The Protective Buddha On The Cosmologica PDF

Numen 66 (2019) 207–242
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The Protective Buddha: On the Cosmological Logic

of Paritta
Eviatar Shulman
Hebrew University
eviatar.shulman@mail.huji.ac.il
Abstract
Paritta — ritual chanting — is a central institution in Theravāda Buddhism, with deep

roots in all historical forms of Buddhism in Asia. Nevertheless, no study provides a
convincing framework for how the protective potency of the Buddha and his words is
understood. Earlier strands of scholarship highlighted the psychological aspects of rit-
ual chanting that were thought to have a positive effect on participants. Later scholars
emphasized the role of paritta in the training of monks. These studies do not explain
“how paritta works,” that is, for example, why, according to the views encapsulated in
the texts themselves, bringing the Buddha to mind can act against demons or change
reality. This article offers a close reading of the central texts of the genre in order to
conceptualize the metaphysical understanding they employ. It thus provides insights
regarding the unique ontological position and cosmological function of the Buddha
according to the texts.
Keywords
Paritta – ritual chanting – Theravāda – Buddha-vacana – Buddhist texts – Buddhist

magic
The most prevalent form through which people encounter canonical texts in
Theravāda Buddhist societies has long been through protective chanting —
paritta. This is true no less of monks than of laypeople, since monks must learn
these texts by heart in order to perform the central ritual of paritta, which is
© koninklijke brill nv, leiden, 2019 | doi:10.1163/15685276-12341533

208 Shulman
employed in order to provide blessing and to fight calamity.1 For many of the
monks, these will be the only canonical texts that they learn to chant from
memory. Expert learned monks, who command greater expanses of scripture,
are surely to be found, most commonly in the leading monastic centers in the
big cities. However, paritta remains the main context in which monks and
laypeople hear or recite the “Word of the Buddha” (Buddha-vacana), as it has
been shaped in the Sutta-literature that relates the ostensibly historical dis-
courses of the Buddha.2
Scholarship has acknowledged the centrality of paritta for Buddhist cul-
ture and religion from both an historical and an anthropological point of view
(Spiro 1970: ch. 6; Gombrich 1991 [1971]: 236–346; Harvey 1993; Blackburn 1999:
354; McDaniel 2004: 634, 2006: 126; Samuels 2005: 343). In one of the most au-
thoritative studies on the subject, Peter Skilling (1992) provides a relatively ex-
tensive survey of different types of protective texts (rakṣā) used for chanting
in a number of Buddhist traditions.3 Skilling sees this as an ancient, central
institution of Buddhist religion:
Rakṣās, in one form or another, are an integral part of mainstream

Buddhism … The chanting of certain auspicious verses or texts for pro-
tection against disease or malignant spirits and for the promotion of wel-
fare was no doubt a “pan-Nikāya” practice, common to all branches of
the saṃgha, from an early date; indeed, on the internal evidence of texts
like the Dhvajāgra and Āṭanāṭika Sūtras, the practice should predate the
early schisms.
Skilling 1992: 168
Skilling concludes his article by remarking on the vastness of the topic, which
in certain senses “involves the study of the entire corpus of Buddhist literature”
(169). He then expresses his hope that scholars will continue to investigate the
question of “who offers protection and by what mechanism?” The present
contribution attempts to relate to this important issue and to explain some
of the protective power that the paritta-texts claim for themselves, based on a
1 Paritta, derived from Sanskrit pari<trā>, can refer both to the protective text itself and to
the set of rituals in which such texts are recited. The most detailed study of paritta is de
Silva (1981), which provides an elaborate presentation of the life of paritta ceremonies in Sri
Lanka, including a discussion of texts, ritual objects, and historical development.
2 See, for example, Skilling 1992: 113.
3 This study by Skilling was later supplemented by his comprehensive discussion in his
Mahāsūtra volumes (1994, 1997).
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The Protective Buddha 209
careful reading of the central texts of the genre. Following Skilling’s insight, it
will reach a new understanding regarding the benevolent potency of Buddhist
literature as a whole, which can be extended beyond the paritta-corpus and
even the Theravāda context.
Although numerous studies have been published on paritta, few offer con-
vincing insights regarding the logic of Buddhist protection that it employs;
what do, or did, the people participating in the ritual feel secures their protec-
tion? Obviously, there is not one answer to this question, whether conceptu-
ally or historically, and there would be much debate on how, or even whether,
such a question can be answered. Should we, for instance, rely on people’s re-
ports today, on theory of ritual, or on the formulations offered by the texts?
Nevertheless, the question regarding how paritta functions is a crucial one to
pursue if we wish to understand living Buddhist religion. Specifically, the an-
swers offered so far by scholars are unsatisfying, since they make no attempt
to conceptualize a metaphysical framework encapsulated within the texts that
underlies the ritual; even if such an understanding will not explain the whole
picture, it should be a part of our explanations. An explanation for the protec-
tive potency of Buddhist texts calls for an elucidation of the conceptual un-
derstanding of the Buddha and of his place in the cosmos, together with some
idea regarding the potency attributed to Buddhist texts. Such notions are, how-
ever, precisely what the theoretical climate of Buddhist modernism — which
we have only begun to leave behind — has not encouraged.
In line with the modernist paradigm, the main position advanced by schol-
ars so far has been to emphasize the positive psychological effects of chant-
ing paritta. For example, Lily de Silva’s 1981 monograph, the most complete
and extensive discussion of the topic, highlights the “core themes” of metta
(love, care) and sacca (truth) as the central values of paritta, which are under-
stood as psychological elements that support people’s sense of confidence and
well-being. In line with modernist, “Protestant” approaches, de Silva speaks of
Buddhism as a lofty philosophy and ethical teaching that accommodated itself
to the religious needs of the populace:
Though Buddhism found no room for ritual and ceremonialism in its

