will have blind flange valves fitted.
Such a blind flange valve must have a double separation between the products with a drain in
the interspace. A single blind flange is not acceptable. Remember also to separate drain lines or
slop connections to avoid the possibility of cargo mixing.

Atmospheric control

PV Valve
Pressure Vacuum relief valve (P/V valve) – A device that provides for the flow of the small
volumes of vapour, air or inert gas mixtures caused by small thermal variations in the tank – it
lets in air when there is a vacuum created, while it allows the volumes mentioned above to flow
out when there an increase in tank pressure.

P/V Valve

PV Breaker
A liquid-filled pressure vacuum breaker is fitted to prevent excessive pressure or vacuum from
causing structural damage to the cargo tanks. It releases gas when there is excess pressure or
takes in air when there is a vacuum created because of deficient pressure. It is fitted on the
inert gas main line of a tanker.
 P/V breaker (showing pressure relief)

Pressure Vacuum Valves

Design requirement
High velocity vent and vacuum relief valve is designed to protect marine vessel systems,
including cargo tanks, that may be subject to gas/vapour pressure or vacuum outside the design
parameters of the system / tank. This valve is also designed for devices to prevent the passage
of flame into cargo tanks in tankers and to relieve excessive over pressure or under vacuum of
cargo tanks during cargo loading, discharging, ballasting and thermal variations.

PV valves are available on the market in a variety of configurations. These valves, however, are
designed to vent gas rather than liquid at full-loading rates. The limitation can be overcome with
a piping design, so that any liquid overflowing one tank and entering a gas exhaust header can
flow down into a tank that is not being loaded. Even if this contaminates one cargo with a
different one, the cost of reprocessing the contaminated cargo should be considerably lower than
the costs of potential damages and cleanup of a major spill.

Main factors for sizing of PV valve

Tank venting systems should be designed and operated so as to ensure that neither pressure
nor vacuum created in the cargo tanks during or unloading exceeds tank design parameters. The
main factors to be considered in the sizing of a tank venting system are as follows:

 Design loading and unloading rate ;

 Gas evolution during loading : this should be taken account of by multiplying the
maximum loading rate by a factor of at least 1.25 ;
  Density of the cargo vapour mixture ;

 Pressure loss in vent piping and across valves and fittings ;

 Pressure / vacuum settings of relief devices.

Gas Testing

Use of various Instruments to Check the Gases in a Compartment

Gas Detection Instrument (Portable) 

Portable or personal gas detectors are sophisticated instruments that are effective, simple to use
and easy to maintain. They are used by ship’s crew, repairers, surveyors and emergency service
personnel. 

Normally every person entering an enclosed space is required to have his personal gas
measuring instrument to check the levels of hazardous gases and oxygen; if this is not possible
due to the number of persons entering the space, the instrument should be given to the leader
of the team. The meters must be calibrated periodically as per maker’s instructions. The alarms
on the personal gas monitor must be set in accordance with the regulations.

The various meters are:

 Oxygen content meter/analyzer

 Explosimeter

 Tankscope

 Multi-gas detector

Material safety data sheet

(MSDS)
Contents

 SECTION 1: Identification of the substance/mixture and of the company/undertaking

 Product identifier

 Relevant identified uses of the substance or mixture and uses advised against

 Details of the supplier of the safety data sheet

 Emergency telephone number

 SECTION 2: Hazards identification

 Classification of the substance or mixture

 Label elements

 Other hazards

 SECTION 3: Composition/information on ingredients

 Substances

 Mixtures

 SECTION 4: First aid measures

 Description of first aid measures

 Most important symptoms and effects, both acute and delayed

 Indication of any immediate medical attention and special treatment needed

 SECTION 5: Firefighting measures

 Extinguishing media

 Special hazards arising from the substance or mixture

 Advice for firefighters

 SECTION 6: Accidental release measure

 Personal precautions, protective equipment and emergency procedures

 Environmental precautions

 Methods and material for containment and cleaning up

 Reference to other sections

 SECTION 7: Handling and storage

 Precautions for safe handling

 Conditions for safe storage, including any incompatibilities

 Specific end use(s)

 SECTION 8: Exposure controls/personal protection

 Control parameters

 Exposure controls

 SECTION 9: Physical and chemical properties

 Information on basic physical and chemical properties

 Other information

 SECTION 10: Stability and reactivity

 Reactivity

 Chemical stability

 Possibility of hazardous reactions

 Conditions to avoid

 Incompatible materials

 Hazardous decomposition products

 SECTION 11: Toxicological information

 Information on toxicological effects

 SECTION 12: Ecological information

 Toxicity

 Persistence and degradability

 Bioaccumulative potential

 Mobility in soil

 Results of PBT and vPvB assessment

 Other adverse effects

 SECTION 13: Disposal considerations

 Waste treatment methods

 SECTION 14: Transport information

 UN number

 UN proper shipping name

 Transport hazard class(es)

 Packing group
  Environmental hazards

 Special precautions for user

 Transport in bulk according to Annex II of MARPOL73/78 and the IBC Code

 SECTION 15: Regulatory information

 Safety, health and environmental regulations/legislation specific for the substance or

mixture

 Chemical safety assessment

SECTION 16: Other information

Safety

Specific Learning Objectives

After going through this topic, student should be able to,

 Describe the gas measuring equipment used on tankers and their application on tankers

 Describe the use of safety equipment and PPE on tankers

 Know the safe working practices and procedures for tankers

 Know the first-aid requirements on board tankers as per the advisory provided by the
cargo MSDS

Introduction
The topic of safety is perhaps the most important of all areas of knowledge in tanker operation.
Thus, this topic is further subdivided into subtopics, all related to safety equipment, safety
procedures and safe working practices. The cargo carried on tankers are dangerous liquids and
each one of these present many hazards to human health and environment. And, with all safety
precautions, accidents still happen and ship's crew must also have to deal with any incidental
injuries on board. The ship's crew must practice the safety drills and be inculcate work safety
habits, wearing appropriate personal protective device. The gas monitoring equipment provides
the early indication, if an enclosed space, such as a ship's cargo tank is safe to enter, or remains
in a condition which is safe for work; thus, the maintenance of the gas monitoring and oxygen
analysing equipment and other tank protection devices are kept in good working order.
Remember, one small mistake or error of judgment can cause catastrophic disasters including
loss of life and damage to the environment.

Gas Measuring Instruments 

Specific Learning Objectives

After going through this topic, student should be able to,

 Understand the Function and use of gas measuring and similar instruments
  Describe the measuring device and equipment used on tank ship

 Explain the working principles of Oxygen Analyzer, Explosimeter, Combustible Gas

Indicator, Multigas detector, Tankscope, Toxicity Detectors

Introduction
We will discuss the principles, uses and limitations of portable instruments for measuring
concentrations of hydrocarbon gas (in inerted and non-inerted atmospheres), other toxic gases
and oxygen. Certain fixed installations are also described. For detailed information on the use of
all instruments, reference should always be made to the manufacturer’s instructions and the
product’s MSDS. It is essential that any instrument used is:

 Suitable for the test required.

 Sufficiently accurate for the test required.

 Of an approved type.

 Correctly maintained.

 Frequently checked against standard samples.

Measurement of Hydrocarbon Concentration

The measurement of hydrocarbon vapors on tankers and at terminals falls into two categories:

The measurement of hydrocarbon gas in air at concentrations below the Lower Flammable Limit
(LFL). 

 This is to detect the presence of flammable (and potentially explosive) vapors and to
detect concentrations of hydrocarbon vapor that may be harmful to personnel. 

 The instruments used to measure % LFL are Catalytic Filament Combustible Gas (CFCG)
Indicators, which are usually referred to as Flammable Gas Monitors or Explosimeters 

 A CFCG Indicator should not be used for measuring hydrocarbon gas in inert atmospheres.

 These readings are expressed as a percentage of the Lower Flammable Limit (LFL) and
are usually recorded as % LFL. 

The measurement of hydrocarbon gas as a percentage by volume of the total atmosphere being
measured. 

 On board a tanker, this is usually carried out to measure the percentage of hydrocarbon
vapor in an oxygen deficient (inerted) atmosphere. 

 The readings obtained are expressed as the percentage of hydrocarbon vapor by volume
and are recorded as % Vol.
  Instruments used to measure hydrocarbon vapors in an inert gas atmosphere are specially
developed for this purpose. 

 Non-Catalytic Heated Filament Gas Indicators (usually referred to as Tankscopes) 

 Refractive Index Meters. 

 Electronic instrument using infra-red sensors with the same function as the Tankscope.

The following media explains about the Combustible Gas Indicators - Catalytic
Instruments

Flammable Gas Monitors (Explosimeters)

Explosimeter
The explosimeter is a device that is used to determine the content of hydrocarbon in the
atmosphere of a pump room or tank spaces on ships. The scale used in the explosimeter is
marked in terms of lower explosive or flammable limit and as a percentage of the lower limit
(LEL). The scale may also be marked in parts per million (p.p.m).

Lower flammable limit (LFL) or Lower Explosive Limit (LEL), is

usually expressed in volume per cent, is the lower end of the concentration range over which a
flammable mixture of gas or vapor in air can be ignited at a given temperature and pressure.
The upper end of the concentration range is called the Upper flammable limit (UFL).
Explosimeter

The explosimeter works on the principle of Wheatstone bridge, (A Wheatstone bridge is an

electrical circuit used to measure an unknown electrical resistance by balancing two legs of a
bridge circuit) one leg of which includes the unknown component. The Wheatstone bridge is
supplied with a battery and there is no flow of current through the meter when the bridge
resistance is balanced. 

One resistance is a hot filament in a combustion chamber. An aspirator bulb and flexible tube
are used to draw a gas sample into the chamber. The gas will burn in the presence of the red
hot filament causing the temperature of the filament to rise. Rise of temperature increases the
resistance of the filament and this change of filament resistance unbalances the bridge. The
current flow registers on the meter which is scaled in percentage of LFL or ppm.

A lean mixture will burn in the combustion chamber, because of the filament. False readings are
likely when oxygen content of the sample is low or when inert gas is present. The instrument is
designed for detecting vapor in a range up to the lower flammable limit and with large
percentages of gas (rich mixture) a false zero reading may also be obtained.

The instrument and batteries must be tested before use and samples are taken from as many
places as possible particularly from the tank bottom for accurate results.

Note a reading of 100% and above

indicates that the space is explosive, while a reading between 60 and 100% indicates that the
atmosphere is approaching the Lower explosive limit when the tank atmosphere would become
flammable.
Explosimeter (circuit)

Flammable Gas Monitors - Pellistor type

Flammable Gas Monitors (Explosimeters): Modern flammable gas monitors (Explosimeters)

have a poison resistant flammable pellistor as the sensing element. Pellistors rely on the
presence of oxygen (minimum 11% by volume) to operate efficiently and for this reason
flammable gas monitors should not be used for measuring hydrocarbon gas in inert
atmospheres.

Operating Principle: A simplified diagram of the electrical circuit incorporating a pellistor in a

Wheatstone Bridge is shown below. Unlike early Explosimeters, the pellistor unit balances the
voltage and zeros the display automatically when the instrument is switched on in fresh air. In
general, it takes about 30 seconds for the pellistor to reach its operating temperature. However,
the operator should always refer to the manufacturer’s instructions for the start up procedure.  A
gas sample may be taken in several ways:

 Diffusion.

 Hose and aspirator bulb (one squeeze equates to about 1 metre of hose length).

 Motorised pump (either internal or external).

Flammable vapours are drawn

through a sintered filter (flashback arrestor) into the pellistor combustion chamber. Within the
chamber are two elements, the Detector and the Compensator. This pair of elements is heated
to between 400 and 600ºC. When no gas is present, the resistances of the two elements are
balanced and the bridge will produce a stable baseline signal. When combustible gases are
present, they will catalytically oxidise on the detector element causing its temperature to rise.
This oxidation can only take place if there is sufficient oxygen present. The difference in
temperature compared to the compensator element is shown as % LEL. The reading is taken
when the display is stable. Modern units will indicate on the display when the gas sample has
exceeded the LEL.

Simplified diagram of a flammable gas monitor incorporating a pellistor

Care should be taken to ensure that liquid is not drawn into the instrument. The use of an in-line
water trap and a float probe fitted to the end of the aspirator hose should prevent this
occurrence. Most manufacturers offer these items as accessories.

Please Note: Only cotton filters should be used to remove solid particles or liquid from the gas
sample when hydrocarbons are being measured. Water traps may be used to protect the
instrument where the sampled gas may be very wet. Guidelines on the use of filters and traps
will be found in the operating manual for the instrument.  

Cautions - Poisons and Inhibitors: Some compounds can reduce the sensitivity of the
pellistor.

 Poisons - these are compounds that can permanently affect the performance of the
pellistor and include silicone vapours and organic lead compounds.

 Inhibitors - these compounds act in a very similar way to poisons, except that the reaction
is reversible. Inhibitors include hydrogen sulphide, freons and chlorinated hydrocarbons. If
the presence of hydrogen sulphide is suspected, this should be tested for before any
measurements of hydrocarbon vapours are carried out. 

Pressure: Pellistor type instruments should not have their sensors subjected to pressure as this
will damage the pellistor. Such pressurisation may occur when testing for gas in the following
conditions:

 Inert gas under high pressure or at high velocity, such as from a purge pipe or high
velocity vent.

 Hydrocarbon gas mixtures at high velocity in vapour lines or from a high velocity vent. 

The above is also relevant when using multi-gas instruments. For example, when an infrared
sensor is being utilised for taking a % Vol gas reading, any pellistor sensor in the instrument
may suffer damage if the inlet gas stream into the instrument is at a pressure or has a high
velocity.
Condensation: The performance of pellistors may be temporarily affected by condensation. This
can occur when the instrument is taken into a humid atmosphere after it has been in an air
conditioned environment. Time should be allowed for instruments to acclimatise to the operating
temperature before they are used.

Combustible Mists: Pellistor instruments will not indicate the presence of combustible mists
(such as lubricating oils) or dusts.

Instrument Calibration and Check Procedures: The instrument is set up in the factory to be

calibrated using a specific hydrocarbon gas/air mixture. The hydrocarbon gas that should be
used for calibration and testing should be indicated on a label fixed to the instrument. 

Precision of Measurement: The response of the instrument depends upon the composition of

the hydrocarbon gas being tested and, in practice, this composition is not known. By using
propane or butane as the calibration gas for an instrument being used on tankers carrying
stabilised crude oil or petroleum products, the readings provided may be slightly in error by
giving a slightly high reading. This ensures that any reading indicated will be “on the safe
side”. Factors that can affect the measurements are large changes in ambient temperature and
excessive pressure of the tank atmosphere being tested, leading to high flow rates which in turn
affect the pellistor temperature. The use of dilution tubes, which enable catalytic filament
indicators to measure concentrations in over rich hydrocarbon gas/air mixtures, is not
recommended.

Operational Features: Older instruments are fitted with flashback arresters in the inlet and
outlet of the detector filament chamber. The arresters are essential to prevent the possibility of
flame propagation from the combustible chamber and a check should always be made to ensure
that they are in place and fitted properly. Modern pellistor type instruments have sintered filters
usually built into the pellistor body. Some authorities require, as a condition of their approval,
that PVC covers be fitted around meters with aluminium cases to avoid the risk of incendive
sparking if the case strikes rusty steel.
Non-Catalytic Heated Filament Gas Indicators

The working of catalytic gas indicator depends on the property of its combustion with air. Since
the inerted atmosphere is deficient in oxygen the catalytic gas indicators cannot be used in
inerted atmospheres. Instruments used in inerted atmosphere have a filament sensitive to the
variations in the heat conductivity. These meters are good for monitoring inerting operations.

Operating Principle
The sensing element of this instrument is usually a non-catalytic hot filament. The composition
of the surrounding gas determines the rate of loss of heat from the filament, and hence its
temperature and resistance.

The sensor filament forms one arm of a Wheatstone Bridge. The initial zeroing operation
balances the bridge and establishes the correct voltage across the filament, thus ensuring the
correct operating temperature. During zeroing, the sensor filament is purged with air or inert gas
that is free from hydrocarbons. As in the Explosimeter, there is a second identical filament in
another arm of the bridge which is kept permanently in contact with air and which acts as a
compensator filament.

The presence of hydrocarbon changes the resistance of the sensor filament and this is shown by
a deflection on the bridge meter. The rate of heat loss from the filament is a non-linear function
of hydrocarbon concentration and the meter scale reflects this non-linearity. The meter gives a
direct reading of % volume hydrocarbons.
When using the instrument, the manufacturer’s detailed instructions should always be followed.
After the instrument has been initially set at zero with fresh air in contact with the sensor
filament, a sample is drawn into the meter by means of a rubber aspirator bulb. The bulb should
be operated until the meter pointer comes to rest on the scale (usually within 15-20 squeezes)
then aspirating should be stopped and the final reading taken. It is important that the reading
should be taken with no flow through the instrument and with the gas at normal atmospheric
pressure.

The non-catalytic filament is not affected by gas concentrations in excess of its working scale.
The instrument reading goes off the scale and remains in this position as long as the filament is
exposed to the rich gas mixture.

Instrument Check Procedures

The checking of a non-catalytic heated filament instrument requires the provision of gas
mixtures of a known total hydrocarbon concentration. The carrier gas may be air, nitrogen or
carbon dioxide or a mixture of these. Since this type of instrument may be required to measure
accurately either low concentrations (1%-3% by volume) or high concentrations (greater than
10% by volume) it is desirable to have either two test mixtures, say 2% and 15% by volume, or
one mixture between these two numbers, say 8% by volume. Test gas mixtures may be
obtained in small aerosol type dispensers or small pressurized gas cylinders, or may be prepared
in a special test kit.

Precision of Measurement
Correct response from these instruments is achieved only when measuring gas concentrations in
mixtures for which the instrument has been calibrated and which remain gaseous at the
temperature of the instrument.

Relatively small deviations from normal atmospheric pressure in the instrument produce
significant differences in the indicated gas concentration. If a space that is under elevated
pressure is sampled, it may be necessary to detach the sampling line from the instrument and
allow the sample pressure to equalize with the atmosphere pressure.

Tankscope

A tankscope is an instrument used to measure the hydrocarbon content by percentage volume in

a given atmosphere. 

It can measure HC content in an inerted atmosphere which makes it very useful in an oil tanker.
 A heated filament shows alteration in temperature and
enhances the change of resistance. This change in resistance is measured and translated to
display the content of HC present.

It is a special instrument for a specific application. It contains a thermal conductivity sensor that
can detect hydrocarbon gas in an inerted atmosphere. It is used in cargo tanks onboard oil
tankers. 

The gas from the sample cools the sensor filament resulting in an imbalance in proportion to the
concentration. This imbalance is measured and instantly displayed as percentage hydrocarbon.

The instrument is easy to use. Turn the on/off switch, and then carry out the zero adjustment
using the knob provided while sampling fresh air. Now introduce the sampling tube into the tank
and squeeze the aspirator bulb to sample the atmosphere in the tank.

It is normally powered by ‘D’ cell batteries and can operate continuously for 24 hours. The
instrument is built for rugged use; it is housed in a shock-proof casing and is waterproof.

The lid is hinged so that it falls flat along the back of the case. This gives easy access to the
controls and the display is backlit for low light conditions.

The following are the salient features of a tankscope as given by one of the manufacturers:

 Shock-proof, waterproof made of stainless steel

 Specially designed with full hinges for easy access to controls

 Backlighting for display to easily read under low lighting

  Automatic Off function for power saving when lid closed

 Hands-free operation using neck and waist straps

 Particularly designed for use onboard ships

 Limited controls with only one switch and one knob

 Simple to calibrate

 Quick and easy replacement of battery and filament

 More flexibility using accessories.

Tank Scope
A Tankscope is a device used for measurement of hydrocarbon gas in inerted atmospheres. 

This instrument is not as sensitive as the explosimeter. The reading it gives is expressed as a
percentage of the volume of the hydrocarbon vapour present. It is used to detect the presence
of hydrocarbon vapor during inerting / purging of tank with inert gas prior gas freeing operations
when Oxygen content in the atmosphere is low.

It is to be used purely to measure the volume of the hydrocarbon vapors present inside any
enclosed space, and is not meant for measuring for man-entry.

It uses the same principle as that of an explosimeter except that the gas does not burn inside
the sample chamber (as oxygen is insufficient or not present); instead it measures hydrocarbon
content by the detection of an alteration in the temperature of the heated filament which
enhances the change in resistance (filament is heated by the instrument battery and it cools
when the hydrocarbon gas passes through it). 
 This
change in resistance gives the percentage of hydrocarbon vapors present in the compartment.

Tankscope

Interferometer

Operating Principle
An interferometer is an optical device that utilizes the difference between the refractive indices
of the gas sample and air. 

In this type of instrument, a beam of light is divided into two and these are then recombined at
the eyepiece. The recombined beams exhibit an interference pattern that appears to the
observer as a number of dark lines in the eyepiece.

One light path is via chambers filled with air. The other path is via chambers through which the
sample gas is pumped. Initially, the latter chambers are filled with air and the instrument is
adjusted so that one of the dark lines coincides with the zero line on the instrument scale. If a
gas mixture is then pumped into the sample chambers, the dark lines are displaced across the
scale by an amount proportional to the change of refractive index.
The displacement is measured by noting the new position on the scale of the line that was used
initially to zero the instrument. The scale may be calibrated in concentration units or it may be
an arbitrary scale whose readings are converted to the required units by a table or graph. The
response of the instrument is linear and a one-point test with a standard mixture at a known
concentration is sufficient for checking purposes.

The instrument is normally calibrated for a particular hydrocarbon gas mixture. As long as the
use of the instrument is restricted to the calibration gas mixture, it provides accurate
measurements of gas concentrations.

The measurement of the concentration of hydrocarbon gas in an inerted atmosphere is affected

by the carbon dioxide present when flue gas is used for inerting. In this case, the use of soda
lime as an absorbent for carbon dioxide is recommended, provided the reading is corrected
appropriately.

The refractive index meter is not affected by gas concentrations in excess of its scale range. The
instrument reading goes off the scale and remains in this position as long as the gas chambers
are filled with the gas mixture.

Instrument Check Procedures

A mixture of known hydrocarbon, e.g. propane in nitrogen at a known concentration, should be
used to check the instrument. If the hydrocarbon test gas differs from the original calibration
gas, the indicated reading should be multiplied by the appropriate correction factor before
judging the accuracy and stability of the instrument.

Infra-red (IR) Instruments

Operating Principle
The infra-red (IR) sensor is a transducer for the measurement of the concentration of
hydrocarbons in the atmosphere, by the absorption of infra-red radiation.

The vapour to be monitored reaches the measuring chamber by diffusion or by means of a

pump. Infra-red light radiation from the light source shines through a window into the chamber,
is reflected and focused by the spherical mirror, and then passes through another window and
hits the beam splitter. The portion of the radiation that passes through the beam splitter passes
through a broadband interference filter (measuring filter) into the housing cover of the
measuring detector, and is converted into an electric signal.
The portion of the radiation reflected by the beam splitter passes through the reference filter to
reach the reference detector.

If the gas mixture in the chamber contains hydrocarbons, a part of the radiation is absorbed in
the wavelength range of the measurement filter, and a reduced electric signal is given. At the
same time, the signal of the reference detector remains unchanged. Gas concentration is
determined by comparing the relative values of the reference detector and the measuring
detector.

Differences in the output of the IR light source, dirt on mirrors and windows as well as dust of
aerosols contained in the air have an identical effect on both detectors and are therefore
compensated.

Instrument Check Procedures

This instrument should be checked using a check gas of a known mixture of hydrocarbons. The
IR sensor does not require the presence of air or inert gas in the gas concentration, as it is
reliant solely on the hydrocarbon molecules. In general, these instruments are very stable and
require little maintenance. Calibration should be checked frequently in accordance with the
manufacturer’s instructions and ship’s Safety Management System procedures.

Measurement of Low Concentrations of Toxic Gases

Chemical Indicator Tubes

Probably the most convenient and suitable equipment for measuring very low concentrations of
toxic gases on board tankers are chemical indicator tubes.

Measurement errors may occur if several gases are present at the same time, as one gas can
interfere with the measurement of another. The instrument manufacturer’s operating
instructions should always be consulted prior to testing such atmospheres.

Chemical indicator tubes consist of a sealed glass tube containing a proprietary filling which is
designed to react with a specific gas and to give a visible indication of the concentration of that
gas. To use the device, the seals at each end of the glass tube are broken, the tube is inserted in
a bellows-type fixed volume displacement hand pump, and a prescribed volume of gas mixture is
drawn through the tube at a rate fixed by the rate of expansion of the bellows. A color change
occurs along the tube and the length of discoloration, which is a measure of the gas
concentration, is read off a scale integral to the tube.

In some versions of these instruments, a hand operated injection syringe is used instead of a
bellows pump.

It is important that all the components used for any measurement should be from the same
manufacturer. It is not permissible to use a tube from one manufacturer with a hand pump from
another manufacturer. It is also important that the manufacturer’s operating instructions are
carefully observed.

Since the measurement depends on passing a fixed volume of gas through the glass tube, any
use of extension hoses should be in strict accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions.

The tubes are designed and intended to measure concentrations of gas in the air. As a result,
measurements made in a ventilated tank, in preparation for tank entry, should be reliable.

For each type of tube, the manufacturers must guarantee the standards of accuracy laid down in
national standards. Tanker operators should consult the ship’s flag administration for guidance
on acceptable equipment.

Draeger–Tube System

The most commonly used multi gas detector onboard ship is the Draeger–tube system. Glass
vials known as Draeger tubes are filled with chemical reagents. The reagents in the tube react
with a specific chemical or a family of chemicals. A specific volume of the atmosphere is drawn
through the tube using an aspirator bellow pump designed for the purpose. The reagent in the
tube changes color if the targeted gas is present and the length of color change indicated the
concentration of the gas.

The pump used in the Draeger tube system is an accuro pump which requires no lubrication as
opposed to the piston pump. The pump itself is built to resist corrosion and harsh chemical
environments.

The results obtained using the Draeger

tubes are highly accurate. Many tubes can show a standard deviation of +/-10% in the results.
It is most important to control the volume of the sample of atmosphere passing through the
tube to prevent excessive deviation in the readings.

The reagents used in the Draeger tubes are specific to the gas to be measured. Sometimes, pre-
layers are used to filter other inferring gases so that only the targeted gas is measured
accurately.

The tube-system is one of the easiest to read. The wider the tube, the easier it is to read the gas
concentration. The color change over the length of the tube can be read off from the graduations
usually in ppm.

There are over 200 different tubes for measuring some 500 different gases.

Draeger Instrument
The Draeger instrument is used to detect targeted gases and vapors, using detector tubes that
are filled with a reagent (a substance or mixture for use in chemical analysis or other reactions).
Each tube is very specific to the type of gas to be detected (there are several tubes, one for
each gas that is to be detected), so care has to be taken to ensure that correct tube is used for
the particular type of gas.

The Draeger instrument consists of a portable bellows pump and detector tubes, described
above. The detector tube is a vial filled with the specific reagent that will react with the gas to be
detected, when exposed to the gas in the detection environment. The tubes are sealed when
delivered for use.

In order to use it we have to break the two ends of the tube and insert it into the pump
according to the directions mentioned on the tube. Now start pumping 3-4 times (or as specified
by the manufacturer) to suck in the particular gas from the atmosphere that is to be tested.

If the atmosphere contains that particular gas or vapor, then the color of the tube will change.
The length of the color change can be read from the tube and compared to obtain the
concentration level of that particular gas or vapor in parts per million can be ascertained.

Gases that the Draeger instrument can be used detect include carbon monoxide, chlorine,
hydrogen sulfide, organic arsenic compounds, arsine, and phosphoric acid esters, hydrocarbons,
among others.

An extension hose is provided to measure the concentration of vapor present at various places in

a compartment that may not be accessible. When using the tubes with the hose, insert one end
of the hose into the pump, the tube is inserted at the other end, the hose is then laid out to the
place in the compartment where the gas is to be detected. The pump is then used to suck the
gas.

Electrochemical Sensors

Electrochemical sensors are based on the fact that cells can be constructed that react with the
measured gas and generate an electric current. This current can be measured and the amount of
gas determined. The sensors are low cost and are small enough to allow several to be
incorporated into the same instrument, making them suitable for use in multi-gas detectors.

There are numerous electrochemical sensors available covering a number of gases which may be
present in the shipboard environment, such as ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, carbon monoxide,
carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide.
Electrochemical sensors can be used in stand-alone instruments, which may provide a warning
at a predetermined concentration of vapor, or they can be fitted in a multi-sensor instrument to
provide a reading of the concentration of the vapor, usually in parts per million (ppm).

These sensors may give erroneous readings due to cross-sensitivity. This occurs, for example,
when measuring toxic gases with hydrocarbon gases present, for example H 2S in the presence of
nitric oxide and sulfur dioxide.

Fixed Gas Detection Installations

Fixed gas detection installations have become a requirement if the ship is over 20000 DWT, and
are used on  petroleum tankers to monitor the flammability of the atmosphere in spaces such as
double hull spaces, pump rooms and pipe tunnels in double bottoms.

Three general arrangements have been developed for fixed monitoring installations, as follows:

 Sensing devices distributed throughout the spaces to be monitored. Signals are taken
sequentially from each sensor by a central control.

 A gas measurement system installed in the central control room. Samples of the
atmospheres to be checked are drawn sequentially, usually by vacuum pump, through
sample lines to the central gas measurement system. It is important to ensure that there
is no leakage of air into the system as that would dilute the samples and cause misleading
readings.

 Infra-red sensors located in the space being monitored with the electronics necessary for
processing the signals located in a safe location, usually the central control room.

Fixed gas detection units are usually fitted as a means of detecting leakage and not for gas
testing prior to entry. Gas testing for entry should only be carried out using equipment that has
been calibrated and tested and that has appropriate indicator scales. Some fixed gas detection
units do meet these criteria.

Measurement of Oxygen Concentrations

Portable oxygen analyzers are normally used to determine whether the atmosphere inside an
enclosed space (cargo tank for example) may be considered fully inerted or safe for entry. Fixed
oxygen analyzers are used for monitoring the oxygen content of the boiler uptakes and the inert
gas main.
The following are the most common types of oxygen analyzers in use:

 Paramagnetic sensors.

 Electrochemical sensors.

All analyzers, regardless of type, should be used strictly in accordance with the manufacturer’s
instructions. If so used, and subject to the limitations listed below, the analyzers may be
regarded as reliable.

Oxygen Analyzer

The oxygen analyser is an instrument that measures the oxygen content in a compartment. It
can be used to check whether the oxygen content is 5% or below, to check if the tank is inerted
or if it is 21% for the purpose of man entry.

Many types of oxygen analyzers are in use across industries. It is a very important instrument
on board ships for enclosed space entry and inerting procedures. There are many manufacturers
and models for the oxygen analyzer. The most commonly used type on ships is the one that
uses the paramagnetic property of the gas. Paramagnetism is the property of a substance to be
attracted towards a magnetic field. So the principle of working of the oxygen analyzer is based
on the paramagnetic property of oxygen gas.

Measurement of Oxygen Concentrations: Portable oxygen analyzers are normally used to

determine whether the atmosphere inside an enclosed space (cargo tank for example) may be
considered fully inerted or safe for entry. Fixed oxygen analyzers are used for monitoring the
oxygen content of the inert gas main. The following are the most common types of oxygen
analyzers in use:

 Paramagnetic sensors.

 Electrochemical sensors.

All analyzers, regardless of type, should be used strictly in accordance with the manufacturer’s
instructions. If so used, and subject to the limitations listed below, the analyzers may be
regarded as reliable.
 Oxygen analyser (circuit)

Use of Oxygen Analysers- Paramagnetic Sensors: Oxygen is strongly paramagnetic (i.e. it

is attracted by the poles of a magnet but does not retain any permanent magnetism) whereas
most other common gases are not. This property means that oxygen content can be measured
in a wide variety of gas mixtures.  

One commonly used oxygen analyser of the paramagnetic type has a sample cell in which a
lightweight body is suspended in a magnetic field. When sample gas is drawn through the cell,
the suspended body experiences a torque proportional to the magnetic susceptibility of the gas.
An electric current passing through a coil wound around the suspended body produces an equal
and opposing torque. The equalising current is a measure of the magnetic force and is thus a
measure of the magnetic susceptibility of the sample, i.e. related to its oxygen content.  

Before use, the analyser should be tested with air for a reference point of 21% oxygen and with
nitrogen or span gas for a 0% oxygen reference point.

Please Note: Releasing nitrogen or carbon dioxide in a confined or unventilated area can lower
the concentration of oxygen to a level that is immediately dangerous to life or health. Calibration
should therefore only be carried out in well ventilated areas.  

The analyser readings are directly proportional to the pressure in the measuring cell. The unit is
calibrated to a specific atmospheric pressure and the small error due to atmospheric pressure
variations can be corrected if required. Continuous samples should be supplied to the instrument
by positive pressure. They should not be drawn through the analyzer by negative pressure as
the measuring pressure then becomes uncertain.
The filter should be cleaned or replaced when an increase in sample pressure is required to
maintain a reasonable gas flow through the analyzer. The same effect is produced if the filter
becomes wet due to insufficient gas drying. The need for filter cleaning or replacement should be
checked regularly.

Electrochemical Sensors: Analyzers of this type determine the oxygen content of a gas

mixture by measuring the output of an electrochemical cell. In one commonly used analyzer,
oxygen diffuses through a membrane into the cell, causing current to flow between two special
electrodes separated by a liquid or gel electrolyte.

The current flow is related to the oxygen concentration in the sample and the scale is arranged
to give a direct indication of oxygen content. The cell may be housed in a separate sensor head
connected by cable to the read out unit. The analyzer readings are directly proportional to the
pressure in the measuring cell, but only small errors are caused by normal variations in
atmospheric pressure.

Certain gases may affect the sensor and give rise to false readings. Sulfur dioxide and oxides of
nitrogen interfere if they are present in concentrations of more than 0.25% by volume.
Mercaptans and hydrogen sulfide can poison the sensor if their levels are greater than 1% by
volume. This poisoning does not occur immediately but over a period of time; a poisoned sensor
drifts and cannot be calibrated in air. In such cases, reference should be made to the
manufacturer’s instructions.

Maintenance, Calibration and Test Procedures: As these oxygen analyzers are of vital

importance, they should have a valid calibration certificate and should be tested strictly in
accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions before use. It is essential that, each time an
instrument is to be used, a check is made of batteries (if fitted) and zero point (21% oxygen)
setting. During use, frequent checks should be made to ensure accurate readings are obtained at
all times. Testing is simple on all analyzers using atmospheric air to test the reference point
(21% oxygen) and an inert gas to test the 0% oxygen reference point (nitrogen or span gas).  

In the gas cargo tanks the content of oxygen needs to be checked regularly so that lack of
oxygen may not create any trouble during man entry. Checking the presence of oxygen in the
tank atmosphere is done using oxygen analyzers.
There are two resistance wires made of platinum each exposed to a different chamber. An
artificially created magnetic field surrounds one chamber. The first chamber contains the sample
of atmosphere that needs to be monitored along with the magnetic field and the second
chamber contains the same sample of atmosphere but without the magnetic field.

A Wheatstone bridge circuit is formed using the two wires. It is used to measure a resistance by
balancing two legs of the circuit.

The sample of atmosphere is filtered and passed through a diffuser before reaching the two
chambers. One chamber is with a magnetic field and the other without a magnetic field. A
difference in the thermal conductivity of the oxygen with respect to air is developed and this
causes an imbalance in the resistance. The degree of this imbalance is measured and translated
to the percentage by volume content of oxygen in the sampled atmosphere.

The following media explains about the Oxygen Analyzers

There are several types of Oxygen analysers but the one described below uses a Zirconia sensor.

Zirconia oxygen analyzers determine oxygen concentration using the conductivity of a zirconia
ceramic cell. Zirconia ceramic cells only allow oxygen ions to pass through at high
temperatures. 
 With reference gas on one side and sample gas on the other, oxygen
ions move from the side with the highest concentration of oxygen to that with the lowest
concentration. The movement of ions generates an EMF (Electro Motive Force) which can be
measured to determine the oxygen content.
Oxygen Analyser

Multi-Gas Instruments

Multi-gas instruments are now widely used and are usually capable of housing four different
sensors. A typical configuration would comprise sensors for measuring:

 Hydrocarbon vapor as a % LFL (explosimeter function using a pellistor sensor).

 Hydrocarbon vapor in inert gas as a % Volume (tankscope function using an infra-red

sensor).

 Oxygen (using an electrochemical sensor).

 Hydrogen Sulfide (using an electrochemical sensor).

Multi-gas instruments should be tested at regular intervals in accordance with the

manufacturer’s instructions.

Multi-gas instruments may be supplied for gas measurement use and be fitted with a data
logging capability, but without an alarm function.

Care should be taken when using multi-gas instruments to check for hydrocarbons in an inerted
atmosphere under pressure as the pellistor within the instrument could be damaged if subjected
to pressure.

Multi-gas instruments should be tested at regular intervals in accordance with the

manufacturer’s instructions. Multi-gas instruments may be supplied for gas measurement use
and be fitted with a data logging capability, but without an alarm function. Care should be taken
when using multi-gas instruments to check for hydrocarbons in an inerted atmosphere under
pressure as the pellistor within the instrument could be damaged if subjected to pressure.

Portable Gas Detector Instrument

There are several portable multi-gas detectors in the market today, produced by companies such
as Draeger and Crowcon. The Crowcon multi–gas detector uses infra-red technology to detect
gases and can detect up-to 5 different gases (simultaneously). It uses a lithium battery as its
power source.

A typical multi-gas detector will be capable of measuring, hydrocarbon vapor as a % of LFL,

hydrocarbon vapor in inert gas as a % of LFL, Oxygen and hydrogen sulfide.

The screen readout of the Crowcon

multi-gas detector is as in the diagram below.
Multi-gas detector

The following media explains about the Toxicity Detectors

Personal Gas Monitors

Multi-gas instruments may be supplied as compact units fitted with an alarm function for
personal protective use during tank entry. These personal monitors are capable of continuously
measuring the content of the atmosphere by diffusion. They usually employ up to four
electrochemical sensors and should automatically provide an audible and visual alarm when the
atmosphere becomes unsafe, thereby giving the wearer adequate warning of unsafe conditions.
Disposable personal gas monitors are now available. They usually provide protection against a
single gas and are available for low oxygen level, and high concentrations of hydrocarbons and
other toxic vapors. The units should provide both audible and visual warning at specified levels
of vapor concentration, which should be at or below the TLV-TWA for the monitored vapor.
These monitors typically weigh less than 100 grams and have a life of about 2 years.

Gas Sample Lines and Sampling Procedures

Gas Sample Lines

The material and condition of sample lines can affect the accuracy of gas measurements.

Metal tubes are unsuited to most cargo tank gas measurements and flexible lines should be
used.

The gases from crude oils and many petroleum products are composed essentially of paraffinic
hydrocarbons and there are a number of suitable materials available for flexible sample tubing.
The problem of material selection is more difficult for those gases containing substantial
proportions of aromatic hydrocarbons, in particular xylene. It is recommended that in such cases
suppliers of sample tubing should be asked to provide test data showing the suitability of their
product for the purposes for which it will be employed.

Sample tubing should be resistant to hot wash water.

Sample tubing which is cracked or blocked, or which has become contaminated with cargo
residues, greatly affects instrument readings. Users should check the condition of the tubing
regularly and replace any found to be defective.

