Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Transformer
Guide
1
Index
I. General Page
A. Application ................................................................................ 4
B. Physical Description ................................................................. 4
C. Protection and Accessories ...................................................... 11
II. Performance
A. Designation of Winding Voltage Ratings ................................. 17
B. Polarity ...................................................................................... 20
C. Terminal Designations .............................................................. 21
D. Short Circuit Ratings ................................................................ 22
E. Sound Level Ratings ................................................................ 22
F. Tolerance Definitions ................................................................ 23
G. Impedance Calculations ........................................................... 23
H. Efficiency Calculations ............................................................. 24
I. Regulation Calculations ........................................................... 24
J. Performance Example .............................................................. 26
K. Secondary Fault Current—120/240 Volt Systems ................... 27
IV. Loading
A. Paralleling ................................................................................. 51
B. Delta-Delta Bank Loading ........................................................ 51
C. Overloading .............................................................................. 52
D. Single-Phase and Three-Phase Loading of Symmetrical and
Unsymmetrical Transformer Banks .......................................... 53
E. Dedicated Motor Loads ............................................................ 66
V. Voltage Unbalance
A. Effects of Voltage Unbalance ................................................... 71
B. Voltage Unbalance Definitions ................................................. 71
C. Causes of Voltage Unbalance ................................................. 73
D. Voltage Unbalance With Three-Phase Loading ...................... 73
1. Delta-Delta and Floating Wye-Delta Banks ........................ 74
2. Open-Delta Banks ............................................................... 75
2
I. General Page
A. Application ................................................................................ 4
B. Physical Description ................................................................. 4
1. Pole Mounted ...................................................................... 4
2. Pad Mounted ....................................................................... 6
C. Protection and Accessories ...................................................... 11
1. General ................................................................................ 11
2. Types of Accessories and Transformer Protection
Packages — Pole Mounted ................................................ 11
3. Types of Accessories and Protection — Pad Mounted ...... 13
3
I. General
A. Application
ABB single-phase and three-phase, oil-filled, pole- and pad-
mounted distribution transformers are specifically designed for
servicing residential distribution loads; they are also suitable for
light commercial loads, and industrial lighting and diversified power
applications.
B. Physical Description
1. Pole Mounted
• Meets Industry Standard ANSI C57.12.20
• 0.5 - 1000kVA
• 65° C temperature rise
• Insulation levels:
Rated Insulation Basic Impulse
Voltage Ranges Class Level (kV)
480- 600 1.2 30
2160- 2400 5.0 60
4160- 4800 8.7 75
7200-12470 1 15.0 95
13200-14400 18.0 125
19920-22900 2 25.0 150
-34400 34.5 200
1 Optional 125 kV BIL 12000 volts available
2 Optional 125 kV BIL 19920 volts available
4
Type CSP Type S
kVA High Low
Voltage Voltage
Pole Mounted (Single-Phase)
0.5 2400 through 120/240
1.5 34,400 volts 240/480
3
5
10
15
25
371/2
50
75
100
167
250
333
500
667
750
833
1000
6
ABB single-phase padmounted Distribution Transformers meet the
following Industry Standards:
ANSI C57.12.00 - IEEE Standard General Requirements for Liquid
Immersed…Transformers
ANSI C57.12.25 - Pad-Mounted…Single-Phase Distribution
Transformers with Separable Insulated
High-Voltage Connectors…
ANSI C57.12.28 - Pad-Mounted Equipment - Enclosure Integrity
or
ANSI C57.12.29 - …Pad-Mounted Equipment - Enclosure Integrity
for Coastal Environments
ANSI C57.12.70 - …Terminal Markings and Connections
ANSI C57.12.80 - IEEE Standard Terminology…
ANSI C57.12.90 - IEEE Standard Test Code…
NEMA Tr-1 - Transformer Standards
IEEE 386 - …Separable Insulated Connectors
ABB recommends the use of ANSI C57.91 - IEEE Guide for Loading…for
the establishment of proper distribution transformer loading practices.
Ratings @65° Rise
kVA: 10,25,371/2, 50, 75, 100, 167, 250 1
HV: 4160GY/2400 through 34500GY/19920V 3
BIL: 60, 75, 95, 125, 150 kV
LV: 240/120, 480/240, 277 V, 120/240 3, 240/480 2
1 Maxi only
2 Available only on micros with cable lead secondary
3 Mini and Maxi only (micros available thru 24940GY/14400)
Standard Features:
1. Equipped with two universal high voltage bushing wells for loop
feed. (Only one bushing well is provided for radial feed.)
2. A removable flip-top hood and heavy-duty 3/8 '', stainless steel hinge
pins provide safe and durable service.
3. A recessed locking assembly with padlock provisions and a
pentahead locking bolt is standard for tamper resistant operation.
A hex-head locking bolt is available.
4. All tanks are constructed of heavy gauge steel. Tank seams are
welded and each unit is pressure tested and inspected for leaks
prior to shipment. In addition, all single phase transformers are sup-
plied with:
a. / ''-11 stainless steel lifting bosses
5 8
7
Minimum/Maximum Design Dimensions 1
Optional Accessories
1. Overcurrent Protection
a. An internal primary protective
link to remove the transformer
from the system in the event of
an internal fault.
b. A secondary breaker provides
protection against secondary
overloads and short circuits.
Dimensions are in Inches c. An oil-immersed bayonet-type
fuse link to remove the trans-
former from the system in case
of an internal fault (fault sensing)
or secondary short overload
(overload sensing). This fuse is
a drawout design and is supplied
in series with an isolation link. A
drip plate is provided to prevent
oil from dripping onto the bush-
ing or elbow.
d. A current limiting fuse mounted
in a dry well loadbreak canister.2
• The high interrupting rating of
the CL fuse permits its use on
systems where the available
fault current exceeds the rat-
ing of normal expulsion fuses.
“C”+6
e. A partial range current limiting
CABLE OPENING fuse mounted under oil within
the transformer tank.2
5.0 • An expulsion fuse is supplied
5.0 in series with the partial range
“B”+6 CL fuse.
Recommended Pad • Available at 95, 125, and 150
Dimensions kV BIL.
2. Switching
a. Externally operated tap changer.
b. Externally operated dual voltage
switch.2
c. Externally operated loadbreak
oil rotary (LBOR) switch.2
d. EFD CL fused air loadbreak
switch available for either radial
or loop feed.3
8
3. Primary Connection
a. Universal bushing wells (stan-
dard) and loadbreak inserts.
b. Integral (one piece) loadbreak
bushings.
4. Secondary Connections
a. Copper studs with rotatable
spade type bushings.
• Four-hole, NEMA type, tin-
plated copper alloy spade.
• Four-hole, in line, tin-plated
copper alloy spade.
b. Cable lead secondary. 4
5. Corrosion Resistance
a. ANSI C57.12.29 Full 400 Series
Stainless Steel
b. Partial Stainless Steel
• Mini-Skirt™ and Sill
• Sill Only
• Sill and Hood
• Mini-Skirt™, Sill, and Hood
6. Miscellaneous
a. Cleats for anchoring sill to pad.
b. Polypad mounting base. 4
4 Micro only
9
The ABB MTR is an oil-filled, three
phase, commercial padmounted distribu-
tion transformer specifically designed for
servicing such underground distribution
loads as shopping centers, schools,
institutions and industrial plants. It is
available both live front and dead front
construction, for radial or loop feed
applications, or without taps.
Industry Standards
ABB three-phase MTR units meet the
following industry standards:
The ABB MTR Padmounted ANSI C57.12.00 - IEEE Standard General
Transformer Three-Phase Requirements for Liquid Immersed…
45-2500 kVA Transformers
ANSI C57.12.22 - Pad-Mounted…
Three-Phase Distribution Transformers
with High Voltage Bushings
ANSI C57.12.26 - Pad-Mounted…Three-
Phase Distribution Transformers…
With Separable Insulated High-Voltage
Connectors
ANSI C57.12.28 - …Pad-Mounted Equipment
- Enclosure Integrity
or
ANSI C57.12.29 - …Pad-Mounted
Equipment - Enclosure Integrity
for Coastal Environments
ANSI C57.12.70 - Terminal Markings
and Connections…
ANSI C57.12.80 - IEEE Standard
Terminology…
ANSI C57.12.90 - IEEE Standard Test
Code…
NEMA Tr-1 - Transformer Standards
IEEE 386 - Separable Insulated
Connectors
ABB Recommends the use of ANSI C57.91
- IEEE Guide for Loading…for the estab-
lishment of proper distribution transformer
loading practices.
Ratings
• 45 through 2500 kVA
• 65°C average winding rise over 30°C
average ambient.