lofty ethical framework, it could not altogether ignore the urgent psycho-
logical need of the common man for ritual to grapple with life’s crises.
Buddhism denounced all magical practices as tiracchānavij’ā [sic], lit.
animal science. But denunciation alone was not effective to keep the lay
public away from resorting to them. A substitute had to be evolved which
served the same purpose and function, but which was not objectionable
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210 Shulman
from the Buddhist philosophical standpoint. Gradually a solution was

found to satisfy this double demand and was in the form of the paritta
ceremony.
De Silva 1981: 139
According to de Silva, paritta was a way to relate to peoples’ psychological

needs that was faithful to the ethical ideals of the tradition. Similar ideas were
expressed by V. F. Gunaratna, in his introduction to Piyadassi Thera’s transla-
tion of the central Sinhalese collection of parittas, the Catubhāṇavara (“Four
Recitation Sections,” CBV), the Book of Protection. Speaking about these protec-
tive texts, Gunaratna states that “there is nothing mystical about them,” and
explains that the truth, virtue, and love that they express have a positive influ-
ence upon the mind and body. Gunaratna further suggests that part of the in-
fluence of paritta is due to the beneficial impact of the sound of the chanting,
which has a harmonizing effect on the body (Gunaratna 1999 [1975]: 14–16).4
The last quote from de Silva has become a favorite in studies on paritta that
debate the modernist viewpoint it endorses (Blackburn 1999: 357; Samuels
2005: 345). Anne Blackburn (1999) has criticized this approach, which she
identified also in works by authorities such as Spiro (1970), Tambiah (1970), and
Gombrich (1971). Blackburn’s main argument is against what she calls the “ac-
comodationist view,” according to which paritta is a concession to the psycho-
logical and religious needs of the laity (Blackburn 1999: 358). These last three
studies are all seminal and sophisticated works in the study of Buddhism, and
each includes an extensive discussion of paritta. Both Gombrich and Spiro
strongly incline toward an “accomodationist” perspective, and as such empha-
size psychological dimensions of the ritual (e.g., Gombrich 1971: 244–246; Spiro
1970: 153–154). Both also speak of paritta as a form of magic, which they see
as ambiguously sanctioned through a scriptural basis, while marking a clear
dissension from the true path of the monk at the same time. While Tambiah
participates in the “accomodationist” framework to some degree (e.g., 1970:
197), his study is more sophisticated and conducts a sociological analysis that
highlights the reciprocal relationship between the monk and the layperson, in
which the former transmits the virtues of the Buddha to the latter in return for
his gifts; through the monk’s commitments to the ascetic ideal, he performs
4 The importance of sonic dimensions of paritta has been emphasized by Greene (2004), who
argues that sound creates a mindfulness toward paritta that facilitates the study of texts and
their messages. Greene stresses the role of paritta in monk-training in a way that connects to
the focus of Samuels and Blackburn (see immediately below).
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an act of sacrifice that is at the root of gift-giving and thus participates in