In order to prevent liquid from being drawn up the gas sampling line and causing contamination
of the line, manufacturers provide a float termination or a probe termination to prevent the
ingress of liquid. Operators should consider using these fittings, but should be aware of any
limitations on their use to avoid static hazards. 

Filters in Sample Lines

Cotton filters are used to remove water vapor in some hydrocarbon gas meters, of either the
catalytic or non-catalytic filament types, and additional filters are not normally needed. In
extremely wet conditions, e.g. during tank washing, excessive water can be removed from the
gas sample using materials that retain water but do not affect the hydrocarbons. Suitable
materials are granular anhydrous calcium chloride or sulfate. If required, soda asbestos
selectively retains hydrogen sulfide without affecting the hydrocarbons. However, it also retains
carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide and should not be used in tanks inerted with scrubbed flue
gas.

Water traps are often used in modern gas measurement instruments. These utilize  a
Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) membrane that prevents liquid and moisture passing onto the
sensors.

The use of water-retaining filters is essential with oxygen meters, particularly of the
paramagnetic type, because the presence of water vapor in the sample can damage the
measuring cell. Only manufacturer’s recommended filters should be used.

Sampling Procedures

Every tank has ‘dead spots’ where the rate of change of gas concentration during ventilation or
purging is less than the average in the bulk of the tank. The location of these dead spots
depends on the positions of the inlet and outlet through which ventilating air or inert gas is
admitted and expelled and also on the disposition of the structural members in the tank.
Generally, but not invariably, the dead spots are to be found within the tank bottom structure.
The sample line should be long enough to permit sampling in the bottom structure.

Differences in gas concentration between the bulk volume of the tank and the dead spots vary
depending on the operating procedures in use. For example, the powerful water jets produced
by fixed washing machines are excellent mixing devices which tend to eliminate major
differences in gas concentration between one location in the tank and another. Similarly, the
introduction of ventilating air or inert gas as powerful jets directed downwards from the
deckhead produces good mixing and minimizes variations in concentration.

Safety Equipment

Specific Learning Objectives

After going through this topic, student should be able to,

 Describe various types of personal protective equipment on tankers

 Explain the way to use and wear the various types of PPE

 Understand the application of different types of PPE for use on board

 Know the various tank evacuating and rescue equipment that may be used for rescue
operation from tanks and other enclosed spaces
Introduction
The skill and competency in selecting the right PPE and don them in time is probably the
difference in life and death on board a tank ship. This needs continual training and updating your
knowledge on such equipment. Many newer and more sophisticated PPE have been in the
market and much criticism about them being uncomfortable and difficult to maneuver ideas have
largely been overcome with lighter and better materials and also with new design features. You
need the knowledge to know how they work: but you also need to know how to use them in
situations that require their applications. Time and again we still hear crews dying in ship's tanks
due to lack of oxygen or inhaling toxic fumes and lose consciousness etc; all of these were
preventable just with the use of the correct PPE. So, read this topic for your own safety and
safety of your colleagues on board.

Breathing Apparatus

Introduction
The Breathing Apparatus or the BA set as it is commonly known as, forms the standard part of
the fireman's outfit. When used correctly it assists fireman in rescue operation keeping him safe.
The designated fireman in a fire party should regularly practice donning of the BA set so that he
does not miss out any steps during actual fire fighting.

Learning Objectives
On completion of this sub topic, you will be able to

 Demonstrate correct procedure for donning BA set

 Prepare a search and rescue technique for casualty.

Breathing Apparatus or BA
The B.A must be carried before donning, otherwise you will become the casualty and might lead
to loss of your life while fire fighting.

The following media explains about the Compressed Air Breathing Apparatus

BREATHING APPARATUS CONTROL

Prior to entry it is important that each  Breathing apparatus   Breathing apparatus. wearer
reports to control so that the following are recorded:-

 Name

 Cylinder pressure
  Time entering

 Location of team and job in hand.

The average person uses 40 liters of air/minute. However, during physical exercise and the likely
adrenalin flow in an emergency situation this consumption is likely to be much higher, coupled to
this you have the actual fitness levels of the personnel involved. Thus although the theoretical
exit time will have been calculated this could vary quite considerably from the actual time
someone may have. Thus it is the responsibility of the wearer to regularly check the contents of
his pressure gauge.

With this in mind the wearer should allow time to exit the space he is in but also maximize  the
working air available. The working air  is defined as the difference between the full bottle
pressure and the whistle pressure, ie you should be out of the space and in fresh air when your
whistle sounds.

For example:- 300 bar , 9 liter cylinder   ........... Total Time       61 mins

                                                                       Whistle Time    10 mins
                                                                       Working Time   51 mins

                      200 bar, 9 liter cylinder   ........... Total Time       45 mins

                                                                       Whistle Time    10 mins
                                                                       Working Time   35 mins

Thus , you must be thinking about exiting the space when you have used half the working air
i.e.
                    start press.......  ..............    200 bars
                    whistle press      ..............      60 bars
                    Available working press .....   140 bars
                    return to exit....................   130 bars

If a team fails to re-appear at the exit after calculated exit time then rescue team should be sent
in to find them.

BA Donning procedure

The following media explains about the Donning Procedure

SEARCH AND RESCUE TECHNIQUES

Searching for a casualty or for a fire in a space is always hazardous especially if that space is
dark, full of smoke and possibly damaged.

The term search in fire fighting terms means we are able to move through an incident in such a
way that:

 We can enter an area and safely locate hazards

 Follow a known route whether team is familiar with space or not

 Search a complete area with confidence

 Ensure the team can find way back to entry point

 Maintain safety of team to best of our ability.

Left and right hand search is used and in simple terms the principle is to follow our hand against
a bulkhead to guide us through that space. The team must assume that unless any restrictions
are made by OIC then they will go through every door and go up or down every ladder always
keeping the same hand in contact with the bulkhead. It is essential that they do not deviate
from such a path in order to ensure their exit and should any mishap overtake them the
emergency team will find them following the same brief.

THE BA SHUFFLE
Both members of a team will move using this method to ensure the ground is safe ahead before
committing their weight to it. The BA wearer keeps his weight on one foot and then sweeps the
ground ahead in a semi circular motion with his other foot. At the same time he uses his free
hand to sweep above his head and infront to ensure a clear route. No.2 will shuffle along beside
him (DEMONSTRATE).

When opening a door it is always important to ascertain which way the door opens ie towards or
away from you, and then using door or frame as protection in case of backdraft on opening. Only
ever crack open door and keep low until you are sure it is safe to proceed.

SEARCHING OUT
It is important to make a thorough search of an area quickly. To achieve this No1 will maintain
contact with the door frame whilst No2 reaches out as far as possible away from direction of
travel - don’t forget most likely place to find casualty is behind or close to the door! Once the
area around door is clear the team swings around so that No1 has contact with appropriate
bulkhead and No2 remains out towards the middle of the space but always in contact with No1.

TURN ROUND AND RETREAT

When team deem it is time to retreat be means of gauge checking or because they have found
casualty they turn around and follow the other hand out of the incident ie a left hand search in
becomes a right hand search out.

LADDERS AND STAIRWAYS

Both are potentially hazardous to the BA wearer, if possible teams must be made aware of any
during brief prior to entry. You should always go backwards down stairs testing each step prior
to committing your weight. No2 should be guided by No1. When bringing casualty down No1 will
go first and No2 will drag casualty down behind him being guided and supported by No1.

It is vital teams are correctly briefed and are clear which hand search they are to carry out with
any restrictions imposed. The team themselves must take care to follow brief exactly for their
own safety and the safety of those following.All vessels are to carry at least two emergency
escape breathing devices (EEBD) and one spare device within accommodation spaces. The
numbers varies as per administrative (Flag state) requirement. These are marked in fire control
plan.

Tank Evacuating Equipment

Neil Robertson Stretcher

This stretcher is used to ensure stability before and during lifting. The Neil Robertson’s unique
spliced slat design is used in difficult rescue situations when a casualty needs to be lowered or
lifted to safety.

 It is made from spliced, ram-in slats with a tough rot-proof cotton exterior.

 Casualty is held safely in place with buckled cotton straps and regularly spaced eyelets.

 Durable manila support ropes enhance rescuer confidence and help resist chaffing.

 Strong and supportive head restraints offer stability during vertical lifting.
 Neil Robertson Stretcher

Escape respiratory protection

The following media explains about the Fireman's Outfit And Accessories - EEBD

Known as EEBD (emergency escape breathing devices), they provide the wearer with an
independent breathable air supply for a short duration, usually 10 to 15 minutes, enabling the
entrant to get back to the entry point safely if the air quality deteriorates.

(EEBDs provided in fixed places in E/R, ECR, Accommodation and in crew cabins according to
type of ship/ type of cargoes allowed in COF/ flag state requirements. They are used only for
emergency escape of duty personnel from E/R or ECR and personnel from accommodation in
case of fire or release of toxic gas from cargo in to surrounding atmosphere. EEBDs are never
carried to work place or enclosed spaces).

The most common EEBD is the compressed air type but alternatives such as a chemical type are
available. Whatever the preferred option, it must be remembered that EEBDs are designed for
escape purposes only.

Compressed air EEBD fall into two main types.

 The constant flow (or hood type), when activated, delivers a constant flow of air from the
cylinder to a hood which is pulled over the wearer’s head. This is the easiest type to wear
as it requires very little training or knowledge. The user simply opens the bag which
activates the cylinder valve, takes out the hood and pulls it over their head. A constant
flow of air is then delivered to the wearer. The disadvantages are that vision is partially
impaired because of the hood, it’s a bit noisy due to the air feed into the hood and some
wearers may get a feeling of claustrophobia.

 The positive pressure (or facemask type) EEBD uses a facemask in place of the hood.
When activated, and the facemask donned, air is delivered to the wearers facemask ‘on
demand’. This type requires a little more technical ability to use as the seal is made only
when the facemask is in position and secured in place by a head strap.
Both types are similar in size and weight and can be carried either by a loop strap or worn
as a jacket for added comfort and ‘hands free’ operation.

 Chemical EEBDs have the advantage of being smaller and lighter than their compressed
air counterparts but must be stored in sealed containers. Once opened and used, they
must be returned to the manufacturer for re-servicing. They operate on the principle of a
chemical reaction i.e. the CO2 and moisture from your exhaled breath activates the
chemical (KO2) which in turn produces oxygen for the wearer to breathe. Operational
durations vary dependent on the model purchased and can range from 30 to 90 minutes’
usage.
 Harnesses

Wearing a harness for entry into an enclosed space is part of shore legislation in many countries,
but is still a relatively new concept for those at sea. The need for such equipment is apparent
when a rescue is needed. If the casualty is already wearing a harness, essential minutes are
saved by clipping the harness onto the hoist and evacuating the person quickly.

Harnesses come in many designs and are normally worn as part of a fall restraint system. The
type of harness which should be worn are ‘rescue harnesses’.

They are specifically designed to ensure that during vertical extrication operations the person
will lean not more than 10 degrees from the vertical axis: ideal when winching through
restrictive openings such as those encountered on board a vessel. Although they may be
awkward to wear in an enclosed space, they have the added advantage of giving robust lifting
points for manhandling a casualty during horizontal extrication.

Protective Clothing and Equipment

The minimum requirements for lifesaving equipment on board all ships are laid down by national
and international regulations. All equipment should be inspected regularly and kept ready for
immediate use in a dearly marked and accessible place. Practical demonstrations, training and
drills should be regularly undertaken so that personnel become experienced in the use of all
safety equipment and know the location of each item.
 PER
SONAL PROTECTIVE GEAR

 Protective Clothing : Protective clothing is a coverall which protects the body of the crew
member from hazardous substance like hot oil, water, welding spark etc. It is popularly
known as “boiler suit”. This includes conventional or disposable overalls, boiler suits,
aprons, chemical suits thermal wear. The choice of materials includes flame-retardant,
anti-static, chain mail, chemically impermeable, and high-visibility.

 Helmet : The most important part of the human body is the head. It needs utmost
protection which is provided by a hard plastic helmet on the ship. A chin strap is also
provided with the helmet which keeps the helmet on place when there is a trip or fall.

 Safety Shoes : Maximum of the internal space of the ship is utilized by cargo and
machinery, which is made of hard metal and which make it clumsy for crew to walk
around. Safety shoes ensure that nothing happens to the crew member’s feet while
working or walking on board.

 Safety Hand gloves : Different types of hand gloves are provided on board ship. All these
are used in operations wherein it becomes imperative to protect ones hands.  Some of the
gloves provided are heat resistant gloves to work on hot surface, cotton gloves for normal
operation, welding gloves, chemical gloves etc.
  Goggles : Eyes are the most sensitive part of the human body and in daily operations on
ship chances are very high for having an eye injury. Protective glass or goggles are used
for eye protection, whereas welding goggles are used for welding operation which protects
the eyes from high intensity spark.

 Ear Muff/plug : Engine room of the ship produces 110-120 db of sound which is very high
for human ears. Even few minutes of exposure can lead to head ache, irritation and
sometimes partial or full hearing loss. An ear muff or ear plug is used on board ship which
dampens the noise to a bearable decibel value.

 Safety harness : Routine ship operation includes maintenance and painting of high and
elevated surfaces which require crew members to reach areas that are not easily
accessible. To avoid a fall from such heightened area, safety harness is used. Safety
harness is donned by the operator at one end and tied at a strong point on the other end.

 Face mask : Working on insulation surface, painting or carbon cleaning involves minor
hazardous particles which are harmful for human body if inhaled directly. To avoid this,
face mask are provided which acts as shield from hazardous particle.

 Chemical suit : Use of chemicals on board ship is very frequent and some chemicals are
very dangerous when they come in direct contact with human skin. A chemical suit is
worn to avoid such situations.

 Welding shield : Welding is a very common operation on board ship for structural repairs.
A welder is provided with welding shield or mask which protects the eyes from coming in
direct contact with ultraviolet rays of the spark of the weld.

The following media explains about the the Types of PPE to use

Additional notes on work hazards and personal protection equipment/gears

Appropriate protective clothing should be worn as necessary to protect those involved in cargo
operations from the hazards associated with the cargo. The suits, gloves, boots, goggles, face
shields and other items used should be suitable for the cargo. Many plastics become brittle and
crack when subjected to low temperatures, or can be dissolved by the cargo, although clothing
of PVC or similar material is less susceptible to absorption, and should be worn when exposure
to vapor or liquid emissions is involved.
In particular, gloves should be worn when handling cold equipment, valves or slip tubes, face
protection should be worn when there is a danger of liquid emission (e.g. dismantling cargo
equipment, using slip tubes, or sampling) and respiratory protection should be worn during
cargo operations involving toxic or asphyxiating gases.

Cargo vapor may be absorbed into working clothing in sufficient quantities to create a hazard
when taken into accommodation, galley, smoke room etc.

Eyes

Hazards 

Chemical or metal splash, dust, projectiles, gas and vapor, radiation

Options 

Safety spectacles, goggles, face screens, face shields, visors

Note 

Make sure the eye protection chosen has the right combination of impact/dust/splash/molten
metal eye protection for the task and fits the user properly

Head and neck

Hazards 

Impact from falling or flying objects, risk of head bumping, hair getting tangled in machinery,
chemical drips or splash, climate or temperature

Options 

Industrial safety helmets, bump caps, hairnets.

Note
  Some safety helmets incorporate or can be fitted with specially-designed eye or hearing
protection

 Replace head protection if it is damaged

Ears
Hazards 

Noise – a combination of sound level and duration of exposure, very high-level sounds are a
hazard even with short duration

Options 

Earplugs, earmuffs, semi-insert/canal caps

Note

 Provide the right hearing protectors for the type of work, and make sure workers know
how to fit them

 Choose protectors that reduce noise to an acceptable level, while allowing for safety and
communication

Hands and arms

Hazards 

Abrasion, temperature extremes, cuts and punctures, impact, chemicals, electric shock,
radiation, vibration, biological agents and prolonged immersion in water

Options 

Gloves, gloves with a cuff, gauntlets and sleeves that covers part or all of the arm

Note

 Avoid gloves when operating machines such as bench drills where the gloves might get
caught

 Some materials are quickly penetrated by chemicals – take care in selection, see
HSE’s skin at work website.

 Barrier creams are unreliable and are no substitute for proper PPE

 Wearing gloves for long periods can make the skin hot and sweaty, leading to skin
problems. Use of  separate cotton inner gloves can help to prevent this

Feet and legs

Hazards 

Wet, hot and cold conditions, electrostatic build-up, slipping, cuts and punctures, falling objects,
heavy loads, metal and chemical splash, vehicles

Options 

Safety boots and shoes with protective toecaps and penetration-resistant, mid-sole wellington
boots and specific footwear, eg foundry boots and chainsaw boots Rubber and chemical boots.

Note

 Footwear can have a variety of sole patterns and materials to help prevent slips in
different conditions, including oil - or chemical-resistant soles. It can also be anti-static,
electrically conductive or thermally insulating

 Appropriate footwear should be selected for the risks identified

Lungs
Hazards

Oxygen-deficient atmospheres, dusts, gases and vapors

Options

Respiratory protective
equipment (RPE)
  Some respirators rely on filtering contaminants from workplace air. These include simple
filtering facepieces and respirators and power-assisted respirators

 Make sure it fits properly, e.g., for tight-fitting respirators (filtering facepieces, half and
full masks)

 There are also types of breathing apparatus which give an independent supply of
breathable air, eg fresh-air hose, compressed airline and self-contained breathing
apparatus

Note

 The right type of respirator filter must be used as each is effective for only a limited range
of substances

 Filters have only a limited life. Where there is a shortage of oxygen or any danger of
losing consciousness due to exposure to high levels of harmful fumes, only use breathing
apparatus – never use a filtering cartridge

 You will need to use breathing apparatus in a confined space or if there is a chance of an
oxygen deficiency in the work area

 If you are using respiratory protective equipment, look at HSE’s publication Respiratory

protective equipment at work: A practical guide

Resuscitators  

On board ship, the resuscitation is generally limited to  manual resuscitators and administering
CPR and Mouth-to-Mouth breathing  and that does not need equipment, but very good First-Aid
training. Ship's carrying dangerous goods such as LNG/LPG now carries pressurized oxygen and
hospital equipment to facilitate such treatment. But this will require also quality medical training
to shipboard crew, as part of their competency.

UNITOR : Manual Resuscitator : (bag-valve and mask-resuscitator complete with oxygen

reservoir and face masks in 2 sizes) 1 Guedel Airway in 3 sizes Nebulizer with aerosol mask and
oxygen tubing
The process for helping the victim is as shown below:
The Medical First Aid Guide (MFAG), requires vessels carrying dangerous goods to carry 40
liter@200bar oxygen cylinder(s) in the ships hospital. The Ship Registry considers carrying such
large quantities of oxygen inside the accommodation may pose both fire and safety issues. 

The MFAG for use in accidents involving dangerous goods came into force on the 01 July 2002
and applies to all vessels to which SOLAS applies.

OXYGEN ADMINISTRATION AND CONTROLLED VENTILATION

Oxygen is necessary for life. Some intoxications may interfere with normal oxygenation of the
blood or tissues. In particular, oxygen can be lifesaving to casualties who have inhaled smoke
and other toxic gases but it needs to be given with all speed. Basic training is required to
administer oxygen.

Diagnosis

 There is difficulty in breathing with an increased rate at first (over 30 per minute). Later it
may become slow and stop.

 The pulse is rapid, usually over 100 per minute.

 There is blueness of the skin with purple lips and tongue.

 The casualty may be agitated at first but become apathetic, with muscular weakness.
Unconsciousness may follow this.

 The pupils of the eyes will react to light

at first. If they become large and do not react to light, life is in danger.
Treatment

 Give oxygen by means of a face mask. It makes assisted or controlled ventilation

possible. It is better to have the casualty well oxygenated with controlled artificial
respiration than to have him poorly oxygenated from breathing spontaneously.

 Place a mask over the nose and mouth. It is essential that the face mask is held firmly in
place so as to avoid leakage.

 Check that the equipment is correctly assembled according to the manufacturer's

instructions and that sufficient oxygen is contained in the cylinder (a cylinder of 2.5 liter
capacity, filled under a pressure of 200 bar, delivers 500 L oxygen).

The commonest emergency requiring medical assistance on board is toxic gas inhalation from
fires or specific toxic gases. Combustion in fires on board may well involve substantial release
of carbon monoxide and hydrogen cyanide. In these cases oxygen should be given at a flow rate
of 8 L per minute.

In life-threatening conditions, such as lung oedema or circulatory failure, oxygen should also be
given at a flow rate of 8 L per minute.

Warning:  Smoking, a naked flame or light fires must not be allowed in the same room during
the administration of oxygen because of the risk of fire.

MFAG for carrying Oxygen on board 

In order for a vessel to comply with Column A or B of Appendix 14 of the MFAG the following
quantities of oxygen available in the ship’s hospital for resuscitation purposes are required: 

 40 liter@200 bar, medical oxygen cylinder in ships hospital assembled for direct use with
1 flow meter unit with two ports for supplying oxygen for 2 persons at the same time. If
more than 1 non-portable oxygen cylinder is used there must be 2 flow meter units for
supplying oxygen for 2 persons at the same time. 

 One complete portable set with 2liter@200 bar of oxygen ready for use and a spare
cylinder of 2liter@200 bar. 

All other vessels that do not have to comply with the MFAG are only required to carry a
2liter@200 bar portable oxygen set, and a spare cylinder of 2liter@200 bar. 

Storage of Medical Oxygen Cylinders  

The Ship Registry considers that the storage of large quantities of oxygen in an accommodation
space is potentially dangerous and that it may pose a fire and safety hazard. 

In order to resolve the conflict between the intentions of MFAG and the fire and safety issues the
Ship Registry recommends that compliance with the MFAG requirements can be achieved by :- 

1. The supply of smaller cylinders inside the accommodation  

The required amount (40L@200bar) of medical oxygen in a number of smaller capacity (e.g. 4
cylinders of approximately 10 liters@200bar each, or equivalent) for use inside the
accommodation. 

One of the cylinders should be stored in the hospital ready for immediate use. The other
remaining cylinders are to be securely stored in a suitable space outside the accommodation,
where the cylinders will be protected from deterioration and where the risk of fire and explosion
is minimized. 

As a consequence of the difficulty that can be experienced in obtaining and refilling 10 liter
cylinders, in the event that a 40 liter cylinder is installed it is recommended the following
guidance is used :  
2. Use of a single 40 Liter Cylinder  

The use of the 40 liter@200bar medical oxygen cylinder can be stored in either of the following
locations:  

 Outside the accommodation block, as close to the hospital as is reasonably possible, in a

secure and weather protected cabinet.

 Inside the accommodation block in the hospital beside the bed(s), provided the cylinder is
securely locked in a frame connected directly to the steel structure of the ship. 

The Ship Registry recommends that a 40 liter oxygen cylinder situated either inside or outside
the accommodation block should be fitted with the following safety device to prevent accidental
release of high pressure oxygen into the hospital: 

The oxygen regulator in the pipework from the 40 liter cylinder should have a relief valve fitted
with a discharge line piped outside the hospital to free air. This ensures that if there is a fault in
the system, high pressure oxygen cannot escape into the low pressure side of the system, and
will be vented outside of the accommodation.  

3. All systems should be maintained and inspected as follows:  

 Inspected annually on board by a competent person in compliance with the

manufacturer’s instructions. 

 Note: a competent person may be a senior member of the ships staff. 

 Medical oxygen has a limited shelf life of 3 years and should be landed ashore for re-
charging at the expiry date. 

 The cylinders are to be hydraulically tested every 5 years, or at an interval specified by

the manufacturer, whichever occurs sooner. 

 Oxygen pressure regulators should be serviced at least every 5 years.

 Grease or oil should not be used to lubricate high pressure oxygen fittings. 

 All high pressure pipes from the bottle to the regulator should be subject to a pressure
test every 3 years by the manufacturer or his appointed agents. 

 The hospital ventilation system should be maintained as per the manufacture’s

instructions and operating correctly at all times. 
 There should be a warning sign on the hospital door stating ‘high concentrations of
oxygen may be present’. 

 There should be a sign in the hospital adjacent to the oxygen installation stating, ‘all
system valves to be shut when not in use’.

Rescue and Escape Equipment

Rescue equipment

The worst case scenario during any enclosed space entry is to have to rescue casualties. To
ensure to carry out rescue operation quickly and efficiently, dedicated rescue equipment is
essential.
Almost every case of enclosed space entry on board a ship will involve ascending or descending
through restrictive entries into a tank or chamber. Where a vertical entry is being made,
extrication equipment should be set up prior to entry in order to enable an effective rescue to be
implemented immediately. Removing someone with a rope and pulley is strenuous, time
consuming and carries a serious risk of injury to the casualty.

Chain blocks, rope and pulley systems or indeed man handling are accepted methods of rescue
on many ships and installations. These methods should be replaced, where possible, by using
mechanical man-riding winches.

Man-riding winches can effect casualty retrievals from varying depths and are certified to lift up
to 150 kg on the man-riding mode.

Features will vary depending on the manufacturer, with some dependent on a tripod or a four-
legged arrangement, while others can operate independently.

Mechanical winches drastically reduce the need for manual handling and make casualty
extrication less onerous on the rescuers.

Winches of all types depend on having an effective anchorage point. These may be fixed
anchorage points such as eye bolts, lifting beams and certified cross members or mobile
anchorage points such as davit arms, tripods, girder clamps or strops and shackles. Whatever
type of winching arrangement is chosen, consideration should always be given to the location
and strength of anchorage points.
Basic Knowledge of Safe Working Practices

Specific Learning Objectives

After going through this topic, student should be able to,

 Know the important safe working practices for working on board a tanker carrying
Dangerous liquid cargoes

 Know the summary points of an enclosed space entry in tankers

 Know the needs of testing for oxygen for enclosed space entry

 Understand the hazards that are present in an enclosed space

 Understand the precautions for safe entry into enclosed space

 Know the rescue process from an enclosed space

 Know the procedure with safety precautions to enter enclosed space

 Know the safe handling of electrical equipment on board a tanker

  Know the importance and use of a safety checklist onboard

Safe Working Practices on Oil tankers

 This section deals with both crude and product tankers.

 The appropriate national and international requirements should be observed.

 Particular attention is drawn to the

importance of the International Safety Guide for Oil Tankers and Terminals (ISGOTT)
which provides comprehensive information on the safe operation of tankers.

 Seafarers employed on tankers should be properly trained in accordance with applicable

national and international requirements.

 For each operation the Master should designate a competent professional who is familiar
with the safe operation of tankers. The Master should ensure that the designated
professional has available an adequate number of trained and competent hands.

 Particular attention is drawn to the following specific issues:

 The need for a well-structured on board “safety policy” backed up by the appropriate
Safety Committee with designated responsibilities;

 The need for compliance of strict smoking and hot-work policies;

 The need for crew members to fully understand the hazardous nature of cargoes carried;

 The need for crew members to be aware of the precautions necessary to enter an
enclosed space;

 The need for crew members to be aware of the inherent dangers of cargo pump rooms.
Pump rooms(*), by virtue of their location, design and operational needs, constitute a
particular hazard and therefore necessitate special precautions;
  The need for crew members to be made aware of the carcinogenic health hazards
resulting from exposure to minor concentrations of benzene vapor in the air. This danger
can result from breathing vapors of benzene-containing cargoes such as gasoline, JP-4
and some crude oils;

 The need to ensure that seafarers are made aware of the safety precautions and
emergency action to be taken in the event of spillage.

(*) - Special Precautions on  Entering / Working in Cargo Pump Rooms

It is well-known that on account of their design, location and operational requirements, cargo
pump rooms constitute a hazard and therefore necessitate the adoption of special precautions,
as follows:-

 “Permit to enter”(*) procedures to be complied with and the Master’s permission must be
obtained for “Enclosed Space Entry”(**);

(*) – Entry permitted when the atmosphere is proved to contain 21% O2 by volume,
hydrocarbon vapor  concentration less than 1% LEL and contains zero toxic or other
contaminants.
(**) – Enclosed Space Entry Check List to be completed by a Responsible professional.

 All entries into the pump room shall be recorded, showing the name, designation and the
timing of entry / exit, by the designated Duty Officer, manning the Navigation Bridge or
the Cargo Control Room;

 Ventilation fans (in drawing air out of the pump room) shall be started before switching on
the pump-room lighting. Ventilation must not be stopped until all personnel have left the
pump room. Special attention is to be paid to the levels below the lower platform, where
petroleum gas is liable to accumulate. The impellers, shafts, seals of the ventilator fans
and associated trunking should be visually inspected. Functioning of change-over flaps
and fire-dampers should be verified. Routine vibration monitoring shall help in identifying
component wear.

 Frequent communication checks must be made at commonly agreed intervals. Alarm

should be raised in case of failure to receive a response from the insider(s) of the pump
room

 There should be a notice at the pump-room entrance, prohibiting access without prior
authorization from a responsible shipboard professional

 Operation / repair involving the opening of pumps, valves, etc. should be carried out only
with the immediate and clear knowledge of the responsible professional. The risk of
 unsuspected pockets of petroleum, liquid, gas or inert gas may be released when such
components / equipment are opened up. This can happen even after a tanker / tank has
been pronounced gas free. 

 Integrity of the pump room approved lighting system must be maintained. If additional
lighting is required to be fitted, only approved equipment ought to be used. Proper
maintenance of the lighting system is essential

 Pump room bilges should be kept free of wastes, rubbish and, oil should not be allowed to
accumulate. Bilge level monitoring devices together with appropriately located alarms, are
to be provided preferably.

 Draining of cargoes to the pump room bilges should be prohibited

 Integrity of bulkhead-penetrations, pipelines, valves are to be examined visually and

subjected to routine maintenance and pressure tests, to verify their condition.

 The centrifugal cargo pumps ought to be provided with double-seal arrangements, so that
leakages are contained from the shaft seal. 

Safe working practices on a Chemical Tanker

 Relevant aspects of the last section may also apply to this section.

 Ships intended for the carriage of Chemicals in Bulk should comply with the appropriate
national and international regulations.

 Ships intended for the carriage of Chemicals should carry only those Chemicals for which
their construction and equipment are suitable, and which are specified in the Certificate /
International Certificate of Fitness for the Carriage of Dangerous Chemicals in Bulk.

 Particular attention is drawn to the importance of the Tanker Safety Guide (Chemicals)
which provides comprehensive information on the safe operation of Chemical tankers.
  Seafarers employed on Chemical tankers should
receive specialized training and be instructed on the safe carriage of all chemicals which
the ship may be required to carry, as appropriate to their duties. 

 For each operation the Master should designate a competent professional who is familiar
with the safe operation of tankers. The Master should ensure that the designated officer
has available an adequate number of suitably trained and experienced seafarers.

 Particular attention is drawn to the following specific issues:

 The need to ensure that any cargo offered is listed in the shipping documents by the
correct technical name;

 The need to ensure that in case a cargo is a mixture, an analysis is provided indicating the
dangerous components which contribute significantly to the hazard of the product. This
information should be available on board, and be freely accessible to all concerned;

 The need to ensure that a full description of a cargo's physical and chemical properties is
supplied with each cargo loaded;

 The need to ensure that seafarers are made aware of the safety precautions and the
emergency action(s) to be taken in the event of spillage or crew exposure to possible
contamination by chemicals;

 The need to ensure that cargoes requiring stabilizers or inhibitors, and which are not
accompanied by the required Certificates, are not accepted for shipment;

 The need to carry out emergency drills using protective equipment and safety and rescue
devices at regular intervals;

 The need to plan effective first-aid treatment in the event of accidental personal contact.

Entering Enclosed Spaces

Specific Learning Objectives

After going through this topic, student should be able to,

 Know the summary points of an enclosed space entry in tank ships

 Know the needs of testing for oxygen for enclosed space entry

 Understand the hazards that are present in an enclosed space

 Understand the precautions for safe entry into enclosed space

 Know the rescue process from an enclosed space

 Know the procedure with safety to enter enclosed space

Potentially Dangerous Spaces

Often a question on board will be what an enclosed space constitutes. What is an enclosed space
is a frequently asked question.

IMO defines an enclosed space as being one which has any of the following characteristics:

 Limited openings for entry and exit

 Inadequate ventilation

 Is not designed for continuous worker occupancy.

The definition includes, but is not limited to, the following compartments:

 Cargo spaces

 Double bottoms

 Fuel tanks

 Ballast tanks

 Cargo pump-rooms

 Cargo compressor rooms (Liquefied Gas)

 Cofferdams

 Chain lockers

 Void spaces

 Duct keels

 Inter-barrier spaces

 Boilers
  Engine crankcases

 Engine scavenge air receivers

 Sewage tanks.

To overcome any doubts whether or not a particular compartment is an enclosed space, it is

advisable to carry out a risk assessment in accordance with IMO recommendations. As
circumstances may change, the process of carrying out a risk assessment to identify enclosed
spaces should be repeated at regular intervals.    

Should there be any unexpected reduction in or loss of the means of ventilation of those spaces
that are usually continuously or adequately ventilated then such spaces should also be dealt with
as dangerous spaces. 

When it is suspected that there could be a deficiency of oxygen in any space, or that toxic gases,
vapors or fumes could be present, then such a space should be considered to be a dangerous
space.

If there is lack of ventilation in some spaces either continuously or adequately, then such spaces
should also be considered has dangerous spaces. if there is any doubt that there could be a
deficiency of oxygen because of generation of toxic gases, vapors or fumes, then such spaces
could be treated as dangerous spaces. Risk assessment to be done for entering these spaces. 

Cargo Tanks

The tanks of oil, chemical and gas carriers are hazardous places with brackets, frames, floors
and several other steel parts. The moving time from one end of the double bottom tank to
another end may take more than fifteen minutes. 

A person can be affected if deprived of oxygen for about four minutes. 

 Intrinsically safe portable fans are required for the ventilation
of enclosed spaces before the person enters. The air supply blowers should be used to blow
clean air into the space, driving out the foul air through ventilators and manhole covers, at the
extreme far end of the tank. The oxygen content in the tank must be 21 percent prior to entry.

An exercise for inclusion in the ship’s regular safety drills is to practice a rescue from an
enclosed space, followed by the first aid drill and the medical treatment exercise. 

       

Rescue from an enclose space should be a part of regular safety drill and should be practiced,
followed by a first aid and medical treatment exercise.

Fuel and Ballast Tanks

The ballast tanks of a ship have the most favorable conditions for corrosion. One has to watch
every step when inside these tanks. The corrosion damage may not be readily visible so great
care should be taken when moving around. 

Even though oxygen depletion is the main concern during entry into these tanks, there have
been rare cases where traces of random toxic gases were present. One has to be alert to the
slightest indication of anything out of the normal when inside theses spaces.

If the ship has been ballasting at river mouths where fine mud sediments enter the tanks, extra
care should be taken. The sediments settle over the surfaces in the tank and can be slippery. 
 To make it worse, the sediment layer is too
smooth to distinguish from the deck and sometimes, the surface appears to be dry on top but
there could be a wet sediment layer underneath. A person moving carelessly can slip and fall.

Fuel tanks can be very slippery depending on the grade of fuel carried. Proper personal
protective equipment is a must. Generally, the fuel tanks are not box shaped and reaching some
parts inside can be tricky. 

To minimize the risk of slips and falls, potential hazards such as unguarded openings, wet or
muddy surfaces and lightening holes in intermediate decks within ballast tanks should neither
not be overlooked, including the need for personnel to be properly equipped. 

A person should properly dress up to avoid and minimize the risk of slips and falls on wet or
muddy surfaces and lightening holes on deck or elsewhere.  

A MAIB Investigation Report on an accident that took place during a routine inspection of a
ballast tank reiterates that particular care must be taken by personnel in ballast tank, and
sufficient lighting should be provided to enable safe movement through the space.

Pump Rooms

Gas detection
it is mandatory that pump rooms on tankers be fitted with a fixed gas detection system capable
of continuously monitoring the presence of hydrocarbon gas.

The gas detection system should be provided with a pre-alarm function,which, for example,
could be set to alarm at a gas concentration of about 10% LEL, and a primary alarm, set to
activate at gas concentrations of, say, 30% LEL. Set procedures should be established with
regard to actions to be taken in the event of an alarm occurring, especially relating to vacating
the pump room or stopping cargo pumps.

Oxygen detection

Means should be provided to enable the oxygen content within the pump room to be measured
from the deck using a portable meter and sampling tube prior to pump room entry. Any
arrangement utilized should ensure the effective monitoring of the remote parts of the pump
room.

Entry procedure
Permit system is used to control pump room entry, whether or not a fixed gas detection system
is in use, and those procedures are established with regard to entry checks.

Arrangements should be established to enable effective communication to be maintained at all

times between personnel within the pump room and those outside. Regular communication
checks should be made at pre-agreed intervals and failure to respond should be cause to raise
the alarm.

Communication systems should provide links between the pump room and the navigation bridge,
engine room and cargo control room. In addition, audible and visual repeaters for essential
alarm systems, such as the general alarm should be provided within the pump room.

Inspection and maintenance of ventilation fans

Pump room ventilation fans are required to operate by drawing air out of the space. As a
consequence, should gas be present in the pump room the vapors will be drawn through the
blades of the fan impeller and could be ignited, if for example, the blades contacted the casing
or if the fan's bearings or seals over-heated. The condition of the fan trunking should be
inspected and the proper operation of change-over flaps and fire dampers confirmed.

Cofferdams

An empty watertight space located between two tanks which carry different liquids is known as a
cofferdam. The purpose of a cofferdam is to prevent the two liquids from the adjacent tanks
from mixing with each other in the event of damage to one of the bulkheads.
 The cofferdam has manholes for entering
and carrying out inspections at regular intervals. Arrangement is provided for taking soundings
to check for leaks from adjacent tanks. Normally, the cofferdam must be maintained dry so that
new leaks can be detected easily.

A cofferdam is an enclosed space and all enclosed space entry measures have to be observed
before attempting to enter it.

One can be easily be fooled in the case of a cofferdam because it is maintained empty and there
are virtually no sources of any toxic gases. However the possibility of depletion of oxygen over a
period of time in an enclosed space should not be forgotten.

When doing preparations for entry into a cofferdam, a very important factor to consider is the
possible presence of fumes from liquids or gases carried in the adjacent compartments in case of
a leak in the bulkhead.

Before entering into a cofferdam, it would be prudent to check the cofferdam for gases likely to
be found in the adjacent compartments additional to checking for oxygen. All entry into enclosed
spaces must be planned and carried out with great care irrespective of whether it carried any
liquids, gases or not. 

Duct Keels
Double bottom ships are provided with a duct keel, a tunnel running from the forward bulkhead
of the engine room to the collision bulkhead. The space is used for piping and cabling. An
entrance to the duct keel is normally provided at the aft and the forward end, sometimes one at
amidships as well.

The width of a duct keel is limited to 2.0 m and it need not extend aft of the engine room. It is
strengthened from the tank top and also from the keel plating to maintain a continuity of
strength of the transverse floors.

The duct keel is provided with extractor fans for ventilation and sometimes can have access from
the pump room. Often entry is planned into the duct keel in order to access one of the double
bottom tanks from within. 

The duct keel and the double bottom tank in

this case must be regarded as two separate enclosed space entries. A stand-by person at the
entrance of duct keel and a standby person at the entrance of DB tank inside the duct keel must
be present.

Since the duct keel is a relatively long and narrow space with limited openings, communication
by wireless radio may be hampered. Sufficient arrangements for continuous communication links
should be made, including conducting more frequent checks of communication during entry. 

Numerous accidents have occurred in the duct keel. They could have been prevented if the crew
had followed every detail of the prescribed procedures and checklists. 
Moving about inside a duct keel can be tricky especially for tall persons and it is not convenient.
One must watch every step so as to not cause injury.