• Low voltages: 1 208Y/120, 216Y/125,
460Y/265, 480Y/277, 480d, 240d and
240d with 120 volt mid-tap in one phase.
• High voltages: 4160 Grd Y/2400
through 34,500 Grd Y/19,920 for
Grounded Wye systems; 2400 through
34,500 for Delta systems; various dual
high voltages.
• Taps: All voltages are available with or
without taps.
• Insulation classes: 35 kV (200 kV BIL)
and below.
1 208Y/120, 216Y/125, 240d not avail-
able above 1500kVA.
10
C. Protection and Accessories
1. General
11
Types of Accessories and Transformer Protection Packages—
Pole Mounted (Continued)
a. CL Fuses
Two basic types of current limiting fuses exist—partial
range and general purpose (full range). The partial range
fuse requires a protective link applied in series while the
general purpose fuse does not. The partial range fuse is
available on pole-type transformers (bushing mounted)
and padmounted transformers (internally mounted). The
general purpose fuse is only available on padmounted
transformers.
12
c. The Secondary Circuit Breaker provides the transformer
with a degree of protection from secondary overloads and
short circuits. It is mounted under oil, usually on the core/
coil assembly, connected between the coil’s secondary
leads and the secondary bushings. The breaker is cali-
brated to trip when its bimetal reaches a predetermined
temperature. An additional instantaneous magnetic trip
element which responds to high fault currents is available
on some breakers.
Standard Ratings:
Voltage Interrupting L.B. Amps
Class Amps (RMS) At .8 PF
8.3 kV 3800 135
15.5 kV 2000 135
23.0 kV 600 45
Bayonet-Type Fuse
13
c. Current Limiting Fuses are available through 15 kV in
either the EFD air loadbreak switch or in a drawout,
loadbreak dry fuse well.
14
EFD Switch Ratings
Continuous current ................ 200 A
Loadbreak ............................. 200 A
Close-in ................................. 5,000 A
Momentary ............................ 10,000 A
LBOR Ratings:
BIL 95 kV 125 kV 150 kV
Maximum Voltage
(L-L) 15.5 kV 27 kV 38 kV
(L-Grd) 8.9 kV 15.5 kV 21.9 kV
Continuous and
Interrupting Current 300 A 1 200 A 300 A
Momentary and
Making Current 12 kA/ 12 kA/ 10 kA/
(RMS Sym./Assym.) 19.2 kA 19.2 kA 16 kA
1 200 A 3c rating also available.
LBOR Switch
Tap Changer
Operating Handle
15
II. Performance Page
16
II. Performance
A. Designation of Winding Voltage Ratings
(from ANSI C57.12.00)
1. Single-Phase
Symbol Example Typical Diagram
E 12000
E/E1 Y 2400/4160Y
E 1 GrdY/E 12 470GrdY/7200
E/2E 120/240
2E/E 240/120
Usage 2E/E shall indicate a winding for 2E volts, two-wire full kVA
between extreme terminals, or for 2E/E volts three-wire service with
1
/2 kVA available only, from midpoint to each extreme terminal.
V x V1 240 x 480
Notes:
(1) E = line-to-neutral voltage of a “Y” winding, or line-to-line voltage of a delta
winding.
(2) E 1 = CF3F E
17
2. Three-Phase
Symbol Example Typical Diagram
E 2400
E1Y 4160Y
E1Y/E 4160Y/2400
E/E1Y 2400/4160Y
E/E1Y/E 2400/4160Y/2400
E1 GrdY/E 12470GrdY/7200
Notes:
(1) E = line-to-neutral voltage of a “Y” winding, or line-to-line voltage of a delta
winding.
(2) E1 = CF3F E
18
2. Three-Phase (continued)
Symbol Example Typical Diagram
V x V1 7200 x 14 400
Notes:
(1) E = line-to-neutral voltage of a “Y” winding, or line-to-line voltage of a delta
winding.
(2) E1 = CF3F E
19
B. Polarity
The lead polarity (or polarity) of a transformer is a designation of
the relative instantaneous directions of currents in its leads. Primary
and secondary leads are said to have the same polarity when at a
given instant the current enters the primary lead in question and
leaves the secondary lead in question in the same direction as
though the two leads formed a continuous circuit. The lead polar-
ity of a single-phase transformer may be either additive or
subtractive. If one pair of adjacent leads from the two windings in
question is connected together and a small voltage is applied to
one of the windings, then the connection behaves as an auto trans-
former with the secondary voltage adding to or subtracting from
the primary voltage. The polarity determination is as follows:
a. The lead polarity is additive if the voltage across the other two
leads of the windings in question is greater than that of the
higher voltage winding alone.
Additive
E3 > E1
Subtrative
E3 < E1
20
C. Terminal Designations
1. Pad Mounted
The terminal designations for pad-mounted distribution trans-
formers are clearly marked at the terminals of both the high
and low voltage.
2. Pole Mounted
For pole mounted distribution transformers, the terminal
designations follows:
E/2E
with three
external
low-voltage
terminals
Series or
Three-Wire
Parallel
E/2E
with four
external
low-voltage
terminals
Series or
Three-Wire
Parallel
Note:
The H1 terminal for either additive or subtractive polarity is located on the left-
hand side when facing the low-voltage terminals.
21
Terminal Designations (Continued)
Neutral terminals (HV and/or LV) will exist as required by the winding
connection and will be noted on the transformer nameplate.
2. Losses
No Load Total
No. of Units Basis of Losses Losses
On One Order Determination (Percent) (Percent)
1 1 unit 10 6
2 or more each unit 10 6
2 or more average of 0 0
all units
G. Impedance Calculations
Transformer impedance is shown on the transformer nameplate
(Note: transformer impedance, reactance and resistance are typi-
cally given in percent or per unit). If the transformer load losses
are known, the impedance may be separated into its reactive and
resistive components.
Z - impedance (percent)
R - resistance (percent)
X - reactance (percent)
kVA - transformer kVA rating
Cu - load loss at rated load at 85°C (watts)
Cu
R=
10 kVA
X = CFF
Z2FFFF
– R2
23
H. Efficiency Calculations
The efficiency of a transformer is defined as the ratio of the output
power to the input power. It can be calculated at any load and
power factor if the transformer losses are known.
E - efficiency (percent)
L - load (per unit)
kVA - transformer kVA rating
Cu - load loss at rated load at 85°C (watts)
Fe - no load (excitation) loss (watts)
a - power factor angle
L.kVA.cosa.10 5
E= percent
(L.kVA.cosa.10 3) + Fe + L2.Cu
L (maximum efficiency) =
R - resistance(percent)
X - reactance (percent)
REG- percent voltage regulation
a - power factor angle (positive for inductive load)
24
Regulation Chart
25
J. Performance Example
Example Transformer Ratings (Typical)
Single-phase kVA 25
High voltage 7200v
Low voltage 120/240v
No load (excitation) loss 104 watts
Total loss at rated load 419 watts
Impedance 1.6%
2. Minimum Impedance
Minimum Z = (1 – 0.10) . (Nominal Z)
= 1.44%
L= 0.5
L . kVA . cosa . 105
E=
L kVA . cosa . 10 3 + Fe + L2 Cu
.
5. Expected Regulation
REG = [R2 + X2 + 200. (X.sina + R. cosa) + 10,000] /2 – 100
1
= 1.596
26
K. Secondary Fault Currents — 120/240 Volt Systems
Service to individual residences in the United States most always is
single-phase three-wire operating at 120 volts from phase-to-neutral,
and 240 volts from phase-to-phase. In order to select service
entrance equipment with adequate interrupting rating, or to coor-
dinate over-current protective devices in the transformer-secondary
systems, the available currents for a bolted fault (short circuit)
must be known. This section presents equations and data which
can be used to calculate the available currents for both phase-to-
phase (240 volt) and phase-to-neutral (120 volt) faults. The
equations for calculating these currents are quite simple and can
be easily evaluated with a handheld pocket calculator
Figure K.1
27
The impedance of the primary system supplying the distribution
transformer is very small in comparison to that of the distribution trans-
former and secondary circuit up to the point of fault. The effect of this
assumption is to make the calculated values of current for a bolted
fault in the secondary system slightly higher than those which result
when the effect of primary impedance is included. Increasing the
“stiffness” of the primary system, reducing the kVA size of the trans-
former, or increasing the secondary circuit length to the fault point
reduces the difference between the approximate and more exact cal-
culated values of bolted fault current. In contrast, the difference between
the approximate and more exact values will be greater for “weak” primary
systems, large distribution transformers, and short secondary circuits.