the maintenance of this central institution of Buddhist society. According
to Tambiah, the transfer of the Buddha’s qualities to the layperson is done
mainly through the words of the sacred Pāli chants, “a metaphorical transfer
of grace through words” (205, emphasis in the original). Tambiah is also clear
that the semantic content of the ritual is not understood by most participants,
among other reasons since they do not understand the chants, which are in
Pāli (212).
Yet even a rich study like Tambiah’s has trouble explaining just what the
Buddha’s power is that is transmitted through the texts. Given his “accomo-
dationist” perspective, Tambiah takes the Buddha’s attainment to be mainly
a psychological one, so that it is “the ethical and moral superiority of the
Buddha’s conduct, his virtue, loving kindness, and abstinence from self-ag-
grandizement,” which constitute the “core proclamation” of the ritual: “it is the
potency of this kind of victorious superiority and heroic action on the part of
the Buddha and his disciples that provides the basis for protection from evil for
those human beings who affirm the faith and to whom are transferred bless-
ings” (Tambiah 1970: 205, emphasis in the original). From the perspective of
the scholar of religion, however, this ethical superiority can hardly suffice as an
explanation for the protective power that Theravada Buddhists attribute to the
Buddha’s words. Nor can it explain in what sense these words work as magic,
in the sense spoken of by Spiro and Gombrich.
In order to address this problem, the present study will offer a careful
reading of central paritta-texts that will shed light on the cosmological and
metaphysical underpinnings of the Buddha’s superior status. As we will see,
the paritta-corpus offers a compelling presentation of the manner in which
Buddhist “ethical” virtues such as love and truth are part of the very structure
of the cosmos. In the texts themselves the Buddha’s attainment proves to be
much more than a psychological transformation; it is no less than an embodi-
ment of inner cosmic truth, thereby making it accessible to worshipers. This
analysis of paritta-texts builds on the understanding of the Buddha that I have
conceptualized mainly with relation to the central biographies of the Buddha
in canonical Theravāda (Shulman 2017). As I demonstrated, the Buddha is con-
sidered in these paradigmatic texts as a part of cosmos, a unique ontological
category or metaphysical institution, before he is a human being; as a human
being who becomes the Buddha, he brings cosmic potency to its fullest pos-
sible fruition. The current study echoes these ideas while focusing on paritta,
which has its own theoretical emphases. This investigation is thus no less an
analysis of underlying intuitions regarding the Buddha in Theravāda than it is
a study of Buddhist protection rituals.
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212 Shulman
Blackburn’s study (1999) marked the beginning of a second stage in schol-

arship on paritta, which focused mainly on the role of these texts in monas-
tic education. Blackburn demonstrated how paritta was an important tool in
monastic education and in the shaping of monastic identity in medieval Sri
Lanka. A couple of years later (2001), she elaborated upon her earlier study to
show how the shaping of monastic discourse in medieval Sri Lanka revolved
around commentaries composed on the central manual for paritta ritual (the
CBV). Most distinctive among these was the Sārthadīpanī, the seminal work
of Välivita Saraṇaṃkara, founder of the influential Siyam Nikāya, a work com-
posed upon the request of King Śri Vijayarājasiṃha in the middle of the 18th
century. Building on Blackburn’s studies, Jeffrey Samuels (2005) continued to
focus on the role of paritta in monastic education in contemporary Sri Lanka.
Samuels discussed paritta texts not only as an instrument for the education of
a monk with respect to Buddhist ideas and scholarship, but even more so in
the context of acquiring proper codes of behavior, appearance, and comport-
ment. Monks learn not only to chant the texts, but also to play their role in
the ritual; the presence of monks who act according to established behavioral
codes, which include the public expression of positive attitudes such as re-
spect, kindness, and compassion, is an important part of the event.
Although these studies by Blackburn and Samuels expand our understand-
ing regarding the social function of Buddhist protective texts and highlight
important performative aspects that contribute to the success of the ritual,5
they still leave much room for inquiry into the Buddhist logic of protection.6
Specifically, they do not contest the common idea expressed by one scholar
that “the power of parittas lies in their sound and in their role in a protective
ceremony, and less (or not at all) in their semantic meaning” (McDaniel 2004:
635); while this may be true with relation to the way many modern Buddhists
understand the ritual, an analysis of the texts shows that these practices are
situated in a more profound ideological context.
There is no reason to deny that paritta can produce positive psychological
effects through the ritualized encounter with the austere sound of chanting,
the aesthetic impression of the well-kept monks, and the auspicious influ-
ence of the sacred Pāli language.7 These concrete sides of the ritual are further
5 By success I make no claim to the actual effects of paritta chanting; the very fact that they are
used so extensively and for so long makes them successful as a religious institution.
6 Initial steps in the direction of such a conceptualization have been taken by Harvey (1993).
For an anthropological approach to the meaning of paritta ritual, see Yalman 1964.
7 There are different notions at work in Theravāda regarding the sacred nature of the Pāli lan-
guage and the power inherent in Buddha-vacana. See, for example, Gornall 2014 and Ruiz-
Falqués (forthcoming), as well as Collins 1995: 49, and Salomon 2011: 171–172, esp. n. 28.
Numen 66 (2019) 207–242