It is provided with lighting but one should not totally rely on the fixed lighting in an enclosed
space like duct keel. It will be prudent to still carry a flash light for each person. 

Fixed ventilation fans are fitted on deck and they must be started well in time before entry as
per the procedure and must be running continuously during entry. Sometimes it may be
necessary to open up the entry hatch for proper ventilation when the fan is running. 

Precautions before Entering Enclosed or Contaminated Spaces

A ship’s structure is complicated. It has several small and enclosed spaces. Some machinery or
workshop equipment are installed in the enclosed spaces. A ship has a matrix of pipelines, which
run through each of its parts, including enclosed spaces.

An enclosed place can be used for several purposes. When one has to enter these enclosed
places for any reason it is essential to ensure that it is safe to enter.

The enclosed places generate and store toxic gases for many reasons because of lack of
ventilation. If an enclosed space is entered without taking precaution, he or she may suffer
unconsciousness and sometimes even death.

For safety and wellness of the person entering the enclosed space  a proper procedure has to be
followed.

Procedure for entering an enclosed space

The following are the points that need to be followed before entering an enclosed space:

 A competent officer must carry out a risk assessment as enclosed or confined space is
likely to be deficient in oxygen and dangerous.
  A list of of work to be done in an enclosed space should be made. This list helps in
carrying out the work quickly, efficiently and easily.   

 Risk assessment including work to be done and rescue operation plan needs to be carried
out. 

 Potential hazards are to be identified, such as presence of toxic gases. 

 Opening and securing has to be done and precautions should be taken to check if the
opening of enclosed space is pressurized or not.           

 If hot work is to be carried out, all fire hazard possibilities should be minimized This can
be done by emptying the fuel tank or chemical tank nearby the hot work place.               

 The enclosed space should be well ventilated before entering.    

 Oxygen content and other gas content needs to be checked with the help of oxygen
analyzer and gas detector.  Safe O2 content for man entry is 20% by volume. Less than
20% O2 content is not acceptable. 

 Enclosed space should be sufficiently lit and illuminated  before entering.      

 A checklist to be made and a work permit to be issued after ensuring safety, so as to

prevent any accident which can endanger life.

 Work permit is valid only for a certain period of time. If time period expires then a new
permit is to be issued after a new checklist is filled out.

 Work permit for working in confined space has to be checked and permitted by the Master
of the ship.

 Proper signs and 'Men at Work' sign boards should be provided at required places so that
person should not start any equipment, machinery or any operation in the confined space
endangering lives of the people working.

 Before entering the enclosed space the duty officer has to be informed and the work
permit issued by competent authority to be shown to him.

 The checklist has to be signed by the person involved in entry and also by a competent
officer.

 With the person inside the space one person always has to be kept on standby for
communication purposes.

The person may also carry a life line inside.

 The person entering the enclosed space should carry oxygen analyzer. The O2 analyzer
should be ‘on all the time to monitor the oxygen content. If the oxygen level drops, the
analyzer should sound an alarm and the person should leave the space without any delay.
  No source of ignition has to be taken inside unless the Master or competent officer is
satisfied.

 No extra person should enter the enclosed space. Only adequate an number of persons
who are actually needed inside for work should enter the enclosed space.

Breathing air apparatus and other rescue equipment and spare charge bottles should be readily
available outside the confined space.

 Means of hoisting an incapacitated person should be available.

 After finishing the work and when the person is out of the enclosed space, the after work
checklist has to be filled. After work checklist has been finished when the person comes
out of the enclosed space after completing his work.  

 The permit to work has to be closed after this.

The above mentioned procedure is extremely important before a person enters an enclosed
space. These points are imperative to avoid risking any crew member’s life while entering a
confined space.

The IMO recommends that “In the event of an emergency, under no circumstances should the
attending crew member enter the space before help has arrived and the situation has been
evaluated to ensure the safety of those entering the space to undertake rescue operations. Only
properly trained and equipped personnel should perform rescue operations in enclosed spaces” is
of particular importance.

To help others in difficulty is instant human nature. The urge to help another risking his or her
own life must be resisted. Proper procedure has to be followed before helping others.

However, another reason for depletion in oxygen content may be due to the contamination of air
in the space by contaminants such as cargo vapor. Presence of cargo vapor or inert gas should
always be suspected in cargo tanks. Leakage of cargo vapor into adjacent enclosed spaces
separated from cargo tanks by a single gas-tight bulkhead should also be anticipated. Similarly,
the presence of cargo vapor or inert gas should be anticipated in enclosed space containing
cargo handling or inert gas equipment.

Oxygen content lower than 21% may be a problem in all kinds enclosed spaces. If some work
being carried out inside the tanks such as welding, cutting or brazing, the level of oxygen in the
tank will decrease rapidly. The oxygen level can be decreased by certain chemical reactions like,
rusting and paint drying. There may be possibilities of some spaces called as pockets of
atmosphere with less levels of oxygen; therefore, the use of portable oxygen meter with audible
alarm is strongly recommended.

It is not recommended to use a fan to suck air from a space, as in these circumstances the air in
the vicinity of the fan may become explosive or foul. Hence the use of portable blowers.

Need of Preparing Safety Check List

Entry permit should be issued to personnel before entering an enclosed space. It is

recommended that the Master or a responsible officer expressly delegated by him shall sign the
permit.

Clear indications regarding maximum period of validity (this should not exceed a normal working
day) and the maximum hours the enclosed space can be left unattended (this should not exceed
four hours) should be mentioned in the entry permit. It is important to ensure that while
personnel are working inside, the oxygen levels and the presence of any contaminants are
frequently checked and are within safe limits. If suspicious, appropriate breathing apparatus and
personal protective equipment should be worn along with a lifeline if possible.

The responsible officer should ensure that:

 The space is thoroughly ventilated by natural or mechanical methods to ensure sufficient

oxygen content and to remove any toxic or flammable gases throughout the space.

 Personnel who are very well trained about the enclosed space entry procedures and
familiarization with safety and emergency procedures should only enter the enclosed
space. Also the personnel must be aware of the procedure of the ship for issuing an entry
permit to the enclosed space.

 Always a trained crew person stands at the entrance.

 Establishment of a reliable system of communication that can be understood both by the

crew person standing by at the entrance as well as the personnel entering the space.

 Suitable officer of the watch on the bridge or in the cargo control room or in the engine
room with adequate knowledge about the enclosed-space entry operations.
  Rescue procedures are placed appropriately.

Rescue equipment (including lifelines and harnesses) and breathing apparatus are readily
available and resuscitation equipment is prepared.

There must be clear indications in the rescue procedures on how to raise the alarm and call for
assistance. Arrangements should also be made for accessing the concerned space, deployment
of reserve equipment and communication between the place of emergency and command center.

In case of emergency, the attending crew member should not enter the space under any
circumstances before help arrives and evaluates the situation is evaluated to ensure the safety
of the people carrying out rescue operations.

The enclosed spaces must be thoroughly ventilated prior to entry by crew/ personnel and the
space to be kept continuously ventilated.

CHECKLIST

Entry procedures/activities

 Advise the Master, duty officer as necessary

 Carry out risk assessment

 Carry out safety analysis

 Ensure space is ventilated

 Isolate valves and secure the space

 Guarding of all openings

 An attendant standing by at the entrance

 Carry out atmosphere testing 

 Confirm the atmosphere to be safe.

 Prepare emergency rescue equipment stand-by

 Establish communication and test it

 Confirm access is safe

 Ensure satisfactory lighting.(Portable lighting intrinsically safe)

  Fall prevention equipment ready

 Work related tools and equipment ready

 Personnel available for rescue

 Entry permit prepared and issued

 All related parties intimated of intended entry

 Enter the space

 Ventilation continuous and regular communication check. 

On completion of the work

 Confirmation that all personnel are out of the space

 Confirmation of removal of all equipment

 Close and secure all openings

 Close the permit. 

Equipment
Only intrinsically safe equipment should be used in flammable atmosphere. 

The OCIMF and ISGOTT guidelines, the safety check list provided in the ISM and safety
department of the dry dock (if the vessel is in the dry dock or repair berth) must be followed in
the preparation of the check list and permit to entry.

The vessel to provide completed information regarding the risks and hazards to the shipping
company so that they make a proper document of the safety checklist and permit to entry and
that the operations are carried out safely. 

The Master, Chief Engineer and the Company must agree to the proposed hot work. The
following information should be provided by the ship: 

 Arrangements of access and location

 Scope of the hot work

 Identified hazards relation to surrounding spaces having flammable material and explosion
risks including pipelines 

 Proposed precautions for the hot work

  Continuous ventilation method

 Competence and experience of personnel involved

 Equipment planned to be used 

 When the ship is within port limits, the port authority has to be informed. 

A checklist is provided in the PDF Safety checklist (PDF, 146 Kb) 

Additional permits, as per the ship’s SMS, may be required when working in an enclosed space,
like for hot work or working at a height. The need for additional permits should be analysed
before starting work inside an enclosed space.

For further reading on Enclosed Space Entry:Click here

Repair and Maintenance Work

Based on the findings of the risk assessment, appropriate control measures should be put in
place to protect those who may be affected.

General

 Welding and flame cutting in places other than the workshop should be the subject of a
permit to work. No hot work even in E/R workshop during port stay, cargo operations,
tank cleaning and gas freeing operations.

 Operators should be suitably trained in the process, familiar with the equipment to be
used and instructed where special precautions need to be taken.

 Where portable lights are needed to provide adequate illumination, they should be
clamped or otherwise secured in position, not handheld, with leads kept clear of the
working area.

 Harmful fumes can be produced during these operations from galvanizing paint and other
protective materials. Oxygen in the atmosphere can be depleted when using gas-
cutting equipment and noxious gases may be produced when welding or cutting. Special
care should therefore be taken to provide adequate ventilation when welding and flame
cutting in enclosed spaces. The effectiveness of the ventilation should be checked at
intervals while the work is in progress and, if appropriate, local exhaust ventilation should
be considered. In dangerous spaces, breathing apparatus may be required.

Hot and Cold Work

Hot Work

Before carrying out any 'hot work' in the machinery spaces, it should be ensured that there are
no combustible materials in the vicinity. Hot work should never be carried out on surfaces
covered with oil or flammable materials.

Fuel tanks, pipelines, pumps and other spaces should be free of flammable liquids and gases
before any repair work is undertaken. Checks should be made in adjacent spaces, double
bottoms, cofferdams and tanks. Such checks should be carried out at regular intervals to ensure
that the atmosphere is free of flammable vapors during the entire operation.

Hot work on board is a hazardous operation, which can result in a fire or an explosion, if correct
procedures are not followed. Examples of hot work are cutting, welding, soldering and the use of
pneumatically operated maintenance equipment.

Safe procedures
should be followed as per the company's safety manuals. A Safety Management System
approved hot work checklist should be used whenever carrying out hot work operations. A hot
work "permit" (PDF, 285kb) should be obtained after satisfying the necessary requirements as
per the guidelines and assessing the work area. Once the checklist has been filled, it should be
cross checked by another competent person, i.e. the Chief Engineer. This is to ensure that there
are no safety lapses in the intended work. Finally, the Master should countersign the checklist to
approve the hot work permit. A permit is valid only for a 12 hour operation. Lunch breaks and
other breaks should be taken into account. Any deviation in the conditions during the operation
will result in the seizure of hot work.
 The maritime safety committee
has developed a list of common "principles for hot work" (PDF, 170kb) onboard all types of
ships. This was done with the objective of helping seafarers develop specific on board
instructions to suit their operational needs.

Designated Hot work Area

Hazardous area in Ships and safe working practice- Hot work 

Hazards in welding, gas-cutting, miscellaneous hot work and  associated precautions

General precautions

Welding, gas-cutting and other hot work should be conducted by following the "permit-to-work"
system, whenever carried out in a non-designated (i.e. say outside workshop) location.

Arc welding with all protective gear

 Operators should be conversant with the equipment to be used, which should be inspected
by a competent person before use.

 Hazardous fumes may be produced and the level of oxygen reduced, during working.
Special care should be taken while working in enclosed places and, enclosed space entry
and working procedures should be adhered to, as necessary.

 An assistant should be continuously on stand-by attendance and be thoroughly briefed /

practiced to deal with emergency procedures.
Personal protective equipment

 Clean and approved Personal protective equipment should be used by the operator and
other persons involved in the work.

 The operator should normally wear:

(a) A welding helmet and the appropriate eye shield;
(b) Leather working gloves;

Arc -welding wearing all protective gear. The fumes are visible 

(c) A leather apron when appropriate; and

(d) Other appropriate personal protective equipment, as necessary.

Precautions against fire, explosions and non-life-supporting environments

 Before any operation begins, inspections and tests should be carried out to verify that
there are no combustible solids, liquids or gases in any compartment, adjacent to the
work location which might be ignited by heat or sparks originating from the work.

 Surfaces which are to be welded, or upon which hot work is to be done, should be free of
oil, grease or any flammable or combustible material.

 All openings through which sparks might fall should be blanked-off / shut, as far as is
possible.
  Cargo tanks, fuel tanks, cargo holds or other tanks or spaces (including cargo pumps and
pipelines) that have contained flammable substances should be certified by a competent
person as being free of flammable gases, before any work commences.

 All operations should be properly supervised and a fire-vigilance maintained, all around,
including in the spaces on the other side of the affected spaces. Because of the possibility
of fires taking place, even after the hot-work is completed, the fire-vigilance should be
maintained, say, for an hour or two, even after the work has been completed.

 Compatible portable / non-portable fire extinguishers should be kept handy for ready use.

Use of Electric welding equipment

 Even though AC power sources are used, Direct Current (DC) power source is preferable
since they can be operated at lower voltages and thereby, minimizes the risk from electric
shock.

 The "go and return" system in which the welding set has two cables should be used, with
the "return" cable being separately earthed to the ship's structure. The lead and return
cables should be of the shortest length possible (and of an appropriate cross-section) to
avoid voltage drop.

 Cables should be inspected before use and connectors should be fully insulated.

 Suitable means should be provided for rapidly cutting-off current from the electrode, in
case the operator encounters difficulties.

Precautions to be taken while doing electric-arc welding

 Non-conducting safety footwear should be worn in addition to the personal protective

equipment. Clothing should be kept as dry as possible.

 If the operator is in contact with the ship's structure, protection should be provided by
way of the welder, sitting / standing, on dry insulated mats or boards.

 Welding should not be carried out in hot/humid conditions which might be the cause of
sweat or damp clothing. Welding under wet conditions is prohibited.

 The electrode-holder should be isolated from the current supply before a used electrode is
removed and before a new electrode is inserted. This precaution is necessary because
some electrode coatings may have extremely low resistance.

Flame-cutting and brazing

  Equipment should have back pressure valves fitted
adjacent to the torch in the oxygen and acetylene lines and, flame arrestors fitted at the
low pressure side of the regulators.

Brazing in progress

 Oxygen pressure should always be sufficient to prevent acetylene from entering the
oxygen line.

 Acetylene may explode under excessive pressure. Therefore, it should not be used at a
pressure exceeding 1 atmosphere gauge.

 If a backfire occurs, the valves on the oxygen

and acetylene cylinders should be closed immediately. Personnel should be trained in the
appropriate methods for cooling and/or jettisoning cylinders which become hot. An
acetylene cylinder which becomes overheated is very dangerous as an impact could cause
internal ignition and explosion.

Flame cutting in progress

 Only hoses which have been specially designed for flame-cutting and brazing operations
may be used. Hoses in which a flashback has occurred ought not to be used.

Hazards caused from painting and precautions.

General precautions

 Paints containing toxic substances should not be used. Besides, a paint without the
manufacturer's information is not to be applied anywhere on board.

 Certain paints dry-up by evaporation of the paint's solvent and the process could cause
flammable or toxic vapors to be generated. All interior and enclosed spaces should be
well-ventilated while painting activity is in progress and right until the paint has fully
dried-up.

 Smoking should not be allowed during painting. Naked lights, such as matches, should not
be used in spaces until the paint has fully dried-up.

 Precautions should be taken when mixing paints from two diverse sources. As a chemical
reaction takes place during mixing, the reaction may be exothermic and heat /fumes are
liable to be generated.

 Chemical rust-removers are corrosive and precautions should be taken to protect the eyes
and skin.

 Spaces where paints and allied equipment are stored, should be well free of unnecessary
items and positively ventilated. 

Spray Painting

 Manufacturer's instructions on the operation of spray equipment should be closely

followed by the personnel involved.

 To protect from unwanted ill-effects, a "paint mist" may form during spraying operations
and the personnel should wear suitable personal protective equipment. This may include a
combination suit, hood, gloves and eye protectors. It may be prudent to keep a respirator
handy.
 Spray painting of a shipboard paneling

 Paints containing mercury, lead or any toxic compounds are not to be sprayed in the
interiors.

 Spray equipment which are “airless”, eject paint at a very high pressure. The operation is
fraught with the hazard of the paint penetrating the skin or cause eye injury. Great care
should be taken in the use of such equipment.

 Seafarers should be trained in the correct methods of un-blocking nozzles according to the
manufacturer's instructions.

Electrical Safety

Hazardous area in Ships and safe working practice -Working with Electrical Equipment

General precautions

 National and international regulations governing the design and construction of electrical
installations should be observed, with account being taken of the unusual conditions which
may be encountered in service.
Examples of such conditions are exposure to:
(a) Moisture, steam and oil vapor, salt-laden atmosphere, sea spray, high winds and ice
formation;
(b) Abnormal vibrations, deformation and mechanical shock;
(c) Unusually high or low temperatures; and explosive mixtures when used in certain
areas.
 Seafarers should receive adequate briefing before being permitted to work on electrical
installations.

 The installation should be maintained and protected to minimize the possibility of fire,
electrical shocks and danger to seafarers.

 All live parts should be effectively insulated and enclosed in conduits or otherwise
protected and be so maintained.

 All electrical equipment should be regularly inspected to ensure that it is suitable for its
intended use. Any electrical faults or other defects should be immediately reported to the
appropriate person and repaired by a competent person.

 Attention must be paid to the maintenance of the emergency source of electrical power.

 All electrical appliances should be clearly marked to indicate the voltage at which they
operate safely.

 Flickering lights should be examined and repaired by a proper professional.

 Circuits and appliances carrying different voltages in the same installation should be
conspicuously identifiable by notices, markings on distribution boxes.

 Seafarers should not interfere with a design and installation intended to prevent circuits
and apparatus from being subjected to voltages which exceed those for which they were
designed.

 Repairs to electrical installations should be carried out only by a competent person or

when a "permit-to-work" (electrical isolation permit)has been issued.

 Effective means of ensuring safe isolation of every circuit, sub-circuit and apparatus, such
as facilities to lock off isolators, key control or signing, should be provided to minimize or
eliminate danger to seafarers.

 Every circuit should be protected against overload currents, so as to reduce damage to

the system and keep the danger of fire to a minimum.

 Redundant circuits or apparatus should be disconnected or dismantled.

 Personal protective equipment, such as rubber gloves and rubber boots, should be used
whenever there is a risk of electric shock, but should not be regarded as being capable of
providing full protection against such a risk.

 Protection provided against contact with live equipment comprises of:

(a) Placing live parts out of reach;
(b) Effective enclosure of live parts; and
(c) Adequate insulation.
 The enclosures of live circuits, such as terminal boxes, should be so designed that they
can be removed only by authorized persons.

 Suitable fuses or circuit-breakers should be placed in each circuit to limit the current to
the rating that is considered to be safe for the cable or equipment through which it flows.

 Where fuses are used, they should bear clear markings indicating the rated, current and
capacity. Fuses when replaced should be of the compatible rating.

 Fuses should be replaced only by authorized persons.

 All fuses should be protected to prevent accidental contact.

 Means should be provided to ensure that persons removing or inserting fuses will not be
endangered, in particular, by any adjacent live parts.

 It should not be possible to remove or insert fuses in a circuit unless it has been made
dead by means of an isolating device on the incoming side.

 The following notices should be exhibited at suitable places:

(a) A warning notice prohibiting unauthorized persons from entering electrical equipment
rooms, interfering with switchboards, and handling or interfering with electrical apparatus;
(b) A warning notice specifying the person to be notified in the event of an electrical
accident, indicating how to contact that person;
(c) A notice specifying the voltage as live in the equipment or conductors; and
(d) A notice prohibiting the use of naked flames in the vicinity of the battery room.

 Only authorized persons should have access to and enter the rooms containing live
electrical equipment or have access to the rear of the live switchboards.

 No work should be done in dangerous proximity to a conductor or installation until it has

been made dead and corroborating signs have been conspicuously posted.

 If a conductor or an installation is in the immediate vicinity of a work location and cannot

be made dead, special precautions should be taken in their handling.
(2) Any such operation should be supervised by a competent person.

 All conductors and equipment should be considered to be live unless it has been verified
to be to the contrary.

 Before the current is restored, a competent person should ensure that no seafarers are
present in a dangerous position.

 After work has been completed on an electrical equipment, the power should be switched
on again only on the formal orders of, a competent professional.

 Distribution apparatus and switch gear should be protected in all circumstances,

particularly against dripping or splashing of water.
  If temporary connections have to be made while repairs are being carried out, the
connections should be made with cables having an adequate margin of current and
voltage rating and by a competent professional. They should be disconnected and
removed as soon as they are no longer required.

 Seafarers not authorized to carry out electrical work should never install new equipment
or alter existing equipment.

Wandering leads, portable lights, electric tools and other movable equipment

 All flexible cables should be:

(a) of sufficient size and current rating that is compatible with the purposes for which they
are to be used;
(b) so constructed, insulated, secured and protected as to ensure that danger to seafarers
will be reduced to a minimum.

 Every electrical connection should be of suitable construction with regard to conductivity,

insulation, mechanical strength and protection, with account being taken of the need to
use such equipment in exposed locations.

 (1) Cables and conductors should be mechanically protected and properly and durably
insulated at points where they are joined, branched or led into any apparatus.
(2) For these purposes, junction boxes, sleeves, bushings, glands or equivalent
connecting devices should be employed.
(3) Where practicable, flexible cables should be joined by junction boxes or plug and
socket couplings, and the attachment should be fixed by screwing, clamping, soldering,
riveting, brazing and crimping or equivalent means.
(4) Where armored cables are joined, care should be taken to continue the conductive
bond between the armoring of the cables by the bridging and the junction boxes.

 All conductors and apparatus liable to be exposed to a flammable or explosive atmosphere

should be so constructed as to negate the possibility of being the cause of ignition of the
vapor.

 The supply voltage to portable tools and appliances should not exceed 240 volts.

 Hand-held electrical tools should be provided with a spring-loaded switch-mechanism that

will break the circuit automatically when the tool is released from the hand.

 Portable electrical tools and appliances should not be used in a potentially flammable or
explosive atmosphere, unless they are of a type certificated for use in such an
atmosphere and the action is authorized by a responsible professional.
  Any portable lamp should be of an approved type with effective protection for the bulb
and with a robust cover of glass or other transparent material. Such equipment should be
dust and water proof and, where necessary, gas-proof.

 Flexible cables should:

(a) not be laid on surfaces that are oily or wet with corrosive liquids;
(b) be kept clear of moving loads, running gear and moving equipment;
(c) not be used to lift the portable lamp or portable tools to which they are connected;
(d) have additional protection where they are likely to be subjected to rough usage or
moisture.

 When seafarers use portable equipment or portable lamps they should ensure that any
flexible cables passing through doors, hatches, manholes, etc., are protected and that
their insulation is not damaged by the closing of doors, covers or lids.

High-voltage systems

 As high-voltage systems present considerable danger they should be worked upon only by
specially trained and certified seafarers.

 Manufacturer's instruction manuals should be provided for all high voltage equipment and
need to be closely followed.

 Care should be taken to observe the requirement that all high-voltage equipment should
be enclosed or protected so that access can be obtained only by authorized professionals
using a special tool or key that is retained by a competent person, unless the equipment
is designed in a way to ensure that any attempt to access will automatically isolate and
render the system safe.

Rectifiers and electronic equipment

  No maintenance or repair work should be attempted until the equipment has been
effectively isolated and any stored energy dissipated.

 Special attention should be paid to the hazard of working near charged capacitors
associated with rectification circuits.

 Only competent professionals must be authorized to repair electronic equipment.

Radio communication equipment

 Aerials and open wire feeders should be placed and guarded in a way to make them
inaccessible to unauthorized persons.

 Conductors that pass through areas of high electromagnetic flux, should be insulated or
otherwise duly guarded in areas to which seafarers have access.

 Any work in the vicinity of transmitting aerials should be carried out only within the
"permit-to-work" system. Warning notices should be posted at prominent places as long
as the work continues.

 No seafarer should be allowed to work in the vicinity of transmitting aerials whilst there is
a possibility that such aerials could get energized.

 Suitable means should be provided and maintained to exclude any persons from the
vicinity of equipment where there is a danger from shock, radio frequency burns and
injury from X-rays or other radiation.

Batteries and battery rooms

 Battery rooms should be adequately ventilated to avoid accumulation of explosive gases,

usually generated in the operation of batteries.

 Light fittings and any electrical equipment in the battery room should be of a type certified
as being suitable for operation in an atmosphere containing hydrogen.

 Dangers when charging batteries are hydrogen explosion and short circuits. During
charging, a battery gives off hydrogen and oxygen and the subsequent mixture can be
easily ignited. Short circuits may cause arcing which could lead to an explosion or burn to
the seafarers.

 Only authorized persons should enter battery rooms and, when doing so, they should
ensure that they do not introduce any source of ignition. Smoking is prohibited in battery
rooms.

 Care should be taken when using metal tools or implements to avoid making contact with
the metal battery case or terminals.

 Battery rooms should be kept clear of any equipment, including any other electrical
equipment, likely to act as a source of ignition, and should not be used as store rooms.
  Lead-acid batteries and alkaline batteries should not be stored in the same room because
of the possible interaction of the electrolytes.

 Safe and effective means of inspecting and servicing the batteries should be provided by
adequate lighting and access to each cell, and personal protective clothing, gloves and
goggles should be worn by seafarers engaged in topping up the batteries. 

Warning: Open flames and naked lights should not be used to inspect battery cells.

Work with visual display units (VDUs) including microcomputers

 Seafarers should be given adequate individual training in the use and capabilities of VDUs
and microcomputers.

A VDU

 Work with VDUs can be mentally tiring and measures should be taken to minimize the risk
of eyestrain. Lighting should be adequate for the task, with glare and reflection cut to a
minimum, and the display screen should be clear and easy to read. Rest periods should be
provided.

 Symptoms such as neck and arm pains may arise as the result of bad posture. VDU
operators should avoid sitting in a slumped or cramped position and should be provided
with an adjustable chair. Screens and keyboards should be adjustable to the correct
height and the correct distance from the operator.
Basic Knowledge of First-Aid

Specific Learning Objectives

After going through this topic, student should be able to,

 Describe first aid measures for accidental injuries that can occur on tankers 

 Explain the shipboard actions in providing first aid treatment to victims of injury or
accidents

 Discuss preventive measures from chance exposure to some types of dangerous cargoes

Introduction

In every MSDS or Material Safety Data sheet for the cargoes that you carry, you have a First Aid
and Emergency Procedures instruction and that should be consulted before any first-aid
measures are undertaken.

For example, from the MSDS of HYDROGEN SULFIDE cargo, the following First Aid and
Emergency Procedures is to be followed:

First Aid and Emergency Procedures: Hydrogen Sulfide

For  freeze burns, immediately flush effected area with tap water for at least fifteen minutes,
seek immediate medical attention.

Eye:  Flush eyes with running water for at least fifteen minutes. If   irritation or adverse
symptoms develop, seek medical attention.

Skin:  Wash skin with soap and water for at least fifteen minutes. If  irritation or adverse
symptoms develop, seek medical attention.

Inhalation:  Immediately remove from exposure. If breathing is difficult, give oxygen. If

breathing ceases, administer artificial   respiration followed by oxygen. Seek immediate medical
attention.
Ingestion: If illness or adverse symptoms develop, seek medical attention.

Prompt medical attention is mandatory in all cases of overexposure to  hydrogen sulfide. Rescue
personnel should be equipped with NIOSH/MSHA approved self-contained breathing apparatus
(SCBA). Rescue personnel should recognize the hazards of overexposure due to olfactory
fatigue.

The use of rescue equipment which might contain ignition sources or cause static discharges
should be avoided.

Nitrite treatment as medical therapy has been used in persons overexposed to hydrogen sulfide,
but the benefits of this treatment are still considered by some to be of questionable usefulness.

Therapy can only be undertaken by qualified emergency medical personnel.

Treatment should be initiated with inhalation of amyl nitrite for fifteen to thirty seconds of each
minute until 10 ml of a 3% solution of sodium nitrite can be injected intravenously at a rate of
2.5 to 5 ml per minute. Sodium nitrite injections may be repeated if necessary."

For refreshing your basic knowledge on First Aid-Please Click here 

Common injuries that survivors could incur in an accident and their immediate treatment are
discussed here. This should be considered to be a first-aid only using the onboard kit. Click
here (pdf)

For serious injuries, victims to be shifted ashore by helicopter rescue.

The process of treatment is dealt more extensively under the topic: “Medical care”. Some
immediate and common injury treatment is dealt Click here (PDF).
First aid is used when the patient suddenly becomes unconscious and stopped breathing due to
lack of air. All cases of poisoning, regardless of which kind of poison, require certain basic
common methods of treatment. Additionally, a few particular cases of poisonous substances may
require antidotes.

In case of NDL ( Noxious Dangerous Liquid) cargoes, all personnel should be familiar with the
first-aid procedure set out in the Data Sheets for the cargoes carried. Professional medical
treatment should always be sought in cases where casualties have been overcome by gas.
Ensure that rescuers are equipped with self-contained breathing apparatus so that they do not
become the next casualty. Rescue personnel must not take undue risks themselves, don't
therefore rush down into tanks or pump rooms where vapor may be present.

Usage of full face vapor mask and vapor canisters are not recommended in a hazardous
situation. Breathing apparatus is to be worn for all operations where there is a risk.
Vapor canisters and masks are not fully protected. Best method for safe breathing is to use a
compressed air breathing apparatus set filled by a dedicated compressor with a clean air
certificate.

ABC: The method stands for Air, Breathing, and Circulation. The priority of first-aid training and
practice is of great importance. All personnel should be instructed and trained in the technique of
mouth-to-mouth (M-T-M) resuscitation and basic first-aid treatment. The better you are at first
aid in an emergency; the chance of a good outcome is greater.

Air: Try to free the airflow, lie the patient on a flat surface, bend the head backwards, remove
any dentures, vomit, etc.

Breathing: If the patient is not breathing, start resuscitation with 3-5 breaths/insufflations. Use
the “Pocket Mask” as an option. Hold the head curved backward, check the pulse on the neck. If
pulse is felt, continue with 12 respiration’s per minute.
Circulation: With deadly paleness and no pulse, give 2-3 powerful knocks over the heart. If this
has no effect, start external heart compression once per second.

Treatment and Prevention

Treatment of Patient:

1. Exposure of Gas:

Medical treatment for exposure to gas first involves the removal of the casualty to a safe area
from the dangerous atmosphere. Shift the patient as soon as possible out into the fresh air . To
check that the patient is breathing tilt the head firmly backwards as far as it will go to relieve
obstructions and listen for breathing with the rescuer’s ear over the patient’s nose and mouth.
Oxygen should be administered in case of weak breathing. It is an IMO Code requirement to
have oxygen resuscitation equipment on board.

i. Patient Not Breathing:

      a. Give artificial respiration at once

      b. Give cardiac compression if the pulse is absent

The following media explains about the Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation:

ii. After an Acute Case of Poisoning, Patient Breathing But Unconscious:

     a. An unconscious person should be laid on his side, face down, with one arm and one leg
bent to prevent him from rolling over. Loosen the clothes around the neck and waist and remove
false teeth.

     b. Check there are no obstructions in the mouth. First, keep the breathing passages free
(prevent the tongue from falling back).

     c. Remove any dentures

     d. Insert an Airway; leave in place until the patient regains consciousness

     e. Administer oxygen

     f. Keep the patient warm

     g. Give nothing by mouth

     h. Give no alcohol, morphine or stimulant

Note: Mouth to mouth artificial breathing may be necessary (avoid mouth to mouth contact with
severely poisoned or contaminated patients as the rescuer may then be at risk). Heart massage
may be necessary.

iii. Patient Conscious But Having Breathing Difficulty:

 The patient to be brought into fresh air with as little effort and strain to himself as
possible. Undue strain on the patient may affect him adversely later

 Keep the patient in a comfortable inclined sitting position and administer oxygen

 Even if the patient is free of all symptoms he should be kept quiet and rest as some gases
have delayed effects (nitrogen oxides in combustion inert gas, nitrous gases).

 If breathing does not improve despite these measures, then asphyxia or other lung
problems may have occurred

 In such circumstances, or if the patient’s condition deteriorates rapidly, obtain medical

advise.

2. Physical Contact
i. After Splash in the Eyes:

Immediately wash the eyes in gently flowing water, in a washbasin, in a jug or a special plastic
eye bath with a bottle of water. The eyelids may have to be forced open and the patient told to
move the eyes in order that all parts will be thoroughly rinsed out. Washing out the eyes may be
very painful and pain-relief eye drops can be used. Continue to wash for another 10-15 minutes.
In case of acids or alkalies (caustic) the washing must be repeated for a couple of minutes every
15-30 min for the next 4-5 hours, preferably with a NaCl (table) salt solution (0, 7 - 0, 9 %). A
sterilizing eye ointment should be applied several times during the day. In case of acids and
alkalies: obtain medical advice.

ii. After Skin Contact:

Regardless of product the area should be rinsed liberally with water, clean sea water can be
used. Soiled clothes, rings, watches, shoes etc must be taken off. Wash the area thoroughly with
soap and water. Also products which do not dissolve in water will be partly removed by washing
in soap water. (Poison dissolved in the skin fat will then be washed off).

iii. After Swallowing:

If the patient is unaffected give him a couple of glasses of liquid to drink for dilution of the
poison, preferably water (never any alcoholic drink). After intake of alkalies (caustic) a drink of
lemon juice can be given, or a solution of acetic acid that neutralizes caustic soda. If available
give medicine coal which absorbs a number of poisons and which in itself is harmless (30-60
crushed coal tablets or coal granulate in some water). Make the patient vomit, NOT, however, in
the case of corroding (acids or caustic) products or oil products like kerosene, gasoline, jet fuels,
when vomiting may be life-threatening. Dilution of the stomach contents, however, is important.
In case of doubt: do not cause the patient to vomit. Vomiting can be caused by giving warm salt
water (one table spoon of salt to one glass of water). Then by putting two fingers down the
throat and moving them about gently vomiting usually follows.

After certain products antidotes should be given. The most likely cargo for which an antidote
may have to be used is acrylonitrile ("AN") and acetone cyanohydrine. The remedy then is to
douse some clean rag with an ampoule of amyl nitrite from the medicine kit and hold it under
the patient's nose 5 times with 15 s interval.

3. First Aid in General:

4. Prevention of Exposure:

Prevention of exposure is achieved through a combination of cargo containment, which prevents

toxic fumes or liquid from contaminating the workplace, and the use of personal protective
equipment (PPE). It is a clear responsibility of the Owner, the master and the officers to inform
their staff about the cargoes to be carried, safety procedures etc and to arrange for the proper
training. Information should be given partly in the form of written notices combined with
informal meetings with the entire crew present when new cargoes are to be loaded or when
inexperienced staff is signed on. Among other things the following information should be given:

 Cargoes to be loaded; their characteristics as regards handling, pumping, toxicity,

corrosiveness, first aid etc.

 The cargo loading plan to be posted in places where it will be clearly seen by everyone on
board and at the accommodation ladder, when in port.

 Post cargo information cards for products to be loaded or are contained on board. For
"new" products ask the shipper for safety brochures and leaflets

 The personal safety equipment to be used by those involved in cargo handling, pumping,
sampling etc.

 Have available on board literature on chemical cargoes, medical advice etc,

  Inform in particular if the cargo to be loaded has an odor threshold which is higher than
the TLV-value and about cargo danger which cannot always be sensed in advance ( e.g .,
allyl alcohol, carbon tetra chloride, ethylene dichloride).

 Give information that most vapors are heavier than air and have a tendency to
accumulate in low spaces. Therefore work below gratings in pump rooms, cofferdams,
pipe tunnels etc is extra dangerous.

 Never take work clothes into your cabin. Soiled clothes must be washed before being used
again or in the case of toxic products, destroyed.

 Wash your hands before meals.

 Give information about fire fighting methods for each type of cargo on board.

 Give information if the cargo is water-reactive or reactive to other cargoes on board. Give
information on segregation required.

 For some very toxic cargoes mouth to mouth artificial breathing might be dangerous to
the rescuer (e g acrylonitrile, acetone cyanohydrine).

 Information must be given particularly if the cargo danger lies primarily in

vapor inhalation (e g acrylonitrile, trichlorethylene) or skin contact (e.g phenol, caustic
soda, sulfuric acid).

 State where eye washing bottles are located (deck office, at cargo manifolds on deck, in
pump rooms, on fore deck etc).

 Insist on that nobody should work with cargo gear without anyone standing by. Have
people report when going to and returning from pump rooms!

 Give information if any cargo is so toxic that an escape breathing mask must be used in
an emergency.

Dangers of Skin Contact

General

Contact with any chemical substance or product should be avoided. All necessary care should be
taken to prevent skin and eye contact.

The skin needs protection against corrosive and dangerous chemicals. A garment with leak proof
fastenings and manufactured from chemically resistant material constitutes the correct
protection. Ideally, the clothing should combine the greatest degree of comfort with the
maximum level of protection.
Care and maintenance of the clothing is important. Contaminated clothing should always be
washed or hosed down before the wearer takes it off. This ensures a longer service life for the
coated fabric and prevents contamination the next time the clothing is worn. Used protective
clothing should always be stored in a ventilated area outside the accommodation.

A full protective suit should be used when entering areas contaminated with toxic products or
areas where the cargo vapor is toxic, especially in conditions which cause perspiration and,
therefore, the possibility of vapor penetrating the skin through the sweat. Boots and gloves
should be permanently attached and either a full face breathing mask incorporated into the suit
or the hood tailored for the fitting of a full face breathing mask.

Types of chemical resistant clothing

The type and degree of protection required is dependent on the physical, chemical or toxic
properties of the cargoes being handled, whether the job is continuous or intermittent, and the
environmental conditions prevailing. The cargo data sheet should be consulted.

For light duty, cotton with out any coating is conventionally used in the form of overalls,
coveralls, smocks etc., and is satisfactory for operators who are at only slight risk from
chemicals and where there is the occasional danger of a splash from mild substances. Over time,
personal working clothing might absorb small and otherwise harmless amounts of cargo
vapors to the point where it becomes noticeable when worn into accommodation, particularly in
public rooms or mess rooms.

For medium duty, the apron provides protection. Aprons are made in a wide range of sizes,
weights and thickness from natural rubber, synthetic materials such as nylon coated with
polyvinyl chloride (PVC), and neoprene or polyurethane coated nylon. Heavyweight aprons
produced from heavy base fabrics coated with PVC can be used for protection against most
chemicals.

PVC coated fabrics generally provide protection against a wide range of chemicals, including
some of the most corrosive acids and alkaline substances. There are a few very strong organic
solvents which can leach out the plasticisers from PVC, making it stiff and brittle. When handling
organic solvents it is best to use protective clothing manufactured from polyuretfaane,
chlorobutyl rubber or neoprene coated fabrics. The latter are also useful where resistance to
mineral oils, vegetable oils and greases is required, although oil and fat resistance is built into
some PVC coated fabrics.