For most cases where the calculations are made to determine avail-
able fault current at the service entrance for sizing equipment, or to
determine maximum currents at which overcurrent protective devices
must coordinate, the difference resulting from the assumption is negli-
gible. However, for those cases where the calculated current using
methods neglecting primary impedance is slightly higher than the
interrupting rating of a fuse or breaker in the secondary system, or
where the calculated current is slightly above the value at which
overcurrent protective device coordination can be achieved, then
including the effect of primary system impedance may show that a
“problem” does not exist. Calculations including the effects of primary
system impedance are not contained in this guide.
Reference to Figure K.1 shows that the expressions for calculating the
available current for the 240 volt and 120 volt bolted faults are different.
While the 240 volt fault current can be calculated from a knowledge of
the “full winding” impedance of the transformer, the calculation of the
120 volt fault current requires a knowledge of the transformer “half
winding” impedance. As the relationship between transformer “half
winding” and “full winding” impedance is not fixed and can vary from
design to design, the most typical relationship for present day designs
was used in arriving at the equation for 120 volt fault current. Letting
RT + jXT be the “full winding” impedance in percent on nameplate kVA
rating looking into the primary winding, the “half winding” impedance in
percent on nameplate kVA can be approximated by 1.5 R T + j2.0 XT.
Also notice from Figure K.1 that the equations do not include the effect
of any metering impedances which may be present in the circuit, or
any “fault” impedance. Including these impedances will further reduce
the calculated values of fault current.
28
The steps to follow when using the equations in Figure K.1 to calculate
the bolted fault currents are as follows:
5. Calculate the available current for a 240 volt bolted fault (I 240) using
the equation in Figure K.1 and the values calculated in steps
1 through 4.
7. Calculate the available current for a 120 volt bolted fault (I 120) using
the equation in Figure K.1 and the values calculated in steps 1
through 3 and step 6.
29
Example Calculations
The use of the equations in Figure K.1 is illustrated with the following:
A 50 kVA transformer with total losses at full load of 759 watts, and no
load losses of 204 watts has an impedance of 1.75 percent. A service
entrance circuit which is 80 feet in length using 3/0 aluminum triplex
with reduced neutral is connected directly to the transformer terminals.
What is the available current for both a 240 and 120 volt bolted fault at
the end of the service? From the statement of the problem:
759 – 204
1. R T = 0.0576 = 0.012787 ohms
502
1.75
2. Z T = 0.576 = 0.02016 ohms
50
3. X T = CFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFF
.020162 – .0127872 = 0.015586 ohms
7. Placing the above values into the equation for I 120 in Figure K.1
gives:
I120 = 4071.1 amperes rms symmetrical
For this example notice that at a distance of 80 feet from the trans-
former, the available current for the 120 volt bolted fault is considerably
less than that for a 240 volt fault. However, from the equation for I 240
and I120 in Figure K.1, notice that for a fault at the transformer second-
ary terminals (L = 0.0 feet), the available current for a bolted 120 volt
fault is greater than that for a 240 volt fault. Thus at some distance L
from the transformer, I 240 and I 120 would be equal, and at distances
greater than this, the available current for a 240 volt fault will be higher.
30
Figure K.2 is a plot of the available current for both the 120 and 240
volt bolted faults vs. the distance from the transformer terminals to the
fault point in feet. The curves are for transformer sizes of 50, 75, and
100 kVA supplying a secondary circuit made with 3/0 aluminum triplex
with reduced neutral. From these curves notice that:
Figure K.2
(a) The available current for both the 120 and 240 volt faults is
rapidly reduced as the fault is moved away from the transformer,
even for the rather large 3/0 aluminum service conductor.
(b) With the 3/0 aluminum service conductor, the available current
for a 120 volt fault is less than that of a 240 volt fault at distances
greater than about 10 feet from the 50, 75, or 100 kVA trans-
former. For most all single-phase services rated 200 amperes
or less, the available current at the service entrance for the 120
volt fault is less than that of the 240 volt fault.
(c) As the distance from the transformer to the fault location be-
comes large, the available current for both the 120 and 240 volt
faults becomes independent of the transformer size, especially
for the 120 volt fault.
31
Table 1. Typical Impedances for 120/240 Volt Circuits With Triplex Cable Notes:
32
(1) Resistance values based on a conductor temperature
Aluminum Phase Cond.
___________________ Aluminum Neutral Cond.
____________________ 120 Volt Faults
____________ 240 Volt Faults
____________ of 25°C.
Size No. of Size No. of RS1 XS1 RS XS (2) Reactance based on following:
(AWG or MCM) Strands
___________ ______ (AWG or MCM) Strands
___________ ______ (j/1000
________Ft.) (j/1000
________Ft.) (j/1000
________Ft.) (j/1000 Ft.)
________ (a) 600 volt insulation with all 3 insulated conductors in
2 7 4 7 .691 .0652 .534 .0633 contact.
1 19 3 7 .547 .0659 .424 .0659 (b) For 120 volt (Phase-to-Neutral Fault), all current
returns in the neutral conductor with no current
1/0 19 2 7 .435 .0628 .335 .0616
returning in the earth.
2/0 19 1 19 .345 .0629 .266 .0596
(3) Insulation thickness is 0.062 inch for #4 to #2, 0.078
3/0 19 1/0 19 .273 .0604 .211 .0589
inch for #1 to 4/0, and .094 inch for 250 to 500 MCM.
4/0 19 2/0 19 .217 .0588 .167 .0576
(4) For secondary circuits with full size neutral, use resis-
250 37 3/0 19 .177 .0583 .142 .0574 tance and reactance values given for 240 volt fault for
350 37 4/0 19 .134 .0570 .102 .0558 both 120 and 240 volt faults.
500 37 300 37 .095 .0547 .072 .0530
Table 2. Typical Impedances for 120/240 Volt Circuits With Rack Mounted Conductors Notes:
(1) Resistance values based on a conductor temperature
Aluminum Phase Cond.
___________________ Aluminum Neutral Cond.
____________________ 120 Volt Faults
____________ 240 Volt Faults
____________ of 25°C.
Size No. of Size No. of RS1 XS1 RS XS (2) Reactance values based on secondary rack with 12 inch
(AWG or MCM) Strands
___________ ______ (AWG or MCM) Strands
___________ ______ (j/1000
________Ft.) (j/1000
________Ft.) (j/1000
________Ft.) (j/1000 Ft.)
________ spacing between conductors with neutral in top posi-
2 7 4 7 .691 .223 .534 .217 tion and phase conductors in the two lower positions.
1 19 3 7 .547 .217 .424 .212 Resistance and reactance values given for 120 volt fault
assume fault is to phase conductor in middle position
1/0 19 2 7 .435 .211 .335 .204
in rack.
2/0 19 1 19 .345 .205 .266 .199
(3) For secondary circuits with full size neutral, use resis-
3/0 19 1/0 19 .273 .199 .211 .193
tance and reactance values given for 240 volt fault for
4/0 19 2/0 19 .217 .193 .167 .188
both 120 and 240 volt faults.
250 37 3/0 19 .177 .189 .142 .184
350 37 4/0 19 .134 .182 .102 .176
500 37 300 37 .095 .174 .072 .168
III. Three-Phase Transformers
and Banks Page
33
III. Three-Phase Transformers and Banks
This section presents many important factors to be considered when
selecting the connections used for both three phase transformers and
three-phase banks of the single-phase transformers applied in three-
phase distribution systems. A summary of commonly encountered
connections is provided. In addition, connection diagrams using single-
phase transformers for three-phase banks are shown.
34
with a center tap ground on one leg of the delta. In the
4-wire grounded (wye) system, the transformer second-
ary windings must have a neutral point which can be
grounded. The 4-wire grounded secondary service can
be supplied by either the wye connection or the T con-
nection with the neutral point grounded.
2. Angular Displacement (Phase Shift)
For standard three-phase connections the phase-to-neutral
voltage on the primary side either leads that on the secondary
side by 30° or is in phase with the phase-to-neutral voltage on
the secondary side. The delta delta and wye wye connections
produce no phase shift. The delta wye and wye delta connec-
tions produce the 30° phase shift. The T-T transformer can be
designed to exhibit either a 30° or a 0° phase shift.
When paralleling three-phase transformers or banks, the phase
shift of each must be the same. In addition, the 30° phase shift
has an effect on the coordination of overcurrent protective devices
located on the primary and secondary sides of the transformer.
For unsymmetrical faults the line currents do not transform in
proportion to the voltage ratings. Of particular importance is a
line-to-line fault on the transformer secondary. For the connec-
tions which have a 30° phase shift, this fault produces a fault
current in one primary phase which is 1.15 times the secondary
fault current on a per unit basis. This additional 15% must be
considered to achieve selective coordination.