supported by the social setting and the participation in a culturally honored

institution in which core Buddhist values are recalled. In this context, the po-
tency of parittas can be considered similar to the use of mantras in Indic reli-
gions, by which I intend that the meaning of a text is secondary to the potency
attributed to words or sounds; to some degree, parittas can be treated as “spells”
or “charms” in a similar way to mantras. But the fact that the ritual has a power
of its own should not deny that there is a philosophy at work in the texts that
explains some of their potency within their own cultural context; that is,
that there is an ideology to paritta that is conveyed by the texts. In the case
of mantras in Indic religions, there is a complex metaphysic behind their
usage, developed in different strands of Indian philosophy, from the Vedas
and Upaniṣads through later systems such as Mīmāṃsā, Tantra, and certain
strands of Advaita. According to these views, word and sound (vāc, śabda) are
primary elements of creation, which can be condensed into potent linguis-
tic utterances — mantras. Mantras thereby affect reality through a logic of
relations between isomorphic cosmic structures, which sound dominates.8
Although these ideas may be relevant to the Buddhist context in a limited way,
the Buddhist use of magical sound appears to be based on a different meta-
physical picture that I will attempt to articulate here.
This metaphysical picture, as it can be gleaned from paritta-texts, focuses
on the unique position that the Buddha employs in the cosmos.9 According
to this vision, the Buddha is the core cosmological truth toward which all re-
alities and beings are oriented, including divine beings both supportive and
malevolent. The Buddha accesses this truth through his realization, and by his
complete transformation embodies it with his very being, thereby allowing
others to contact it through his presence, whether physically or symbolically.10
The Buddha, the truth he embodies, and the states of mind he has access to
are all powers that spontaneously affect the world and its inhabitants; by the
power of his realization, the Buddha becomes not only an enlightened being
but the very substance of enlightenment, which is pure blessing itself.11 This
8 On mantra, see Padoux 1990, as well as Alper 1989. Notice that the idea of mantra opens
much broader questions regarding the nature of sacred utterances and of language in
general. For an interesting discussion in this direction, see Tambiah 1968. For the logic of
isomorphic cosmic structures in the Upaniṣads, see Smith 1989: esp. ch. 2.
9 For the notion of cosmos, see Lindquist and Handelman 2011, as well as Handelman 2008.
10 I use the term “symbolical” reluctantly; the Buddha is accessed through different degrees
of presence, whether through images, relics, texts, or even the imagination. Since these
elements do not refer to a direct physical presence, I refer to them as “symbolic.”
11 These ideas resonate with Mahāyāna notions regarding the bodies of the Buddha and
the distinction between dharmakāya (the dharma body) and rūpakāya (form body) or
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214 Shulman
power is active in Buddhist texts — considered “The Word of the Buddha”

(Buddhavacana) — and especially so in ones that have been identified as
parittas, which can be drawn upon for any practical end.
Thus, I submit that for the historian of religions, while the psychological,
social, and magical elements referred to above offer important insights regard-
ing the effects of Buddhist chanting rituals,12 they are insufficient in order
to explain “how paritta works.” This is, of course, a complicated question to
which answers must be provided on different registers. Surely, not all people
in Theravāda-oriented societies even pause to ask the question — one need
not understand the ritual in order to perform it. Among those who do, differ-
ent answers may be provided that do not seem to solve the riddle — much of
the gist of Spiro’s and Gombrich’s studies deals with the problems inherent in
traditional explanations, such as whether paritta can produce a change
in karma or whether the common idea that paritta counters the power of
malevolent spirits is sufficient. Yet it must be clear that paritta makes sense in
the cultural context in which it is so widely used and, I will argue here, a close
reading of the main paritta-texts, which have been popular for many centuries,
if not millennia, provides important insights regarding some of the ideas that
contribute to the popularity of the ritual. That is, paritta-texts offer a unique
opportunity to rehearse notions regarding the Buddha’s cosmic — and not
only his ethical — supremacy.
Let me emphasize that in offering an analysis of the paritta-corpus, I am
not in any way prioritizing the texts over any concrete or local aspect of lived
Buddhist religion. When the majority of the participants in the ritual do not
understand Pāli, this should be clear enough. Nevertheless, some laypeople
can and do consult translations of paritta in the vernacular (Spiro 1971: 265–
266; Harvey 1993: 58; Tambiah 1968: 206n6), and a common intuition would
be that the texts do bear witness to a deep philosophy, which the Pāli reveals.13
nirmāṇakāya (emanation body). These ideas do not necessarily apply very strongly in the
Theravāda context, for reasons I discuss in Shulman 2017: 181–182.
12 I use the term “magic” in a pre-theoretical sense, and certainly with no commitment to
the modernist ideas that contrast magic with religion or science. White speaks of the
“ritual art of efficacy” as a more relevant term than “magic” and sees paritta as among
the practices included in its range (2017: 594). I accept his definition but submit that the
cosmological framework articulated in the present contribution is more relevant to
Buddhist cases than notions of “cosmological resonance and reciprocity” that White
relies on (594). More broadly, the idea of magic relates to the Buddhist performance of
miracles; see for example Fiordalis 2008 and Gethin 2011.
13 “for the Buddhist layman the fact that he does not understand [the Pāli] does not mean
for him that the chants are mumbo-jumbo. He believes quite rightly that for those who
know Pali the words contain great wisdom and sense; his ignorance is a reflection of his
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Like the notion of karma, the full philosophical picture need not be fully un-
derstood in order for the idea to apply (Keyes 1983). Furthermore, it is obvious
that when the ideology expressed by the texts met with the great diversity of
local contexts in which it was employed over such vast expanses of space and
time, it received new emphases and went through different adaptations.14 But
this should not dissuade the scholar of religion from carefully analyzing the
voice of the texts, which often offer central insights into religious ideology that
may not play a part in the conscious applications of a ritual or in the ideas
people will articulate. Perhaps the ideas expressed by the texts were once more
dominant than they are today, or better fit the religious epistemology of earlier
times. Indeed, Buddhist modernism has had a powerful influence in Theravāda
countries over the last century and a half, so that today people are eager to
deny the Buddha’s metaphysical dimensions (Huntington 2006; White 2017).
Here I hope to be following Blackburn’s call not to lose sight of the texts once
we have learned to appreciate the lived contexts of religious ritual (2011: 155–
156); thus, our aim should be to “rehabilitate the study of texts” in the study of
religion. By this I intend that an analysis of the texts can support what we learn
from cultural or anthropological approaches in order to penetrate some of the
ideology, perhaps at times a latent ideology, that is active in living religious
contexts. In any case, the philosophy that we will identify in the paritta-corpus
has explanatory power regarding the logic of the ritual and the understanding
of what a Buddha, as well as a Buddhist text, are understood to be in Buddhist
religion.
What follows is a study of some of the most distinctive and widely used
paritta texts, which will be analyzed in order to conceptualize the cosmology
and metaphysics implicit in Buddhist protection. The central collection I draw
on is the Sinhalese Catubhāṇavara (CBV), but the main texts I discuss are wide-
ly attested throughout the Theravāda Buddhist world and beyond it, histori-
cally as well as in contemporary Buddhist societies.15 These are the Dhajagga-,
Ratana-, Kāranīya-metta-, and Āṭānāṭīya-Suttas, which historically formed the
core of ritual chanting in Buddhism and continue to do so to this day. Other
texts I will refer to are among the oldest known and most popular parittas,
unworthiness and involvement in an inferior mode of life compared with that of the
monk” (Tambiah 1968: 182).
14 For one such example, see Tambiah 1968: 180. Notice, however, that Tambiah is mistaken
in assuming that the content of the Pāli chant is incongruous with the goals of the ritual;
paritta chants are in fact consistently world-affirming and thus fit the expectations of the
participants.
15 For Burma, see Spiro 1971: 144–147, 263–271; for Thailand, McDaniel 2006; for broader con-
texts, Skilling 1992, 1994, 1997; for a non-canonical example from Cambodia, Jaini 1965.
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216 Shulman
such as the Khandha-paritta, the Mahā-samaya-sutta and the Mora-paritta,