For heavy duty protection a wide range of chemical resistant clothing is available, including
boiler suits, long surgical coats, bib and brace overalls, leggings and three-quarter length coats,
all with machine stitched seams electronically welded to stop penetration, and generous over
and under wraps. A wide range of protective head gear is also manufactured in the form of caps
fitted with neck and shoulder covers. Visors are also fitted, with coated fabric attached for
protection of the face and neck.

PVC coated base fabrics woven from synthetic material such as nylon and terylene are used for
contact with extremely hazardous and corrosive chemicals, because the base fabric substrates
provide strength, tear resistance and improved impermeability. Neoprene coated and
polyurethane coated materials are also available for protection against very strong solvents and
some specific chemicals. The use of such heavy clothing is ideal for protection against possible
continuous contact with hazardous chemicals, or even the possibility of deluge or spillage
conditions. In the latter case, the correct clothing will provide the person concerned with
sufficient time to leave the affected area and either be hosed down or have the clothing removed
before the PVC coating on the fabric is affected.

EYE PROTECTION

Loss of eyesight is a devastating disability and results in total incapacitation for a long period.
Eyes are particularly vulnerable to injury from corrosive and toxic liquids and vapors. It is
therefore essential that they receive special consideration when assessing the need for personal
protection.

There is a wide range of eye protectors for chemical hazards. Care should be taken to evaluate
the chemical hazard properly, guided by the cargo data sheet, and select the eye protector
accordingly. There are three types of eye protectors to choose from:

 Safety goggles give complete chemical and mechanical eye protection, and can generally
be worn comfortably over most spectacles.
  Face shields, usually combined with a safety helmet, provide eye and face protection from
splashes of liquid and mechanical hazards, but not against vapor hazards.

 Safety spectacles, with or without lateral protection (side shields), are available with
different lens materials. Safety spectacles rarely fit properly over ordinary spectacles and
therefore care should be taken to achieve an effective fitting.

For protection against splashes of liquid and where there is doubt about the adequacy
of protection provided, safety goggles or a face shield should be used.

HAND PROTECTION

The number of hazards for which hand protection may be required can range from simple dust
or vapor to protection against fuming nitric acid. Obviously the type of glove has to be selected
carefully and it is important to understand the hazard or combination of hazards, which may be
present. These could include corrosive chemicals, toxic chemicals that can be absorbed through
the skin, and high temperature cargoes. Fortunately there is a wide choice of gloves which can
adequately protect the hand against most hazards.

PVC or rubber gloves are available in a range of thickness and weights, and the choice will
depend on the cargoes being handled. Neoprene or nitrile rubber gloves have excellent
resistance to solvents, petrol, oils and many chemicals. When choosing the correct gloves, as for
body clothing, one should be guided by the cargo data sheet, the resistance of the gloves'
fabrics or material to the chemicals, whether the working conditions are continuous or
intermittent, and the environmental conditions. Generally, when only gloves are being worn, it is
advisable for the gloves to have long cuffs which can reach over the sleeves of normal clothing.

FOOT PROTECTION

Rubber or PVC boots need to be worn when there is a risk of coming into contact with corrosive
or toxic chemicals. Boots that have reinforced toe-caps are preferable as they also give
protection against solid objects.

Fire Safety and Fire Fighting operations

Specific Learning Objectives

After going through this topic, student should be able to,

 Describe Oil and Chemical Tanker fire response organization and action to be taken
  Discuss Fire hazards associated with cargo handling and transportation of hazardous and
noxious liquids in bulk

 Describe Fire-fighting agents used to extinguish oil and chemical fires

 Describe Fixed fire-fighting foam system operations

 Describe Portable fire-fighting foam Operations

 Explain Fixed dry chemical system Operations

 Explain Spill containment in relation to fire-fighting operations 

Introduction

Any tanker fire incident is responded with a fire emergency preparedness, in-depth planning and
practice drills from the ship's crew under an organization under the Master, where each officer
and crew members are part of a team, allocated with resources, skills and knowledge to fight a
fire, big or small as discussed further.

Composition of Emergency Teams

Emergency organisation

Five core teams to deal with emergencies are given here. Variations may exist with different
employers. 

 Command team

 Emergency team

 Support and First Aid 

 Roving Team/Engine Room Ream

 Crew for Rescue Boat

The command team will be on the bridge (called command centre) and take overall charge of
all operations. Hence frequent feedback, short and crisp, is necessary from each team to the
Command Centre. Navigation, communication, maintenance of records of all actions and their
timings, etc. will be carried at this centre.

The Emergency team would be divided into two, depending on the emergency. Where the
emergency is in the Engine Room, the Second Engineer will be the leader of the primary team
and the Chief Officer would lead the back-up team. If the emergency is elsewhere, the Chief
Officer will be the leader of the primary team and the Second Engineer would lead the back-up
team.

The Support and First team will look after administration of first aid if and when required.
Prepare patients for evacuation. Prepare lifeboats in case of necessity to abandon ship at short
notice. Shit where water-tight doors. Provide drinking water to those in field operations,
essential snacks where the operations are sustained for a long period. Provide assistance
anywhere else as directed by the command team.

Roving Team/Engine Room Team will be under the Charge of the Chief Engineer. They
attend to E/R systems and controls. Isolate electricity from compartments on fire, shut off
ventilation systems to compartments on fire. Provide assistance anywhere else as directed by
the command team.

Crew for rescue boat: This team is mainly for man overboard. They will prepare the rescue
boat and, on specific instruction of the Command Team, lower the boat, rescue the man and get
hoisted back on board.

Some employers list out various emergencies that could occur:

Explosion/fire, Man Overboard, Oil spill/Pollution, hull failure/flooding, Collision,

Grounding/stranding, Personal injury, Main Engine failure, Steering failure, Piracy, Search &
Rescue, Chemical/noxious cargo spill, Vapour emissions, Tank rescue, etc. and list out duties to
be performed by each of the five teams in each such emergency.

Fire Response Organization

Actions upon hearing the emergency alarm signal

 Recognize the fire alarm in case of an outbreak of fire.

The fire alarm is a continuous sounding of the ships electric alarm or the ships whistle.
The following media explains about the Fire Alarm

This will initiate a visible and audible alarm at the bridge control panel. Activation of manually
operated call points (and automatic detectors) provides the location of the section where the
activation took place. If the signal has not been acted upon within two minutes, it will cause an
alarm to be sounded through the crew accommodation spaces, control stations and machinery
spaces.

Manual fire alarm call points are installed throughout the accommodation spaces, service spaces
and control stations. One call point shall be located at each exit and no part of a corridor is to be
more than 20 m from a call point.

Within 24 hours of embarkation of all passengers, the crew will conduct a mandatory muster drill
in which the General Emergency Alarm is sounded. The purpose of the drill is to educate
passengers and crew of emergency procedures should an actual emergency occur. The signal
alerts passengers and crew of an emergency so that they will begin proper procedures in which
all persons collect their life jackets and proceed to their assigned muster stations.

There is also an abandon ship alarm which is used should it become necessary to abandon ship,
after all other efforts have been exhausted. This signal is given audibly by the ship's Master over
the PA system. It is never given by automatic means or with recorded media.

Fire on Board

If a fire breaks out

 Raise the alarm – Use nearest manual fire alarm in alleyways. Announce location and
nature of fire on public address system.

 Shout “Fire, Fire”

 Inform bridge / duty officer /duty engineer giving location of fire and his name

 Identify chemicals involved and any other chemical which may be at risk if the fire
spreads.
  Assess the situation any body trapped inside, Any toxic fumes or vapors present. Check
the MSDS of the cargoes and details from IMDG.

 Decide quickly if foam or other Fixed Fire Fighting System is to be used and it is suitable
with the cargo.

 If possible remove inflammable substance in adjacent tanks and vicinity

 Stop any operations related to cargo immediately

 Stop Cargo work, bunkering, tank cleaning or ballasting operations immediately.

 Disconnect hoses if alongside the terminal or a ship.

 Inform the terminal/ship if alongside the terminal/ship.

 If at the terminal, external help may be summoned.

 Cast off any boats, which are alongside.

 If at anchor, alert port authorities.

 Shut all ventilators, doors, openings, booby hatches etc. Advise bridge which ventilators
have been closed.

 Wear fireman suit and SCBA to make entry if necessary,

 In addition to the preparations for fire on deck keep the foam system in readiness and
confirm with fire team in charge whether same is required to be released.

 Check compatibility of cargoes on board with available firefighting medium like water.

 Cool other compartments especially if they carry flammable cargo.

 Steer vessel away from traffic, coast or shallow depths prior stopping, if possible.

 Adjust ships course and speed to minimize wind effect.

 Be alert to the fact that toxic fumes may enter the accommodation and an evacuation of
non-essential crew and visitors may become necessary.

General Emergency Alarm

Introduction

The General Emergency alarms and Fire alarms are very important on the ship. They alert the
crew on board and warn them of the emergency situation on the ship. All said and done, it is
vital that unless you know that it is an emergency you would not be prepared accordingly. That
is why these alarms are distinct from other sources of sounds on board. All staff must be familiar
with the sound of these alarms so that they are well aware of it.
General Emergency Alarm

The General Emergency Alarm is a alarm used on board ships in times of emergency. The
signal is composed of seven short blasts followed by one long blast on the ship's whistle and
internal alarm system.

Within 24 hours of embarkation of all passengers, the crew will conduct a mandatory muster drill
in which the General Emergency alarm is sounded. The purpose of the drill is to educate
passengers and crew of emergency procedures should an actual emergency occur. During the
drill it is important to explain to their passengers and the crew about all the emergency signals
used on board. They should be made to actually hear the same as different ship may have a
different sound. The signal alerts passengers and crew of an emergency so that they will begin
proper procedures in which all persons collect their life jackets and proceed to their assigned
muster stations.

Some ships may have a fire alarm which is separate from the other emergency alarms. But in
such cases, it shall be clearly mention in the muster list and should be explained during the
drills.

The media below shows how a typical emergency alarm on board sounds.

Video 46

Fire alarm should not be confused with the Abandon ship signal. The abandon ship signal is
given audibly by the ship's Master over the PA system. It is never given by automatic means or
with recorded media.

Fire Control Plan and Muster List

Introduction
 The Fire Control Plan is a
mandatory requirement. The fire control plan provides us information about fire station on each
deck, on various bulkheads, and in spaces enclosed by class division, “A” & “B". Information
about various fire alarm systems, sprinkler installation, extinguishing appliances, means of
escape to different compartments and decks, and ventilation system including particulars of
remote operation of dampers and fans, can be obtained from the Fire Control Plan. The type of
fire detection system and fire fighting systems available on ship is also mentioned in the fire
control plan. The position of various dampers, their marking and which fan is for particular
compartment or deck is also explained so that required damper and fans can be closed in case of
fire.

Fire plan holder

Fire plan FPFF

IMO Sign for Fire plan

Fire control plan and muster list

The emergency muster list is exhibited in conspicuous places throughout the ship, including the
navigating bridge, engine room and crew accommodation. The muster list must contain details
of the general emergency alarm and other emergency signals and the action to be taken by the
crew and passengers. It is also important to keep one copy of fire control plan along with the
muster list at the access points of the ship. This provides as a guide and assists the external fire
fighting team when coming to fight fire from outside the ship.

Where passengers are carried duties include warning and assembling passengers, controlling
their movement, seeing that they are suitably clad and wearing their life jackets correctly.

Where appropriate, communication equipment, channels, used during an abandonment or other

emergency should be specified. The means by which the order to abandon ship is to be given
must also be included.

Muster list must show the duties to be carried out by each member of the ship's complement in
an emergency. All crew should be familiarised with the contents of muster list and they should
be aware of their job in emergencies. During every drill the officer in charge should ensure that
the crew remember their duties.

The media below shows the fire plan kept at the access point. It also shows the contents of a fire
plan along with the muster list explaining the duties of each individual crew. Different ships may
have different types but all are in same format as laid down in SOLAS chapter III.

The media below shows a fire control plan and explains the meanings of symbols
shown.

IMO Symbols and Signs

The IMO symbols are marked for fire, safety equipment and emergency escape routes. The
symbols are shown in the below media. You have to run the media to see them all.
A muster list is displayed in prominent areas of the vessel so that every crew member/passenger
on on board can read it. Some of the important areas where the muster list is posted are -
Bridge, Engine room, accommodation alleyways etc., areas where ship’s crew spends the
maximum of their time.

The Important features displayed in the muster lists are:

Types of Emergency and different alarms for the same

Main emergencies like fire, man overboard, abandon ship, oil spill are listed along with indication
of visual and audible alarms.

Instruction to follow in case of different types of emergency

Brief instruction is given in case the alarm for a particular emergency is sounded, which includes
action to be taken by the crew on board.

Common Muster point for all the crew

The common muster point is clearly described if any emergency alarm is sounded. Normally life
boat deck area is made as a common muster point.

Crew list of all crew member with assigned life boat

The qualified and competent crew name and his team (passengers etc,) is displayed along with
the assigned life boat for abandon ship emergency. Normally two life boats are assigned for all
the crew members i.e. port side and starboard side life boats.

Assigned duties for abandon ship

 All the crew listed in the muster list
are assigned with duties to perform in emergency situation like carrying EPIRB and SART,
lifeboat and life raft launching etc.
Communications

Introduction

Communications form an integral part of fire fighting as well as any other emergency. Good
communication ensures proper flow of information from one team to the other within the ship as
well as from ship to outside parties. It is not possible for the team in-charge to be at different
places on the ship at the same time. This further emphasises the need of proper communication.
Various equipment that are available on board to enable good communication. Good operating
knowledge of these equipment by practice during drills will save a lot of valuable time
during emergencies.

The basic communication inside ship are

 Public address system

 Ship's UHF and VHF unit

 Telephones

 Portable Walkie talkie

The communication equipment available between ship, shore and to other ship.

 EPIRB

 INMARSAT – B

 INMARSAT – C

 MF / HF DSC

 VHF DSC

EPIRB

EPIRB or the Emergency Position Indicating Radio Beacon is fitted on the side bridge wing by
means of a hydrostatic release unit (HRU). If the ship sinks, at a depth range of 2 to 5 meters,
the HRU releases the EPIRB, which will float to the surface and transmit signals to the satellite.
This EPIRB is sea-water activated. Some of the EPIRB may be activated as soon as they are
removed from the installed housing.

While abandoning ship, the EPIRB should be removed from it’s stowed position and switched on
manually. It can even be towed behind the survival craft using the lanyard attached to it.

The EPIRB transmits the ship’s ID and other particulars on 406 MHz for the COSPAS-SARSAT
satellites and a homing signal on 121.5 MHz for a SAR aircraft.

This EPIRB does not transmit ship’s position. The dedicated SAR satellites, which are polar
satellites, calculate the vessel’s position using Doppler shift. For a satellite to pick up the signal
from the EPIRB, the latter has to be in the “foot print” of the satellite. Once the signal is received
by the satellite, Missio Rescue Co-ordination Centre or MRCC is notified and a global alert is
activated.

INMARSAT – B

The vessel is fitted with Sat-B system which provides distress communication in telex and voice
mode. A qualified person is required for detailed distress procedure, meanwhile an undesignated
distress alert can be sent by any crew member (upon receiving Master’s instructions to do so).
To do so, peel off the protective cover of the Sat-B distress button (telex or telephone). These
buttons are located on the bulkhead above the computer monitor. Press the appropriate button
and keep pressed for more than 6 seconds. The buzzer will beep intermittently for a few seconds
and then the tone will change into a continuous beep. The vessel’s ID, time and position will be
automatically transmitted to a MRCC.

If the telephone button is pressed, direct voice communication with the MRCC is possible by
picking up the telephone handset and dialing the LES ID (3 digits) followed by a # within 15
seconds of the commencement of the continuous beep.

INMARSAT – C

Sat-C distress alerting procedure is same as for Sat-B, except that there is no voice
communication. One distress button is located on the radio console on the left-hand side of the
MF/HF DSC terminal and another near the port side VHF set.

MF / HF DSC

The undesignated distress alert button is located on the MF/HF DSC terminal on the radio
console. Triggering this button causes your distress message being transmitted on all MF/HF
distress watch frequencies monitored by all ships fitted with GMDSS as well as to Coast Radio
Stations (CRS).

VHF DSC

Distress buttons are located on the VHF sets. The range of this transmission is only about 30
miles. On the high seas, any vessel receiving an alert on VHF DSC automatically knows that the
distress vessel is in close vicinity. In coastal waters, i.e. within range of a CRS keeping watch on
VHF DSC, this alerting ensures immediate assistance.

Fire Hazards

The following are the major fire hazard in oil tanker

 Smoking in non designated places

 Use or carrying of matches and cigarette lighters outside accommodation spaces.

 Use of naked lights and hot work outside machinery space.

 Lamps and Other Electrical Equipment on Flexible Cables (Wandering Leads).

 Air Driven Lamps with accumulation of static electric charges at the appliance.
  Flashlights (Torches), Lamps and Portable Battery Powered Equipment of unapproved
design.

 Fixed electrical equipment non approved type and not properly maintained.

 Use of hand tools without permit and non- approved type.

 Bare aluminum metal dragged on steel deck and giving spark.

 Cathodic protection anodes in cargo tanks of unapproved type and it produce incendive
sparks.

 Piling up of oily rags and ignited by spontaneous ignition. ( oil of vegetable origin, are
liable to ignite without the external application of heat as the result of gradual heating
within the material produced by oxidation. The risk of spontaneous combustion is smaller
with petroleum oils than with vegetable oils, but it can still occur, particularly if the
material is kept warm, for example by proximity to a hot pipe.)

Rules and Regulations

Regulations

The precise requirements for cargo tank protection (and for fires on deck) for oil tankers are
more complex but, broadly speaking, inert gas systems are required for all tankers over 40,000
tons dead weight and all other tankers with crude oil washing systems or using high capacity
(over 60m3/h ) tank washing machines.

Tanker companies operate stringent procedures before and during cargo operations and fires on
deck are fortunately infrequent. Nevertheless, the effects of fire on board an oil tanker may be
disastrous. Therefore, as per regulations foam installations consisting of monitors and foam
applicators are required on ships built after May 1981 and many older vessels are fitted with less
comprehensive systems discharging low expansion foam.

Cargo Tank Protection

Fires and explosions in unprotected cargo tanks of oil tankers can have a wide variety of causes.
One specific cause is the use of high capacity tank washing machines and consequential
generation of high levels of static electricity. However, regardless of the mechanism of the
production of sparks or potential source of ignition, it is impossible for a fire or explosion to take
place in an intact tank in which the atmosphere has been rendered inert by the reduction of the
oxygen level. This reduction is normally achieved by treating the flue gases from the ship's
boilers and directing them into the cargo tanks to displace the gases in the tank atmosphere
until the oxygen level falls below 8%.

If an inerted tank is breached, then the concentration of hydrocarbon gases when diluted in the
atmosphere could produce an incendiary mixture although the probability is less than that for a
non-inerted tank. Similarly, an inert gas system does not provide tank protection in the case of
deck spills of cargo.

In tankers additional isolations are fitted not more than 40m to isloate damaged section of fire
main

Cargo Handling

During Cargo Operations:

Fire fighting appliances: Prior to cargo transfer, the ship’s fire fighting system should be made
ready. A portable DCP extinguisher should be placed conveniently for use near the manifold.

Radio Equipment and Radar: The operation of radio equipment and radar during cargo work
must be in accordance with the following:

 The transmission of radio waves from radio equipment (excluding VHF 1 kw or less
output) and the starting up of radar is prohibited. The main transmission antenna must be
either taken down or appropriately grounded.

 The AIS should be switched off or to low power.

 Accommodation is kept under positive pressure to prevent the entry of hydrocarbon

vapours. It should be 100%recirculation.

 All the windows and doors leading out of the accommodation must be closed.

During Gas-free Operations:

The transmission of radio waves from radio equipment must be prohibited. When the radio
equipment and / or radar are to be operated during gas-free operations, a safety check must be
made taking into consideration the existence of an outflow of explosive gas, and if so, the
quantity and the apparent wind direction and force.
On a vessel which is fitted with an inert gas system the gas freeing operations are to be carried
out in accordance with the procedures detailed in the vessel's Inert Gas System Operation
and Maintenance Manual.

On a vessel which is not fitted with an inert gas system the gas freeing operations are to be
carried out in accordance with the appropriate recommendations of ISGOTT. If portable fans are
used for gas freeing, injector nozzles and/or flexible ducting are not to be used until the
hydrocarbon gas concentration is less than 100% of the lower flammable limit.

Inerting of Tanks

Chapter II-2 of the SOLAS lays down rules regarding inert gas systems for tankers above 20,000
tonnes deadweight. These rules should be in accordance with the fire safety systems code.

The requirement of the inert gas system shall have the following functions:

 Inert empty cargo tanks by reducing the oxygen content of the atmosphere in each tank
to a level where combustion is not supported

 Maintain the oxygen content in the atmosphere of the tank below 8% by volume

 Inert gas should be at a positive pressure at all times when the tanker is in port or at sea,
except when gas freeing is in progress

 Eliminate air from entering the tank during normal operations except in cases when gas
freeing is in progress

Purge empty cargo tanks of hydrocarbon gas so that subsequent gas freeing will not create a
flammable atmosphere in the tank

Transportation

Maximum allowable quantity of cargo per tank

The quantity of a cargo required to be carried in a type 1 ship shall not exceed 1,250 m 3 in any
one tank. 

The quantity of cargo required to be carried in a type 2 ship shall not exceed 3,000 m 3 in any
one tank. 
Tanks carrying liquids at ambient temperatures shall be so loaded as to avoid the tank becoming
liquid-full during the voyage, having due regard to the highest temperature which the cargo may
reach. 

Cargo information

A copy of IBC Code, or national regulations incorporating the provisions of this Code, shall be on
board every ship covered by this Code.

Any cargo offered for bulk shipment shall be indicated in the shipping documents by the product
name under which it is listed. Where the cargo is a mixture, an analysis indicating the dangerous
components contributing significantly to the total hazard of the product shall be provided, or a
complete analysis if this is available. Such an analysis shall be certified by the manufacturer or
by an independent expert acceptable to the Administration.

Information shall be on board, and available to all concerned, giving the necessary data for the
safe carriage of the cargo in bulk. Such information shall include a cargo stowage plan, to be
kept in an accessible place, indicating all cargo on board, including, for each dangerous chemical
carried:

 A full description of the physical and chemical properties, including reactivity, necessary
for the safe containment of the cargo;

 Action to be taken in the event of spills or leaks;

 Countermeasures against accidental personal contact;

 Fire-fighting procedures and fire-fighting media;

 Procedures for cargo transfer, tank cleaning, gas-freeing and ballasting; and

 For those cargoes required to be stabilized or inhibited, the cargo shall be refused if the
appropriate certificate required by these paragraphs is not supplied. 

Compatibility with Chemical Cargoes

Some important points to remember in a chemical fire are:

 Some cargoes give out oxygen when on fire, thereby supporting the fire.
  Some chemical fires, the source of ignition may be heat from a reaction within the cargo
itself or through mixing with other chemicals.

 Chemicals miscible in fire will render normal foam useless. For such chemicals alcohol
resistant or dual-purpose foam shall be used.

 Some chemicals are miscible in water and hence their presence may not be recognized.

 Some chemicals are heavier than water and insoluble in water. These may be smothered
using water.

 Some chemicals evolve large volumes of toxic vapors when heated.

 Some chemicals have a low auto-ignition temperature. There is a risk of re-ignition of

these chemicals.

If a fire breaks out in a chemical carrier

 Raise the alarm – Use nearest manual fire alarm in alleyways. Announce location and
nature of fire on public address system.

 Shout “Fire, Fire”

 Inform bridge / duty officer /duty engineer giving location of fire and his name

 Identify chemicals involved and any other chemical which may be at risk if the fire
spreads.

 Assess the situation any body trapped inside, Any toxic fumes or vapors present. Check
the MSDS of the cargoes and details from IMDG.

 Decide quickly if foam or other Fixed Fire Fighting System is to be used and it is suitable
with the cargo.

 If possible remove inflammable substance in adjacent tanks and vicinity

 Stop any operations related to cargo immediately

 Stop Cargo work, bunkering, tank cleaning or ballasting operations immediately.

 Disconnect hoses if alongside the terminal or a ship.

 Inform the terminal/ship if alongside the terminal/ship.

 If at the terminal, external help may be summoned.

 Cast off any boats, which are alongside.

 If at anchor, alert port authorities.

 Shut all ventilators, doors, openings, booby hatches etc. Advise bridge which ventilators
have been closed.

 Wear fireman suit and SCBA to make entry if necessary,

  In addition to the preparations for fire on deck keep the foam system in readiness and
confirm with fire team in charge whether same is required to be released.

 Check compatibility of cargoes on board with available firefighting medium like water.

 Cool other compartments especially if they carry flammable cargo.

 Steer vessel away from traffic, coast or shallow depths prior stopping, if possible.

 Adjust ships course and speed to minimize wind effect.

 Be alert to the fact that toxic fumes may enter the accommodation and 

 An evacuation of non-essential crew and visitors may become necessary.

Some important points to remember in a chemical fire are:

 Some cargoes give out oxygen when on fire, thereby supporting the fire.

 Some chemical fires, the source of ignition may be heat from a reaction within the cargo
itself or through mixing with other chemicals.

 Chemicals miscible in fire will render normal foam useless. For such chemicals alcohol
resistant or dual-purpose foam shall be used.

 Some chemicals are miscible in water and hence their presence may not be recognized.

 Some chemicals are heavier than water and insoluble in water. These may be smothered
using water.

 Some chemicals evolve large volumes of toxic vapors when heated.

 Some chemicals have a low auto-ignition temperature. There is a risk of re-ignition of

these chemicals.

Fixed fire-fighting Foam

Fixed Fire Fighting Foam System

It is essential when using foam to ensure that there is a sufficient supply of foam solution
available to maintain an adequate rate of discharge to control the fire. If the supply is
interrupted or otherwise inadequate, the heat will break down the foam blanket and the fire will
burn back.

On the outbreak of a tanker deck fire, the general alarm should be sounded (and if in port, the
ship's whistle would be sounded to alert shore personnel, and the local fire department's help
requested). The cargo pumps and cargo valves must be shut down to reduce the supply of fuel
and the foam system should be activated.

Fixed foam fire fighting systems are classified into two types. They are:

 Fixed high expansion foam system

 Fixed low expansion foam system

High expansion foam is produced by foam generators. Its expansion ratio is 1000:1. Foam fire
extinguishing systems that use foam concentrates of high expansion type should be approved as
per maritime safety committee circular number 670, published by the IMO.

Low expansion foam is produced by self aspirating branch pipes. Its expansion ratio ranges
between 5:1 to 15:1. The foam concentrates used in low expansion foam fire extinguishing
systems should be approved as per maritime safety committee circular number 582/Corr.1,
published by the IMO.

Fire Fighting Procedure

Foam from the nearest foam monitor, on the windward side of the fire, between the fire and the
accommodation block should be lobbed onto the near edge of the fire. The foam blanket should
be steadily formed by side to side movement of the nozzle until the spill area is completely
covered. Any areas shielded from the monitor stream should be covered by foam from the foam
applicators.

During this operation, the fire-fighters should be protected as necessary by a fine spray curtain
from fire hose nozzles which would not be allowed to dilute or otherwise destroy the foam
blanket. Foam is the only medium which remains effective after it has been discharged. If the
supply of foam is depleted before the fire is controlled, the action should be continued using as
many fire hose lines and fine spray nozzles as could be manned from the windward side of the
fire. The firefighters should advance slowly and never in such a way as to endanger themselves
through a possible flash back. The attack should be continued until all surfaces have been cooled
down, the fuel supply shut down and the flammable liquid washed overboard.
The graphic below illustrates a typical tanker deck foam fire fighting system.

The following media explains about the Low Expansion Foam Operation

Procedure to operate Foam System:

 Open valve A.

 Start fire Pump.

 Open valves C and D.

 Start foam pump M.

 Open monitor or hydrant valve as required and fight fire.

Precautions for fighting Oil Fires on deck:

 Never direct the foam mixture directly on the burning oil as this will cause the oil to splash
and spread the fire.

 Direct the foam mixture so that it flows over the surface of the burning oil, and thus
gradually covers and smothers the fires. Use the prevailing wind or slope of the deck to
assist this flow wherever possible.

 Use one monitor and/or two applicators when fighting fire, if more are used, the
effectiveness of each will be reduced.

After using the Deck Foam System:

 Shut down fire pump and foam pump.

 Close valve D.

 Open valve B.

 Start fire pump and foam pump. Operate the forward monitor on the tank deck until clear
sea water comes out, and then operate all the other monitors for a few seconds.

 Stop fire pump and foam pump.

 Revert all valves to the stand-by position.

 Refill foam tank as soon as possible.

Care and maintenance

The following checks are to be carried out on fixed foam fire fighting systems:

 Display the operation instructions in the foam room.

 Ensure that the moving parts in foam monitors are free.

  Check the foam liquid level in the foam tank.

 Operate the foam pump for short durations to ensure quality of foam generated.

 Top up the foam tank and flush the system after completion of the above operation.

The technique used for foam as fire fighting

 Bounce-off Technique

 Bank-in Technique

Rain-down Technique

Portable fire-fighting foam

Foam eductor operates using the venturi effect. The inlet of the eductor has a large diameter as
compared to the small diameter in the center or Venturi area of the unit. The outlet of the
eductor returns to the original inlet diameter. The result is that all the water entering the
eductor is forced through the small center opening. In order for this to occur, the velocity of the
water must increase in small diameter. The increase in velocity reduces pressure in the Venturi
area, which allows the foam concentrate to enter the water stream as atmospheric pressure
pushes on the concentrate in the foam tank. When using foam eductor, remember that they are
situation-sensitive. They must be operated in precisely the correct parameters to operate
effectively. For example, the flow through the eductor must match its rating. Drastic variations
and/or incorrect flow will affect the pressure drop through the Venturi and, therefore, prevent its
operation. The eductor must also be matched to the correctly adjusted nozzle, which must

discharge at a constant rate.

When the operation is complete, the eductor must be flushed. It is important that there is no
traces of foam concentrate in the eductor as it will dry, attract dirt and plug the small orifices.
Eductors can be great tools, but they must be set up and operated properly to be effective.
Regular practice with your equipment will ensure that the steps for proper operation are second
nature when emergency arises onboard.

Fixed Dry Chemical Powder

Dry powder fire extinguishing systems onboard chemical tankers

Some new chemical tankers use dry powder extinguishing system as the main fire fighting
method in the cargo tank extinguishing area.

There exist centralized powder systems with possibilities of discharging several thousand kgs of
powder. Release boxes and hose reels are strategically located on deck so that any point can be
reached by two hoses, each being usually max 25 m length.
On smaller vessels self-contained powder containers of 1000-3000 kgs are located in small
deckhouses.

IMO accepts dry powder as equivalent to foam. Dry powder has decided limitations, as stated
below.

The extinguishing effect of dry powder originates mainly from an inhibiting effect on the
combustion. The smothering and cooling effects are small.

Dry powder has a particularly good extinguishing effect on larger volumes of burning gases and
strongly vapourizing liquids, as compared with other means of fire fighting. But it has virtually
no cooling effect on any steel, cargo liquid or other matter that has become heated from the fire.
Once the flames have been extinguished with dry powder there is a great risk for a fire back
flash which can be more violent than the original fire. At a major fire therefore, the fire area
should be cooled down with water fog as much as possible prior to application of powder.

Water cooling must be continued after the flames have been extinguished If a fire can be fought
immediately after its outbreak and only little heating has occurred one should of course
immediately start with dry powder, not awaiting water fog assistance.

Common types of dry powder have a tendency to break down a foam layer. Therefore the two
methods should be avoided being used together. Always place two dry powder extinguishers at
hand on deck aft of the cargo manifold, when loading /unloading.
Fixed Dry Chemical Powder Installation

Spill containment

Chemical cargo spills:

The biggest risk of a cargo spill is during cargo handling operations, either because of equipment
failure or improper handling procedures. Cargo spills are therefore most likely to happen in port.

Following actions should be taken in the event of spill:

 Activate the alarm

 Stop all cargo operations and close valves and hatches

  If alongside a berth, notify the terminal staff of the chemicals involved and possible risk
posed to the personnel

 Notify local port authorities, usually through the terminal staff

 Prohibit smoking and use of naked lights throughout the ship

 Clear all non-essential personnel from the area

 Close all accommodation access doors, and stop all non-closed circuit ventilation

 Arrange for main engine and steering gear to be brought to stand-by

 Use of SOPEP items to contain the oil spill.

The main course of action is dependent upon the nature of chemicals involved and size and
location of spill. If there is possibility of vapors entering accommodation or engine room,
measures should be taken to counteract this. Personnel exposure to be dealt with by using
MSDS and EmS (Emergency schedule) and MFAG from Supplement to IMDG code.

Notification of spillage into the sea:

Reporting requirement will apply to actual or probable release of noxious liquid substances, and
for ships certified to carry NLS, Shipboard Marine Pollution Emergency Plan (required as per
MARPOL regulation 17) should be consulted.

Cargo Operations

Specific Learning Objectives

After going through this topic, student should be able to,

 Describe preparations before loading and discharging of cargo

 Describe the loading operations on a oil/chemical tank ship

 Describe the unloading operation on an oil/chemical tank ship

 Discuss the safety precautions for cargo loading and discharging operations

 Describe the ballasting / de-ballasting operations

 Describe the Crude Oil Washing operation

 Describe the Chemical tank ship cargo tank cleaning operation

 Discuss the inerting, venting, gas-freeing operation for tanks

Introduction
It is during the ballast voyage that the cargo tanks are full of inert gas and sediments at the
tank bottom. The tanks may need to be cleaned ( e.g. Crude Oil Washed) and got rid of cargo
remains as sediments before the next cargo may be loaded. For thorough cleaning of cargo
tanks and if the tanks need to be entered, the tanks are vented, made gas-free and oxygen rich
(>21% by volume) before manual cleaning could be done.

For crude oil, it may not be necessary to clean the tanks except the COW operation, before
loading the next cargo. The tank atmosphere is always maintained inert to avoid any possibility
of combustion within the tank.

After loading, a positive inert gas pressure on top of the tank ensures safe passage.

CARGO
LOADING AND DISCHARGING CYCLE FOR TANK SHIPS

Introduction:
Ballast voyage

The ship crew must be on high alert during a ballast voyage as much as on a loaded voyage.
One should not forget that hydrocarbon vapours are still present with inert gas in the cargo
tanks after the discharge was completed. An explosion is possible if proper precautionary
measures are not observed.

It is equally important during the ballast voyage as in the loaded voyage to maintain the oxygen
content less than 8% in the tanks unless a tank is gas freed. If the oxygen content is allowed to
rise, it can form a flammable mixture along with hydrocarbon at the right proportions.

Since the tanks are going to remain inerted and closed, the pressures in the tanks have to be
monitored. Pressure fluctuates with variation in atmospheric temperature but the Chief Officer
has to ensure that it remains within limits considering the tank structural design.

The ballast tanks will have water in them but every ballast tank is filled up completely. Ballast is
carried enough to ensure a positive stability in the absence of cargo. This is called normal
ballast. Some ballast space is left to take in more water in case of an extreme bad weather. This
is called heavy weather ballast.
The fixed gas detection system has sampling points in the ballast tanks, one at the top and
another at the bottom. Three way valves are provided to change over to the top sampling point
during the ballast voyage so that water will not enter the system. The Chief Officer must ensure
this before the ballast tanks are filled up.

The ballast voyage is an opportunity for the crew to gas free the required cargo tanks for man-
entry and carry out maintenance, repair works on valves and pipelines or a regular inspection.
Such operation should be carefully planned based on the length of voyage so that the cargo
tanks can be inerted again and ready for loading upon arrival at load port.

Some of the inspection, testing and maintenance works on cargo equipment according to the
planned maintenance system (PMS) cannot be carried out during the loaded voyage. 

These works can be carried out during the ballast voyage and documented accordingly.

Cargo operation - Oil tanker

Carrying out cargo operations on an oil tanker involves many complexities and hence it has to be
carefully planned special consideration to safety. This topic will familiarize you with the
fundamental aspects of different cargo operations on an oil tanker.

There are many hazards involved in the daily operations on an oil tanker. All prescribed safety
procedures and checklists must be followed to ensure safe working atmosphere.

One has to be fully aware of the hazards of the particular ship type and also the cargo carried.
The Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) and other relevant information should be readily
available for reference. The crew should familiarize themselves with the relevant MSDS before
participating in any operation involving that substance.
Oil cargo is usually pumped into the ship’s tanks using shore pumps and discharged using ship’s
pumps. The cargo is carried in fully closed tanks with inert gas filling the space above the liquid
if the flash point is less than 60°C.

Preparation before loading

Utmost diligence is required in planning the operations before hand, with high regard for safety.
The following are some of the important steps in repairing the vessel for loading oil cargo.

The atmosphere in the cargo tanks must be checked for oxygen content less than 8%. Inerting
should be carried out to reduce the oxygen content if it is found to be 8% or more. This 8% is
prescribed by the IMO and the vessel will not be permitted to load otherwise.

A detailed cargo plan is prepared by the Chief Officer prior arrival at the load port. The plan must
be posted at the Cargo Control Room (CCR) and the crew briefed on its contents. It should be
distributed the personnel directly involved in the operation. They must sign to confirm that they
have read and understood the plan.

The Chief Officer also prepares a watch schedule for the crew and the officers in-charge. Prior to
commencing the loading, the Chief Officer conducts a cargo safety meeting with the concerned
crew and officers.

The ballast pumps must be tested and in all readiness when arriving at a load port.

The appropriate checklists must be completed at each step in preparation as well as loading.
These checklists must be signed and retained for future verification. Some checklists and permits
will require the approval of the Master.

The Duty Officer or the Chief Officer must be present at the Manifold while connecting the cargo
transfer hose or arm.

For Oil Tankers

The subsequent topics cover the following:

  Cargo Data

 Inerting Operations

 Loading Operations

 Discharging Operations

Ship/Shore Liasion

Pre-Arrival Checklist

The tanker pre-arrival check list is an exchange of essential information between the tanker and
the terminal for the safe conduct of loading or discharging operations.

The information exchanged will contain the following:

 Vessel information – (name, IMO number, drafts, displacement, cargo quantity etc.)

 Type of cargo

 Maximum draft expected during port stay

 Any defects to hull, machinery or equipment that could adversely affect safe operations or
delay commencement of cargo handling

 If fitted with an inert gas system, confirmation that that the ship’s tanks are in an inert
condition and the system is fully operational

 Any requirement for tank cleaning and/or gas freeing

 Whether crude oil washing is to be employed and, if so, confirmation that the pre-arrival
check-list has been satisfactorily completed

 Ship’s manifold details, including type, size, number, distance between centres of
connections to be presented. Also products to be handled at each manifold, numbered
from forward

 Advance information on proposed cargo handling operations, including grades, sequence,

quantities and rate restrictions

 Information, as required, on quantity and nature of slops and dirty ballast and of any
contamination by chemical additives. Such information should include identification of any
toxic components, such as hydrogen sulphide and benzene

 Quantities and specifications of bunkers required, if applicable. 

The Ship/Shore Safety Check-List

Ship’s Name ______________________

Berth ____________________________ Port ______________________

Date of Arrival _____________________ Time of Arrival ______________

Part ‘A’ – Bulk Liquid General – Physical Checks

Code

R-Repeat,
Bulk Liquid – General Ship Terminal Remarks
A-Arrival,

P-Port

There is safe access between the ship     R  

and shore.