3. NeutraI Grounding
Some transformer connections or winding connections (wye
or T) have a neutral point on either the primary windings,
secondary windings, or both, which can be grounded. That is,
the neutral point of the primary windings can be connected to
the multi-grounded neutral conductor of the primary system,
or the neutral point of the secondary windings can be grounded
to establish a 4-wire grounded wye system. Whether the neutral
point of windings should or should not be grounded depends
on factors discussed below.
a. Primary Neutral Grounding
For the primary neutral point to be grounded, the primary
source must be a 4-wire multi-grounded neutral system.
In addition, it is generally undesirable that a distribution
bank act as a ground source for the primary system. To
prevent creation of a grounding bank, a primary wye
should only be grounded if the secondary is also con-
nected in wye and a T primary should never be grounded.
Note however that the open wye connection must be
grounded at the neutral point to function properly.
b. Secondary Neutral Grounding
To supply phase to neutral connected load on the sec-
ondary, a low impedance ground source must be
established. This can be achieved by grounding the neutral
of a secondary wye connection provided that the primary
is connected either delta or wye grounded supplied by a
4-wire multi-grounded neutral (effectively grounded)
source. The neutral of a secondary T connection may also
be grounded. In addition, a delta or open delta winding
may be grounded at any one point.
35
4. Ferroresonance
Ferroresonance is a non-linear resonance which can occur
during open conductor (single-phase) conditions in the distri-
bution system. When ferroresonance occurs, it is characterized
by high overvoltages whose waveform contains appreciable
harmonics. The transformers involved in the ferroresonant
circuit may emit unusual noises which frequently are described
as rattling, rumbling, or whining sounds. These are considerably
different than those which emanate from the transformer when
energized at rated frequency and voltage. Overvoltages of
five times normal and higher have been measured during
ferroresonant oscillations in test circuits. Some causes of open
conductor conditions which may result in ferroresonance are:
(1) the operation of single-pole overcurrent protective devices
such as fuses or single-pole reclosers, (2) normal switching
operations with single-pole devices such as distribution cut-
outs to energize or de-energize a transformer, and (3) failure
to connect jumpers.
Whether ferroresonance will occur during open conductor con-
ditions depends to a great extent upon the connections used for
the primary windings in a distribution transformer bank or in a
three-phase distribution transformer. Under normal conditions
where all three primary phases to the transformer bank are
energized through a continuous path from the source, ferro-
resonance will not occur for any of the connections used for the
primary windings. But when an open conductor condition occurs,
the non-linear inductance of a transformer or transformer bank,
with certain connections, can be placed in series with system
capacitance. If the capacitance lies within a specified range,
ferroresonance may result. However, with other transformer
connections, ferroresonance will not occur during open conduc-
tor conditions because the non-linear inductances cannot be
inserted in series with system capacitances.
37
(1) Application of only three-pole gang operated switches and
fault interrupters. This minimizes the possibility of having
single-phase conditions.
(2) Location of the single-pole switches and overcurrent pro-
tective devices only at the transformer terminals.
(3) Connection of resistive load to the secondary terminals
of the transformer during remote single-pole switching.
Although these measures can be very effective, many opera-
tors of underground systems consider them unacceptable for
either economical, operational, or technical reasons. Instead,
they prefer to use transformer connections which have either
a zero or very low probability of ferroresonance during open
conductor conditions at a location remote from the transformer.
38
the location of the open conductor and transformer bank with
grounded wye or open wye primary windings, and no other
load is connected to the line beyond the open point, ferro-
resonance can occur because of the phase-to-phase
capacitance of the open wire line. The probability of such con-
ditions existing, even in 25 and 35 kV rural distribution systems,
is very remote. Thus, for practical purposes, ferroresonance
will not occur when the grounded wye or open wye connec-
tions are used for the primary windings with single-phase units,
or a three-phase unit with triplex construction.
The probability of ferroresonance is zero when the switching
is performed at the terminals of transformer banks in over-
head systems with the grounded wye or open wye connected
primaries at all voltages as illustrated in Figure 4.2.
When the grounded wye-grounded wye or grounded wye-
floating wye connections are used in a transformer constructed
on a four- or five-legged core, overvoltages and ferroresonance
may occur during open conductor conditions at a remote point
when cable circuits are involved. Test data shows that crest
voltages as high as 2.35 per unit are possible, but usually they
are considerably less than this. In contrast, overvoltages of
5 per unit and higher are possible when the transformer has
the ungrounded primary winding connections. Furthermore, the
length of primary cable circuit which can be used with trans-
formers with four- or five-legged core and grounded-wye
primary is in the range of 50 times that possible when the
ungrounded primary connections are used when the voltage
on the open phase is limited to 1.25 per unit.
Although the use of triplex construction essentially eliminates
the possibility of ferroresonance in cable-fed three-phase trans-
formers with the grounded wye primary, such construction
generally makes the transformer larger, heavier, and more
costly than conventional four- or five-legged core units. Most
system operators, based on the good experience and perfor-
mance they have had with the grounded wye primaries on four-
and five-legged cores, have not been able to justify the added
cost for triplex construction.
If it is necessary to further minimize the possibility of ferro-
resonance when the grounded wye primary is used on a four-
or five-legged core, the measures listed below can be
employed:
(1) Application of only three-pole gang operated switches and
fault interrupters. This minimizes the possibility of having
single phase conditions.
(2) Location of single-pole switches and overcurrent protec-
tive devices only at the transformer terminals.
(3) Connection of resistive load to the secondary terminals
of the transformer during remote single-pole switching.
The preceding discussion of ferroresonance is both very brief
and very qualitative in content. As it may be necessary to quan-
tify certain aspects of ferroresonance, such as determining the
maximum length of cable circuit which can be used between a
switch and transformer if voltage is to be limited to a specified
value, the reader is referred to the many references which exist
on the subject. A few are listed below.
39
References
1. Schmid, R. L. “An Analysis and Results of Ferroresonance”. Trans-
mission and Distribution, pp. 114-117, Oct. 1969.
40
B. Summary of Common Connections
DELTA-DELTA Connection
Phasor
Diagram:
Service: Suitable for 3-wire service or for 4-wire service with a mid-
tap ground.
Notes:
1. With one unit out of service, a bank of single-phase units can be
reconnected as an open delta, open delta bank. With one of
three identical units out of service, the rating of the bank when
supplying only three-phase load is about 57.7 percent of the
bank rating when all three units are in service.
41
DELTA-WYE Connection
Phasor
Diagram:
Service: Suitable for 3-wire service or for 4-wire grounded service with
a XO grounded.
Notes:
1. With XO grounded, the bank acts as a ground source for the
secondary system.
42
WYE-DELTA Connection
Phasor
Diagram:
Service: Suitable for 3-wire service or for 4-wire delta service with a
mid-tap ground.
Notes:
1. Neutral point of primary windings with unbalanced and/or single-
phase secondary load is locked at ground potential if each unit
in bank has same impedance. Even with different units in the
bank, neutral point of primary windings is essentially locked at
ground potential.
43
WYE-WYE Connection
Phasor
Diagram:
Notes:
1. This connection is incapable of furnishing a stabilized neutral
and its use may result in phase-to-neutral overvoltage (neutral
shift) as a result of unbalanced phase-to-neutral load.
44
GROUNDED WYE-WYE Connection
Phasor
Diagram:
Service: Suitable for 3-wire service or for 4-wire grounded service with
XO grounded.
Notes:
1. Three-phase transformers with this connection may experience
stray flux tank heating during certain external system unbalances
unless the core configuration utilized provides a return path for
the flux.
3. Ground relay for the primary system may see load unbalances
and ground faults in the secondary system. This must be con-
sidered when coordinating overcurrent protective devices.
T-T Connection
Phasor
Diagram:
Notes:
1. Because of winding voltages required, this connection is gener-
ally only available as a three-phase transformer.
45
T-T Connection
Phasor
Diagram:
46
6. When primary terminals H1 and H2 are supplied from the same
system phase, the open circuit phase to phase voltage from
secondary terminal X1 to X3 is two (2) times normal phase to
phase voltage.
47
C. Common Three-Phase Banks Using Single-Phase
Transformers
Phase Relation Diagram Angular Polarity Connection
Displacement Diagrams
HV Connection Diagrams
48
LV Connection Diagrams
49
IV. Loading Page
A. Paralleling ................................................................................. 51
B. Delta-delta bank loading ........................................................... 51
C. Overloading ............................................................................... 52
D. Single-phase and three-phase loading of symmetrical
and unsymmetrical transformer banks .................................... 53
E. Dedicated motor loads .............................................................. 66
50
IV. Loading
A. Paralleling
Z2 .