and the Mahā-maṅgala-sutta, which has risen to prominence more recently.
I will refer more briefly to other texts of the CBV. I access these texts as they
have been preserved in ideal Theravāda canons in Pāli such as those published
by the Pali Text Society or the Vipassana Research Institute.16
1 Self-aware Parittas and Their Map of the Cosmos
In Buddhist societies, canonical texts are considered to be intrinsically potent,

as if imbued with the power of the Buddha’s speech. Specific texts express an
awareness of their own protective power and speak about this explicitly; this
appears to be part of what made them parittas. A simple demonstration of
this is the Mora-paritta, one of the older protective Buddhist texts,17 which
comes from the Mora-Jātaka, the story of the Buddha’s prior birth in which
he was born as a golden peacock.18 Realizing the danger in his attractive con-
dition, the Bodhisatta repeats protective verses every morning and evening,
which he calls brahma-mantras. The first verse is a homily to the sun, while the
second is directed toward the Buddhas and other enlightened beings. We will
take the example of the morning verses, which are nearly identical to the ones
he recites in the afternoon.19
The sole king of vision, rising,

Golden-colored who lights the earth,
Him I worship, golden-colored who lights the earth,
By this may we abide protected by day.
16 It should be noted that there are at least two other texts that are extremely popular in
Thailand and can replace the more classical paritta texts studied here. These are the
Jayamaṅgala-gāthā (see Tambiah 1968: 204–205) and the Jīnapañjara-gāthā (McDaniel
2011: ch. 2). As more modern compositions, these texts rely on a broader understanding of
the Buddha’s biography, and both relate in interesting ways to the regular paritta-corpus.
The first of these refers to different victories of the Buddha, and ends each verse but the
last with a line that is modeled on the last line of the verses of the Ratana-sutta, perhaps
the paradigmatic paritta. The second of these includes in verses 10 and 11 a statement that
one is surrounded by all parittas, the leading of which are mentioned directly by name
(McDaniel 2011: 79).
17 For the historical development of Paritta, see, for example, de Silva 1981 and Skilling 1992.
18 Jātaka no. 159.
19 Translations from Pāli are my own. Pāli texts are taken from the Vipassana Research
Institute (VRI) edition and compared with the one of the Pali Text Society (PTS) and are
edited at times for punctuation. When relevant, quotations refer to page numbers in PTS.
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I worship the Brahmins who have knowledge of all things —

May they protect me!
May there be honor to the Buddhas and to enlightenment!
May there be honor to the liberated and to liberation!
Udetayaṃ20 cakkhumā ekarājā,