The ship is securely moored.     R  

The agreed ship/shore communication     A    R System:

system is operative.
Backup
System:

Emergency towing-off pennants are     R  

correctly rigged and positioned.

The ship’s fire hoses and fire-fighting    X R  

equipment are positioned and ready
for immediate use.

The terminal’s fire-fighting equipment  X   R  

is positioned and ready for immediate
use.

The ship’s cargo and bunker hoses,    X    

pipelines and manifolds are in good
condition, properly rigged and
appropriate for the service intended.

The terminal’s cargo and bunker hoses  X      

or arms are in good condition, properly
rigged and appropriate for the service
intended.

The cargo transfer system is sufficiently        

isolated and drained to allow safe
removal of blank flanges prior to
connection.

Scuppers and save-alls on board are    X R  

effectively plugged and drip trays are
in position and empty.

Temporarily removed scupper plugs will    X R  

be constantly monitored.

Shore spill containment and sumps  X   R  

are correctly managed.

The ship’s unused cargo and bunker    X    

connections are properly secured with
blank flanges fully bolted.

The terminal’s unused cargo and  X      

bunker connections are properly
secured with blank flanges fully bolted.

All cargo, ballast and bunker tank lids    X    

are closed.

Sea and overboard discharge valves,    X    

when not in use, are closed and visibly
secured.

All external doors, ports and windows    X R  

in the accommodation, stores and
machinery spaces are closed. Engine
room vents may be open.

The ship’s emergency fire control plans    X   Location:

are located externally.
 If the ship is fitted, or is required to be fitted, with an inert gas system (IGS), the
following points should be physically checked:

Bulk Liquid – General Ship Terminal Code Remarks

Fixed IGS pressure and    X R  
oxygen content recorders are
working.

All cargo tank atmospheres    X P     R  

are at positive pressure with
oxygen content of 8% or less
by volume.

Part ‘B’ – Bulk Liquid General – Verbal Verification

Bulk Liquid – General Ship Terminal Code Remarks

ship is ready to move    X P R  

er its own power.

re is an effective deck     R  
ch in attendance on
rd and adequate
ervision of operations on
ship and in the
minal.

re are sufficient     R  
sonnel on board and
ore to deal with an
ergency.

procedures for cargo,     A R  

ker and ballast
dling have been
eed.

emergency signal     A  
 shutdown procedure to
used by the ship and
re have been explained
understood.

erial Safety Data Sheets     P R  

SDS) for the cargo
nsfer have been
hanged where
uested.

hazards associated        
h toxic substances in
H2S
cargo being handled
Content:
e been identified and
Benzene
erstood.
Content:

International Shore Fire        

nection has been
vided.

agreed tank venting     A R Method:

tem will be used.

requirements for     R  
ed operations have
n agreed.

operation of the P/V    X    

tem has been verified.

ere a vapour return     A R  

is connected,
rating parameters
e been agreed.

ependent high level    X A R  

ms, if fitted, are
rational and have been
ed.

quate electrical  X   A R  
ulating means are in
ce in the ship/shore
nection.
 re lines are fitted with a  X   P R  
-return valve, or
cedures to avoid back
ng have been discussed.

oking rooms have been     A R Nominated smokin

ntified and smoking rooms:
uirements are being
erved.

ed light regulations     A R  
being observed.

p/shore telephones,     A R  
bile phones and pager
uirements are being
erved.

nd torches (flashlights)        
of an approved type.

ed VHF/UHF    X    
nsceivers and AIS
ipment are on
correct power mode
witched off.

table VHF/UHF        
nsceivers are of an
roved type.

ship’s main radio    X    

nsmitter aerials are
thed and radars are
tched off.

ctric cables to portable        

ctrical equipment within
hazardous area are
onnected from power.

dow type air    X    

ditioning units are
onnected.
itive pressure is being    X    
ntained inside the
ommodation, and air
ditioning intakes, which
y permit the entry of
go vapours, are closed.

asures have been taken    X R  

nsure sufficient
chanical ventilation in
pumproom.

re is provision for an        
ergency escape.

maximum wind and     A Stop cargo at:

ll criteria for operations Disconnect at:
e been agreed. Unberth at:

urity protocols have     A  

n agreed between the
p Security Officer and
Port Facility Security
cer, if appropriate.

ere appropriate,     A        P  

cedures have been
eed for receiving
ogen supplied from
re, either for inerting or
ging ship’s tanks, or for
clearing into the ship.

If the ship is fitted, or is required to be fitted, with an inert gas system (IGS) the
following statements should be addressed:

Inert Gas System Ship Terminal Code Remarks

The IGS is fully operational    X P  
and in good working order.
 Deck seals, or equivalent,    X R  
are in good working order.

Liquid levels in    X R  
pressure/vacuum breakers
are correct.

The fixed and portable oxygen    X R  

analysers have been
calibrated and are working
properly.

All the individual tank IG    X R  

valves (if fitted) are correctly
set and locked.
All personnel in charge of    X    
cargo operations are aware
that, in the case of failure of
the inert gas plant, discharge
operations should cease and
the terminal be advised.

If the ship is fitted with a Crude Oil Washing (COW) system, and intends to crude oil
wash, the following statements should be addressed:

Crude Oil Washing Ship Terminal Code Remarks

The Pre-Arrival COW check-     X    
list, as contained in the
approved COW manual, has
been satisfactorily
completed.

The COW check-lists for     X R  

use before, during and
after COW, as contained in
the approved COW manual,
are available and being
used.
If the ship is planning to tank clean alongside, the following statements should be
addressed:

Tank Cleaning Ship Terminal Code Remarks

Tank cleaning operations Yes/No* Yes/No*    
are planned during the
ship’s stay alongside the
shore installation.

If ‘yes’, the procedures and        

approvals for tank cleaning
have been agreed.

Permission has been Yes/No* Yes/No*    

granted for gas freeing
operations.

* Delete Yes or No as appropriate

Part ‘C’ – Bulk Liquid Chemicals – Verbal Verification

Termina
Bulk Liquid Chemicals Ship Code Remarks
l

Material Safety Data Sheets are        

available giving the necessary data for
the safe handling of the cargo.

A manufacturer’s inhibition certificate,     P  

where applicable, has been provided.

Sufficient protective clothing and        

equipment (including self-contained
breathing apparatus) is ready for
immediate use and is suitable for the
product being handled.

Countermeasures against accidental        
 personal contact with the cargo have
been agreed.

The cargo handling rate is compatible     A  

with the automatic shutdown system, if
in use.

Cargo system gauges and alarms are        

correctly set and in good order.

Portable vapor detection instruments        

are readily available for the products
being handled.

Information on fire-fighting media      

and procedures has been exchanged.

Transfer hoses are of suitable material,        

resistant to the action of the products
being handled.

Cargo handling is being performed with     P  

the permanent installed pipeline system.

Where appropriate, procedures have     A    P  

been agreed for receiving nitrogen
supplied from shore, either for inerting
or purging ship’s tanks, or for line
clearing into the ship.

Part ‘D’ – Bulk Liquefied Gases – Verbal Verification

Termina
Bulk Liquefied Gases Ship Code Remarks
l

Material Safety Data Sheets are        

available giving the necessary data for
the safe handling of the cargo.
A manufacturer’s inhibition certificate,     P  
where applicable, has been provided.

The water spray system is ready for        

immediate use.

There is sufficient suitable protective        

equipment (including self-contained
breathing apparatus) and protective
clothing ready for immediate use.

Hold and inter-barrier spaces are   X     

properly inerted or filled with dry air, as
required.

All remote control valves are in working        

order.

The required cargo pumps and     A  

compressors are in good order, and the
maximum working pressures have been
agreed between ship and shore.

Re-liquefaction or boil-off control        

equipment is in good order.

The gas detection equipment has been        

properly set for the cargo, is calibrated,
has been tested and inspected and is in
good order.

Cargo system gauges and alarms are        

correctly set and in good order.

Emergency shutdown systems have        

been tested and are working properly.

Ship and shore have informed each     A Ship:

other of the closing rate of ESD valves,
Shore:
automatic valves or similar devices.

Information has been exchanged     A  

between ship and shore on the
maximum/minimum temperatures/
pressures of the cargo to be handled.

Cargo tanks are protected against   X     

 inadvertent overfilling at all times while
any cargo operations are in progress.

The compressor room is properly   X     

ventilated, the electrical motor room is
properly pressurized and the alarm
system is working.

Cargo tank relief valves are set correctly        

and actual relief valve settings are
clearly and visibly displayed. (Record
settings below.)

                                   Tank No 1  Tank No 5  Tank No 8   

                 

 Tank No 2   Tank No 6  Tank No 9   

                 Tank No 3  Tank No 7  Tank No 10 

                 Tank No 4 

DECLARATION

We, the undersigned, have checked the above items in Parts A and B, and where appropriate
Part C or D, in accordance with the instructions, and have satisfied ourselves that the entries we
have made are correct to the best of our knowledge.

We have also made arrangements to carry out repetitive checks as necessary and agreed that
those items with code ‘R’ in the Check-List should be re-checked at intervals not exceeding
_________ hours.

If to our knowledge the status of  any item changes, we will immediately inform the other party.

For Ship For Shore

     Name                                               Name                                            

Rank                                              Position
or Title                                

Signature                                         Signature                                        

Date                                               Date                                              

Time                                              Time                                             

Record of repetitive checks:

Date:      

Time:      

Initials for      
Ship:

Initials for      
Shore:

Sample Safety Letter

Company   _                                        

Terminal   _                                         

Date   ____                                         

The Master SS/MV           ________                                 

Port           ___________________                                 

Dear Sir,
Responsibility for the safe conduct of operations while your ship is at this terminal rests jointly
with you, as Master of the ship, and with the responsible Terminal Representative. We wish,
therefore, before operations start, to seek your full co-operation and understanding on the
safety requirements set out in the Ship/Shore Safety Check-List, which are based on safe
practices that are widely accepted by the oil and tanker industries.

We expect you, and all under your command, to adhere strictly to these requirements
throughout your ship’s stay alongside this terminal and we, for our part, will ensure that our
personnel do likewise, and co-operate fully with you in the mutual interest of safe and efficient
operations.

Before the start of operations, and from time to time thereafter, for our mutual safety, a
member of the terminal staff, where appropriate together with a Responsible Officer, will make a
routine inspection of your ship to ensure that elements addressed within the scope of the
Ship/Shore Safety Check-List are being managed in an acceptable manner. Where corrective
action is needed, we will not agree to operations commencing or, should they have been started,
we will require them to be stopped.

Similarly, if you consider that safety is being endangered by any action on the part of our staff
or by any equipment under our control, you should demand immediate cessation of operations.

There can be no compromise with safety.

Please acknowledge receipt of this letter by countersigning and returning the attached copy.

Signed __________________________

Terminal Representative       

Terminal Representative on duty is: __________________________

Position or Title: _________________________________________
 Contact Details: _________________________________________

Signed __________________________

Master              

SS/MV __________________________

Date/Time __________________________

Bunkering Safety Check-List

BUNKERING OPERATIONS

Port _______________________ Date _______________________

Ship _______________________ Barge ______________________

Master _____________________ Master _____________________

1. Bunkers to be Transferred

Grade Tonne Volume at Loading Maximum Maximum

s Loading Temperatur Transfer Line
Temp e Rate Pressure

Fuel Oil          

Gas Oil/Diesel          

Lub. Oil in Bulk          

2. Bunker Tanks to be Loaded

 Tank Grade Volume of Vol. of Oil in Available Volume to Total Volumes
No. Tank @ ____ Tank before Volume be Loaded Grade
% Loading

             

             

             

3. Checks by Barge Prior to Berthing

Barg Cod
Bunkering Ship Remarks
e e

The barge has obtained the necessary  X      

permissions to go alongside receiving ship.

The fenders have been checked, are in good  X   R  

order and there is no possibility of metal to metal
contact.

Adequate electrical insulating means are in place  X      

in the barge-to-ship connection. (34)

All bunker hoses are in good condition and are  X      

appropriate for the service intended. (7)

4. Checks Prior to Transfer

Barg
Bunkering Ship Code Remarks
e

The barge is securely moored. (2)     R  

There is a safe means of access between   R  

the ship and barge. (1)

Effective communications have been A        R (VHF/UHF

established between Responsible Ch ..........).
Officers. (3)
Primary System:

Backup System:

Emergency Stop
Signal:

There is an effective watch on board the        

barge and on the ship receiving bunkers.
(22)

Fire hoses and fire-fighting equipment        

on board the barge and ship are ready
for immediate use. (5)

All scuppers are effectively plugged.     R  

Temporarily removed scupper plugs will
be monitored at all times. Drip trays are
in position on decks around connections
and bunker tank vents. (10) (11)

Initial line up has been checked and        

unused bunker connections are blanked
and fully bolted. (13)

The transfer hose is properly rigged and        

fully bolted and secured to manifolds on
ship and barge. (7)

Overboard valves connected to the cargo      

system, engine room bilges and bunker
lines are closed and sealed. (16)

All cargo and bunker tank hatch lids are        

closed. (15)

Bunker tank contents will be monitored     A        R at intervals not

at regular intervals. exceeding …….
minutes

There is a supply of oil spill clean-up      

material readily available for immediate
 use.

The main radio transmitter aerials are        

earthed and radars are switched off.
(42)

Fixed VHF/UHF transceivers and AIS        

equipment are on the correct power
mode or   switched off. (40)

Smoking rooms, if any, have been     A        R Nominated Smoking

identified and smoking restrictions are Rooms
being observed. (36)
Tanker:

Barge:

Naked light regulations are being        

observed. (37)

All external doors and ports in the        

accommodation are closed. (17)

Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) for        

the bunker transfer have been
exchanged where requested. (26)

The hazards associated with toxic     R H2S

substances in the bunkers being handled Content .............
have been identified and understood.
Benzene
(27)
Content .......

DECLARATION

We have checked, where appropriate jointly, the items of the Check-List in accordance with the
instructions and have satisfied ourselves that the entries we have made are correct to the best
of our knowledge.
We have also made arrangements to carry out repetitive checks as necessary and agreed that
those items coded ‘R’ in the Check-List should be re-checked at intervals not exceeding _____
hours.

If, to our knowledge, the status of any item changes, we will immediately inform the other
party.

For Ship For Barge

   

Name ___________________________ Name ___________________________

   

Rank ___________________________ Rank ____________________________

   

Signature _______________________ Signature ________________________

   

Date ___________________________ Date ____________________________

   

Time ___________________________ Time ____________________________

   

Date:      

Time:      

Initials for ships:      

Initials for Barge:      

Inerting Operations
Tank Inerting

This means that during normal operation of oil tankers the following operational modes
frequently take place:

 Inerting of empty tanks

 Inerting during loading and simultaneous discharge of ballast

 Inerting during loaded sea voyage

 Inerting during discharging and ballasting

Note 1 - On board vessels without purge pipes but with stand-pipes i.e. vent pipes from deck
level and about 2500 mm up vertically from deck level, are to be opened instead of the purge
pipes .

Note 2 - The vessel which is not fitted with SBT (Segregated Ballast Tank) capacity according to
MARPOL 73/78, and ballast water has to be carried in cargo oil tanks on ballast voyages.

Empty gas-free tanks

Tanks that have been cleaned and gas-freed should be re-inerted preferably during the ballast
voyage prior to cargo handling or following a breakdown and repair of the inert gas system, non-
gas-free and non-inerted tanks should be re-inerted. Purge pipes/vents should be opened to
atmosphere. The oxygen content in the tanks should be checked frequently, at least every half
hour. The inerting should be continued until the gas leaving the tank has had an O2 content of
less than 8% for a minimum of 30 minutes. This is because of the possibility of local air pockets
in the tanks.

De-ballasting during cargo loading

The vessel is supposed to arrive at the loading port with all cargo tanks inerted. If the ship is
fitted with a central gas vent outlet, all tanks to be loaded are connected to the vent system. In
case only local Pressure Vacuum (P/V) valves are fitted, the valves are checked and adjusted for
evacuation of gas through the high-speed valves. It should be checked that all tank hatches are
closed and possible float level indicators are operating correctly.
Discharge of ballast:- can be done either before or during the loading. During discharge of
ballast, before loading is commenced, the inerting procedure is the same as during discharge of
cargo. At simultaneous loading of cargo and discharge of ballast, the loading capacity is normally
higher than the ballast water discharge capacity. This means that the inert gas volume available
in the usage space above the oil level in the tanks being loaded is more than sufficient for the
inert gas needed in the ballast tanks during discharge. By simply connecting the ballast tank to
the cargo tanks with the inert gas lines on deck, inert gas will flow from the cargo tanks to the
ballast tanks. The inert gas system can be operated if required, but will normally not be required
to deliver any gas to the deck lines.

Cargo loading

During loading without de-ballasting, it is normally not necessary to operate the inert gas
system. All openings to the cargo tanks except the connections to the mast risers or equivalent
venting arrangement should be kept closed to minimize flammable vapor on deck.  Before
loading commences, the flame screens in the mast risers or equivalent venting arrangements
should be inspected and any stop valves isolating the cargo tanks from the inert gas main locked
in the open position. The ventilation mast P/V valve should be in the open position or bypassed
during this operation. This is to allow free flow of the inert gas above the oil level to the
atmosphere during the loading. At this moment the 'usage' volume in the tanks is filled with
inert gas mixed with hydrocarbon gases at about atmospheric pressure. If this mixture of inert
gas and hydrocarbon gas has an oxygen content of 8% by volume or below, this atmosphere is
non-explosive and safe.

Loaded sea voyage

During the loaded passage the positive pressure may, however, be disturbed with a pressure
drop in the tank due to escape of inert gas and the possibility of ingress of air into the tanks by
several factors. The most common are:

 Leakages in valves and hatch covers

 Change of pressure in the tanks due to temperature variations (i.e. sea/air temperature
changes)

 Rolling and heaving in rough sea.

A positive pressure of inert gas of at least 100 millimeters water gauge should be maintained in
the cargo tanks. When topping up the inert gas pressure in the cargo tanks, an oxygen
concentration of 5 per cent or less shall be maintained in the inert gas supply before introducing
the gas into the cargo tanks.

Cargo discharging

When the vessel arrives at the discharge port, the inert gas system should be tested and ready
for operation in due time for discharge. Before pumping of cargo oil is started, the inert gas
system should be in operation and connected to the deck line, with the pressure control in the
"automatic" position. It may be necessary to relieve the inert gas pressure in the cargo tanks on
arrival to permit manual measurement before cargo is discharged.  If this is done, no cargo or
ballasting operation is to be undertaken and a minimum number of small tank openings are to
be uncovered for as short a time as necessary to enable these measurements to be completed.
The tanks should then be re-pressurized before discharge commences. Cargo discharge should
not be commenced until all the conditions have been checked and are in order. During discharge
the oxygen content and pressure of the inert gas in the inert gas main should be continuously
recorded as per regulation.

Ballasting during Cargo discharge

Normally, taking in ballast while discharging may save time. This is normally done in the last
period (during stripping) of the discharge. This means that some tanks displace inert gas while
some take in inert gas. During the stripping of the last tanks, the discharge rate is normally less
than the ballast rate. In this case there is a surplus of inert gas, which will be transferred from
ballast tank to cargo discharging tank and the inert gas system may, if desired, be stopped. In
case of the reverse, the inert gas system must be in operation to prevent air from being sucked
into the tanks.

The capacity of the inert gas system should always be adjusted to give positive outflow of inert
gas through the ventilation mast. This is done to prevent air from being sucked into the tanks.
After the vessel has left the discharge port, the inert gas system should be in operation for
purging of all cargo tanks to reduce the concentration of hydrocarbon gas. When the tanks have
been purged and the concentration of hydrocarbon gas has been checked to be below about
2.5% by volume, the tanks should be pressurized and the inert gas system closed down. The
tank pressure and oxygen concentration should be monitored during the voyage and new
purging or 'topping up' should be done when necessary.

Loading Operations
Loading

Before commencement of loading, the IG inlet valves to each tank should be re-checked to
verify they are in the desired position. These valves should be locked in that position and the
Chief Officer alone shall have control of the keys.

When all preparations are ready as per the loading plan to the satisfaction of the Chief Officer,
he waits for confirmation from the shore facility representative that the terminal is ready to
start. When the shore facility representative confirms readiness to pump cargo, Chief Officer will
have the designated manifold valves open. A final check on the line up of valves and the
terminal is told to start pumping cargo.

Loading is commenced at a slow rate first filling the lines and not allowing static generation. The
back pressure at the manifold is closely monitored. 

Confirm that the cargo is flowing only into the desired tanks as per the plan, before increasing
the rate. This is confirmed by monitoring the ullage of the tanks.

The Chief Officer will wait for confirmation from ship’s crew that all deck, pump room and
manifold lines are without leaks and safety checks carried out. Then the Chief Officer will ask the
terminal for a greater rate as and when he opens up more tanks. 

He continues to increase the rate this way, carrying out safety checks at each stage until
reaching the maximum agreed loading rate. Communication with the terminal is to be
maintained throughout the operation. 

The IG is either vented or returned to the shore via vapor manifold from the cargo tanks, to
maintain a slightly positive pressure at all times.

The deck crew are assigned to continuously carry out safety checks and confirm that no oil leaks
are detected and oil is not flowing into tanks other than the ones intended.
The ullage of the tanks being loaded is monitored and the inflow is changed to other tanks when
reaching various stages of the loading plan.

More hands are required during the initial stages of the operation, but once the loading has
settled at a constant rate, the off-duty crew are dismissed and the normal watch schedule is
followed, as per the loading plan. 

The manifold back pressure should be closely monitored particularly when changing over tanks
and valves.

Any leak in the system has to be taken seriously and dealt with immediately irrespective of
whether it is small or big.

The initial, maximum and topping off rates should be carefully decided based on many factors,
including the following:

 The nature of cargo being handled

 Conductivity of the grade of oil

 Condition of ship lines

 IG venting capacity

 Design pressure of lines

 Ability and competence of crew

 Overall condition of ship and cargo equipment.

Deballasting operations should commence and continue as per the loading plan. A cleverly made
plan will have the deballasting commence after the ramping up of the cargo rate has completed.
A good aft trim especially towards the completion of deballasting will help in efficient stripping.

The Duty Officer must keep a log of events during the operation. The cargo log book can be an
important piece of evidence in case of an unfortunate accident. 
If the vessel is moored to a SBM or FSO, the crew should be briefed on the safety checks specific
to it.

The Chief Officer’s standing orders are posted in the cargo control room for Duty Officer to follow
and he also leaves day and night orders whenever he is absent from the control room.

The loadicator must be updated frequently and the stress parameters compared with those in
the loading plan. Print outs of these results are to be filed by the duty officer at regular intervals
during the operation.

The calculated draft and trim should be verified with visual results frequently, to avoid larger
differences by surprise at a later stage.  

When approaching the final stages of loading, the Chief Officer will arrange for adequate crew
members ready for the topping off operation. 

The method and sequence intended to be followed for topping off should be clearly mentioned,
including the rates in the loading plan.

The terminal should be advised well in time about the commencement of topping off.

All ullage measuring devices and fixed gauging equipment should be in operation and ready.
Accuracy must be verified in the case of remote ullage readouts in the CCR.

Topping off is one of the critical stages of the loading operation and the Chief Officer must not
hesitate to stop the operation if he notices any abnormalities.

The terminal is asked to reduce the loading rate suitable for topping off also considering the
number of tanks open.
It is important to keep enough numbers of tanks open for the prevailing rate to avoid back
pressure at the manifold.

The deck crew must be strategically placed at the tanks to follow the planned sequence. When
one tank is topped off, one should monitor the ullage to make sure no more cargo is flowing into
it, then move on to the next tank.

The tank valve should not be closed when topping off the last tank. Instead, the terminal should
be asked to stop pumping. 

The final ullages are verified with the plan and monitored for any changes. The controls of the
closed valves are suitably secured to prevent accidental opening.

Loaded voyage

Tanker management: operations during laden voyage 

As per the Charterer’s instructions, the Chief Officer must record the water content in the cargo
during the voyage in calm waters if required.  

During the loaded passage, the ullage of each tank is recorded at regular intervals. Additionally,
the temperature too is recorded in the case of heated cargoes. This will help to detect any inflow
or outflow due to valve leakage.

Volatile cargoes can increase the pressure within closed tanks and suitable means to be adopted
to keep this pressure within limits.

When the ship is fully loaded, there is very little space above the liquid in the tank and this
relatively smaller volume can cause large fluctuations in the pressure due to varying
atmospheric temperature. 
The cargo tank pressures are to be closely monitored and the IG plant should be ready well in
time, if a negative pressure is anticipated. Topping up IG should be done with great care so that
a high pressure is not experienced subsequently.

Cargo heating should be done as per charterer’s instructions if required. The Chief Officer
monitors the temperature of the cargo and liaises with the Chief Engineer for the maintenance of
the cargo heating system.

The Chief Engineer and Chief Officer follow a cargo heating plan which prepared and followed
based on many factors including the grade, viscosity, pour point, and atmospheric temperature.

Discharging Operations

Discharging

Good planning is the key to a safe and efficient discharging operation. 

An exchange of information is done between the ship and terminal before arrival in the port.
After the ship is safely moored alongside, the terminal representatives meet the chief officer and
discuss the vital details of the operation. 

A ship-shore safety checklist is discussed and signed by both sides. In general, almost all the
safety precautions are the same as that of load port. One difference being that the ship’s cargo
pumps will be running during the discharge operation. 

Special attention to be paid to the safety arrangements in the pump room. The pump room
ventilation should be running continuously throughout the operation. A valid entry permit should
be available so that the crew can undertake frequent safety rounds. All the crew involved in the
cargo operation should be familiar with the fire fighting arrangements in the pump room. 

Even the smallest of leak or drip should be addressed immediately. Personnel assigned for
regular pump room inspection during discharging operation should be familiar on what to look
for. Liquids collecting in the bilge will easily reveal if any leaks that are happening out of view. 
The Chief Officer will carry out initial survey of the cargo tanks for quantification before
discharging, along with the cargo surveyor.  When the gauging, sampling and calculations are
complete, the Chief Officer will check. When the terminal is also ready to receive cargo, the
Chief Officer will position his crew in strategic locations and start pumping ashore. The discharge
is usually started using a single pump from a single tank. 

The cargo pumps are usually driven by steam turbine and it is important to warm up the steam
lines and the pump before starting. The Chief Officer gives prior notice to the engineers for
warming up and will have the pumps already running at minimum RPM when about to start
discharging. The RPM is slowly increased by the Chief Officer when needed.

As the liquid levels in the tanks go down, the space has to be replaced with inert gas so that the
required positive pressure can be maintained in the tank. The engineers will have to maintain
the inert gas plant in good running condition because the rate of discharge partly depends on
the supply of inert gas from the engine room.

The content of oxygen in the inert gas generated in the plant should be less than 5% and the
content of oxygen in the cargo tanks should be maintained below 8%. The IG pressure in the
cargo tanks should be closely monitored especially in the initial stages of discharging and when
the rate of pumping is increased or decreased. In the beginning stages of discharge, the space
above the liquid in the cargo tanks is small and hence the pressure can fluctuate more. 

When the discharge with one pump from one cargo tank is found to be working as planned and
safe, the Chief Officer will increase the RPM to increase the rate, simultaneously opening up
more tanks. More pumps are started and put online to further increase the rate.

The discharge pressure at the manifold should be monitored carefully because it gives the Chief
Officer a good idea of the effective rate of discharge from ship to the shore tanks and will also
quickly indicate any abnormalities in the system.
Towards the end of the discharge operation, another important stage is reached when the cargo
tanks reach close to empty levels. The RPM of the pumps should be gradually reduced as the
levels in the tanks fall. The discharge valve of the pumps should be throttled to avoid cavitation.
A vacuum strip system can be made use of at this stage for effective discharge using main cargo
pumps. These will depend largely on the skill and experience of the Chief Officer. 

The ballasting operation should be carried out as per the plan in line with the progress of cargo
discharge. The contents of the cargo and ballast tanks should be updated frequently in the
loadicator and stresses checked even though they are pre calculated in the plan.

COW operation will be carried out along with discharge or in between depending on Chief
Officer’s plan and the terminal regulations.

Stripping

The charterer’s and the terminal’s impression on the ship’s performance will largely depend on
the ship’s strategy in proper completion of discharge. If the stripping operation is carefully
planned and executed, it can help to reduce the total discharge time considerably which in turn
translates to maximum cargo output for the owner. A full knowledge of the cargo pumping
system on board and the particular characteristics of the cargo are essential for the officers and
crew on board.

The stripping system of an oil tanker may have an independent piping for stripping suction or
may branch out from the main cargo line.  

The independent stripping line system is the most user-friendly and results in easier operation.
In the second type, the main cargo pumps will have to be stopped when some tanks are being
stripped out because both make use of the same lines.

In both the systems, two stripping pumps are normally found in the pump room making it
possible to do stripping from two sets of tanks simultaneously.  
The aim is to empty all the cargo tanks as quickly as possible and as efficiently as possible.

Stripping pumps are almost always the positive displacement type. In this type, the liquid is
sucked into a chamber on the suction side and the entire contents transferred to a chamber in
the discharge side. It is ideal for the purpose because it is capable of creating suction in the
stripping lines, even capable of lifting the cargo from a height.

The most common type of positive displacement pump used for this purpose is the duplex
reciprocating pump. It has two sets of chambers, double acting. The important part for efficient
functioning of the pump are the cargo valves. They have to be inspected and maintained
regularly.

Duplex reciprocating pumps are steam driven. The heat from the steam lines can become a
hazard especially if cargo vapors are present. The steam lines should be fully insulated since
there is a hazard of the cargo leaking and falling on it. 

The other type of stripping pump is the rotary or gear pump. It contains two gears which mesh
together. The cargo moves between the casing and the gear tooth when the gears are made to
rotate. Normally powered by an electric motor, they are very efficient, especially in pumping
highly viscous oils like molasses or lube oils.

The eductor is another device that can be used in place of a stripping pump. The advantage over
the stripping pumps is that it can be run dry without liquid on the suction side and it cannot lose
suction. The reason it is not used for stripping cargo in a discharge operation is because no drive
liquid is available when all tanks are close to empty.

Temperature corrections

The equipment and procedure used for measuring temperature should conform as closely as
possible to the recommendations of American Petroleum Institute (API) and the American
Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM). The calculated volume error can be up to 0.1% for an
error of 1°C in the tank temperature.
Measuring temperature from the center point of the cargo tank using a single thermometer must
be avoided. The difference in temperature of cargo between top and bottom of the tank can be
as much as 5°C. Temperature readings must be obtained from at least three levels when the
tank is full or nearly full. Normally temperature is read from top, middle and bottom.

The usual method of measuring temperature is by using the UTI device. It uses a digital probe
with a display. Some devices even alert the user when the temperature reading has stabilized at
different heights and the reading can be stored in the memory by the push of a button. The user
must allow at least 20 seconds for it to stabilize before reading at each level. 

The ASTM guidelines recommend that in cargo tanks with more than 4.5 meters or more height
of liquid, temperature must be recorded at three levels. The first at one meter from the top,
second in the middle and the third is at one meter from the bottom.

Volume using Calibration tables

When the cargo density at standard temperature, ullage, average cargo temperatures and water
innages have been recorded, one can proceed to determine the total volume of cargo in each
tank. The tank calibration tables are used for this purpose and are calculated by the ship’s officer
as well as by the independent surveyor.

Every tanker carries a set of calibration tables for the cargo tanks to determine the volume of
liquid. The tables give the volume for the tanks for 10 mm interval of ullage for each tank and
the volume for ullages in between can be found by linear interpolation. Volumes of pipelines or
duct keel should be taken into account if they are not allowed in the tables.

Different parts of the world use different units of measurement. The most common being the
metric system and the other imperial system. A cubic meter is used for indicating volume in the
metric system, whereas, the same is indicated in barrels under the imperial system.

Total observed volume

TOV normally refers to the total volume of liquid present in the cargo tanks including free water,
sediments, etc., determined for the prevalent temperature and pressure. It is obtained by
entering the calibration tables using the ullage applying the necessary corrections for list and
trim. The report clearly states whether the TOV includes the slop tank or not.

Gross observed volume

GOV is the total volume of cargo in the tanks including S&W but excluding free water determined
for the prevalent temperature and pressure.

Net observed volume

NOV is the total volume of cargo in the tanks excluding both S&W and free water determined for
the prevalent temperature and pressure. 

Gross standard volume

GSV is the total volume of cargo in the tanks including S&W but excluding free water and
corrected for the standard temperature of 15°C using a correction factor from API tables. The
atmospheric pressure correction factor is included if applicable.  

Net standard volume

NSV is the total volume of cargo in the tanks excluding both S&W and free water corrected for
the standard temperature of 15°C using correction factor from API tables. The atmospheric
pressure correction factor is included if applicable. The cost of oil cargo in a contract is based
upon the NSV and hence it is of commercial importance.

Total calculated volume

TCV is nothing but the GSV including any free water at the observed pressure and temperature.
The TCV is important for the ship’s officer because differences in transit will be measured at the
discharge port with reference to TCV. The officer cannot control the amount of water present in
the cargo which will settle down to the bottom during the voyage. The free water is again added
to the GSV at the discharge port to compare the TCV after loading and before discharging. This
is done as a separate step because the free water is not corrected for standard temperature.

Density and API tables

The following gives an overview of the contents of API tables and largely applies for oil tankers.

Series I - TABLE 5 to 6 - FOR API, °F, 60°F

Volume I: Generalized Crude Oils (Tables 5A & 6A)

Volume II: Generalized Products (Tables 5B and 6B)

Volume III: Individual and Special Applications (Table 6C)

Series II - TABLE 23 & 24 - FOR RELATIVE DENSITY, °F, 60°F

Volume IV: Generalized Crude Oils (Tables 23A & 24A)

Volume V: Generalized Products (Tables 23B and 24B)

Volume VI: Individual and Special Applications (Table 24C)

Series III - TABLE 53 & 54 - FOR KG/cm3 DENSITY, °C, 15°C

Volume VII: Generalized Crude Oils (Tables 53A & 54A)

Volume VIII: Generalized Products (Tables 53B and 54B)

Volume IX: Individual and Special Applications (Table 54C)

Volume X: Background, Documentation, Program Listings

Volume XI / XII - ASTM D 1250-80 - API standard 2540 and IP Designation 200 apply

Volume XI - ENTRY WITH API GRAVITY

Table 1: Interrelation of Units of Measurement

Table 2: Temperature Conversions

Table 3: API Gravity at 60oF to Relative Density 60/60oF and to Density at 15°C

Table 4: U.S. Gallons at 60F and Barrels at 60F to Litres at 15C against API Gravity at 60F

Table 8: Pounds per US Gallon at 60F and US Gallons at 60F per pound against API Gravity at
60F

Table 9: Short Tons per 1000 US Gallons at 60F and Barrel at 60F against API Gravity at 60F

Table 10: US Gallons at 60F and Barrels at 60F per Short Ton against API Gravity at 60F

Table 11: Long Tons per 1000 US Gallons at 60F and per Barrel at 60F against API Gravity
Procedure of Calculation

When using density at 15°C in air:

 Apply corrections to the observed ullage and obtain the corrected ullage.

 Apply corrections to the observed interface and obtain the corrected interface.

 Calculate the total observed volume (TOV) from the corrected ullage.

 Calculate the volume of water from the corrected interface.

 Obtain the gross observed volume (GOV) by removing the water from TOV.

 Find volume correction factor (VCF) from table 54.

 Calculate the gross standard volume (GSV) from GOV and VCF. GSV = GOV x VCF.

 Use weight correction factor (WCF). WCF = density in vacuum at 15°C – 0.0011(or the
density at 15°C in air)

 Obtain weight in air = GSV x WCF.

 Or obtain weight in vacuum = GSV x density at 15C in vacuum.

When using API gravity at 60°F:

 Apply corrections to observed ullage and obtain corrected ullage.

 Apply corrections to interface and obtain corrected interface.

 Obtain the gross observed volume (GOV) in US barrels using the corrected ullage.

 Obtain the volume of water in US barrels from the corrected interface.

 Calculate the observed volume of cargo using GOV and volume of water. Observed vol =
GOV – water.

 Find the volume correction factor (VCF) from table 6 using obs temperature and API
gravity at 60°F.

 Calculate the gross standard volume (GSV) using obs cargo volume and VCF. GSV = Obs
cargo vol x VCF.

 Refer the weight correction factor (WCF) from table 13.

 Calculate weight in air = GCV x WCF.

 Simple Calculations on Liquid Cargoes

Following steps are used to calculate the liquid cargoes.

 The height of oil in the tank is accurately measured and recorded, or the Ullage is
measured from the sounding pipe.

 The total height of the tank and the sounding pipe height minus the ullage reading gives
the height of the oil in the tank.

 The temperature of the oil at different levels is taken using dipping thermometer. The
average temperature of the tank is recorded.

 The reading is corrected for Trim and List, using ship’s Tank Capacity Tables.

 The total observed volume corresponding to the ullage or the sounding of the tank is
calculated from the tank capacity tables.

 The true density of the oil at 15 degree centigrade is taken from the Product Data Sheet
and the reading is corrected for the observed temperature for the density  at the tank
temperature or if API (American Petroleum Institute) gravity is given at 60 degree
Fahrenheit, it is calculated for the observed temperature from the ASTM Table No.6.

 The mass of the oil is calculated using the formula m = corrected density X corrected
volume (see model tabulations below). API gravity system may also be used.

Tank Ullage Trim Total Temp. True Density Kg/L Metric

Number Metres correcte Observed Degree Densit at at Tonnes
d Ullage Volume in Centigr y at Tank Te Tank
Cubic ade 15oC mp. Temp.
Metres

                 

                 

                 

                 

Use of ASTM Tables Density 15c

Calculates cargo quantity using ASTM tables, given density at 15 degrees centigrade in
vacuum, dimensions of the cargo space and ullage at observed temperature (given
angle of list, trim of the vessel and position of the ullage port)

Before doing cargo calculations for oil cargoes one must know common terminology used in
calculating the cargo quantity and these are as below:

Total Observed Volume (TOV)

This is the total volume of material measured in the tank including cargo (oil), free water (FW),
entrained sediment and water (S&W) and sediment and scale as measured at ambient
(observed) temperature and pressure.

Free Water (FW)

This is the water layer existing as a separate phase normally detected by water paste or an
interface detector, usually settles at the bottom of the tank (depending on relative density of
cargo).

Gross Observed Volume (GOV)

TOV less FW and bottom sediment,  is the measured volume of oil and S&W at the observed
temperature and pressure. In practice, the bottom sediment is difficult to quantify and is
ignored. 

ASTM - American Section of the International Association for Testing Materials, is an

international standards organization that develops and publishes voluntary consensus technical
standards for a wide range of materials, products, systems, and services.

Gross Standard Volume (GSV)

Measured volume of oil and S&W at standard conditions of  and atmospheric pressure. To obtain
the GSV, in practice the GOV is multiplied by a volume correction factor (VCF). This is obtained
from the standard tables e.g. ASTM Table 54. (see table 54 for an observed temperature of
below to obtain VCF for 
 Diagram 5 – ASTM Table extract

Net Standard Volume (NSV)

Normally applicable to crude oil, NSV is the GSV minus sediment and water (S&W). For products,
S&W is not normally deducted and is included in the cargo figures.

Total Calculated Volume (TCV)

Total amount of oil, FW and S&W reported at standard temperature. In practice, TCV is the GSV
plus measured FW.