Derating factor = e K 1 + K 2 f / (K 1 + K 2)
Z1
1.6
Derating factor = e 50 + 25 f / (50 + 25) = 0.87
2.0
B. Delta-Delta Bank Loading
51
C. Overloading
Peak Load
Duration Equivalent Continuous Preload (per unit)
(Hours)
_____ 0.50 0.75 0.90
________________________________
1 2.12 1.96 1.82
2 1.79 1.68 1.57
4 1.50 1.44 1.36
8 1.28 1.25 1.21
24 1.08 1.07 1.07
52
D. Single-Phase and Three-Phase Loading of Symmetrical
and Unsymmetrical Transformer Banks
53
If it is desired to make more exact calculations for the kVA load sup-
plied by each transformer in the bank, providing sufficient information
is available for representing the load and system, then the methods
originally developed by Neupauer 1,2, or by Seematter and Richards3
may be used. However, these methods do not result in simple expres-
sions similar to those given in Figures D.1 to D.8, but require the use of
a digital computer for implementation.
With the open wye-open delta transformer bank, the single-phase load
may be connected to either the lagging phase as shown at the top of
Figure D.1, or to the leading phase as shown at the top of Figure D.2.
The transformer across which the single-phase load is connected is
sometimes referred to as the “lighting leg” and the other transformer is
referred to as the “power leg.” These are designated as L and P
respectively in Figures D.1 and D.2. Equations for calculating the load
in kVA supplied by the lighting leg transformer (kVA L) and that supplied
by the power leg transformer (kVA P) are given in Figures D.1 and D.2.
Furthermore, the symbols used in these equations are defined in the
Figures. The use of the equations is illustrated with the following
example.
Figure D 1: Load equations for the open wye-open delta bank with
the single-phase load connected to the lagging phase.
54
An open wye-open delta bank supplies a single-phase load of 70 kVA
at 0.95 lagging power factor, and a three-phase load of 30 kVA at 0.8
lagging power factor. The power factor angles (a3 and a1) are the arc
cosine of the power factors.
Thus:
The load in kVA supplied by the lighting leg and power leg transformers
for both the leading and lagging connection will be determined. First,
consider the lagging connection in Figure D.1. The numerical values
for the symbols in Figure D.1 are as follows:
For most combination loads, the power factor of the three-phase load
is less than that of the single-phase load. Thus a3 – a1 is positive in
sign, and m is a positive number. For expected values of m, the magni-
tude of the argument of the cosine term in the expressions for kVA L will
be greater for the leading connection, and thus the cosine of the argu-
ment will be less. Consequently, when the leading connection is used
the kVA load supplied by the lighting leg transformer usually is less
than for the lagging connection.
55
Open WYE—Open DELTA (Leading)
Figure D.2: Load equations for the open wye-open delta bank with
the single-phase load connected to the leading phase.
Open DELTA—Open DELTA Bank (Leading or Lagging)
The equations for calculating the load in kVA supplied by the lighting leg
and power leg transformers in the open delta-open delta bank are the
same as for the open wye-open delta bank. Thus the equations in Fig-
ures D.1 are used for the lagging connection, and those in Figure D.2
are used for the leading connection of the open delta-open delta bank.
Figure D.3 is a loading curve chart for the open delta-open delta
(leading) connection.
Figure D.3
56
Floating WYE—DELTA
57
Evaluating the equations in Figure D.4 with K 3 equal to 100, K 1 equal
to 50, and m equal to 18.68 degrees results in the following:
KVA ab = 40.09
KVA bc = 65.78
KVA ca = 47.15
Figure D.5 is a loading curve chart for the floating wye-delta connection.
Figure D.5
58
DELTA - DELTA
DELTA—DELTA Bank
The equations for calculating the load in kVA supplied by each trans-
former in a delta-delta bank are given at the top of Figure D.6. The
assumptions used in deriving these equations are the same as previ-
ously outlined, plus it is assumed that the impedance of the transformers
between a and b, and between a and c are identical. These two units
are sometimes referred to as the “power leg” transformers, and their
59
leakage impedance is designated as Z P. Across the transformer con-
nected between b and c is the single-phase load. This unit is referred
to as the “lighting leg” transformer and its impedance is designated at
Z L. Although the equations in Figure D.6 may seem rather complicated,
their evaluation is quite simple as illustrated by the following example:
m = 18.68 degrees
Notice that the three equations at the top of Figure D.6 for calculating
the load supplied by each transformer contain the terms M 1, M 2, M 3,
M 4, b 2, b 3, b 4. These are real numbers which are a function of Z P and
Z L. The M’s are the magnitude of the impedance functions as shown in
the figure, and the b ’s are the angles in degrees for the impedance
functions. The equations for calculating the M’s and b ’s are also given
in the Figure. To calculate these, first put Z L on the same kVA base
as Z P.
50
Z L = (1.0+ j1.5) = .6667 + j1.0 % ON 50 kVA
75
Placing the values of Z L and Z P into the equations yields the following:
M1 = 2.702
M2 = .9802 b 2 = -113.47°
M3 = .7835 b3 = 4.84°
M4 = .9199 b 4 = 115.12°
Placing these values plus the values of K 3, K 1, and m into the loading
equations gives the following for the load in kVA supplied by each trans-
former.
kVA ab = 33.66
kVA bc = 73.04
kVA ca = 43.15
60
If the delta-delta bank is made from three transformers with the same
leg impedance (on a common kVA base, or in actual ohms), then the
loading equations reduce to the simpler form shown in Figure D.7. Notice
that these are the same equations as used for the floating wye-delta
bank in Figure D.4.
61
DELTA-DELTA, Three-Phase Load, Same Impedance
Angle for Z P and Z L
62
DELTA-Grounded WYE Bank
With the delta-grounded wye bank, the single-phase load on the sec-
ondary may be connected from either phase-to-neutral as shown in
Figure D.9 or from phase-to-phase as shown in Figure D.10. The equa-
tions for calculating the load supplied by each transformer are given at
the top of each figure. The terms appearing in each equation are the
same as used in the equations for the other connections for which
examples have been given.
63
DELTA-WYE, Phase-to-Phase Single-Phase Load
64
Figure D.11: Per unit load supplied by each transformer in a delta-
delta bank to a three-phase load when one of the
transformers (connected between phases b and c with
impedance Z L) has a different impedance. The trans-
formers between phases a and b, and between phases
c and a have impedance Z P as shown in Figure D.6.
References
65
E. Dedicated Motor Loads
Many different types of motors are used today and are an impor-
tant consideration in sizing a transformer to supply power to a
given load. For most transformers supplying individual and multi-
unit residences, the motor load can be ignored because it
represents a small percentage of the total load connected to the
transformer, and the motors are only started on an infrequent basis.
When applying transformers to commercial or industrial loads, the
motors that are to be served can present a major limiting factor on
what size transformer is necessary to serve the load.
66
Curve 1
67
Dedicated Transformers
(One motor is the entire load on the transformer)
2. Determine the number of starts per hour planned for the motor
under normal operating conditions.
68
Curve 2
NEMA StartingCode Letter
Code Locked-Rotor
Letter kVA per Hp
A 0 -3.15
B 3.15 -3.55
C 3.55 -4.0
D 4.0 -4.5
E 4.5 -5.0
F 5.0 -5.6
G 5.6 -6.3
H 6.3 -7.1
J 7.1 -8.0
K 8.0 -9.0
L 9.0 -10.0
M 10.0 -11.2
N 11.2 -12.5
P 12.5 -14.0
R 14.0 -16.0
S 16.0 -18.0
T 18.0 -20.0
U 20.0 -22.4
V 22.4 and up
69
V. Voltage Unbalance Page
70
V. Voltage Unbalance
A. Effects of Voltage Unbalance
Voltage unbalance in secondary distribution systems affects the
performance of induction motors, with motor derating required
when voltage unbalance exceeds 1.0 percent. Figure 5.1, extracted
from NEMA MG1-14.34, dated June 1980, gives the derating factor
for fractional and integral-horsepower induction motors. The
performance of semi-conductor rectifier circuits also can be
affected by voltage unbalance, with proposed revisions to ANSI
C34.2 indicating the application is unusual if either the negative-
or zero-sequence component of voltage exceeds 5 percent of the
positive-sequence component. This level of unbalance usually is
not present in utility distribution systems. However, some voltage
unbalance will be present in any type of low-voltage system,
whether it be 4-wire wye, 3-wire delta, or 4-wire delta.
B. Voltage Unbalance Definitions
Three different definitions are employed to quantify voltage
unbalance. The one used depends upon the task being performed,
for example, calculating unbalance from measured quantities or
developing equations for unbalance. When quantifying voltage
unbalance in 3-wire and 4-wire delta circuits under unfaulted
conditions, all three definitions give nearly the same result.