Harissavaṇṇo pathavippabhāso;
Taṃ taṃ namassāmi harissavaṇṇaṃ pathavippabhāsaṃ,
Tayājja guttā viharemu divasanti
Ye brāhmaṇā vedagū sabbadhamme,

te me namo te ca maṃ pālayantu;
Namatthu buddhānaṃ namatthu bodhiyā,
namo vimuttānaṃ namo vimuttiyā.21
These verses, as well as the full Jātaka-tale in which they are embedded, pro-
vide no explanation for the protective power of these magical words. A clue
comes from the perplexing pairing of the sun and the Buddhas as entities that
can offer protection. The verse to the sun is perhaps a more ancient charm, to
which a verse about the powers of enlightened beings was appended.22 When
paired in this way with the sun as a cosmological, divine power, the Buddha is
perceived as a cosmic element that offers protection by some power that in-
heres in him. The metaphysical, or perhaps fantastic, effects are intensified by
the reference to the golden peacock and by recalling the vast expanses of the
path to Buddhahood as found in the Jātakas.
The cosmological framework that relates to the “divine” elements of the
sun and the moon is further recalled in two other parittas from the CBV,
the Canda- and Suriya-Parittas, which, respectively, relate the incidents of how
Moon and Sun turned to the Buddha to protect them from Rāhu, the ominous
planet that causes their eclipses by devouring them. Fearing Rāhu, Moon hails
the Buddha and asks him to be his refuge:
20 Reading Udetayaṃ with VRI, against PTS Udet’ ayaṃ, in accord with the idea expressed
immediately before that the peacock utters the verses as he sees the rising sun (sūriyam
uggacchantam oloketvā).
21 Reading with PTS, against VRI, which includes the statement that “making this protec-
tion, the peacock went in search [of food]” (imaṃ so parittaṃ katvā moro carati esanānti).
22 As two verses, they are exceptionally long, so that it seems that there existed an active
memory of their being shorter. By making this point I do not intend to suggest that the
Jātakas are originally non-Buddhist, but rather to emphasize that within the Buddhist
context, the pairing of the Buddha with the Sun and Moon is a carefully crafted
Buddhist perception.
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218 Shulman
Praise be to you, Buddha, you who are liberated in all respects.

I am in trouble —
Thus, be my refuge!
Namo te buddha vīratthu, vippamuttosi sabbadhi;

Sambādhapaṭipannosmi, tassa me saraṇaṃ bhavāti.
The Buddha responds by exercising his authority over Rāhu and ordering him
to release his devotee:
Moon has gone for refuge to the Tathāgata, the worthy one.
Rāhu, liberate Moon!
Buddhas have care for the world.
Tathāgataṃ arahantaṃ, candimā saraṇaṃ gato;

Rāhu candaṃ pamuñcassu, buddhā lokānukampakāti.
By the very power of the Buddha’s speech, Rāhu is defeated; he runs to

Vepacitta, lord of the demons (Asuras), who says,
Why, Rāhu, are you so agitated, having released Moon?

You come troubled; why do you remain so afraid?
Kiṃ nu santaramānova, rāhu candaṃ pamuñcasi;

Saṃviggarūpo āgamma, kiṃ nu bhītova tiṭṭhasīti.
To this Rāhu replies,
I have been bound23 by a verse sung by the Buddha.

If I would not have released Moon,
My head would have split into seven pieces,
And I could never have lived happily.
Sattadhā me phale muddhā, jīvanto na sukhaṃ labhe;

Buddhagāthābhigītomhi, no ce muñceyya candimanti
23 Literally Rāhu says that he has been sung a verse by the Buddha; I understand this to
convey that being sung a verse, he is captured by it, which reflects the power of Buddha’s
speech, especially in verse.
Numen 66 (2019) 207–242

The case with the Sun is a slightly more elaborate version of the same event.
In these episodes the cosmological dimensions that were implicit in the Mora-
Paritta clearly manifest: The Buddha commands the worlds, including the
skies and the divine or demonic beings that inhabit them. He exercises control
over the universe, and specifically over the threatening powers within it. The
Buddha has the ability to avert even the most dangerous and exceptional natu-
ral events of solar and lunar eclipses, notorious in Indic cultures for their haz-
ardous effects. He can naturally command all demons, as is paradigmatically
expressed in his victory over the arch-demon Māra, traditionally considered
the main mark of enlightenment. Indeed, this conquest is one of the Buddha’s
major “miracles” (pāṭihāriya), presumably since with this event he changes the
course of nature.24 These relatively simple parittas already demonstrate
the cosmological framework in which paritta functions.
The primary paritta-text that expresses a self-reflective awareness of its pro-
tective powers is the Āṭānāṭīya-sutta, one of the most ancient and important
parittas (Skilling 1992: 159). Its prominence is exhibited by its placement as the
final text in the CBV, and together with it in the recitation that takes place in all-
night parittas, comprising both the third and fourth section of recitation — the
long protective charm that is at the core of the text is repeated within the text
itself, and each repetition comprises a full section. The Āṭānāṭīya is a long
text, taken from the Dīgha Nikāya (The Collection of Long Discourses); the
Buddha is approached by the “Four Great Kings” of the Yakkhas, Gandhabbas,
Kumbaṇḍas, and Nāgas, which are four classes of powerful supernatural be-
ings that abide between human and godly realms of existence.25 In the present
context of protection, the Four Kings come to speak with the Buddha after
positioning a guard at each of the four directions. Vessavaṇṇa, king of the
Yakkhas and the leader of the group, offers to provide the Buddha with a “pro-
tection” (rakkhā) so that monks who have gone to meditate in the forest can
defend themselves against demons (yakkha26) that trouble them. He explains
that many yakkhas have little faith in the Buddha, who advocates a moral code
they prefer not to live by. Recitation of this formula will subdue any intimidat-
ing spirit.
24 On the miracle of taming Māra as an expression of the Buddha’s enlightenment, see
Foucher 1917: ch. 6, Huntington 1987, and Shulman 2017.
25 The Four Great Kings act as protective deities who play interesting roles in Buddhist nar-
rative, such as delivering the baby Buddha-to-be in the Mahāpadāna-sutta, at DN II.13.
26 The category of Yakkha can refer to different kinds of beings in Buddhist literature, which
need not necessarily be malevolent.
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220 Shulman
The protective formula of the Āṭāṇāṭiya is too long to be analyzed in its