Tank Calibration Tables

A tank with a known capacity is used to check the volumetric measurements, and other stability
information at any given ullage or sounding. Tank calibration tables are normally calibrated and
certified by external organizations such as Classification Societies and are provided for all cargo
tanks on a vessel.
The procedure for calculating cargo quantity using ASTM tables is as below:

Working with Density at 15°C in air: 

 Observed Ullage - apply corrections (list, trim and position of the ullage port from the
vessels calibration tables) - get corrected ullage 

 Observed Interface (separation between oil and water) - apply corrections (list, trim and
position of the ullage port from the vessels calibration tables) - get corrected interface 

 From Corrected Ullage, find Total Observed Volume TOV (in cubic metres, use calibration
tables of the vessel) 

 From Corrected Interface, find Volume of Water (in cubic metres, use calibration tables of
the vessel) 

 TOV - Water = Gross Observed Volume (GOV) of Cargo (in cubic metres)

 Use Density at 15°C Observed Temperature (OC) and find Volume Correction Factor (VCF)
from say ASTM Table 54 (see diagram 5)

 Gross Standard Volume (GSV) = GOV   VCF (cubic metres) 

 Weight Correction Factor (WCF) or Weight Reduction Factor (WRF) = Density at 15°C in
vacuum - 0.0011 or the Density at  in air, Note: density of the liquid being loaded will be
provided by the port of loading in either in vacuum or air at 15°C

 Weight in Air (Metric Ton) = GSV   WCF or the density at 15°C in air 

 Weight in Vacuum (Metric Ton) = GSV  Density at in 15°C vacuum

Use Wedge Formula Only

Calculates using WRF (WCF), weight of cargo in tank, quantity of cargo/water using
the wedge formula

The wedge formula is used to calculate the Remain On Board (ROB) or On Board Quantity (OBQ)
of cargo in an almost empty tank. The formula is used as trim tables cannot be used to find the
ullage volume of left over cargo. The wedge formula must not be used if the un-pumpable cargo
is sludge or if the liquid layer extends from bulkhead to bulkhead.

A wedge of un-pumpable cargo is formed when the vessel is trimmed by the stern and all cargo
moves to the aft of the tank forming a wedge as shown in diagram 6. The apex of the wedge is
at the aft tank bulkhead (vessel trimmed by the stern). The wedge must not extend from
bulkhead to bulkhead.

Diagram 6 - The ROB cargo wedge

The derivation of the wedge formula is as below:

 F = distance of ullage pipe from aft bulkhead (metres).

 B = breadth of tank (metres)

 L = LBP of ship (metres)

 T = trim (metres)

 S = sounding of liquid (metres)

 V = volume of liquid (cum)

 C = corrected sounding (metres)

 Ǿ = trim in degrees 

 D = depth of tank (metres)

The volume of liquid in the wedge is calculated as below:

To find the ROB weight, follow steps 6 to 10 of 10.2. (procedure for calculating cargo quantity,
sub-heading)

When using the formula, the following are known: 

 LBP, trim, tank dimensions (length, breadth, distance of ullage port from aft bulkhead)
and the sounding of liquid in the tank

The wedge formula uses the following assumptions:

 The sine of the angle is equal to the tan of the angle as the trim is small

 The tank is box shaped and has no fittings (heating coils etc.)

Tank Cleaning

Cleaning, Purging and Gas Freeing

The tank cleaning process mentioning the purging and gas freeing procedures
associated with it

There are three tank cleaning methods on tankers and these are as below:

 Bottom flushing with water; petroleum product or chemical solvents

 Water washing (hot or cold) employing tank-washing machinery

 Crude oil washing (see 5.9)

Bottom washing is usually carried out to rid tank bottoms of previous cargo prior to loading
different but a compatible, grade of cargo. It can be effective when carrying refined products in
small quantities. Bottom washing with acceptable solvents is sometimes conducted where a
tanker is to take, say, paraffin (kerosene) products after carrying leaded gasoline.

Bottom washing is done to remove traces of the previous cargo and will not remove heavy
wax sediments at the tank bottom.
Water washing is done using portable or fixed washing machines that clean tanks using sea
water (heated if required). The sea water is supplied to these machines by a high pressure pump
through a tank cleaning deck line. 

The full tank structure is washed thoroughly by the tank washing machines. Portable machines
are lowered/raised as required to ensure a thorough wash.

The oil-water mixture after washing is transferred by a stripping pump into a slop tank for
decanting. 

Cow

Many hazards are involved in the crude oil washing operation and hence safe planning for safe
execution is important.

The Chief Officer is in-charge of the crude oil washing operations. If the Chief Officer is less
experienced, the Master assists him in supervising the crude oil washing operation. Whoever is
involved in carrying out the operation must be familiar with the contents of the operation and
equipment manual.

A detailed COW plan is prepared by the Chief Officer along with the discharging plan prior arrival
at the discharge port. The latest IMO publication “Crude Oil Washing Systems” and ICS/OCIMFs
publication “ISGOTT” should be consulted in planning.

Any of the officers involved in the crude oil operation should familiarize themselves fully with the
crude oil washing system on board. 

The sequence of discharge is planned in such a way that a good trim is achieved for effective
stripping during COW operation. 

The plan should be well designed to minimize the time cargo pumps are needed to be removed
from the discharge operation.
The vessel must carry Operations and Equipment Manual (COW Manual) which is approved by
the Flag state or the Classification society on behalf of the Flag state. Every COW operation must
be carried out strictly as per the COW Manual.

The terminal must be notified well in advance of the vessel’s intention to carry out COW
operations. The same should be discussed by the Chief Officer with the terminal representative
as part of the ship-shore safety meeting prior commencing cargo operations.

The Master must get approval from the Charterer, cargo consignee, terminal, harbor master
among others in order to carry out crude oil washing in Japanese ports.

Some terminals even require the ship to complete their format of permit, checklists and
questionnaire before granting approval for the operation.

The following must be ensured before COW operation begins:

 Blank off the tank cleaning heaters

 Isolate the overboard discharge valves

 Hydrants for portable washing machines to be blocked

 Sea Chests connected to cargo lines to be blanked off.

The cow lines must be pressure tested prior arrival in a discharge port. Any leaks detected
should be rectified and the pressure test repeated. The pressure to which the lines are tested
and the last date of testing should be marked on the lines by regulation.  

The atmosphere in the tank must be checked for oxygen content less than 5% before
commencing COW operations. During the operation, the IG pressure must be closely monitored
and special safety precautions are necessary in the case of sour crude because they are likely to
generate large amounts of H2S.
Electrically charged mist will be produced if the crude is mixed with water. The ISGOTT
publication contains an elaborate section on precautions for preventing static electricity
generation and its hazards.  

To avoid the risk of washing with oil-water mixture, about one meter of cargo should be de-
bottomed during discharge before using it for washing.

If load-on-top method was adopted during last loading in the slop tank and if oil from there is to
be used for COW, the contents of the slop tank should be discharged ashore and again filled with
fresh crude oil from the other tanks. 

Continuous communication link between the CCR and the deck watch keepers is very important
and normally electronic portable radios are used for this purpose. Any electronic equipment used
on deck must be intrinsically safe type and with a certificate.

Hazard in COW

Crude oil washing is a tank washing process where the vessels tanks are washed with crude oil
instead of water in an inert atmosphere (oxygen content must be less than 8%, taking a safety
factor into account to prevent ignition of hydrocarbon vapor), using high capacity fixed washing
machines, at the end of the discharging cycle. It can also be done at sea between discharge
ports.

When doing COW, crude containing water droplets from the bottom of the tank must not be
introduced as these water droplets may get electrostatically charged (a fire hazard). To prevent
water being present in the crude oil when crude oil washing, the tank being Crude Oil Washed
should be de-bottomed into the slop tank or bled ashore with the discharge pump.

One of the cargo pumps will be used for crude oil washing. This pump will supply the COW line
with pressurized crude for washing. The COW line will have branch lines that supply the
pressurized crude to the fixed COW machines. A typical VLCC tank will have up to 6 of these
machines.
Before doing COW, the tank must be inerted and the heater in the washing system must be
isolated by blanks. The COW line must be pressurized and tested for leaks.

There are 4 stages in the COW cycle and are as below (see diagram 13d):

Stage 1 – Washes of the top (deckhead) of the tank – Nozzle of the COW machine to point
upwards.

Stage 2 – Wash starts when one-third of the tank is discharged. The washing jet washes the
tank bulkhead(s) up to a level just above the oil level in the tank when one-third full. (the top
one third of the tank structure is washed).

Stage 3 – Wash when the tank is two thirds full, washes the top one-thirds to two thirds of the
tank structure.

Stage 4 – The bottom of the tank is washed in this stage, the COW machine nozzle points
downwards, washing is done when the tank is almost empty.

How effective is COW in comparison to Water washing?

Crude oil washing systems (COW) are required to be fitted on every crude oil tanker of 20,000
dwt and above. Crude oil washing is more efficient than water washing. It is able to remove
internal tank deposits that cannot be removed with water washing. This is because crude oil has
a solvent effect on tar/waxy deposits that settle out during a loaded voyage.
 The effectiveness of the COW must be
determined and this is done by an effectiveness survey (to ensure the full tank is washed and no
voids remain). This survey is based on a vessel complying with certain requirements as per the
MARPOL Convention.

Crude oil washing showing fixed washing machines

Crude oil washing lines

Crude oil washing machines as fixed on deck

COW cycles
COW Checklist

Checks to be done before and during COW are as below:

 When carrying out crude oil washing during cargo discharge, the Master should inform the
terminal competent authority 24 hrs before commencement (or other ship when ship-to-
ship transfer is involved)

 The Oxygen analyzer should be tested to be working satisfactorily

 All hydrant valves on the tank washing line to be shut

 Inert gas in tank to be checked – (Oxygen to be less than 8%), IG pressure to be

satisfactory (positive pressure)

 Discharge procedures to be followed and the ship to shore check list must be completed

 The tank washing system should be pressure tested to normal working pressure to check
for leaks before commencement of crude oil washing; after testing the system should be
drained down; any leaks found rectified and system must be tested again to ensure it is
leak free

 All tank ullage floats to be lifted, and valves of tanks to be washed, opened

 IG must be in operation

 Tanks must be closed to the outside atmosphere

 When doing crude oil washing constant monitoring is of utmost importance, so that any
leak detected is dealt with immediately

 When changing over tanks during COW, the pressure in the COW line is to be reduced to a
minimum, before any valves in the system are opened or closed, there by minimizing the
potential for damage due to surge pressure

 Tanks that are to be used as a source of crude oil for COW must be partly discharged to
remove any water that may have settled (note, water settles below the oil layer). For this
purpose a layer of at least one meter must be discharged ashore. The reason for this is
that oil/water mixtures can produce an electrically charged mist and therefore there must
be no water present in the crude oil used for COW, if slop tanks are to be used as a
source of crude oil for COW, they must be completely discharged and filled with dry crude
oil

 If a tank washing water heater is fitted outside the engine room, it must be blanked off
during COW to prevent oil from flowing through it

 Vapor emissions must be controlled (in port), especially if ballasting is to be carried out in
crude oil washed tanks 
  COW must be carried out under the strict supervision of a competent person

Purging and gas freeing

In the gas freeing operation air is delivered into the tank where it mixes with the existing tank
atmosphere, the resultant mixture is then expelled to the outside atmosphere. 

The process ensures the continuous dilution of tank atmospheres with air, and continues, till all
toxic and flammable gases have been removed and the Oxygen content is above 21%. Gas
freeing ensures that the compartment atmosphere is favorable for man entry.

On oil tankers before gas freeing, it is desirable to reduce the hydrocarbon content to 2% or less
by volume, this is done by purging (replacing tank atmosphere) with inert gas. Purging is done
so that during gas freeing, the atmosphere in the tank is never in the flammable range, i.e. the
amount of hydrocarbon content is always below 5% by volume (critical level for ignition of
hydrocarbon vapour, provided volume of Oxygen is greater than 11% by volume).

Purging and inerting is done using two distinct processes, these are the dilution and
displacement methods.

In the dilution method the incoming inert gas mixes with the original tank atmosphere to form a
homogeneous mixture throughout the tank so that, as the process continues, the concentration
of the original gas decreases progressively and continues until the hydrocarbon content is below
2% (checked with a tankscope). In this method normally one tank is inerted at a time.

In the displacement method the inert gas enters from the top of the tank, the heavier
hydrocarbon gas exiting through the tank bottom through suitable piping. When using this
method it is important that the inert gas has a very low entry velocity so that the interface
between the hydrocarbon gas and the inert gas is stable (to prevent mixing). In this method
several tanks can be inerted and purged at the same time.

When doing inerting and purging the Oxygen and gas concentrations must be checked regularly
at different tank levels to check operation efficiency.
One must also take normal safety precautions when venting the mixture of inert gas and
petroleum gas to the atmosphere during the purging process as this mixture can become
flammable when mixed with air.

Gas freeing is normally done by using portable fans or fixed gas freeing equipment (fans). 

When using fixed gas freeing equipment (permanently installed blowers) one must note the
following:

 All connections between the cargo tank system and the blowers must be blanked

 The cargo piping system, including crossovers and discharge lines should be flushed
through with sea water and the tanks stripped

 Valves on the cargo piping system, other than those required for ventilation should be
closed and secured

When using portable fans for gas freeing one must note the following:

 Portable fans should be either water, steam, hydraulic or pneumatically driven

 When using steam driven fans care must be taken to ensure that the exhaust does not
vent into the tank, to prevent build-up of static electricity

 Extension tubes can be used with these fans, especially in deep cargo tanks and those
with deep structural members at the tank bottom, if these tubes incorporate synthetic
material they must be bonded

 Portable fans should be placed in a manner that ensures that all parts of the tank being
ventilated are effectively gas freed

 Ventilation outlets must be as remote as possible from the fans

 An effective electrical bond

must exist between the fan and the sahip’s deck
 Gas freeing and purging on tankers (the flammability diagram)

Gas freeing

The gas freeing operation on oil tankers is considered to be one of the most hazardous. Every
stage of the gas freeing operation poses a unique hazard. 

The toxic effect of petroleum gas poses additional risk to the personnel involved. A careful
planning is required for the operation.

The ISGOTT publication should be referred to identify and control the hazards involved.

The Chief Officer is in charge of the gas freeing operations and he shall ensure that all crew
involved are well briefed in detail about every step.

Some tank openings may have to be left open during the gas freeing and such openings should
be well guarded to prevent accidents. Only the personnel directly involved in the operation
should be allowed to be on the deck.

Proper PPE must be worn by all crew involved. All electronic equipment used must be of an
intrinsically safe type.

The crew on any small craft which is alongside during the operation should be notified. The
atmosphere surrounding the area where the operation is done should be monitored for
hydrocarbon vapours, as it can form a combustible mixture with air.

The composition of the atmosphere in the tank, pipe or any other space, should not be allowed
to enter the flammable range during the gas freeing operation.

Hydrocarbon gas is heavier than air. Any hydrocarbon vented can hover on the deck if the
venting velocity is less. The crew working in these areas must be in constant vigil for presence of
toxic vapours. Large amounts of hydrocarbon gas are likely to be released especially in the initial
stages of the operation.

Approved methods must be adopted when venting flammable gas into the atmosphere. If the
gas is to be vented close to deck level, the openings must be limited to achieve a good venting
velocity.

The IG inlet to the tank should be isolated using a flange once the desired oxygen and LEL levels
are achieved. Throughout the operation, precautions must be taken so that any vented gas or
inert gas does not reach the accommodation. It may be necessary to change course depending
on the wind direction. 

A positive pressure is to be maintained within the accommodation and air-condition intakes

should be operated in recirculation mode.

For Chemical Tankers

The subsequent topics cover the following:

 Cargo information

 Loading

 Discharging

 Tank cleaning

 Gas-freeing

Cargo information

Physical properties and type of cargo 

 Chemical Tanker Cargoes

The chemical cargo reaction are considered before loading and fire fighting

 Self-Reaction

 Reaction with air

 Reaction as a result of mixing with water

 Reaction with other cargoes

 Reaction with other materials

Use of IBC and BCH Code

The purpose of the IBC Code and BCH codes is to provide an international standard for the
safe carriage, in bulk by sea, of dangerous chemicals and noxious liquid substances as listed in
the codes. 

The Codes prescribe the design and construction standards of ships, regardless of tonnage,
involved in such carriage and the equipment they shall carry to minimize risk to the ship, its
crew and the environment, having regard to the nature of products involved.
The BCH Code applies to vessels constructed before 1 July 1986, while the IBC Code applies to
vessels constructed after 1 July 1986.

International Code for Safe Carriage of Chemicals in Bulk (IBC Code)

The purpose of this Code is to provide an international standard for the safe carriage by sea in
bulk of dangerous and noxious liquid chemicals as listed in the Code by prescribing the design
and construction standards of ships, regardless of tonnage, involved in such carriage and the
equipment they should carry so as to minimize the risk to the ship, to its crew and to the
environment, having regard to the nature of the products involved.

The basic philosophy is to assign to each chemical tanker one of the ship types according to the
degree of the hazards of the products carried by such ship. Each of the products may have one
or more hazardous properties, which include flammability, toxicity, corrosion and reactivity, as
well as the hazards they may present to the environment if accidentally released.

The Code primarily deals with ship design and equipment. In order to ensure the safe transport
of the products, the total system must, however, be appraised. Other important facets of the
safe transportation of the products, such as training, operation, traffic control and handling in
port, are being or will be examined further by the Organization.
 The below image shows international bulk chemical
code book front cover

P and A Manual

The purpose and objective of the Procedures and Arrangements (P&A) manual

Purpose of the manual is to identify for the ship’s officers the physical arrangements and all the
operational procedures with respect to cargo handling, tank cleaning, slops handling and cargo
tank ballasting and de-ballasting which must be followed in order to comply with the
requirements of Annex II of the MARPOL Convention.

The manual has 4 chapters and must be approved by the flag state and serves to mitigate
environmental pollution that could be caused by the carriage dangerous chemicals carried in bulk
at sea.

Information Available in Cargo Data Sheet

Cargo data sheets provide the following information:

 Name of chemical

 It appearance (e.g. Colorless liquid)

  Odor

 UN No

 MFAG Table

 The main hazards of the chemical cargo

 Procedures to be taken to mitigate its hazards in an emergency

 Health data

 Fire and explosion data 

 Other data as applicable (Chemical, physical, conditions of carriage etc.)

Pre-Arrival Check List

The check list is as below:

 On tanks in which cargo is to be transferred, in-tank instrumentation such as level

gauges, level alarms and thermometers should be tested for operation and accuracy, and
remote system controls tested where appropriate. High level alarms and tank overflow
control alarms are safety critical components of the cargo transfer system, and loading
should not commence if pre-transfer checks find them at fault.

 Hatches, lids and openings to cargo tanks that are not required to be open for a specific
reason should be firmly closed.

 Cargo pipelines and crossover valves should be checked, and all drains closed and
secured.

 All ship's cargo and bunker pipelines not in use should be securely blanked and fully
bolted at the manifold. Unless it is to be used, the stern cargo pipeline should be isolated
from the tanker's main pipeline system at a point forward of the aft accommodation, by
blanking or the removal of a spool piece.

 Where loading or discharging is to be via a cargo pump-room, the pump-room ventilation

system should be checked to ensure readiness for operation throughout the cargo
operations.

 Cargo area deck lighting should be checked and confirmed as being in full working order,
with special attention given to the area of the ship to shore cargo connection and hose
handling equipment.

Ballast voyage
A chemical tanker carries hazards during the ballast voyage as much as in the loaded voyage.
The crew need to observe almost every precaution they did during the loaded voyage. The cargo
may be absent in the cargo tanks but the cargo vapors are still likely to be present, unless gas
freeing was done after discharge.

Some cargoes carried may have been flammable and the inert atmosphere in those tanks have
to be maintained as long as cargo vapors are present. The oxygen content needs to be
monitored and maintained. 

Closed tanks must be monitored for changes in pressure. A positive pressure not exceeding the
tank design capabilities has to be maintained at all times. The diurnal variation in atmospheric
temperature will cause the pressure in the tank to fluctuate. 

The ballast voyage is an opportunity for the crew to gas free the required cargo tanks for man
entry and carry out maintenance, repair works on valves and pipelines or a regular inspection.
Such operation should be carefully planned based on the length of voyage, so that the cargo
tanks can be prepared ready for loading upon arrival at load port.

Some of the inspection, testing and maintenance works on cargo equipment according to the
planned maintenance system (PMS) cannot be carried out during the loaded voyage. These
works are carried out during the ballast voyage and documented accordingly.

Ship checks after arrival but prior to cargo operations

Before any cargo transfer starts, the responsible officer should be satisfied that the applicable
precautions are being observed. The use of safety checklists, appropriately adapted for the
specific ship, is strongly recommended. The following important checks should be made by the
ship at this stage:

 Information should be sought on any forecast of adverse weather conditions which may
require operations to be stopped or transfer rates reduced.

 Certain cargoes require the vapor that is displaced by incoming cargo to be returned to
the shore facility. The responsible officer should ensure that the ship and the shore vapor
 system are compatible, and that the system will operate in compliance with local and
terminal regulations

 The characteristics of the product must be known, usually in the form of a cargo
information form or data sheet indicating, among other things, health hazards, specific
gravity, temperature, vapor pressure, reactivity with other materials or cargoes, heat
sensitivity, risk of exothermic self-reaction, toxicity and general safe handling practices. It
is desirable that initial response to emergencies is clearly shown. 

 If a cargo liable to self-reaction is to be loaded, correct arrangements should be made for

conditions and limitations in the inhibitor certificate to be met for the duration of the
voyage. 

 Normally tanks to be loaded are pre-inspected for cleanliness by an independent surveyor.

This can vary from a superficial visual inspection from the deck, to a very detailed
inspection inside the cargo tank in which bulkheads are wall-washed and thoroughly
checked. The responsible officer should satisfy himself that the tanks to be so inspected
are well ventilated and safe to enter, and are marked as being safe to enter. Tank entry
procedures should be complied with. When a tank is entered for inspection the surveyor
should be accompanied by the responsible officer or a person delegated by him.

 Tanks passed for loading should be tightly secured with all cargo openings closed.

 All sighting ports and ullage plugs should be closed and secured, unless expected to be
used during handling of the cargo about to be loaded. If openings are required to be open
for venting purposes, each opening should be protected by a flame screen designed for
that opening and kept clean.

 When not in use, sea suction and overboard discharge valves connected to cargo and
ballast systems must be securely closed and lashed, and may be sealed by shore
authorities. In-line blanks should be inserted where these are provided. When lashing is
not practicable, valves should be suitably marked to indicate clearly that they are to
remain closed.

 Before cargo handling is started, all deck scuppers and any open drains onto the jetty
must be effectively plugged to prevent spilled cargo escaping into the water around the
tanker or onto the terminal. Accumulations of rainwater should be drained periodically and
scupper plugs replaced immediately afterwards. Contaminated water should be
transferred to a slop tank or other suitable receptacle.

 Cargo manifolds should be ready for connection to shore hoses, but with blank flanges
removed only on those lines to be used, and only on the connecting side of the ship.
  Where loading is via a cargo pump-room, the pump-room ventilation system should be
working throughout the operation, and all drains and non-essential valves in the pump-
room must be closed and secured.

 Accommodation doors and portholes overlooking the cargo area should be shut. If stern
loading is to be undertaken, it may be necessary to provide special advice to the crew.

 The cargo venting system should be appropriate for the cargo operation.

 Intakes for central air conditioning and mechanical ventilation systems should be checked
for correct setting.

 Means should be provided for the prompt removal of any spillage on deck.

 Fire-fighting equipment should be inspected, and ready for immediate use.

 Correct personal protective clothing and breathing apparatus, appropriate to the cargo,
should be immediately available, and should be worn as necessary.

Just prior to commencing cargo transfer, the responsible officer should check that the cargo
pipeline system is set correctly, that correct valves are open and that pipeline valves not being
used (including drop valves) are closed.

Cargo operation - Chemical tanker

A wide range of chemicals are shipped in bulk by sea and specialized carriers are built to carry
them. The chemical tanker is a special class of ship capable of loading, carrying and discharging
chemicals in bulk safely.

Chemical tankers are very different from oil tankers in many aspects. Unlike oil tankers, they
can carry many different chemicals of differing chemical and physical properties simultaneously.
The cargo carrying space is divided into more number of smaller tanks for this purpose. A
chemical tanker of simple design is still more complex than an oil tanker.

Not only the ships are specially built to carry chemical cargo, but the crew also require special
training to run such sophisticated ships. They must be sound in both theoretical and practical
knowledge. 
One other important aspect in safety is the Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS). It is supplied for
every harmful substance handled on ships including cargo. The crew must have a good
understanding of the hazards and precautions relating to the chemical cargo carried. 

Hundreds of hazardous chemical cargoes covered by the IMO Bulk Chemical Code can be carried
by the modern chemical carrier. 

The chemical tankers can be classified broadly as:

 Sophisticated parcel chemical tankers

 Product/chemical tankers

 Specialized chemical carriers

Preparation before loading

The following checks are to be made before arriving in a load port:

 Equipment such as level gauge, level alarm, thermometer, etc should be tested for
operating accuracy. These are critical to the safe loading of the tank. Any faults detected
should be immediately attended to and loading should not commence in tanks with
defective equipment.

 Keep all hatches, lids, openings to cargo tanks closed. Only the one required to be open
for a particular reason should be left open.

 Close and secure all cargo related pipelines, valves and drains.

 Except the manifold connections that are to be used, all others like bunker manifold
should be fully bolted. 

 If pumps are expected to be used during loading, the ventilation system of the pump
room must be checked to ensure it is available throughout the operation.

 The lighting for the deck area should be tested, particularly checking for proper
illumination of the manifold area.

Additional to the above checks carried out before arrival port, the following must be ensured
after arrival but before loading begins:

 The responsible Officer must ensure all preparations are in place as per the checklist
before cargo operation commences.
 Adverse weather conditions may be experienced during the loading operation requiring
suspension of the operation or reducing rates. All available information should be obtained
about forecast.

 The vapor from the cargo tank may be required to be sent ashore via vapor manifold
connection for certain cargoes. It should be ensured that the ship and shore vapor system
are compatible. The local and terminal regulations must be complied with.

 The product data sheet for the cargo to be loaded must be available, clearly showing its
properties like specific gravity, temperature, vapor pressure, reactivity toxicity and other
hazards.

 If an inhibitor is to be used to prevent self reaction in certain cargoes, an inhibitor

certificate is necessary and arrangements as per the certificate must be in place.

 An independent surveyor will normally inspect the tank before loading. The inspection can
be a rough visual inspection from the deck or a detailed inspection after entering the tank.
Tank entry procedures must be followed and the inspector must be accompanied by a
responsible officer.

 Once the tank is passed for loading, all openings must be tightly secured.

 Any vent openings should be fitted with a flame screen and it should be inspected and
maintained clean.

 All sea chests connected to cargo and ballast lines should be securely closed when not in
use.

 The shore authorities may inspect and seal the sea suction and overboard discharge
valves.

 Scupper plugs must be kept ready to plug before cargo operation begins. Water on deck
accumulated due to rain should be frequently drained by the crew. Contaminated water
should not be drained but transferred to the slop tank.

 Cargo manifolds should be fitted with reducers appropriate to the shore connection size.
Only those manifolds that will be used should be opened and the others must remain
blanked off using blind flanges.

 All non-essential valves in the cargo system, including the pump room, should be closed
and secured.

 Portholes and accommodation doors directly opening to the cargo area should be kept
shut.

 The venting system should be checked for correct operation.

 The re-circulation mode setting for the central air conditioning system should be checked.
  Arrangements should be made with the equipment readily available for removal of spillage
on deck.

 Firefighting arrangements should be ready

 The proper PPE for crew working in the cargo area must be readily available.

 The responsible officer must check the position of every valve in the cargo pipeline system
and line up as per the plan before commencement of loading. All valves not involved in
the present operation must remain closed.

The ship-shore safety checklist should be jointly completed by the Chief Officer and the terminal
representative.

Loading

Loading noxious liquid chemicals involves many hazards. Safety is most important at each stage
of the loading operation. The cargo operation should be suspended immediately if any non-
conformance with the set procedures is discovered during the operation.

The line up of the cargo system to receive cargo from the shore is to be finally checked once
before commencement of loading. The responsible officer must check that the vessel is ready in
all respects to receive cargo considering the following:

 The grade and quantity of cargo to be loaded has been agreed upon

 The initial and maximum loading rate has been agreed with the shore terminal

 The ship crew have been briefed and are ready

 Ship-shore safety checklist has been completed

 Level alarms for cargo tanks including High and High-High alarms are switched on

 A leak test has been done at the manifold connection and found satisfactory.

The Chief Officer informs the shore that the ship is ready to receive cargo. A close watch is kept
at the manifold to detect cargo flowing through it. When it is confirmed that the cargo is flowing
into the planned tanks and no leaks detected anywhere in the cargo system, the rate of pumping
is increased upon request by ship. The loading rate is increased in steps checking for leaks
continuously. The maximum rate is reached when both the ship and terminal have confirmed to
it.
  During loading, one crew member should be continuously available at the manifold area
and one deck officer should be on duty.

 The officer on duty has to carry out the loading operation strictly according to the loading
plan and fully complying with the company and terminal regulations.

 Certain cargoes are chilled before loading in hot climate and it causes sweating in the
bulkheads. The sequence of loading should be carefully planned and carried out; e.g.
Styrene Monomers.

 A log of events has to be maintained throughout the loading operation.

 Ullage space in the tanks should be calculated and maintained after completion of loading
to allow for expansion in transit.

 The final stages of loading should be closely monitored since there is an increased risk of
overflowing. Tanks that are topped off should be isolated from the one that is still being
loaded.

 The loading rate should be reduced in time to handle the topping off operation smoothly in
a planned sequence.

The use of the vapor return line during loading with a simple sketch

Chemical tankers may carry toxic products and vapors of these products must not be vented to
the atmosphere. Toxic products are loaded using closed loading conditions on chemical tankers.
Closed loading would mean that cargo vapors are sent back ashore using a vapor return line and
not vented to the atmosphere.

The vapor return line runs from the cargo tank vent line (Note: the atmospheric vent discharge
valve must be closed when using the return vapor line) to the ships manifold onto which the
shore return vapor line is connected. The ship’s vapor return lines have their own manifold which
is specially marked. This to ensure that there is no mistake when connecting the shore loading
arm return vapor line to the ship’s vapor return line.
 The cargo line cannot be connected to the
vapor return line as this line has a stud and is only compatible to the shore vapor line connection
that takes the vapor back to the terminal. The stud is at the 12’O Clock position on the ship’s
vapor line manifold.

                                                        

            The vapor return line manifold on a chemical tanker

Loaded voyage

There is a wide range of chemical cargoes and each is unique in its characteristics and mode of
handling. Careful attention should be paid to the special needs of each type of cargo. 

There should be sufficient supply of inert gas for the full length of voyage. If stored nitrogen gas
is used for inerting purposes, sufficient quantity should be available for topping up if necessary
during the voyage.

Cargo tanks should be sounded regularly to detect any changes in the level. In the case of cargo
that require heating or cooling, the parameters must be monitored and recorded on a daily
basis. 
The shipper’s requirements for temperature logs should be maintained in the proper format.
Cargoes which are liable to self reaction should be monitored closely for any abnormal behavior
and action taken before the problem escalates.

Sudden and unexpected changes in the temperature almost always indicate that something is
not right, e.g. cargoes crystallize which are carried with the addition of inhibitor. 

The inhibitor does not crystallize with the cargo and hence after the cargo re-melts there will be
pockets of uninhibited cargo. Uninhibited cargo poses risk of polymerisation.

When inhibited cargoes are carried, the chief officer must be fully aware of the precautions and
limitations mentioned in the inhibitor certificate. The ullage space should be monitored for
pressure if tank atmosphere control is in use.

Record sheets have to be maintained additional to paying attention in the following cases:

 Cargo heating

 Cargo cooling

 Tank atmosphere control

 Temperature control

 Nitrogen cover

 Oxygen content monitor

 Agitation/circulation.

Sometimes, cargo can be partly or fully lost during the voyage and the owner will face claims.
Shipboard cargo losses can occur in many ways.

Two main reasons for shipboard cargo losses are:

 Evaporation through the PV vents

 High pour point of cargo resulting in pumping problems and excessive ROB.
Usually the quantity of cargo delivered is based on the discharge port out turn, but some still
compare the figures on the bill of lading.

Often a virtual loss of cargo is experienced where there was no actual loss of cargo, but the
figures on the paper say so because of minor discrepancies in the quantification at load port and
discharge port.

Volatile cargoes can be lost due to evaporation especially when loaded next to heated cargoes.
The charterers must inform the ship of the maximum permissible temperature of the adjacent
compartments so that it can be taken into account when planning stowage.

Discharging

The responsible officer must check the line up of the cargo system as per the discharging plan
before commencing discharge. The correct position all valves and the venting system must be
checked. All cargo operation equipment related to the discharge like pumps and pump room
ventilation should be checked with particular care.

The pressure in the tanks must be closely monitored during discharge to avoid under pressure.
Vapor return from the shore is often used to maintain the pressure in the tanks during discharge
operation. Frequent checks should be carried out for leaks on deck and in the pump room.

When discharging cargoes that require nitrogen in the tanks, it is necessary to make sure that
no air is drawn into the tank. Hence, a positive pressure is maintained in the tank using a supply
of nitrogen gas. The nitrogen is supplied from the ship’s nitrogen gas generator if available, or is
supplied from compressed nitrogen gas cylinders. Another option is to receive nitrogen from the
shore terminal.

The shore terminal is capable of supplying nitrogen at high rates and hence the ship should be
careful especially during the initial stages of loading when the rate is low. If the nitrogen supply
pressure exceeds the ship’s requirement, it can quickly cause an over pressure in the tanks.
Ideally, a pressure reducing device should be used and continuous communication link
maintained between ship’s cargo control room and the terminal.
Some cargoes leave semi-liquid residues in the tank. When discharging cargoes like animal oils,
vegetable oils or fats, these residues will require to be manually swept towards the pump suction
to completely discharge the contents of the tank. This sweeping is very important especially
before a tank cleaning. This method of sweeping the residues is called squeegeeing or puddling.
Enclosed space entry procedures must be strictly followed to enter the tank for such work
irrespective of the origin or nature of the cargo.

To be able to enter the tank without breathing apparatus for puddling, mechanical ventilation
has to be started well in advance simultaneously with discharging. The space should be checked
for oxygen content and enclosed space entry permit issued before crew enter the tank. The
ventilation should be on during the entire period of entry.

The goal is to remove all residues from the tank as much as possible and this can be achieved by
an effective stripping operation. Stripping should be carried out in accordance with the ship’s
P&A manual.

The manifold valves on the ship as well as on shore should be closed as soon as the discharging
is complete. This will ensure the ship and shore side of the system are isolated from each other.
The cargo hoses or arms should be drained and disconnected from the manifold. They should
never be disconnected before releasing pressure and draining. As soon as disconnected, the
hoses should be cleared to the shore and the manifold blanked off using a blind flange.

Stripping

Stripping is part of the final stages of discharging to minimize the ROB quantity as much as
possible. There are set limits for different categories of chemical cargo as per regulation 12 of
Marpol Annex II.

Following tolerance limits apply for ships built before 1st January 2007 but built after 1st July
1986:

 100+50 liters for cargoes in category X and Y 

 300+50 liters for cargoes in category Z

Following tolerance limits apply for ships built before 1st July 1986:

 300+50 liters for cargoes in category X and Y

 900+50 liters for cargoes in category Z

Tanks are to be emptied to the maximum extent for other ships carrying cargoes belonging to Z
category.

As per the details specified in Appendix 5 of Marpol annex II, a performance test is to be carried
out.

Tank Cleaning

Pre-wash

Pre-washing is otherwise called pre-cleaning. It is done prior loading chemical cargo. It involves
numerous hazards.

Washing starts with water practically in all tank cleaning operations.

This aids in removing the cargo residues mechanically. The water forms an emulsion with the
non soluble cargo in the tank. Emulsion is formed when a liquid which is insoluble in water is
churned with water resulting in minute droplets suspended in water.

Washing can be effective only if simultaneous stripping is carried out. Only then will the residues
at the bottom of the tank flow towards the suction. If stripping is not effective, the residues will
be found settled all over the bottom of the tank.

Some products are soluble in water and the pre-wash can be carried out using normal cold
water. It works well for cargoes like:

 Mineral acids (Sulfuric acid, Phosphoric acid)

 Alkalis (Caustic soda, ammonia/potash solutions)

 Alcohols (Methanol, ethanol, butanol)

  Acetone.

Some products are soluble in water but viscous and require hot water as the medium for pre-
wash. It works for cargoes like:

 Glycols

 Glycerin

 Molasses.

For sulfuric acid, large amounts of water to be used to ensure faster dilution and to reduce the
risk of corrosion.

Some products are volatile and they will completely vaporize from the tank. Tank washing may
not be required in this case. Ventilation of the tank will be sufficient and sometimes steaming. It
works well for cargoes like:

 Acetone

 Methyl ethyl keytone

 Hexane

 Methanol

 Butanol

 Propanol

 Toluol

 Trichlor ethylene

All cargo lines and pumps must be drained along with the tanks.

Some products undergo oxidation and dry up when coming in contact with air and heat. For
cargoes like these, cold water is used for pre-washing. Final washing can be done using hot
water. The residues will become dry and harden making it difficult to remove later. 

Examples of this type are:

 Castor seed oil

  Cotton seed oil

 Groundnut oil

 Linseed oil

 Sperm oil

 Tail oil.

Some vegetable and animal oils that are non-drying type can be directly washed using hot
water. Examples are:

Coconut oil

Palm kernel oil

Palm oil

Tallow

Whale oil.

Products which polymerize should be washed with cold water or the tank is flooded with water.
Polymerized material deposits will make it very difficult to remove and clean if hot water is used.
Examples are:

 Vinyl acetate

 Styrene monomer

 Acrylonitrile

 Vinyl chloride.

Hot sea water at 80 deg Celsius is normally used for washing tanks that carried heavy oils, lube
oils, lube oil additives, and gas oil. Cold water too can be used but hot is more effective.

In the case of crude oils with relatively high percentage of light fractions are to be washed with
cold water first and then followed by hot water. If hot water is directly used first, then the light
fractions will be liberated leaving a tough residue difficult to remove. This is often seen with
Arabian crude however, Boscan crude with light fractions can be washed with hot water directly.
Gas-Freeing

A tank cleaning or gas freeing operation carries numerous hazards and proper safety precautions
have to be in place before it can begin. The officer in-charge should ensure that all equipment
are ready and in working order. All crew on the ship should be notified about the gas freeing
operation and only those crew who are directly involved in the operation should be present in
the cargo area. 

Any craft alongside should also be notified before the operation begins and the ship’s officer
must confirm that safety precautions are in place on the craft as well.

If the gas freeing operation is to be done alongside at a terminal, the terminal regulations must
be complied with. Permission should be sought from the port authorities and terminal operator
and confirm from the shore personnel that nothing on the jetty presents a hazard to the
operation.

The checks carried out before commencing gas freeing operation should include:

 Necessary personal protective equipment is available and being used.

 The emergency freshwater shower and eyewash are ready for use in case of
contamination of crew;

 Any work in the cargo tank area which is not essential as part of the gas freeing operation
should be suspended;

 The cargo pipelines serving the tanks which are being gas freed should be isolated.

 If the tanks are designed to have a common vent system, the inlet to the gas freeing
tanks should be isolated.

 Other tanks which are waiting to be cleaned or gas freed should have all openings like
tank lids, washing holes, ullage ports closed until the operation reaches a stage to
commence cleaning those tanks.

 The overboard discharge valves connected to the cargo or ballast piping should be closed
and secured when not required.