71
In NEMA induction motor standards, percent voltage unbalance
is defined as:
a+b+c
S=
2
72
C. Causes of Voltage Unbalance
Voltage unbalance in secondary distribution systems is caused
by dissymmetries in either the primary system, distribution trans-
former bank, secondary circuit, or loading on the transformer bank.
Transformer bank symmetry is defined in Section IV-D of this guide.
A symmetrical secondary circuit is one which has identical con-
ductors in each phase with the conductors arranged such that the
mutual impedances between its sequence networks are zero. An
unsymmetrical circuit is one where the same size conductor is not
in each phase, or the same size conductor is used but the spac-
ings are such that the sequence mutual impedances are not zero.
With a symmetrical primary system, the open circuit voltages at
the transformer are perfectly balanced.
D. Voltage Unbalance With Three-Phase Loading
Figures 5.2, 5.3, and 5.5 show the effect of transformer imped-
ance on the maximum negative-sequence voltage in percent which
could appear in the secondary system with balanced three-phase
nominal loading on the bank. They apply respectively to the delta-
delta, floating wye-delta, and open delta transformer banks. For a
given bank, each transformer has the same kVA rating. Nominal
loading occurs when the positive-sequence current in the sec-
ondary windings equals winding rated current. Since, in general,
73
a negative-sequence component of current is present under nomi-
nal loading conditions, the actual winding currents may be
somewhat greater than or less than winding rated current. The
curves apply to banks supplying balanced three-phase loads. For
these loads, the positive- and negative-sequence impedances are
either the same or different, but there is no coupling between the
sequence networks representing the load. Loads with these char-
acteristics are three-phase induction motors, or impedances of
equal magnitude and angle connected in either wye or delta. For
the three-phase induction motor, the negative-sequence imped-
ance is less than the motor’s positive-sequence impedance,
whereas these impedances are equal for loads made from either
wye or delta connected impedances. Furthermore, the curves are
plotted assuming the primary system voltages are of equal mag-
nitude and 120 electrical degrees displaced from each other. Also,
the impedance angles of the transformers in a bank were assumed
equal, with the impedance magnitudes being the same or differ-
ent. It is emphasized that the curves give the maximum, or greatest
upper bound on negative-sequence voltage at the load in the sec-
ondary with nominal loading (three-phase) on the bank. Actual
unbalance can be considerably less, depending upon the rela-
tionship between the transformer bank impedances, secondary
circuit impedances, and the three-phase loads negative sequence
impedance.
The curves of Figure 5.2 and 5.3 respectively show on the ordi-
nate the maximum negative-sequence voltage in percent in the
secondary system with balanced three-phase load supplied from
a delta-delta bank and floating wye-delta bank. The curves apply
to banks with transformers of the same kVA and voltage ratings.
Two transformers in the bank have the same leakage impedance,
designated as Z P, and the third unit’s impedance is Z L. Given on
the abscissa is the ratio of Z L to Z P.
The curves show that if all three transformers in the bank have
equal impedance, regardless of impedance magnitude, the bank
will not produce voltage unbalance with only balanced three-
phase load. Also with balanced three-phase nominal loading,
the maximum negative-sequence voltage (voltage unbalance)
will not exceed 0.6 percent, as long as the ratio of Z L to Z P is
between 0.5 to 1.5, and Z P is 3.0 percent or less on nameplate
rating. Thus, considering voltage unbalance when serving bal-
anced three-phase load, it is not necessary that all units have
the same impedance or low impedance in closed delta banks. If
one unit fails in a bank made from three “old” units of “low”
impedance, it could, in most cases, be replaced by a “new” unit
with a higher impedance without creating objectionable unbal-
ance. It is unduly restrictive from a voltage unbalance standpoint
to require the same impedance for all units in the delta-delta
and floating wye-delta bank supplying a three-phase load.
Reasonable impedance differences are tolerable.
74
quoted units with an impedance of 1.9 percent, the utility objected
because it was thought that voltage unbalance problems would
be created by the “low impedance” units. If two units in the bank
have an impedance of 2.2 percent (Z P) and one has an imped-
ance of 1.9 percent (Z L), the curves of Figure 5.2 show that the
maximum negative-sequence voltage possible at nominal load
would not exceed 0.13 percent. If two units have an impedance of
1.9 percent (Z P) and one unit has an impedance of 2.2 percent
(X L), the maximum negative-sequence voltage possible at nomi-
nal load would not exceed 0.1 percent. For this situation, the
impedance differences will not cause significant voltage unbalance.
2. Open-Delta Banks
For example, consider an open delta bank made from units with
3 percent impedance. This impedance is typical in units purchased
today by some users. From Figure 5.5, the voltage unbalance at
nominal load due to the open delta bank is 1.73 percent. This
would be the total unbalance (upper bound) at the load if the
primary system voltages were perfectly balanced. Recognizing
that the voltage unbalance of the primary system could be in the
1 to 2 percent range, a worst case upper bound on the voltage
unbalance at the load is in the range of 2.7 to 3.7 percent.
75
As another example, one utility was serving a 460-Volt load, pre-
dominately motors, from an open delta bank with two 1000 kVA,
5.8 percent impedance transformers, with a load of 1360 kVA or
about 79 percent of bank rating. Measured voltage unbalance at
the service entrance was 2.3 percent. In comparison, the upper
bound on voltage unbalance with just three-phase load, assum-
ing a balanced primary, is calculated as 5.8 x 0.79/ CFF3 or 2.65
percent. When the open delta bank was replaced with three 500
kVA units with 4.8 percent impedance, the measured voltage
unbalance at about the same loading was less than 0.5 percent,
due mainly to primary system unbalance.
76
Figure 5.2: Maximum negative-sequence voltage at nomi-
nal load in the secondary system with balanced
three-phase load supplied from a delta-delta
bank made from three transformers with the
same kVA and voltage ratings.
77
Figure 5.4: Derating factor for a delta-delta bank made from
three units of equal capacity (kVA rating) with
the impedance of one unit being different from
that of the other two. Derating factor is approxi-
mate as it assumes perfectly balanced three-
phase load drawing only positive-sequence
current.
78
Vl. Reference Data Page
79
Solid and Concentric Stranded Aluminum and Copper Conductors*
80
Conductor Cross- Solid Class B Class C Class D
__________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ _____________________ ___________________
Size, sectional
Nominal Approximate Weight, Number Nominal Approximate Approximate Weight, Number Nominal Number Nominal
Awg or Area, CM
Diameter, Pounds per 1000 Feet of Diameter Outside Pounds per 1000 Feet of Diameter of Diameter