entirety here. We may confine ourselves to examining the main part of the
formula, which is repeated in relation to supernatural beings in each of
the four directions. The charm describes the powerful beings in each direction
and then says (here described with respect to the East),
Here this is the Eastern quarter, this is how people call it.
A great glorious king rules it,
Lord of the Gandhabbas, Dhataraṭṭha by name;
He takes his pleasure, honored by Gandhabbas in dance and song.
He has many sons, and I hear they all have the same name —
Eighty and ten and one they are, powerful, named Inda.
And they, having seen the Buddha,
Buddha the kinsman of the sun, praise him from afar,
The great, wise one:
“Praise to you, man of noble breed,
Praise to you, best of men,
You have looked [at us] with care;
Although [we are] not human, we honor you!
We have heard this again and again: ‘You should praise Gotama as the
conquerer!’
Therefore we say thus:
‘We praise Gotama as the conqueror!
He who is endowed with perfected knowledge and conduct,
We praise Gotama as the Buddha!’”27
Ito sā purimā disā, iti naṃ ācikkhatī jano;

Yaṃ disaṃ abhipāleti, mahārājā yasassi so.
Gandhabbānaṃ adhipati, ‘dhataraṭṭho’ti nāmaso;
Ramati nacca-gītehi, gandhabbehi purakkhato.
Puttāpi tassa bahavo, ekanāmāti me sutaṃ;
Asīti dasa eko ca, inda-nāmā mahabbalā.
Te cāpi buddhaṃ disvāna, buddhaṃ ādiccabandhunaṃ;
Dūratova namassanti, mahantaṃ vītasāradaṃ.
Namo te purisājañña, namo te purisuttama;
Kusalena samekkhasi, amanussāpi taṃ vandanti;
27 One could translate, “We praise Gotama the Conqueror/the Buddha,” but it seems that
the idea expressed by these supernatural beings is that Gotama can even be seen as a
Conqueror (jīna) or a Buddha.
Numen 66 (2019) 207–242

Sutaṃ netaṃ abhiṇhaso, tasmā evaṃ vademase.

‘Jinaṃ vandatha gotamaṃ’, jinaṃ vandāma gotamaṃ;
Vijjācaraṇasampannaṃ, buddhaṃ vandāma gotamaṃ’.
Vessavaṇṇa explains that any demon, of any type, that would intimidate a
monk who can recite these verses will encounter dire results; not only would
he not be admitted to the royal city of the yakkhas or to yakkha-assemblies or
be able to marry, but he would also be seized by non-humans who would turn
his head over like an empty bowl and burst it into seven pieces. This enhances
the cosmological ideas that we identified in the previous parittas. Not only
is the natural order — sun, moon, planets, etc. — oriented toward the Buddha,
but so are the worlds of divine and demonic beings. We now begin to observe
the cosmological map — a maṇḍala — with the Buddha at its hub, which is
at work in Buddhist protective magic. The Buddha is placed in the middle of
the four quarters, and supernatural beings, powerful and potentially hazard-
ous agents, turn to him, acknowledge his pre-eminence, and worship him in
adoration.
The Āṭānāṭiya strongly suggests that the working of paritta is not only due
to a simple enhancement of the well-being and confidence of people who take
part in the ritual. On a literal level, the text contains magical charms that com-
bat demons and other ominous agents. On a more interpretive level, there is a
map of the cosmos, and particularly of its godly realms, with the Buddha situat-
ed at its center, according to which the Buddha exercises power over supernat-
ural creatures. This can be understood as an ordering of magical power — here
the text specifically relates to a potent and active level of divine beings, that
of the Four Great Kings and their assemblies, which is situated exactly between
human and divine realms and is proven to be completely subservient to the
Buddha. This is, in fact, much of what paritta does — it maps magical potency
and then channels and transforms it into Buddhist power; this happens in an
especially cogent way in the Āṭānāṭiya. Perhaps this is part of the reason that
this paritta was considered especially powerful and was to be used only if the
more moderate ones failed (de Silva 1981: 17–18, Walshe 1995: 613).
The Āṭāṇātiya refers only to “The Four Great Kings” and to their armies.
In the Mahāsamaya-sutta, another old and important paritta that comes
from the Dīgha Nikāya, this map is expanded to include all godly creatures.
Furthermore, not only do all gods come “to see” the Buddha — that is, to take
his darśan — they have done so and will do so with respect to all Buddhas, past
and future. In the present case, the Buddha is staying at Kapilavatthu with 500
liberated monks; “most of the gods of the ten world systems have assembled
to see the Lord and the community of monks” (dasahi ca lokadhātūhi devatā
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222 Shulman
yebhuyyena sannipatitā honti bhagavantaṃ dassanāya bhikkhusaṅghañca).28