 During the entire tank cleaning and gas freeing operation, all precautions relating to pump
room should not be compromised in any way.

 Fire extinguishers of appropriate media should be readily available at strategic locations.

  Oxygen analyzers & Hydrocarbon detectors should be used for gas measurements during
the period of gas-freeing and before man entry.

 Relevant checklists shall be used as appropriate for the entire operation.

Every precaution and procedure must be followed for enclosed space entry even if entering for a
short time. Great care must be taken to ensure safe working conditions. Most of the accidents
that have taken place in enclosed spaces resulted from non-compliance with set procedures and
precautions. Sadly, many enclosed space entry accidents were avoidable but still were allowed to
take place.

When entering into a contaminated cargo tank:

Personnel should not enter into the tank without the support of breathing apparatus if any of the
procedures or precautions not met. Protection is needed against exposure to cargo vapors which
may be flammable, toxic or corrosive. Preferably a lifeline should be used. Sometimes entry into
cargo tanks of chemical tankers may be required before the space is certified gas free. A system
of documentation should be available for such operations like entering a contaminated tank or
one that is suspected to be contaminated.

Together with gas freeing, tank entry is probably the most hazardous operation carried out on a
chemical tanker. One must keep in mind the additional risks rising from cargo vapors released
from the tanks. Always suspect the presence of flammable, toxic or corrosive vapors around the
cargo area depending on the recent cargoes carried in the tanks.

The crew who are engaged in gas freeing operation must be fully aware of the hazards and
understand the procedures because a small human error can have very serious consequences.

Entries in Cargo Record Book

The Cargo Record Book is required to be carried on board Chemical Tankers as mandated by
Annex II of the MARPOL Convention. The entries in a Cargo Record Book are as below:

 Loading of cargo

 Internal transfer of cargo

 Unloading of cargo
  Mandatory pre-wash in accordance with ship’s P&A Manual

 Cleaning of cargo tanks except mandatory pre-wash (other pre-wash operations, final
wash, ventilation etc.)

 Discharge into the sea of tank washings

 Ballasting of cargo tanks

 Discharge of ballast water from cargo tanks

 Accidental or other exceptional discharge

 Control by authorized surveyors

 Additional operational procedures and remarks

Emergencies for Oil and Chemical Tankers

Specific Learning Objectives

After going through this topic, student should be able to,

 Explain the Organizational structure for emergency

 Explain the various alarms for emergencies

 Describe the Emergency Shut Down System ESDS

 Describe the Emergency Shut Down- Ship-Shore Link

Introduction

A knowledge of the basic emergency actions that needs to be taken in case of Standard Ship
emergencies as documented as part of the vessel's ISM procedures. These include:-procedures
for Fire, collision, grounding, cargo hose burst, accident involving personnel.

All tankers & terminals procedures are to be ready for immediate implementation in the event an
emergency. Procedures must anticipate & cover all types of emergency which might be
encountered in particular activities of tanker or terminal.

The main procedures will address Fire, while other procedures would address incidents such as
hose or pipeline burst, cargo overflow, pump room flooding, men overcome by gas, breakouts of
vessels, weather or blackouts.
The procedures should also cover deployment of fire-fighting equipment, resuscitator &
stretchers, together with details of means of escape or exit.

Terminal Emergency Plan

The plan would include: 

 Specific initial action to be taken by those at location of the emergency to report, contain
& overcome the incident. 

 Procedures to be followed in mobilizing the resources of the terminal as required by the

incident.

 Alerting responsibility & procedures. 

Each terminal should have an Emergency Team whose duties would involve planning,
implementing & revising emergency procedures as well as executing them. 

Main points of initial response to an emergency should be conspicuously displayed on notices at

strategic locations within the terminal.

Organizational Structure for Emergency

A typical organizational structure would be as follows:

Command Center

There should be one group in control of all the responses to the emergency with the Master or
the senior deck officer on board in charge. The command center should have means of internal
and external communication.

Communication is of the utmost importance and the possibility of communication failing should
always be taken into account as such back up for communication means should always be
provisioned for — such as spare batteries for W/T sets, spare W/T sets, loudhailers, PA system
and messengers. 
Emergency Party

This group should be under the command of a senior officer and should assess the emergency
and report to the command center on the situation, advising what action should be taken and
what assistance should be provided, either from on board or, if the ship is in port, from ashore.

Back up Emergency Party

The backup emergency party under the command of an officer should stand by to assist the
emergency party as instructed by the command center and to provide backup services, e.g.
equipment, stores, medical services including cardio-pulmonary resuscitation etc.

Technical Party

This group should be under the command of the chief engineer or the senior engineering officer
on board and should provide emergency assistance as instructed by the command center. The
prime responsibility for dealing with any emergency in the main machinery spaces will probably
rest with this group. It may be called on to provide additional manpower elsewhere.

The plan should ensure that all arrangements apply equally well in port and at sea.

Duties should be assigned for the operation of remote controls such as: 

 Main engine stop

 Ventilation stops 

 Lubricating and fuel oil transfer pump stops

 Operation of dump valves

 CO2 discharge

 Operation of watertight doors and

 Emergency generator and emergency switchboard

Emergency fire and bilge pumps

Alarms

As far as cargo compartments are concerned, high level alarms and overfill alarms are provided.
General alarm or fire alarm is sounded in the case of fire, collision, grounding, cargo hose burst,
cargo spillage, escape of vapor or any other emergency situation.

Other alarms signals are given on tankers in case of:

 High concentration of toxic or flammable vapors

 A   discharge in engine-room or pump room

 When level of oxygen in inert gas entering tanks exceeds 5%

 High level of oil residues in overboard discharge - this is an operational alarm and not an
emergency.

First Responder

The primary role of the first responder is to evaluate the situation and notify the command
center for emergency response, e.g., Navigation Bridge location. Once the alarm is sounded, the
responder assesses the situation and he/she should attempt to make the situation safe. The First
Responder should assume that he/she is, in-charge of the situation, until help arrives (as
directed by the command center). If the situation occurs in the machinery space, the Chief
Engineer, or Senior Engineer will be the in-charge of fighting the emergency.

The main alarms that are installed in the ship to give audio-visual warnings are as follows:

The General alarm will be sounded in the event of:

 Fire

 Collision

 Grounding

 Cargo hose burst (only in case of a major leakage or spillage)

 Major leakage or spillage of oil cargo

 Any other event which calls for emergency action

Other alarms could include:

 Engineer alarm for unmanned machinery spaces

 Carbon dioxide alarm

  Fire detector alarms

 Cargo tank level alarms

 Cargo or Gas leakage/temperature and pressure alarms

 Refrigerated store alarm

Alarm Description

 General Alarm: The general alarm on the ship is recognized by 7 short ringing of bell
followed by a long ring or 7 short blasts on the ship’s horn followed by one long blast. The
general alarm is sounded to make aware the crew on board that an emergency has
occurred.

 Fire Alarm: A fire alarm is sounded as continuous ringing of ship’s electrical bell or
continuous sounding of ship’s horn.

 Man-Overboard Alarm: When a man falls overboard, the ship internal alarm bell sounds 3
long rings and ship whistle will blow 3 long blasts to notify the crew on board and the
other ships in nearby vicinity.

 Abandon Ship Alarm: When the emergency on board ship goes out of hands and ship is no
longer safe for crew on board ship, the master of the ship can give a verbal Abandon ship
order, but this alarm is never given in ship’s bell or whistle. The general alarm is sounded
and everybody comes to the emergency muster station where the master or his substitute
(chief Officer) gives a verbal order to abandon ship.

Different Alarm signals of the vessel are clearly described in the muster list along with the action
to be carried out so that all the crew member can perform their duties without any delay in
actual emergency.

If your ship's alarms are ringing, it does not necessarily mean that the situation is out of control.
Alarms are warnings, which are sounded so that people on board take the emergency measures
like wearing their life jackets, or mustering/gathering at a common point, depending upon the
type of emergency and instructions given to them.

Emergency Procedures

A knowledge of the basic emergency actions that needs to be taken in case of Standard Ship
emergencies as documented as part of the vessel's ISM procedures. These include:-procedures
for Fire, collision, grounding, cargo hose burst, accident involving personnel.
All tankers & terminals procedures are to be ready for immediate implementation in the event an
emergency. Procedures must anticipate & cover all types of emergency which might be
encountered in particular activities of tanker or terminal.

The main procedures will address Fire, while other procedures would address incidents such as
hose or pipeline burst, cargo overflow, pump room flooding, men overcome by gas, breakouts of
vessels, weather or blackouts.

The procedures should also cover deployment of fire-fighting equipment, resuscitator &
stretchers, together with details of means of escape or exit.

Recommended emergency procedures

Following are the actions that should be taken for various types of emergencies on a tanker.
Practical demonstrations and drills following the contingency plans developed should be regularly
conducted to familiarize all on board with emergency response.

Pump room or enclosed space rescue

 Sound emergency alarm, cease cargo operation, if along side, notify dock and call for
medical assistance.

 Emergency team responds with following equipment: SCBA, Communication, Atmosphere

analyzing equipment, First aid/resuscitator/stretcher, EEBD, fire fighting gear.

 Check pump room or enclosed space ventilation

 Prepare harness and life line

 Test atmosphere

 If atmosphere is unsafe: 

 Rescue personnel with SCBA, descend to area with harness rigged for possible casualty
evacuation

 Place casualty in harness and assist him with EEBD

 Hoist casualty up, safe from any obstructions

 Administer first aid till handed over to medical team

  Determine cause and take corrective actions

 If atmosphere is safe,

 Rescuers proceed to the victim with necessary First aid, EEBD and harness

 Lift casualty out of pump room using harness

 Administer first aid till handed over to medical team. 

Oil Spill

 Raise emergency alarm

 Stop any cargo or tank cleaning operation

 Secure all valves

 If tank over spill, shift excess cargo to suitable tank. If pipe failure, isolate the affected
section. For hull failure, empty the tank to other intact tank and reduce inert gas pressure
in the affected tank.

 Notify shore facility.

 Restrict access to affected area and deploy personnel for clean up or containment of spill.

 Rig & use all SOPEP gears & items expeditiously.

 Eliminate ignition sources and keep fire fighting equipment ready.

 Vessel personnel with appropriate protective equipment and respirator start clean up

 Shore team deploys resources for containing spill around the vessel, if any.

 Inform company representative regarding co-ordination between various external parties. 

Grounding

 Assess the condition of the vessel, carefully inspect the water around the vessel to
determine if any compartment is damaged, allowing cargo to leak or water to flood 

 Check and monitor cargo tank ullages

 Take soundings of all compartments including engine room tanks

 Monitor vessel for any change in trim or list.

 Maintain positive stability of the vessel

 Consult vessel response plan or ship board contingency plan and make necessary
notification to appropriate authorities

 Display appropriate day signal and inform any vessel traffic of the situation

 If vessel leaking any cargo, be aware of danger of vacuum developing in tanks and
distortion in deck plating
  Eliminate any source of ignition 

 Reduce inert gas pressure to minimize oil outflow

 Isolate the affected tanks by closing all valves

 Transfer to a suitable tank to prevent outflow

 Take soundings around the vessel to determine where the hull is touching bottom

 Close the sea chest valves & lock rudder temporarily

 Prepare for carrying out de-ballasting operations, if necessary and if feasible.

 Take weather report.

 Check type of sea bottom

 Check tide timings and keep engines ready for re floating.

 Consult with company/salvage experts to take appropriate action to minimize further

damage

 Action to be based on minimizing environmental damage

 Assist the spill response personnel and salvage personnel by providing necessary
information 

Collision

In the case of collision, where one or more cargo tanks are breached, 

 Sound emergency alarm, muster all hands and account for the entire crew; If any crew
missing, search and rescue to be carried out

 Fire fighting gear should be readied due to heightened risk of fire

 Assess damage and check cargo tank ullages and sound all the compartments in the ship

 Exercise obligation to provide assistance to the other vessels crew members, if feasible, o 

 Notify appropriate authorities, consult contingency plans for appropriate actions to

minimize damage

 Do not attempt to separate the vessels until condition of stability for each vessel has been
assessed.

 Consult company/salvage experts for most prudent action

 Monitor vessel's trim and list conditions

 Assist fire fighting and spill response teams as required

 Obtain weather forecast, tides and tidal information.

  Send message holding the other vessel responsible for the collision.

Fire - General Guidelines

 Sound the alarm and muster crew;If any crew missing, search and rescue to be carried
out

 Evaluate the fire

 Establish the method of attack (Direct or indirect)

 Get the fire under control

 Extinguish the fire

 Keep life boats ready to abandon ship, if required

 Guard against re-ignition

 Assist causalities as required 

 Investigate the cause and take corrective action 

Fire - Cargo Pump room

 Sound the alarm, notify shore authorities if alongside, cease all cargo operations

 Isolate and secure all the cargo and ballast compartments.

 Request assistance of shore side fire department

 Muster and account for all hands;If any crew missing, search and rescue to be carried out

 Fire fighting teams cool the entrance to pump room and secure ventilation to pump room

 In an indirect method of extinguishing fire, continue to cool the exposure, seal all doors
and vent covers, monitor adjacent spaces. Activate fixed fire fighting system and monitor
temperature.

 In direct attack for small fire, most probably in bilge area, tackle using water spray or
portable fire extinguisher

 Continue cooling till fire is out

 Maintain a fire watch.

Dangerous chemicals could also give rise to emergencies and the correct emergency procedures
for accidents involving dangerous chemicals are given in the ICS and/or Cargo Data Sheets
including the IMDG Code.
Pollution Prevention for Oil and Chemical Tankers

Specific Learning Objectives

After going through this topic, student should be able to,

 Know the process of oil pollution at sea

 Understand the way pollution affects the marine and human life

 Know the way pollution is caused by noxious chemical cargoes

 understand the hazards that are associated with chemical spills

 Describe the shipboard precautions to prevent pollution from ship operations

 Understand MARPOL requirements and their implications for tanker operation

 Explain the SOPEP and SMPEP measures

 Know the use of a checklist on board to keep the pollution equipment in a ready-to-use
condition

 Explain the reporting process for spills with relevant information

 Discuss various spill-containment procedures

 Describe the Nine phases of spill response

 Explain the management of spills on water

Introduction

Note that pollution is usually related to human activity. Phenomena, such as radiation due to
natural radioactivity in the earth, volcano eruptions and the like, are not usually considered as
pollution. They exist, however, in areas where the environment is burdened. This is nature’s own
way to balance and renew itself.

Pollution Prevention during Loading or Discharging Oil, Chemicals and Hazardous

Cargoes: Annex I deals with the prevention of pollution by oil. It came into effect on the 2nd of
October, 1983. It regulates the methods and means of controlling discharge of oil into sea.

Prevention of oil spills has as much to do with operational procedures as it does with  technology
and equipment. Following appropriate protocols, as well as maintenance procedures, ensures the
safe operation of equipment, aiding in the goal to prevent spills from ever occurring.
Effects of Pollution on Human and Marine Life

Specific Learning Objectives

After going through this topic, student should be able to,

 Know the process of oil pollution at sea

 Understand the way pollution affects the marine and human life

 Know the way pollution is caused by noxious chemical cargoes

 Understand the hazards that are associated with chemical spills

Introduction

Any pollution has a main source and a receiver. The main receivers are air, sea, and soil. The
most effective way of spreading pollution is through air. But eventually the pollution always falls
to the ground and into the sea. The earth is most resistant to pollution as a receiver, but the
problems appear because this pollution almost without restrictions has free flow to pollute sea
and waters. Compare the human body with its own immune system to the environmental system
(Eco-system), and you will find that all basic “building blocks” are linked together in some way
or another with the same influence and with the same purpose. Every part is equally important
in obtaining the ability to function as a whole unit.

Source of Pollution:

Many factors contribute to pollution, such as the chemical, physiological or biological

characteristics. Life on earth is dependent on solar energy. Plants turn solar energy, water and
carbon into plant tissues. This is called the first tropic level. The herbivores (vegetable-only
eating animals) cannot exploit solar light directly in their growth or tissue change. Herbivores
use the plants to produce tissue. This is called the second tropic level. The energy loss caused by
transmission from the first level to the second level is calculated to be at approximately 90%. An
even greater loss appears at the next level, which is the third tropic level.

This level includes the humans and the animals, which survive by eating animal meat. The
demolishing link in this process is the carrion eaters and small organisms, which demolish dead
plants and animal materials into simple organic and inorganic compounds, which the plants need
to grow. An Ecology System appears as a result of developing and adapting to each other as a
species in nature throughout millions of years. Accurate balance and stability is obtained and
smoothly functioning.
This system is an everlasting process and is continuous throughout time and space. An Ecology
System can endure huge changes and variations in nature, but faced with artificial factors and
synthetic substances spread by human actions, important parts (areas) in this process can be
demolished. The reason is simply that no natural mechanism exists to keep the process active
and in balance. In numerous cases, these unwanted non-natural substances are spread
throughout the nature process creating disharmony and malfunctions both geographically and
ecologically.

Cause and Effect of Marine Pollution from ships

Chemical Pollution

Materials like batteries, chemicals past their expiry also leads to marine pollution. The materials
mentioned are hazardous and possess a huge threat to the lives of the marine creatures and
life-forms. Incidentally, such materials enter into the oceanic waters through either the grey
water or the black water channels

Solid Waste Pollution

Materials like paper, cardboard and aluminum can also turn out to be a cause of cruise ship
pollution in the marine areas. Categorized as being solid waste, such materials end up forming
an unwanted debris on the oceanic surface leading to large scale threats for the oceanic plants
and creatures.

Animals can become snagged on the plastic or mistake it for food, slowly killing them over a long
period of time. Animals who are most often the victims of plastic debris include turtles, dolphins,
fish, sharks, crabs, sea birds, and crocodiles.

Oil Pollution/ Bilge Oil Pollution

Oil pollution is the main reason for the increased level of marine pollution. Bilge oil mixing with
oceanic water causes serious of marine pollution. Faulty engine system and improper repair work
are two areas through which oil could leak and mix with the oceanic water. Collisions, cargo
spillage and accidents are also a reason or oil pollution. Since oil is lighter than water, it does
not degrade quickly leading to problems to marine creatures and plants that are forced to ingest
such polluted water.

Pollution from Antifouling Hull paints

Antifouling paint particles (APP) are generated during the maintenance of ships and from
abandoned structures and grounded ships. Analyses of paint fragment composites show
concentrations of Cu and Zn to 35% and 15%, respectively and concentrations of other trace
metals, like Ba, Cd, Cr, Ni, Pb and Sn, also occur. These metals leach more rapidly from APP
than a painted surface due to the greater surface area of pigments and additives exposed to the
aqueous medium.

Through diffusion and abrasion, high concentrations of contaminants may be accumulated

directly by benthic invertebrates. Benthic invertebrates are organisms that live on the bottom of
a water body (or in the sediment) and have no backbone. Animals that feed non-selectively and
that are exposed to or ingest paint-contaminated sediment are able to accelerate the leaching,
deposition and burial of biocides and other substances, and represent an alternative vehicle for
contaminant entry into the marine food chain.

The media explains pollution by oil

Effects of Ocean Pollution on marine animals and humans

Effect of Toxic Wastes due to pollution on Marine Animals

Oil spill is dangerous to marine life in several ways. The oil spilled in the ocean could get on to
the gills of marine animals and feathers of sea birds, which makes it difficult for them to move or
fly properly or feed their children. The long term effect on marine life can include cancer, failure
in the reproductive system, behavioral changes, and even death.

Disruption to the Cycle of Coral Reefs

Oil spill floats on the surface of water and prevents sunlight from reaching to marine plants and
affects in the process of photosynthesis harming marine life.

Depletion of Oxygen Content in Water

Most of the debris in the ocean does not decompose and remain in the ocean for years. It uses
oxygen as it degrades. As a result of this, oxygen levels go down. When oxygen levels go down,
the chances of survival of marine animals like whales, turtles, sharks, dolphins, penguins for
long time also goes down.

Failure in the Reproductive System of Sea Animals

Various poisonous chemicals that are considered hazardous for marine life. Chemicals from
onboard emissions and hull paint leaching can accumulate in the fatty tissue of animals, leading
to failure in their reproductive system.

The temperature of the ocean is highly affected by carbon dioxide and climate changes, which
impacts primarily the ecosystems and fish communities that live in the ocean.

Affecting Human Health

Animals from impacted food chain are then eaten by humans which affects their health as toxins
from these contaminated animals gets deposited in the tissues of people and can lead to cancer,
birth defects or long term health problems. It is the responsibility of the master or those in
charge of transfer operations involving cargo or bunkers to know the applicable pollution
prevention regulations and to ensure that they are not violated. Exercises should be held to train
personnel in accordance with the Shipboard Oil Pollution Emergency Response Plan, and
recorded.

There is a danger of violating pollution prevention regulations if ballast taken on in polluted

waters is discharged in another port. If ballast has to be taken on in polluted areas, it may be
necessary to exchange it for clean ballast when in deep water on passage. Some terminals have
specific requirements in this respect, and the master should ensure that they are observed.
Watch this animation for a recap of your understanding:

Pollution from HNS Cargoes

Hazardous and Noxious Substances (HNS)

Chemical spills occur at a much lower frequency than spills of oil. However, the consequence of a
chemical spill can be more wide reaching than that of oil and there is growing international
awareness of the need for safe and effective contingency arrangements for chemical spills.  The
wide variety of chemicals transported, their varying physical and chemical properties, the
different ways in which they behave in the environment and the potential for effects on human
health mean that response to chemical spills is not as straightforward as for oil.

What is HNS?

Not all chemicals transported by sea are considered hazardous. The 2000 OPRC-HNS Protocol,
designed for preparedness and response, defines HNS as a substance other than oil which if
introduced into the marine environment is likely to create hazards to human health, to harm
living resources and marine life, to damage amenities or to interfere with other legitimate uses
of the sea. However, the 2010 HNS Convention, designed for compensation, describes HNS as a
substance identified in one or more lists in the International Maritime Organization's Conventions
and Codes. MARPOL Annex II and Annex III will deal with all spills of chemical cargoes.

Environmental hazards

Marine pollution is a major hazard of Chemical cargoes and is a cause of growing international
concern. The various causes of marine pollution are discharge of oil, chemical residue, prohibited
packing material, garbage, sewage and emission of engine exhaust gas beyond acceptable
limits. The MARPOL Convention is the main international convention covering prevention of
pollution of the marine environment by ships.

HNS cargo pollution from ships, whether incidental and intentional, is viewed as a very serious
offence around the world. Nowadays, the shipowners are heavily penalized and punitive action is
taken against the Master, crew member(s) responsible for the incident and the ship. Every
individual on board should ensure that the ship complies with the pollution regulations at all
times. It is the responsibility of every watch keeper to ensure that adequate precautions are
taken to avoid pollution, mitigate oil discharge in case of pollution, maintain pollution prevention
equipment, report all instances of pollution promptly and maintain proper records, as required
by the regulations.

The environmental damage could be by,

 Damage to marine environment and living resources

 Sea water pollution

 Damage to other ships

Examples of IMO Conventions and Codes Providing HNS Lists

 Bulk liquids: Chapter 17 of International Code for the Construction and Equipment of
Ships Carrying Dangerous Chemicals in Bulk (IBC Code)

 Gases: Chapter 19 of International Code for the Construction and Equipment of Ships
Carrying Liquefied Gases in Bulk (IGC Code)

 Solids in bulk: Appendix 9 of Code of Safe Practice for Solid Bulk Cargoes (BC Code) if
also covered by IMDG Code in packaged form

 Packaged goods: International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code (IMDG Code)

A general guide is that if the chemical concerned has

i) a low biodegradation rate or high persistence,

ii) a high bioaccumulation rate or
iii) is classed as toxic / flammable / explosive / corrosive or reactive, it is likely to be considered
as HNS (radioactive and infectious substances are outside the scope of the HNS regime).

Bioaccumulation is a term for processes that lead to an increase in the concentration of a

substance in a living organism; Bioaccumulation can be reversible or irreversible. In case of
reversible accumulation the substance can be secreted again. In case of irreversible
accumulation, the substance is permanently bound to the tissue of the organism.

Persistence or low biodegradation is the ability of a material to stay in the marine

environment without degradation. This can occur by two different mechanisms:

 The material released with not or very slowly evaporate or dissolve. Such substances will
form slicks on the sea surface, which could contaminate birds or finally reach the coast.

 The substance in the water or on the sea floor will not or very slowly biodegrade.

Aquatic toxicity is the ability of a substance spilled into the water to cause damage to marine
organisms. Chemicals carried by ships may be released and dissolve or disperse into the water,
after which they present a hazard to marine organisms. The GESAMP hazard profile lists two
types of aquatic toxicity: Acute Toxicity in category B1 and Chronic Toxicity in category B2.

HNS labeling for an aquatic hazard, a toxic substance and flammable material

According to IMO regulations, any packaged cargo transported at sea which poses a threat to
people, other living organisms, property or the environment should be listed on the manifest as
“Dangerous Goods” and should display the appropriate hazard labels, for example as per the UN
Globally Harmonized System (GHS) or the International Maritime Dangerous Goods (IMDG)
code. Any packaged cargo that represent a threat to the marine environment should also display
an “Aquatic Hazard” label.

Chemical Cargoes: General Hazards

The marine pollution hazard will be dependent on several factors that include bio-accumulation
and the attendant risk to aquatic life or human health or causing tainting of seafood. In addition,
release into the marine environment may cause damage to living resources, and create hazard
to human health. The air pollution hazard posed by release into the atmosphere may be
categorized by the emergency exposure limit (EEL) of the substance.

Flammability hazard:

Vapor given off by a flammable liquid will burn when ignited provided it is mixed with certain
proportions of air. If the vapor mixture is too lean or too rich it will not burn. The range in which
it will burn is called the flammable range, and the limits are called the lower flammable limits
(LFL) and the upper flammable limits (UFL).

A flammable vapor also needs Oxygen in order to burn, typically in excess of 11 percent for
hydrocarbon vapors. In addition, a flammable liquid must be at a temperature high enough to
give off enough vapor in order to ignite (the Flash Point). For the purpose of safe handling
procedures, the flammability characteristics of various products are divided into three broad
categories:

 Flammable cargoes------------ flash point not exceeding 60°C

 Combustible cargoes-----------flash point exceeding 60°C

 Non-combustible cargoes------cargo which have no flash point

Reactivity hazard:

Chemicals may react in a number of ways; with water, with itself, with air, with other chemicals
or with other materials.

When addressing the hazards of chemical spills at sea, a distinction is made between hazards to
human beings and their property and hazards to the marine environment , because the
processes that lead to adverse effects are different. With respect to the hazards of a chemical
spills the term “toxicity” is often used.

Hazards to human beings 

 Toxicity by inhalation: Inhalation of toxic materials in the air can cause severe illness or

death

 Explosiveness: Explosions can cause severe trauma because of the shock wave or

resulting fire

 Flammability: A fire can cause skin burns to human beings and may even result in death

 Radioactivity: Contamination by a radioactive substance causes a person to be exposed to

radiation, which in turn can cause several different adverse health effects

 Corrosiveness:  Corrosive substances cause damage to living tissues. A corrosive gas can
cause eye and skin irritation.

 Long term health effects: (such as carcinogenicity) This is a grouping of hazards that will

result in adverse effects (long) after the exposure.

Hazards to the marine environment :

 Aquatic toxicity: A substance with a high aquatic toxicity has a large potential to kill
marine organism

 Bioaccumulation: Bio accumulation is the tendency of a substance to be stored in the fat

of organisms

 Persistence: A persistent substance will not (or very slowly) be degraded by natural
processes

 Radioactivity: Contamination by a radioactive substance causes a person to be exposed to

radiation, which in turn can cause several different adverse health effects

 Corrosiveness: Corrosive substances cause damage to living tissues. A corrosive gas can

cause eye and skin irritation

 Long term health effects: (such as carcinogenicity) This is a grouping of hazards that will

result in adverse effects (long) after the exposure.

General precautions for carrying chemical cargoes - accidental spillage & other
precautions
Chemical tankers are required to transport a wide range of different cargoes, and many tankers
are designed to carry a large number of segregated products simultaneously. To cover all aspect
of safety handling such noxious liquid chemicals following general precautions should be
observed irrespective of cargoes carried. Additional precautions for specific cargoes are
necessary and should also be incorporated in the ship’s cargo handling procedures. These
general precautions should be observed at all times, both in port and at sea as applicable. Ports
and terminals may have additional and different precautions and it is the Master’s responsibility
to ensure that local regulations are understood and observed

Cargo Information - The IMO chemical codes as well as Marpol Annex II require that certain
information must available on board prior to loading, reference is made to the IBC code and the
BCH code. It is the Master’s responsibility to ensure that the necessary information, including
shipping document and Material Safety Data Sheets are on board for each cargo, and available
to all personnel onboard and involved in cargo handling. Loading should not commence before
the Master is satisfied that the necessary information for safe handling of the cargo is available.

Chemical tanker precautions at berth - Preventing accidental spillage

Ships personnel must maintain a close watch throughout cargo operations to ensure that any
escape of cargo does not go unnoticed. In this respect, it is essential that all valves are closed if
not in use. Personnel operating inert gas plants must be aware that, with some inert gas
generators, there is a risk of oil pollution via the cooling water discharge when the burner does
not ignite first time in its start cycle. Where such a risk exists it is better to start the generator
and check before the vessel arrives at the berth and ensure no leakage of fuel. Cargo or bunker
tanks which have been “topped-off” must be checked frequently during the remaining loading
operations to avoid an overflow. If an accidental spillage or leakage of cargo occurs during any
operation, the relevant operation must be stopped immediately. The operation must not be
restarted until the cause has been established and the defect corrected.

Modern vessels are supplied with an approved outfit of clean-up materials in compliance with
MARPOL and OPA90 requirements. Clean up materials must be available at the bunker or cargo
manifold, for the prompt removal of any spillage on deck. Portable salvage pumps (air operated
and constructed of suitable chemical resistant materials) suitably grounded and preferably hard-
piped or connected to suitable containment tank(s), shall be deployed at the after-end of each
side of the main deck.
Chemicals used for clean up on deck must not be allowed to enter the water unless permission
has been obtained from the harbor authorities.

Should a cargo spill accident take place then the appropriate authorities, as detailed in the
vessel’s Oil Spill Response Plan (US waters), or SOPEP (other waters) must immediately be
informed. The contact sheet required by the Plan must be completed prior to arrival in port.

Openings in deckhouses and superstructures - Regulations require that portholes in the

superstructure within a certain distance of the cargo deck must be fixed shut. These design
features must not be modified in any way. All doors, portholes and other openings should be
kept closed during cargo operations. Doors that need to be closed (except when in use) in port
must be marked accordingly. Mechanical ventilation should be stopped and air conditioning units
operated on closed cycle or stopped in situations where toxic or flammable vapors may enter the
accommodation. Low pressure in accommodation must be avoided which will occur if air
conditioning is on full re-circulation and some extraction fans e.g. for toilets are still in use.

Engine Room Equipment - Boiler tubes, uptakes, exhaust manifolds and combustion
equipment must be maintained in good condition as a precaution against funnel fires and sparks.
In case of a funnel fire, or if sparks are emitted from the funnel, cargo operations involving
flammable products should be stopped, and at sea, the course may be altered to prevent sparks
falling onto the tank deck.

Excluding vapor from machinery spaces - Care should be taken to ensure that flammable or
toxic cargo vapor does not enter the engine room spaces. Special attention should be paid to
engine room equipment connected to the cargo deck area. In case of an accident or an
emergency that could give rise to a situation where toxic or flammable vapors are likely to enter
the engine room spaces, consideration should be given to its possible effect on personnel and/or
equipment and necessary preventive actions should be taken.

Procedures to Prevent Pollution

Specific Learning Objectives

After going through this topic, student should be able to,

 Describe the shipboard precautions to prevent pollution from ship operations

 Understand MARPOL requirements and their implications for tank ship operation

 Explain the SOPEP and SMPEP measures

 Know the use of a checklist on board to keep the pollution equipment in a ready-to-use
condition

Introduction

With oil being carried as cargo aboard ships and used as fuel for marine diesel engines, waste oil
is generated as unpumpable residue in cargo tanks and as sludge from purification of fuel and
lubricating oils, drainage from fuel tanks, leak offs from machinery operation and exhausted lube
oils collected in fuel and lube oil sludge tanks. Marine pollution is caused when these waste oils
are discharged into the sea during tank cleaning operations or during the discharge of ballast
taken into cargo tanks or as direct discharges from machinery space without using the oily water
separator.

Additional preparation taken for chemicals and hazardous cargoes:

 Prior to loading or discharging operation complete the check list

 Appropriate personal protective equipment for the cargo being handled to be kept ready
for use 

 Emergency preparedness as per emergency schedule are to be kept ready

 Flanges that will not be used for the operation should be blanked off and clearly marked

 Tanks that are topped up to be monitored for any change in sounding

 Accommodation air-conditioning to be on closed circuit mode

 Ensure pressure inside the accommodation is always more than that of outside

 Temperature of temperature sensitive cargo to be continuously monitored

 Officer on duty must take all precautions to ensure that the continuous monitoring for
early detection of any cargo spill

 Appropriate entries are to be made in the cargo record book

MARPOL

Pollution at sea and in coastal waters is a growing problem. The MARPOL convention was
incorporated to address this problem and find solutions to reduce incidents of pollution. The
objective of this convention is to primarily deal with oil pollution, besides other forms of pollution
including pollution from chemicals, harmful substances, sewage, garbage, engine emissions etc.

Anti-pollution procedures

When compared with land-based industry, ships are minor contributors to marine pollution.
Atmospheric inputs and land-based discharges account for 77% of the marine pollution, whereas
ships are responsible for around 12%.

The sources of pollution from ships, are:

 Oil

 Dangerous goods in bulk and packaged form

 Chemicals and liquefied gases in bulk

 Ballast water

 Sewage

 Garbage

 Anti-fouling paints

 Exhaust emissions

 Ozone depleting substances

 Cargo vapor emissions

 Noise

Media

The MARPOL convention has six annexes covering different types of pollution.

Precautions to Prevent Pollution by Oil

Tanker operations involve risks due to pollution, fire and explosion. Oil carried in tanks have
risks associated with it and one risk could lead to another. These hazards can be avoided by the
application of simple but effective rules. Oil cargo is highly flammable and toxic. It is not the
liquid which is susceptible to ignite but the vapor given off by the liquid. For this vapor to ignite
and burn as a visible flame, it needs to mix with the right proportions of air.

The vapor cannot ignite if there is too little or too much petroleum gas concentration. This
limitation is expressed as a percentage by volume of petroleum gas in air, also known as upper
and lower flammable limits. When the temperature of a liquid reaches the lower flammable limit,
it is known as the flash point of the liquid.

Certain types of petroleum cargo are susceptible to spontaneous combustion and auto ignition.
Spontaneous combustion is the phenomenon where materials soaked with oil ignite without any
external application of heat. Auto ignition is caused when petroleum liquids, ignite when heated,
without the application of a naked flame.

Tankers should follow certain safe procedures, which minimize the chances of an accident. Such
procedures include a restriction on smoking, the use of a naked flame, restrictions for
conducting hot work, the operation of fixed and portable lamps, the use of hand tools for
carrying out maintenance, the use of anodes in cargo tanks, entry into enclosed spaces and
pump rooms etc.

Oil tankers calling ports for either loading or discharging operations should exchange information
with the terminal. This information exchange benefits both parties and removes doubts and
ambiguity. The tanker should be aware of berthing and mooring details. Similarly, the terminal
should know the condition of the ship's tanks, the ship’s draft and trim before and after the
operations, the ship's manifold details, the location of fire wires (emergency towing off wires)
etc.

General Precautions

All tankers while alongside a petroleum berth should comply with procedures and precautions
that enhance tanker safety. Both the tanker and the terminal should complete all documentation
and the ship-shore safety checklist. Tanker and terminal personnel contact should be clearly
identified before the operations begin.
Other precautions include:

 Adequate man power and fire fighting equipment on board

 Means of communication between the ship and shore

 Safe access to the ship

 Access control

 Display of warning posters

"General Precautions" (PDF, 195kb) are to be observed for cargo and ballast operations.

Specific Precautions

Exchange of information between the tanker and the terminal has to be clear and concise.
Information regarding loading, discharging or even bunkering should be clearly understood by all
concerned parties. Some of the points discussed between the tanker and terminal are as follows:

 Approved loading / discharging plan and maximum loading or discharging rates, number
and size of loading arms, manifold connections available for different grades etc.

 Quantity of cargo to be loaded or discharged and the location of tanks

 Characteristics of cargo including the toxicity, flash point and estimated loading /
discharging temperatures

 Type of venting procedure and method of handling ballast during cargo operations

Continuous lines of communication between the tanker and the terminal is of paramount
importance for safe and smooth cargo operations. All concerned parties should be fully aware of
the various signals used to indicate the starting and stopping of loading and discharging, slowing
down and emergency stops. Remote shut off arrangements, also known as quick closing valves,
are provided to shut off the fuel oil supply to the main engine in the event of a fire in the engine
room. The remote shut off valves are located either at the entrance to the engine room or in
remote fire control stations.

"Specific precautions" (PDF, 370kb) are to be observed for cargo and ballast operations.

Precautions while carrying out any oil operations

With respect to heavy fuel oil system on board a ship the following arrangements should be in
place to prevent an accident

 Weighted cock: It acts as a self closing device for all the sounding pipes servicing bunker
tanks

 Flame trap: Wire mesh or wire gauze which is fitted on the air pipes connecting bunker
tanks. This mesh prevents the passage of flame inside the tanks.

 Sight glass: The sight glass in the bunker overflow pipe warns the operator that a bunker
overflow is taking place.

 Overflow alarm: Bunker tanks have floats fitted on the upper part of the tank to warn
personnel if the oil has reached at a higher level than what is actually permissible inside
the tank. The alarm is triggered when the oil level rises beyond safety limits.

 Dumping valve: The dumping valve is fitted on settling tanks so that oil can be
immediately transferred from this tank to double bottom tanks, which are at a much lower
level in the event of a fire.

Preventing the fire and explosion in a tanker is paramount. Following are some of the
precautions to be taken while carrying out any oil operations:

 External Openings in Accommodation and Engine Rooms: Since many sources of

fire in the accommodation and Engine room, the volatile cargo vapors are kept out of
these spaces during loading, unloading, gas freeing, tank cleaning and purging operations.
All external doors, ports and similar openings on the tanker should be kept closed.

 Air Conditioning and Ventilation Systems: On tankers with air conditioning units, it is
essential that the accommodation is kept under positive pressure to prevent the entry of
cargo vapors. Intakes for air conditioning units are usually positioned in a safe area and
vapors will not be drawn into the accommodation under normal conditions.

 Cargo Tank Lids: During the handling of volatile products and the loading of non-volatile
products into tanks containing hydrocarbon or chemical vapor, all cargo tank lids should
be kept closed and secured.

 Sighting and Ullage Ports: During loading, unloading, gas freeing, tank cleaning and
purging operations sighting and ullage ports should be kept closed, unless required to be
open for measuring and sampling and when agreed between the tanker and the terminal.

 There are tanks to load non-volatile and they can also be used to load volatile cargo and
these tanks are connected to common venting system. To prevent flammable and/or toxic
vapors entering the tanks while loading volatile cargo, particular attention should be paid
 to the setting of pressure/vacuum valves and the associated venting system, including
any inert gas system.

 Tank Washing Openings: During tank cleaning or gas freeing operations, tank washing
cover plates should be removed only from the tanks in which these operations are taking
place and the cover plates should be replaced immediately upon completion.