kcmil _____________________ ___________________
Mils Wires of Each Diameter, Wires of Each Wires of Each
Aluminum Copper Wire, Mils Inches Aluminum Copper Wire, Mils Wire, Mils
20 1020 32.0 0.942 3.10 7 12.1 0.036 ………. 3.154 …. …… …. ……
18 1620 40.3 1.49 4.92 7 15.2 0.046 ………. 5.015 …. …… …. ……
16 2580 50.8 2.38 7.81 7 19.2 0.058 ………. 7.974 …. …… …. ……
14 4110 64.1 3.78 12.4 7 24.2 0.073 ………. 12.68 19 14.7 37 10.5
12 6530 80.8 6.01 19.8 7 30.5 0.092 6.13 20.16 19 18.5 37 13.3
10 10380 101.9 9.56 31.43 7 38.5 0.116 9.75 32.06 19 23.4 37 16.7
8 16510 128.5 15.20 49.98 7 48.6 0.146 15.5 51.0 19 29.5 37 21.1
6 26240 162.0 24.15 79.44 7 61.2 0.184 24.6 80.9 19 37.2 37 26.6
4 41740 204.3 38.41 126.3 7 77.2 0.232 39.2 129 19 46.9 37 33.6
3 52620 229.4 48.43 159.3 7 86.7 0.260 49.4 162 19 52.6 37 37.7
2 66360 257.6 61.07 200.9 7 97.4 0.292 62.3 205 19 59.1 37 42.4
1 83690 289.3 77.00 253.3 19 66.4 0.332 78.6 259 37 47.6 61 37.0
1/0 105600 324.9 97.13 319.5 19 74.5 0.373 99.1 326 37 53.4 61 41.6
2/0 133100 364.8 122.5 402.8 19 83.7 0.418 125 . 411 37 60.0 61 46.7
3/0 167800 409.6 154.4 507.8 19 94.0 0.470 157 . 518 37 67.3 61 52.4
4/0 211600 466.0 194.7 640.5 19 105.5 0.528 199 . 653 37 75.6 61 58.9
250 ………. …….. .…… .……. 37 82.2 0.575 235 . 772 61 64.0 91 52.4
300 ………. …….. .…… .……. 37 90.0 0.630 282 . 925 61 70.1 91 57.4
350 ………. …….. .…… .……. 37 97.3 0.681 329 . 1080 61 75.7 91 62.0
400 ………. …….. .…… .……. 37 104.0 0.728 376 . 1236 61 81.0 91 66.3
450 ………. …….. .…… .……. 37 110.3 0.772 422 . 1390 61 85.9 91 70.3
500 ………. …….. .…… .……. 37 116.2 0.813 469 . 1542 61 90.5 91 74.1
600 ………. …….. .…… .……. 61 99.2 0.893 563 . 1850 91 81.2 127 68.7
750 ………. …….. .…… .……. 61 110.9 0.998 704 . 2316 91 90.8 127 76.8
800 ………. …….. .…… .……. 61 114.5 1.031 751 . 2469 91 93.8 127 79.4
1000 ………. …….. .…… .……. 61 128.0 1.152 939 . 3086 91 104.8 127 88.7
1250 ………. …….. .…… .……. 91 117.2 1.289 1173 . 3859 127 99.2 169 86.0
1500 ………. …….. .…… .……. 91 128.4 1.412 1408 . 4632 127 108.7 169 94.2
1750 ………. …….. .…… .……. 127 117.4 1.526 1643 . 5403 169 101.8 217 89.8
2000 ………. …….. .…… .……. 127 125.5 1.632 1877 . 6176 169 108.8 217 96.0
The correction factors given in this table are satisfactory for most appli-
cations. They are based upon aluminum having 61 percent conductivity
and are derived from the formulae:
248
R1 = R 2
228 + T2
253
R3 = R 2
228 + T2
81
Temperature Correction Factors for Resistance of Copper
Conductors*
The correction factors given in this table are satisfactory for most appli-
cations. They are based upon copper having 100 percent conductivity
and are derived from the formulae:
254.5
R1 = R 2
234.5 + T2
259.5
R3 = R 2
234.5 + T2
82
Logarithm Tables
Proportional Parts
N 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10 0000 0043 0086 0128 0170 0212 0253 0294 0334 0374 *4* 8 12 17 21 25 29 33 37
11 0414 0453 0492 0531 0569 0607 0645 0682 0719 0755 4 8 11 15 19 23 26 30 34
12 0792 0828 0864 0899 0934 0969 1004 1038 1072 1106 3 7 10 14 17 21 24 28 31
13 1139 1173 1206 1239 1271 1303 1335 1367 1399 1430 3 6 10 13 16 19 23 26 29
14 1461 1492 1523 1553 1584 1614 1644 1673 1703 1732 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27
15 1761 1790 1818 1847 1875 1903 1931 1959 1987 2014 *3* 6 8 11 14 17 20 22 25
16 2041 2068 2095 2122 2148 2175 2201 2227 2253 2279 3 5 8 11 13 16 18 21 24
17 2304 2330 2355 2380 2405 2430 2455 2480 2504 2529 2 5 7 10 12 15 17 20 22
18 2553 2577 2601 2625 2648 2672 2695 2718 2742 2765 2 5 7 9 12 14 16 19 21
19 2788 2810 2833 2856 2878 2900 2923 2945 2967 2989 2 4 7 9 11 13 16 18 20
20 3010 3032 3054 3075 3096 3118 3139 3160 3181 3201 2 4 6 8 11 13 15 17 19
21 3222 3243 3263 3284 3304 3324 3345 3365 3385 3404 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
22 3424 3444 3464 3483 3502 3522 3541 3560 3579 3598 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 15 17
23 3617 3636 3655 3674 3692 3711 3729 3747 3766 3784 2 4 6 7 9 11 13 15 17
24 3802 3820 3838 3856 3874 3892 3909 3927 3945 3962 2 4 5 7 9 11 12 14 16
25 3979 3997 4014 4031 4048 4065 4082 4099 4116 4133 2 3 5 7 9 10 12 14 15
26 4150 4166 4183 4200 4216 4232 4249 4265 4281 4298 2 3 5 7 8 10 11 13 15
27 4314 4330 4346 4362 4378 4393 4409 4425 4440 4456 2 3 5 6 8 9 11 13 14
28 4472 4487 4502 4518 4533 4548 4564 4579 4594 4609 2 3 5 6 8 9 11 12 14
29 4624 4639 4654 4669 4683 4698 4713 4728 4742 4757 1 3 4 6 7 9 10 12 13
30 4771 4786 4800 4814 4829 4843 4857 4871 4886 4900 1 3 4 6 7 9 10 11 13
31 4914 4928 4942 4955 4969 4983 4997 5011 5024 5038 1 3 4 6 7 8 10 11 12
32 5051 5065 5079 5092 5101 5119 5132 5145 5159 5172 1 3 4 5 7 8 9 11 12
33 5185 5198 5211 5224 5237 5250 5263 5276 5289 5302 1 3 4 5 6 8 9 10 12
34 5315 5328 5340 5353 5366 5378 5391 5403 5416 5428 1 3 4 5 6 8 9 10 11
35 5441 5453 5465 5478 5490 5502 5514 5527 5539 5551 1 2 4 5 6 7 9 10 11
36 5563 5575 5587 5599 5611 5623 5635 5647 5658 5670 1 2 4 5 6 7 8 10 11
37 5682 5694 5705 5717 5729 5740 5752 5763 5775 5786 1 2 3 5 6 7 8 9 10
38 5798 5809 5821 5832 5843 5855 5866 5877 5888 5899 1 2 3 5 6 7 8 9 10
39 5911 5922 5933 5944 5955 5966 5977 5988 5999 6010 1 2 3 4 5 7 8 9 10
40 6021 6031 6042 6053 6064 6075 6085 6096 6107 6117 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 9 10
41 6128 6138 6149 6160 6170 6180 6191 6201 6212 6222 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
42 6232 6243 6253 6263 6274 6284 6294 6304 6314 6325 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
43 6335 6345 6355 6365 6375 6385 6395 6405 6415 6425 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
44 6435 6444 6454 6464 6474 6484 6493 6503 6513 6522 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
45 6532 6542 6551 6561 6571 6580 6590 6599 6609 6618 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
46 6628 6637 6646 6656 6665 6675 6684 6693 6702 6712 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 7 8
47 6721 6730 6739 6749 6758 6767 6776 6785 6794 6803 1 2 3 4 5 5 6 7 8
48 6812 6821 6830 6839 6848 6857 6866 6875 6884 6893 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 7 8
49 6902 6911 6920 6928 6937 6946 6955 6964 6972 6981 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 7 8
50 6990 6998 7007 7016 7024 7033 7042 7050 7059 7067 1 2 3 3 4 5 6 7 8
51 7076 7084 7093 7101 7110 7118 7126 7135 7143 7152 1 2 3 3 4 5 6 7 8
52 7160 7168 7177 7185 7193 7202 7210 7218 7226 7235 1 2 2 3 4 5 6 7 7
53 7243 7251 7259 7267 7275 7284 7292 7300 7308 7316 1 2 2 3 4 5 6 6 7
54 7324 7332 7340 7348 7356 7364 7372 7380 7388 7396 1 2 2 3 4 5 6 6 7
N 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
83
Logarithm Tables
Proportional Parts
N 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
55 7404 7412 7419 7427 7435 7443 7451 7459 7466 7474 1 2 2 3 4 5 5 6 7
56 7482 7490 7497 7505 7513 7520 7528 7536 7543 7551 1 2 2 3 4 5 5 6 7
57 7559 7566 7574 7582 7589 7597 7604 7612 7619 7627 1 2 2 3 4 5 5 6 7
53 7634 7642 7649 7657 7664 7672 7679 7686 7694 7701 1 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 7
59 7709 7716 7723 7731 7738 7745 7752 7760 7767 7774 1 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 7
60 7782 7789 7796 7803 7810 7818 7825 7832 7839 7846 1 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 6
61 7853 7860 7868 7875 7882 7889 7896 7903 7910 7917 1 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 6
62 7924 7931 7938 7945 7952 7959 7966 7973 7980 7987 1 1 2 3 3 4 5 6 6
63 7993 8000 8007 8014 8021 8028 8035 8041 8048 8055 1 1 2 3 3 4 5 5 6