 Inspection of Cargo Tanks Before Loading: Inspection of cargo tanks before loading
generally should be made without entering the tanks. It may sometimes be necessary to
remove tank cleaning opening covers to sight parts of the tank not visible from the ullage
or sighting ports, but this should only be done when the tank is gas free. The covers must
be replaced and secured immediately after the inspection. Cargo tank atmospheres which
are, or which have been, inerted should be handled with care due to the risk of low
oxygen contents. Before entering a tank that has been inerted, it must be gas freed.

 Flange Connections: Flanges for tanker-to-shore cargo connections at the end of the
terminal pipelines and on the tanker’s manifold should be in accordance with International
or National legislation. Flange faces, gaskets and seals should be clean and in good
condition. At their storage locations, flange faces should be suitably protected from
corrosion/pitting. Where bolted connections are made, all bolt holes should be used. Care
should be taken when tightening the bolts; as uneven or over tightened bolts could result
in leakage or fracture.

 Removal of Blank Flanges: Each tanker and terminal manifold flange should have a
removable blank flange made of steel or other approved material and preferably fitted
with handles. Precautions should be taken to ensure that, prior to the removal of blanks
from tanker and terminal pipelines, the section between the last valve and blank does not
contain any product under pressure. Precautions must also be taken to prevent any
spillage.

 Reducers and Spools: Reducers and spools should be made of steel and be fitted with
flanges. Ordinary cast iron should not be used. There should be an exchange of
information between the tanker and terminal when manifold reducers or spools are made
of any material other than steel. Manifold pressure gauges should be fitted to the spool
pieces on the outboard side of the manifold valves.

 Lighting: During darkness, adequate lighting should be arranged to cover the area of the
tanker-to shore cargo connection and any hose handling equipment, so that the need for
any adjustment can be seen in good time and any leakage or spillage of product can be
quickly detected.

 Fire-Fighting Equipment: When a tanker is alongside a berth, fire-fighting equipment is

to be kept ready for immediate use. On board the tanker, this is normally achieved by
 having fire hoses with spray/jet nozzles ready for use. Having portable dry chemical
powder extinguishers available in the cargo area provides additional protection against
small flash fires.

 Notices on the Tanker: Whenever alongside a terminal, a tanker should display notices
on deck, visible on two sides, or at the gangway(s) according to the International
(Dangerous goods) legislation.

 Precautions should be taken against Smoking, usage of Matches and Cigarette Lighters,
unsafe usage of Galley Stoves and Cooking Appliances in the accommodation. In the
Engine room funnel fires and sparks, burners, tubes, uptakes, exhaust manifolds and
spark arrester should be maintained in good working condition.

 Control of Vehicles and Other Equipment: The use of vehicles and equipment should
be controlled, particularly in hazardous zones. Routes to and from work places and
parking areas should be clearly indicated. Barriers or fencing should be provided, where
necessary, to prevent unauthorized access.

SOPEP and SMPEP

Shipboard Oil Pollution Emergency Plan (SOPEP)

Introduction

Marine pollution is a cause of growing international concern. The various causes of Marine
Pollution are discharge of oil, chemical residue, prohibited packing material, garbage, sewage
and emission of engine exhaust gas beyond acceptable limits. The MARPOL Convention is the
main international convention covering prevention of pollution of the marine environment by
ships.

Objectives

On completion of this sub-topic, you will be able to:

 State the SOPEP (Shipboard Oil Pollution Emergency Plan) including the reporting
procedures.

Oil pollution from ships, whether incidental and intentional, is viewed as a very serious offence
around the world. Nowadays, the shipowners are heavily penalized and punitive action is taken
against the Master, crew member(s) responsible for the incident and the ship. Every individual
on board should ensure that the ship complies with the pollution regulations at all times. It is the
responsibility of every watch keeper to ensure that adequate precautions are taken to avoid
pollution, mitigate oil discharge in case of pollution, maintain pollution prevention equipment,
report all instances of pollution promptly and maintain proper records, as required by the
regulations.

SOPEP stands for Shipboard Oil Pollution Emergency Plan. Regulation 37 of Annex I of MARPOL
73/78 requires oil tankers of 150 tons gross tonnage or more and all ships of 400 tons gross
tonnage or more to carry an approved SOPEP. The purpose of the SOPEP is to provide guidance
to the Master and the ship's officers on the course of action to be taken when an oil pollution
incident has taken place.

The SOPEP should be in accordance with the IMO guidelines for the development of shipboard oil
pollution emergency plans and should be approved by the administration. No alteration or
revision shall be made to this plan without prior approval from the administration.

The primary objective of the plan is to stop or minimize oil outflow when there is damage to the
ship, and stop or minimize oil outflow when an operational spill occurs in excess of the quantity
than the permitted rate under the MARPOL convention. The plan also provides guidance to the
Master and the ship's crew on the procedures to be followed to report an oil spill. A designated
locker called SOPEP locker, is used to store oil spill control materials. These materials are
sawdust, Oil Spill Dispersant (OSD), cloth, cotton waste, gloves, brooms, buckets, empty oil
barrels etc.

A list of coastal state contacts and port contact list is provided as an annex to the plan, which
helps to coordinate with national and local authorities in combating oil pollution. The SOPEP
should be ship specific and should include a flow chart, which will serve as a guide in reporting
procedures during an oil pollution incident.

The ship's master has to comply with reporting procedures by the fastest means of
communication in compliance with regulation 37 of MARPOL 73/78. The intention of
the "Reporting Information" (PDF, 200 kb) is to ensure that all the details regarding the
discharge or the probable discharge should reach the nearest coastal state in the prescribed
format. The reporting procedures should have the following information:

 When to report (actual discharge; probable discharge)

  Information required (particulars and status of the ship)

 Whom to contact (coast state; nearest port; and ship's interests)

The SOPEP provides the ship's Master with clear guidance on how to mitigate oil pollution in
different situations.
Pollution is possible in the following situations:

 Spill during an operation

 Pipeline leakage

 Tank overflow

 Hull leakage

 Spill in machinery spaces

 Spills due to grounding / stranding, fire / explosion, hull damage, collision, hull failure,
and excessive list

Mitigation techniques are given in the plan to help in dealing with pollution due to the above
causes. The ship's plans and drawings, which are part of the SOPEP include the general
arrangement plan, tank plan and the fuel oil piping diagram.

The SOPEP lays down the responsibilities of the ship's key personnel involved in the mitigation
process. This includes the Master, Chief Officer, Chief Engineer, Deck Duty Officer, Duty
Engineer and Duty Ratings.

Conclusion

As you have completed the sub-topic, you should be able to:

 State the SOPEP (Shipboard Oil Pollution Emergency Plan) including the reporting
procedures.

SMPEP
In Regulation 17 of Annex II of MARPOL 73/78, all ships of 150 tons GT and above, carrying
noxious liquid substances in bulk are required to carry an approved Shipboard Marine
Pollution Emergency Plan (SMPEP) for Noxious Liquid Substances on board. The plan is in
line with IMO MEPC. 54(32), MEPC.86(44) and the SMPEP guidelines in Resolution MEPC.85(44.
 
Since most of the content of the plan for both, oil and noxious liquid substances are the same,
compliance with a combined plan is more practical than two separate ones in case of an
emergency.

The emergency response plan for ships carrying noxious liquid substances is a combined one and
is referred to as the shipboard marine pollution emergency plan (SMPEP). The SMPEP became
mandatory from the 1st of January, 2003. The ship's plans and drawings, which are part of the
SMPEP include the general arrangement plan, the tank plan and the fuel oil piping diagram.

The guidelines for the development of shipboard marine pollution emergency plans have been
developed by the IMO to help administrations and shipowners meet these requirements.

The main purpose of SMPEP is to set in motion the required actions to reduce or stop the
discharge and to minimize its effects. By means of effective planning, it can be ensured that
necessary actions taken are in a structured, safe, logical and timely manner.

The procedures to be followed while reporting a NLS pollution incident include:

 List of authorities and personnel to be contacted

 Detailed explanation of necessary actions to be taken to minimize or stop the discharge of

NLS

 Procedures for contacting the national and local authorities to coordinate the shipboard
action

Contents in SMPEP include:

 Reporting Requirements

 Ways of controlling discharge

 Co-ordination with National and Local authorities

 Extra Information

 Flow Chart And Checklists

 Vessel Specific Information

 List Of Coastal State Contacts

 List Of Ship Interest Contacts

  IΜΟ Resolution A.851(20) & Resolution MEPC.138(53)

Info/plan required

 Ship Specific Information (Questionnaire to be submitted)

 General Arrangement Plan

 Capacity Plan

 Midship Section

 Lines Plan

 Tank Tables

Either flag state administration or a classification society should approve this plan on behalf of
this flag.

Shipboard personnel are to follow certain guidelines when faced with a pollution emergency.
The "Summary Flowchart" (PDF, 205kb) describes these procedures.

Checklist for Maintenance of Pollution Equipment

Careful attention should be paid to pollution prevention measures on board as well as

maintaining accurate records for the handling of oil and other pollutants. Penalties can be severe
for an owner and any responsible crew-members if a vessel fails to comply with the regulations.
Findings noted by ABS during surveys and audits include:

 Missing oil record keeping book or entries not up to date;

 Poorly maintained, inoperative equipment or, improperly operating equipment and

systems for separating oil from water including oil-content monitoring devices;

 Sludge tank connected directly overboard;

 Sludge tank connected directly overboard;

 Missing or not-posted pollution placards on board etc.

The practice of strictly following an ON BOARD ROUTINE CHECK LIST may help to prevent
pollution damage and reduce human error.

A typical checklist as suggested by the American Bureau of Shipping:

 XVI. MARINE POLLUTION PREVENTION ITEMS

Query OK FIX N/ Comment

A s

Is approved SOPEP/SMPEP-NLS/SMPEP up-to-        

date and in working language of Master and
officers?

Do transfer procedures contain instructions for        

reporting oil discharges (or hazardous cargoes)
into the sea?

Is the Oil Record Book in the latest format and        

filled out properly based on actual operations and
using proper letter codes?

Is the 15 ppm alarm including auto stop        

operating satisfactorily?

For 15 ppm bilge alarm under MEPC.107(49),        

does the recording device contain records for at
least 18 months?

Is there a calibration certificate for the 15 ppm        

bilge alarm provided at every renewal survey?
Has the accuracy of the alarm been checked by
the manufacturer or persons authorized by the
manufacturer according to the manufacturers’
instructions at intervals not > 5 years?

Are bilge and sludge pump arrangements in        

compliance with MARPOL regulations?

Is the automatic stopping device for the oily        

water separator working properly?

  There are no overboard        

Oily Water Separator discharge by-pass fittings

(OWS)/Oil Filtering installed?
Equipment Are all associated        
gauges, piping and
valves in satisfactory
condition?

Are filters changed as        

 necessary?

Are they properly        

installed in accordance
with approved plans?

Sludge Pump Is operation confirmed        

satisfactory?

Standard Discharge Is available port and        

Connection starboard sides?

VI. MARINE POLLUTION PREVENTION ITEMS (Continued) O FI N Comment

K X A s

Tanke Oil Are manual and auto means        

r Discharge  Monitor
(ODM)
of discharge working?
Have alarms, indicators / meters        
and recorders been tested? Are
spare consumables provided?

Oil/Water Is unit Type Approved?        

Interface  Detector
Is unit operating satisfactorily?        

Crude Oil Washing Is system arranged as outlined        

System in Operations and Equipment
Manual?

Are piping, pumps, valves and        

deck machines free of leaks?

Is a separate Cargo Record Book being used for Annex II        

(NLS) cargoes?

Sludge tank does not have a direct connection overboard.        

Garbage Management Are pollution placards displayed?        

Measures to be taken in the event of Spillage

Specific Learning Objectives

After going through this topic, student should be able to,

 Explain the reporting process for spills with relevant information

  Discuss various spill-containment procedures

 Describe the Nine phases of spill response

 Explain the management of spills on water

Introduction

Extensive steps are in place to ensure that operators follow safe operating procedures. Specific
Spill Prevention, Control and Countermeasure Plans (SPCC) outline an operator’s prevention
procedures. Maintenance procedures require regular testing and inspection of both processes
and equipment.

Ensuring process safety minimizes the risk of a spill and protects the health and safety of people
and the environment. Operational and maintenance procedures are both encouraged and
mandated across industry.

Tanker On Board Spill Equipment

There are two levels of compliance based on the length of the tank vessel.

Oil tankers with an overall length of 400 feet (121.92 meters) or more must carry the
appropriate equipment and supplies for the containment and removal of an on-deck oil cargo
spill of at least 12 barrels.

Oil tankers with an overall length of less than 400 feet must carry the appropriate equipment
and supplies for the containment and removal of an on-deck oil cargo spill of at least 7 barrels.

The equipment and supplies must include:

 Sorbents

 Non-sparking hand scoops, shovels, and buckets

 Containers suitable for holding recovered waste

 Emulsifiers for deck cleaning

 Protective clothing
  A minimum of one (1) non-sparking portable pump with hoses

 Scupper plugs

During cargo transfer operations, the equipment and

supplies must remain ready for immediate use.

Report Relevant Information

The master or other person having charge of any ship involved in an incident shall report the
particulars of such incident without delay and to the fullest extent possible in accordance with
the provisions of Protocol I of MARPOL 73/78/97.

The report shall be made when an incident involves:

 A discharge above the permitted level or probable discharge of oil or of noxious liquid
substances for whatever reason including those for the purpose of securing the safety of
the ship or for saving life at sea; or

 A discharge or probable discharge of harmful substances in packaged form, including

those in freight containers, portable tanks, road and rail vehicles and ship borne barges;
or

 Damage, failure or breakdown of a ship of 15 meters in length or above which:

 Affects the safety of the ship; including but not limited to collision, grounding, fire,
explosion, structural failure, flooding and cargo shifting; or

 Results in impairment of the safety of navigation; including but not limited to, failure or
breakdown of steering gear, propulsion plant, electrical generating system, and essential
ship borne navigational aids; or

 A discharge during the operation of the ship of oil or noxious liquid substances in excess
of the quantity or instantaneous rate permitted under the present Convention.

Spill Reporting Information

All spills shall be reported as required with the following information:

 Time of spill discovery.

 Location of spill.

 Identification of spilled material.

 Behavior of material (i.e. reactions observed).

  Source of spill (i.e. piping, container, etc.).

 Personnel in vicinity of spill.

 Volume of spill.

 Anticipated movement of spill (i.e. leakage to lower deck passage from amidships toward
galley).

 Labeling or placarding information.

Spill-containment Procedures

Prevention of oil spills has as much to do with operational procedures as it does with  technology
and equipment. Following appropriate protocols, as well as maintenance procedures, ensures the
safe operation of equipment, aiding in the goal to prevent spills from ever occurring.

Watch the Oil Spill Response Planning video:

https://youtu.be/ZwkHe5aqMH4

Specific Spill Prevention, Control and Countermeasure Plans (SPCC) outline an operator’s
prevention procedures and are required by the EPA. Maintenance procedures require regular
testing and inspection of both processes and equipment.

In open-water marine spills, the primary response objectives are:

 To prevent the spill from reaching shore, 

 To reduce the impact on marine life, and 

 To speed the degradation of any un recovered oil.

Weather permitting, booms can be used to contain or divert the spilled oil, which may then be
recovered using skimmers or burned off. However, if winds or waves are too high, booms will be
ineffective and will not provide adequate containment of the spill.

Dispersants, applied to the spill via aircraft, can be effective in breaking up spills of light- or
medium-density oils. Dispersant use is also contingent upon weather, as high winds make it
difficult to accurately target the spill from the air. Sorbents may be used for small-volume spills,
or as a final "polish" after other response options have been used.
Dispersants

Dispersants are chemical agents (similar to soaps and detergents) that help break up an oil slick
into very small droplets, which dilute throughout the water. While this does not remove the
spilled material, smaller oil particles are more easily biodegraded and it provides a measure of
protection for sensitive habitats threatened by a surface slick. Dispersants are sprayed onto
spills by specially equipped boats or planes.

Watch the Dispersant action Video:

https://youtu.be/epzmwKpy5zQ

In open-water marine spills, the primary response objectives are:

To prevent the spill from reaching shore,

To reduce the impact on marine life, and

To speed the degradation of any unrecovered oil.

In the absence of significant native plant or animal life in these environments, economic and
aesthetic factors generally drive spill response decisions. Removal is typically a top priority, as
these developments are often constructed in areas where wave activity, and therefore natural
dispersion, is minimal.

Booms and skimmers are used to contain and remove spilled oil from the water, while relatively
aggressive cleanup activities are used to address oil that has reached shore. These activities
may include flushing, use of shoreline cleaning agents, and bioremediation. Sorbents also may
be used for smaller-volume spills, or as a final "polish" after other response options have been
used.

Chemical /Oil cargo spills

The biggest risk of a cargo spill is during cargo handling operations, either because of equipment
failure or improper handling procedure. Cargo spills are therefore most likely to happen in port.

Following actions should be taken in the event of spill:

 Activate the alarm 

 Stop all cargo operations and close valves and hatches

 If alongside a berth, notify the terminal staff of the chemicals involved and possible risk
posed to the personnel

 Notify local port authorities, usually through the terminal staff

 Prohibit smoking and the use of naked lights throughout the ship

 Clear all non-essential personnel from the area

 Close all accommodation access doors, and stop all non-closed circuit ventilation

 Arrange for main engine and steering gear to be brought to stand-by

The main course of action is dependent upon the nature of chemicals involved and size and
location of spill. If there is possibility of vapors entering accommodation or engine room,
measures should be taken to counteract this, such as shutdown the air-con intake and set the
accommodation ventilation to re-circulation mode.

All cases to be treated as emergency and full initial response should involve emergency party
wearing appropriate protective clothing and breathing apparatus. Safety of personnel and the
ship should take priority over environmental care. If it is possible and safe to do so, spilled liquid
should be pumped or washes into a slop tank or other containment, or collected for safe disposal
using absorbent material. However, if this is not safe or if there is any doubt, the spillage should
be washes overboard with very large amount of water. If at sea, the tanker should be
maneuvered so as to disperse the vapor away from ship's accommodation.

For small, localized and contained spills, it may be necessary to implement all the action points
in the ship's contingency plan. However, the Master must always keep in mind the local
circumstances, the nature of the chemicals involved, and the potential harm to personnel, ship's
structure and environment. In most cases it is better to overreact than to delay action.
The general advice for a corrosive cargo spillage on deck is to wash the spilled liquid overboard
with the large quantity of water from as far away as practicable. A fog nozzle should be used
and not a direct jet of water. The emergency team should wear appropriate protection, approach
the spill from upwind and direct the spray of water to the edge of the spill, gradually working
towards the center. The use of water on a fuming acid and other strong acids will initially cause
a vigorous reaction that will cause increased fuming. However, this will be temporary while the
spillage will be dealt with rapidly. If at sea, the ship should be turned off wind.

Personnel exposure to be dealt with immediately by referring to the MSDS and EmS.

Nine Phases of Spill Response

The following phases describe major actions that must take place immediately after a spill has
occurred; however, some of the phases may occur simultaneously.

SPILL DISCOVERY AND NOTIFICATION. All discoveries of spills or situations that may lead
to spills must be reported

The discoverer shall report the following information:

 Time of spill discovery.

 Location of spill.

 Identification of spilled material.

 Behavior of material (i.e. reactions observed).

 Source of spill (i.e. piping, container, etc.).

 Personnel in vicinity of spill.

 Volume of spill.

 Anticipated movement of spill (e.g., leakage to lower deck passage from amidships toward
galley).

 Labeling or placarding information.

INITIATION OF ACTION.

WARNING
Do not enter the contaminated area until the necessary protective clothing and equipment have
been determined and properly donned.

 Evacuate all personnel from areas that may be exposed to the spilled material, especially
vapors.

 Cordon off the affected area.

 Arrange first aid for any injured personnel.

 Prevent spills from entering other compartments by any means that do no involve
personnel exposure to the spill, such as closing/covering drains, ventilation, ducts, doors
and hatches.

 Disperse gases or vapors using forced exhaust ventilation. If atmosphere is suspected to

be flammable or explosive, appropriate means shall be initiated by Damage Control to
minimize and/or eliminate this hazard during ventilation operations.

 Eliminate any fire or explosion hazards such as electrical equipment, incompatible

materials, and open flames.

EVALUATION. Proper evaluation of a spill can prevent fires, explosions, personal injury or

permit steps to lessen the impact. This evaluation consists of the following three steps:

a. Obtain as much of the following information as possible from container labels and
MSDS before starting response actions:

 Type and concentration of the spilled material.

 Hazardous characteristics of the spilled material.

a) Flash Point.
b) Toxicity.

c) Corrosiveness.

d) Potentially incompatible substances.

e) Effects resulting from exposure.

f) First aid measures for exposure.

b. Determine dangerous conditions or potential consequences of the spill, including:

 Fire or explosion.
  Presence of oxygen-deficient atmosphere in compartment.

 Presence of toxic or explosive gases per the Toxic Gas Bill in reference (g).

 Possibility of dangerous vapors being drawn into ventilating system.

 Other HM in the compartment that would play a role in a fire or explosion or is

incompatible with the spilled material.

c. From the MSDS, determine the appropriate level of PPE for responding to the spill.

CONTAINMENT AND DAMAGE CONTROL.

WARNING

All personnel entering a contaminated space shall enter with another individual, and for each
pair entering a space, a trained person with appropriate equipment, will be on standby.

Actions taken during this phase are directed toward controlling the immediate spread of the spill
and minimizing the impact to the ship and crew. Depending on the type of spill, some or all of
the following procedures may be employed:

 Don required PPE as determined from the MSDS.

 Fight fire (if any), being careful to use firefighting methods compatible with the material
involved.

 Shut off or otherwise stem the spill at the source.

 Predict spill movement and take further action to prevent the spill from possibly entering
other compartments.

 Contain liquid material using barriers, such as absorbents, rags or other equipment
suitable to dam the flow.

Response action for operational incidents includes:

 Transfer System Discharge.

 Tank Overflow.

 Hull Leakage/Tank Leakage

  Mechanical Equipment Failure.

DISPERSION OF GAS/VAPOR. If a flammable gas or vapor is released as a result of the spill,

the gas/vapor shall be dispersed or diluted as soon as possible. If possible and/or feasible, the
gas vapor shall not be allowed to enter other compartments. Have the Responsible Person check
the spill area for the Lower Explosive Limit (LEL) and toxicity. The atmosphere can then be
dispersed using a ventilation system deemed appropriate based on the situation.

CLEANUP AND DECONTAMINATION. During this response phase, personnel, as directed by

the person in charge, shall employ the spill cleanup methods recommended on the MSDS and
shall use the appropriate shipboard Spill Response and Containment Kits . Surfaces shall be
thoroughly cleaned of the spilled material. After the spill cleanup, the compartment shall be
thoroughly ventilated. Reusable protective clothing, such as respirators, face shields and gloves
shall be thoroughly decontaminated and otherwise maintained before it is returned to its proper
storage location.

DISPOSAL OF CONTAMINATED MATERIALS. All non-reusable cleanup materials are to be

placed in impermeable containers, properly labeled, stored and disposed of as used hazardous
material. These materials include unrecoverable protective clothing, sorbents, rags, brooms and
containers. If different HM is involved, ensure the materials are segregated and labeled
appropriately 

CERTIFICATION FOR SAFE RE-ENTRY. The spaces affected by the spill shall be certified safe
by the MASTER/ CH.ENG before normal shipboard operations are resumed in that space. The
following shall be verified before allowing general re-entry: 

 All surfaces, decks, bulkheads and overheads, have been thoroughly cleaned of the spilled
material.

 All compartments have been adequately ventilated as determined from analysis.

 All contaminated cleanup materials, including protective clothing, have been packaged,
marked and handled as used HM.

SPILL DOCUMENTATION. The details of all OHS spills, including the time, POC/Agency, and
format (voice or report) for all notifications made, must be noted in the Ship’s Deck and/or
Engineering Log
Management of Spills on Water

A number of steps must be followed when handling product spilled on water.

These steps are given below.

Containing spills

Spills on calm water can be contained by barriers, such as floating booms. Floating booms are
tubular floating sections that usually have a weighted skirt. They are either inflated or filled with
buoyant material. The booms can be installed around unloading tankers, or they can be kept
ready and used as needed. Once the spill is contained, one end of the boom can be pulled in to
concentrate the spill and make skimming easier. Makeshift booms can be made from inflated fire
hoses or from railroad ties, telephone poles, or empty drums linked by chains or cables.

NOTE: 

 Transfers of non persistent fuels such as JP-8 and gasoline must not be boomed

 Fixed boom will not be required in areas of swift current (1.5 knots or greater) when fuel
will be deflected over the top or under the boom.

 Do not boom in situations deemed unsafe. 

Removing oil from the water

Some of the product can be removed with the suction pump, piping, and other equipment on a
regular skimming boat or a barge. Some skimming boats are designed especially for removing
oil. Others are barges or boats that have been adapted to remove the product from the water
and store it. Chemical dispersants approved by the Authorities can be used as soon as the spill is
contained, however, they are usually used after some of the product has been removed by
skimming. 

NOTE: 

 Chemical dispersants must be approved by the Authorities. 

Cleaning up
After all product possible has been removed, absorbents, adsorbents, and chemical dispersants
may be used to complete the cleanup. Product is soaked up by an absorbent, but it clings to the
surface of the particles of an adsorbent. If the water is not rough and the slick is limited in size,
either of these may be used to gather product on the surface. Some adsorbents are sawdust,
straw, cotton waste, talc, and powdered bark. Sawdust, straw, and cotton waste can be buried.
These materials must be disposed of according to regulations. Chemical dispersants break up a
slick into tiny droplets so that natural bacteria in the water can consume the product.
Dispersants are usually sprayed from a vessel, from a helicopter or a crop-spraying plane, or
from hand-held equipment. Dispersants are useful in rough, open seas where skimming is
difficult. Chemicals should never be used near a freshwater source or where fish or beaches are
of prime concern unless fire, safety hazards, or other emergency conditions exist.

Case Studies on Oil and NLS Ship Emergencies

Specific Learning Objectives

Case studies are a process of integrating the knowledge from various sections of the course and
after going through the case studies, student should be able to,

 Analyze the events leading to an accident/incident

 Identify the errors committed by crew in causing an accident/incident

 Select the correct steps that would have prevented or could control the hazardous
situation

 Understand the lessons learnt from the incident/accident and be able to apply that
knowledge to similar but new situations on board

 Understand the possibility of being criminalized during tank ship operation and cases of
accidental pollution

Introduction

Accidents and incidents with near misses are not uncommon to tank ships, especially the tank
ships that carry many varieties of chemical cargoes in their many tanks. Each of those cargoes
have different properties. Each tank needs thorough cleaning before the new cargo is loaded.
There are issues of compatibility, toxicity, flammable mixture and cargo vapor causing death or
causing explosions. Many crew life has been sacrificed within tanks that have not been properly
gas freed or vented. It is this array of challenges that a seafarer faces on each day that he sails
on board these ships. The best way to learn and remember is through stories- a good or a bad
story: both can influence our future behavior and thus makes a powerful means for crew
training.
Fire and Explosion

SHIP AAA

Name Date Location

AAA 16 March 2012 Saudi Arabia

Flag Date of Length Width Draught Owner

Built

Liberia 2004 150 m 25 m 10.5 m BBB

Accident Area All Jubail, Persian Gulf

Products transported 430 tonnes of heavy fuel oil (IFO 380)

1.300 tonnes is obutyraldehyde  (IBAL)

13.000 tonnes methyl tertiary butyl ether

(MTBE)

Ship type Chemical Tanker

Classification Society CCC

The incident

On the 16th March, the chemical tanker AAA was sailing in the Persian Gulf when it suffered an
explosion and a fire which lasted 5 days.

Of the 25 crew members, 24 were rescued by an American destroyer while one was reported
missing. Once the blaze was under control the response team noticed that 4 of the ship's tanks
were severely damaged.

On the 25th March, after several unsuccessful attempts, a tug managed to establish a towline to
distance the AAA from the coastline.

The place of refuge issue

The Captain requested authorization to access the ports of four nearby countries, Qatar, Saudi
Arabia, Bahrain and Iran. All four refused.

The tanker finally received permission from Saudi Arabia to anchor in its waters on the 1st April.
Cargo transfer operations then began, finishing up on the 29th April.

On the 30th July 2012, once all the hazardous substances had been removed, Bahrain permitted
the vessel to be towed to one of its ports to be scrapped.

This incident illustrates the difficulty for ship owners in finding a place of refuge when a vessel is
in difficulty.

Collapsing of crew in Tanks

Crew Accident on Chemical Tanker

On 6 May 2009 the chief officer and an AB on board the chemical tanker,  ZZZ were overcome
by gas as they entered an area of the main deck which contained released cargo vapors. They
were rescued and taken to hospital, where they made a full recovery.

ZZZ loaded a cargo of MARPOL Category “X” Crude Sulfate Turpentine (CST) in Savannah, USA.
Arrangements were made for a Ship to Ship (StS) transfer with a chemical tanker while
alongside the Vopak Terminal at Teesside.

Following the StS transfer, ZZZ carried out a mandatory MARPOL prewash using portable
washing equipment because the majority of the fixed washing systems were defective. The
washing machine water supply hose was passed through a cargo tank inboard Butterworth
hatch, which remained open. As the cargo tank was washed, water mist containing cargo
vapors escaped through the open hatch as the tank’s atmosphere was agitated. The
vapors accumulated around the Butterworth hatch in what was an unidentified enclosed space.

The on watch AB entered the area to isolate the cargo pump hydraulic motor valves. He was
immediately overcome by gas and lost consciousness. The chief officer and another AB
attempted to rescue the unconscious AB. Neither was wearing breathing apparatus. The chief
officer was rapidly overcome by gas. The AB also suffered the effects of vapor inhalation/oxygen
depletion, but managed to escape unaided.

There were two Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) in circulation for the CST. The cargo specific
MSDS held by ZZZ identified hydrogen sulfide (H2S) as a constituent part. The other MSDS
passed to the terminal staff and to the other vessel did not.

The CST cargo hazards were not recognized by the chief officer of ZZZ because proper reference
was not made to the MSDS and the crew were not informed because a Teesside pre-arrival
conference was not carried out. This contributed to inadequate risk control measures being
established.

Some areas on the deck of ZZZ fell into the category of enclosed spaces as defined by the
International Maritime Organization (IMO). This was not recognized by the crew, so the
appropriate safety precautions were not taken. There was also a complacent attitude regarding
the need for respiratory protection during cargo operations. The requirement was not enforced
and this put the crew at risk.

ZZZ Tankers has established a range of measures to address its organisational shortcomings.
These include instructions for management of unfamiliar cargoes, including those containing H 2S,
surveying the deck to identify and label areas falling into the enclosed space category, the use of
personal gas detectors and repair of the fixed tank washing systems.

A number of recommendations have also been made to ZZZ Tankers. These include actions to
ensure pre-arrival conferences are carried out which identify the cargo risks and safety
measures required, for the diligent completion of cargo operation checklists, and for enforcing
the use of respiratory protection in accordance with the ship’s Quality Management System
(QMS).

Other Case Studies

We complete this topic by discussing some cases of victimization of the seafarers and the
shipping industry as a whole, against an unfair and unilateral justice system that prevails in
different parts of the world. This reading will consolidate your understanding of what can
happen, even when you, as a seafarer has been totally professional in handling your shipboard
job efficiently. A spill appears to invite an unfair legal challenge to the seafarer, for which he has
little experience.

(1)  Prestige: a case of incorrect port state action

The Prestige  was a conventional pre-MARPOL persistent oil tanker entered by her Owners with
the Club continuously from 1988 to her loss in the Bay of Biscay in 2002. The ship was classed
from build with ABS and had the approval of one oil major.

In November 2002 the Prestige  was carrying a cargo of 77,000 mts of heavy fuel oil from St
Petersburg to the Far East. While crossing the Bay of Biscay in adverse conditions the ship
developed a sudden list to starboard as water entered the mid-ship starboard ballast tanks
following an assumed side shell failure. Pollution was minimal in the initial stages of the incident.
Refuge was requested from Spain but denied. Instead the vessel was required to be driven
unsympathetically out to sea where, six days (and two storms) later she sank together with the
then remaining cargo. Pollution regrettably affected much of the northern coast of Spain and the
Southern Atlantic coast of France.

On the orders of the government, Prestige was towed around for six days, laden with fuel, to try
to distance it from the Galician coast.

Assessment of pollution claims

Spain and France are parties to the CLC and Fund Conventions. Joint claims handling offices
were established with the Fund in Spain and France. The Owners’ CLC limit of US$26.7m was
lodged in cash with the Court in Spain in June 2003. The Fund provides supplementary
compensation of about US$144m. Claims for pollution damage were presented for about
US$2.3bn and assessed by the Fund experts at about EUR350m.

The Spanish Proceedings

The Public Prosecutor commenced criminal proceedings against the senior crew members and a
representative of the state (in respect of the denial of refuge), on grounds of alleged
disobedience and for serious pollution damage. As a consequence of this, the civil claims arising
attached to the criminal action. After an exhaustive nine-month trial all of the defendants were
acquitted of causing the pollution. It was determined that whatever weakness in the ship existed
could not be identified and therefore was not known. As a consequence there was no civil
liability finding.

A number of parties, including the Public Prosecutor, appealed on points of law. Following a one
day hearing the Spanish Supreme Court (Criminal Division) reversed the acquittal of the Master
on grounds he must have known it was reckless to perform the intended voyage. The Owners
were found vicariously liable for the Master’s negligence. The CLC Convention, under which the
Insurer Club benefits from the CLC limit irrespective of the alleged conduct of the Owners, was
said to be applied. However, the Court also held that under Spanish criminal law, the Club was
directly liable for the Owners recklessness up to the policy limit of US$1bn.

The case was referred back to the trial court to determine the quantum of the recoverable
claims. In the meantime, the Master is pursuing an appeal to the European Court of Human
Rights on the basis that his conviction was unfair.

Quantum proceedings

The trial court has just issued its judgment on the quantum aspects of the case.   The various
claims have been assessed at around EUR1.66bn which is materially greater than the Fund
experts’ assessments noted above and is therefore disappointing. This includes about EUR1.63bn
assessed in respect of the Spanish and French States and about EUR25m for the non-State
claimants.The Club’s liability limit of US$1bn is reiterated; as a Member of the International
Group, the Club benefits from the reinsurance purchased collectively which extends to US$1bn
for pollution claims.

Next steps

Judgments obtained and legal proceedings on foot in other jurisdictions will be of relevance.

These include:
  A contested judgement already obtained by the Club from the English Court of Appeal
against Spain and France. This recognizes that the Club has no direct liability to the States
claims other than permitted by the CLC Convention.  This judgment is irreconcilable with
the Spanish judgments and should provide a basis to resist enforcement;

 The Master’s action before the European Court of Human Rights. This is relevant because
enforcement of a judgement obtained unfairly would be contrary to public policy. The
extremely superficial nature of the Supreme Court hearing being an example of an unfair
process.

At the same time, the Club together with its IG partners and other interested parties will
continue to give close attention to the wider implications of the judgement. We are concerned at
the direction taken by the Spanish Court including its by-passing of an established international
Convention. This development underscores the importance of initiatives including but not limited
to the adoption of concerted action by ship-owners, insurers, the IMO and IOPC Funds to
encourage states not only to sign up to the International Convention regimes, but also to respect
and to apply these correctly and consistently; in a way the recent judgments in
the Prestige have failed to do.

(2) MT Hebei Spirit: a case of excellent seafarer skills and misjudgment by Korean

Court

While at anchor in Daesan Harbor, South Korea early in the morning of December 7, 2007 the
VLCC Hebei Spirit under the command of Captain Jasprit Chawla was struck by a runaway crane
barge. The barge was floating free after it broke away from its tug in rough seas. The collision
punctured three tanks on the Hebei Spirit causing the largest oil spill in South Korean history.
The spill occurred near one of South Korea’s most beautiful beaches and affected wetland areas,
wildlife, and aquaculture farms. Although credited with taking actions that limited some of the
damages, Captain Chawla and Chief Officer Syam Chetan were criminally prosecuted by South
Korean prosecutors. While 10,500 tonnes of oil escaped the Hebei Spirit, it should never be
forgotten that there were over 260,000 tonnes of oil aboard which could have been lost into
Korean waters, if not for the actions of the Captain and crew in keeping the ship afloat and
minimizing the oil spilled.
Once the 140 metre high floating crane had finished bouncing along the hull of the Hebei Spirit
(which took around 25 minutes) the crew commenced transferring oil from the damaged tanks.
As well, collision mats were rigged over the damaged tanks and ballast was pumped to the
starboard ballast tanks so the vessel would list to starboard, lowering the oil level in the
damaged tanks. These remedial actions appeared to have reduced a certain amount of oil
spillage and have fully complied with the provisions as laid down in the shipboard oil pollution
emergency plan.

Captain Jasprit Chawla and Chief Officer Chetan Syam, were finally permitted to return home to

India on June 11th, 2009 after more than one and a half year of waiting for a ‘final’ verdict as to
whether or not Korean authorities consider them guilty of not preventing the Taean oil spill of
2007. The case has been dismissed, so even as they return home Korean authorities are not
letting them go free with complete absolution. It is regrettable that Korean authorities could not
see it in their hearts or consciences to let the matter end with a suitably definite resolution of a
‘Not Guilty’ verdict, a pardon and an apology for wasting 18 months of the lives of two good
people and their families.

(3) Cosco Busan: A case of a Pilot Error and Negligence

The 901-foot container ship Cosco Busan hit the second tower of the bridge west of Yerba Buena
Island in a heavy fog the morning of Nov. 7, 2007.

The pilot for the container ship, the Cosco Busan, was blamed for a crash into a tower of the Bay
Bridge in November 2007. The crash caused the ship to spill close to 60,000 gallons of heavy
bunker fuel into the bay, according to the University of California, making it one of the worst
spills in the bay in recent history. Fuel spilled from the ship was reported to have poured over 69
miles of coastline, causing fisheries to close and killing more than 6,800 birds, the Mercury News
reported.
The pilot, John Cota, pleaded guilty in March to two misdemeanor charges of operating the
vessel negligently, polluting the waters and killing birds. His plea agreement calls for a prison
sentence of two to 10 months and a fine between $3,000 and $30,000.

The National Transportation Safety Board issued a report saying one cause of the accident was
Cota's use of prescription drugs that impaired his thinking. The board also said the ship's
captain, Mao Cai Sun, had failed to prepare a navigation plan with Cota and had supervised him
inadequately as the ship went off course.

In addition, the board said, Fleet Management had barely trained its brand-new crew on safety.
The company's proposed guilty plea said Sun had acted negligently by failing to review Cota's
intended route, which would have allowed him to recognize and overrule flawed commands.
Fleet Management has also been charged with six felonies for allegedly concealing its navigation
plans for the Cosco Busan and fabricating documents after the spill to interfere with the
investigation.

Capt. John Cota pleaded guilty to water-pollution violations and served 10 months in prison after
investigators concluded he was traveling too fast in heavy fog, was impaired by prescription
drugs and ignored safety precautions while working as the ship’s pilot during the Nov. 7, 2007,
crash. The bunker fuel that poured from the ship’s hull oiled 69 miles of shore, closed fisheries
and killed more than 6,800 birds.

Shortly after the accident, the state Board of Pilot Commissioners began steps to revoke Cota’s
pilot’s license. Instead, he voluntarily retired as a pilot on Oct. 1, 2008, and now draws a
pension of $228,864 a year. But Cota’s other key sailing credential — his merchant marine
license, issued by the Coast Guard — remained valid until it expired in 2010. When Cota
attempted to renew it, Coast Guard officials refused.