64 8062 8069 8075 8082 8089 8096 8102 8109 8116 8122 1 1 2 3 3 4 5 5 6
65 8129 8136 8142 8149 8156 8162 8169 8176 8182 8189 1 1 2 3 3 4 5 5 6
66 8195 8202 8209 8215 8222 8228 8235 8241 8248 8254 1 1 2 3 3 4 5 5 6
67 8261 8267 8274 8280 8287 8293 8299 8306 8312 8319 1 1 2 3 3 4 5 5 6
68 8325 8331 8338 8344 8351 8357 8363 8370 8376 8382 1 1 2 3 3 4 4 5 6
69 8388 8395 8401 8407 8414 8420 8426 8432 8439 8445 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 5 6
70 8451 8457 8463 8470 8476 8482 8488 8494 8500 8506 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 5 6
71 8513 8519 8525 8531 8537 8543 8549 8555 8561 8567 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 5 5
72 8573 8579 8585 8591 8597 8603 8609 8615 8621 8627 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 5 5
73 8633 8639 8645 8651 8657 8663 8669 8675 8681 8686 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 5 5
74 8692 8698 8704 8710 8716 8722 8727 8733 8739 8745 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 5 5
75 8751 8756 8762 8768 8774 8779 8785 8791 8797 8802 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 5 5
76 8808 8814 8820 8825 8831 8837 8842 8848 8854 8859 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 5 5
77 8865 8871 8876 8882 8887 8893 8899 8904 8910 8915 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
78 8921 8927 8932 8938 8943 8949 8954 8960 8965 8971 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
79 8976 8982 8987 8993 8998 9004 9009 9015 9020 9025 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
80 9031 9036 9042 9047 9053 9058 9063 9069 9074 9079 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
81 9085 9090 9096 9101 9106 9112 9117 9122 9128 9133 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
82 9138 9143 9149 9154 9159 9165 9170 9175 9180 9186 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
83 9191 9196 9201 9206 9212 9217 9222 9227 9232 9238 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
84 9243 9248 9253 9258 9263 9269 9274 927Si 9284 9289 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
85 9294 9299 9304 9309 9315 9320 9325 9330 9335 9340 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
86 9345 9350 9355 9360 9365 9370 9375 9380 9385 9390 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
87 9395 9400 9405 9410 9415 9420 9425 9430 9435 9440 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
83 9445 9450 9455 9460 9465 9469 9474 9470 9484 9489 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
89 9494 9499 9504 9509 9513 9518 9523 9528 9533 9538 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
90 9542 9547 9552 9557 9562 9566 9571 9576 9581 9586 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
91 9590 9595 9600 9605 9609 9614 9619 9624 9628 9633 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
92 9638 9643 9647 9652 9657 9661 9666 9671 9675 9680 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
93 9685 9689 9894 9699 9703 9708 9713 9717 9722 9727 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
94 9731 9736 9741 9745 9750 9754 9759 9763 9768 9773 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
95 9777 9782 9786 9791 9795 9800 9805 9809 9814 9818 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
96 9823 9827 9832 9836 9841 9845 9850 9854 9859 9863 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
97 9868 9872 9877 9881 9886 9890 9894 9899 9903 9908 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
98 9912 9917 9921 9926 9930 9934 9939 9943 9948 9952 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
99 9956 9961 9965 9969 9974 9978 9983 9987 9991 9996 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 3 4
N 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
84
Nominal Direct-Current Resistance, Ohms per 1000 Feet, at 20°C and 25°C of Solid and Concentric Stranded Conductors*
Conductor Aluminum and Annealed Uncoated Copper
Size,
Awg or Solid
______________________________________________ Stranded Classes B, C and D
_____________________________________________ Annealed Coated Copper
_______________________________________
kcmil 20°C 25°C 20°C 25°C Solid Stranded Class B
____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ___________________ ___________________
Aluminum Copper Aluminum Copper Aluminum Copper Aluminum Copper 20°C 25°C 20°C 25°C
20 16.6 10.1 17.0 10.3 ……… 10.4 ………… 10.6 10.6 10.8 11.0 11.2
18 10.5 6.39 10.7 6.51 ……… 6.53 ………… 6.66 6.66 6.79 6.92 7.05
16 6.58 4.02 6.72 4.10 ……… 4.10 ………… 4.18 4.18 4.26 4.35 4.44
14 4.14 2.52 4.22 2.57 ……… 2.57 ………… 2.62 2.62 2.68 2.68 2.73
12 2.60 1.59 2.66 1.62 2.66 1.62 2.71 1.65 1.65 1.68 1.68 1.72
10 1.64 0.9988 1.67 1.018 1.67 1.02 1.70 1.04 1.04 1.06 1.06 1.08
8 1.03 0.6281 1.05 0.6404 1.05 0.641 1.07 0.654 0.646 0.659 0.666 0.679
6 0.648 0.3952 0.661 0.4029 0.661 0.403 0.674 0.410 0.407 0.415 0.419 0.427
4 0.407 0.2485 0.415 0.2534 0.415 0.253 0.424 0.259 0.256 0.261 0.264 0.269
3 0.323 0.1971 0.330 0.2010 0.329 0.201 0.336 0.205 0.203 0.207 0.209 0.213
2 0.256 0.1563 0.261 0.1594 0.261 0.159 0.266 0.162 0.161 0.164 0.166 0.169
1 0.203 0.1239 0.207 0.1264 0.207 0.126 0.211 0.129 0.128 0.130 0.131 0.134
1/0 0.161 0.09825 0.164 0.1002 0.164 0.100 0.168 0.102 0.101 0.103 0.104 0.106
2/0 0.128 0.07793 0.130 0.07946 0.130 0.0795 0.133 0.0811 0.0798 0.0814 0.0827 0.0843
3/0 0.101 0.06182 0.103 0.06303 0.103 0.0630 0.105 0.0642 0.0633 0.0645 0.0656 0.0668
4/0 0.0803 0.04901 0.0820 0.04998 0.0820 0.0500 0.0836 0.0509 0.0502 0.0512 0.0515 0.0525
250 ………. ………... ………. ……….. 0.0694 0.0423 0.0708 0.0431 ………. ………. 0.0440 0.0449
300 ………. ………... ………. ……….. 0.0578 0.0353 0.0590 0.0360 ………. ………. 0.0367 0.0374
350 ………. ………... ………. ……….. 0.0495 0.0302 0.0505 0.0308 ………. ………. 0.0314 0.0320
400 ………. ………... ………. ……….. 0.0434 0.0264 0.0442 0.0270 ………. ………. 0.0272 0.0278
450 ………. ………... ………. ……….. 0.0385 0.0235 0.0393 0.0240 ………. ………. 0.0242 0.0247
500 ………. ………... ………. ……….. 0.0347 0.0212 0.0354 0.0216 ………. ………. 0.0218 0.0222
600 ………. ………... ………. ……….. 0.0289 0.0176 0.0295 0.0180 ………. ………. 0.0183 0.0187
750 ………. ………... ………. ……….. 0.0231 0.0141 0.0236 0.0144 ………. ………. 0.0145 0.0148
800 ………. ………... ………. ……….. 0.0217 0.0132 0.0221 0.0135 ………. ………. 0.0136 0.0139
1000 ………. ………... ………. ……….. 0.0173 0.0106 0.0177 0.0108 ………. ………. 0.0109 0.0111
1250 ………. ………... ………. ……….. 0.0139 0.00846 0.0142 0.00863 ………. ………. 0.00871 0.00888
1500 ………. ………... ………. ……….. 0.0116 0.00705 0.0118 0.00719 ………. ………. 0.00726 0.00740
1750 ………. ………... ………. ……….. 0.00991 0.00605 0.0101 0.00616 ………. ………. 0.00622 0.00634
2000 ………. ………... ………. ……….. 0.00867 0.00529 0.00885 0.00539 ………. ………. 0.00544 0.00555
85
•IPCEA Standards Publication S-66-524, NEMA WC 7-1971.
Natural Functions of Angles
86
Typical Isokeraunic Map
87
Selected Sl Equivalents
LENGTH TEMPERATURE
1 in = 25.40 mm 1°F (interval) = 5/9°C
1 ft = 0.3048 m temp (°F) = (9/5) temp (°C) + 32
1 yd = 0.9144 m Ice . point at 1 atm = 32°F
1 mile = 1.609 km = 0°C = 273.15 K
Triple-point of water
AREA = 0.01°C = 273.16 K
1 cmil = 506.7 um2
1 in2 = 6.452 cm 2 POWER
1 ft2 = 0.0929 m2 1 watt = 1 joule/sec
1 acre = 4047 m2 1 Btu/hr = 0.2931 W
1 mile2 = 2.590 km 2 1 hp = 746.0 W
O
1 Btu/ft3 = 37.26 kJ/m 3
1 Btu/gal = 278.7 kJ/m 3 PERMEABILITY CONST.
uo = 4n x 10-7 henry/m
SPECIFIC HEAT: ENTROPY c2 uoeo =1
1 Btu/lb.F = 4.187 kJ/kg.K
Gas constant:
R = 8.314 kJ/kg-mol.K
88
3A49299H01