Four companies of Gods of the Pure Abodes (Suddhāvāsakāyikā) are aware
of this great cosmic gathering (mahā-samaya) and join the event, with the
intention of each singing a verse to the Buddha. After they do so, Buddha ex-
plains to the monks that it often happens that gods in the ten world systems
assemble “to see” the Buddha and his community of monks.
In the Mahāsamaya, the maṇḍala with the Buddha in the center of the four
guardian kings from the Aṭānātiya is extended vertically to all godly realms
and universalized as a basic relationship between gods and Buddhas. In order
to demonstrate his cosmic mastery and superiority over all divine forces, in
the main part of the text the Buddha introduces the different classes of gods
to the monks; the long poem he recites is the core of the text and its main pro-
tective element, presumably because it implies that they all worship him and
are under his control. When the Buddha finishes his exposition, the gods are
assaulted by Māra, whom the Buddha recognizes and thereby defeats; accord-
ing to a common textual trope, Māra must retreat due to the Buddha’s under-
standing. The monks remain calm, and the poem ends with the Buddha saying
that “All who have won their battles, the glorious ones who have gone beyond
fear, those students famed among the people, rejoice with [all] beings.”29 The
Buddha’s followers are hereby shown to be naturally protected, and even gods
can rely on the Buddha for this end.
We have seen how certain paritta-texts explicitly relate to their own protec-
tive power; this appears to be part of why they were considered effective as
charms and as ritual texts. These texts further develop a cosmic framework,
with the Buddha commanding the natural and the supernatural order from its
center. We will now examine how these ideas are intensified in the core texts
of the genre, the “Great Parittas” (Mahā-pirit).
2 Buddha as Truth and Love
The most frequently used parittas are the “Great Parittas” (Mahā-pirit), as they
have been known in Sri Lanka and which historically have formed the core of
the genre together with the Āṭāṇātiya in all Theravāda contexts (Skilling 1992,
e.g., tables on 174–179). These texts are recited morning and evening and can
28 Notice the pragmatic Buddhist flavor in “most of” (yebhuyyena) the gods in this statement.
29 D N II.262: Sabbe vijitasaṅgāma bhayātītā yassasino; modanti saha bhūtehi sāvakā te
janesutā. The commentary reads janesutā as jane vissutā.
Numen 66 (2019) 207–242

be heard on national radio or on loudspeakers positioned in Buddhist temples.

In Sri Lanka, for centuries this group of three texts consisted of the Dhajagga-
sutta, the Kāraṇīya-metta-sutta, and the Ratana-sutta, but during the 19th cen-
tury the first of these was replaced by the Mahā-maṅgala-sutta (De Silva 1981:
14–15). These texts go beyond the notion of “self-aware parittas” discussed in
the previous section and take the cosmological logic of Buddhist protection to
new dimensions.
The Dhajagga-sutta relates most explicitly to the cosmological picture dis-
cussed above.30 This discourse begins with the armies of gods and demons ar-
rayed for battle. Sakka, king of the gods (devānam indo), addresses the gods
and suggests that anyone who loses heart during battle should look to his stan-
dard or, alternatively, to that of the god-leaders Pajāpati, Varuṇa, or Īsāṇa. The
Buddha now reflects upon this instruction and says that it may or may not
help, since these gods “are not beyond passion, hatred and confusion, [and
therefore] experience fear, terror, and fright, and run away.”31 A monk who
faces fear when he goes to meditate in the forest — no less a dramatic cosmic
battleground than the one in which the gods and demons take part — has
a more reliable support: he should recall the Buddha, the Dhamma, and the
Saṅgha; he will thus be protected, since the Buddha is “devoid of passion, de-
void of hatred, devoid of confusion, and therefore has no fear, no terror, no
fright; he does not run away.”32
The achievement of fearlessness is considered one of the marking features
of a true, accomplished renunciate (Rahula 1993: 220–222 Tambiah 1984: 89).33
To some this may sound like nothing more than a psychological accomplish-
ment that follows from diligent meditative practice. Here, however, it is placed
in relation to the metaphysical context of the battles between the gods and
demons, so that the Buddha is again shown to be superior to divine beings. The
seminal formula that the Buddha offers in the Dhajagga for his own recollec-
tion includes his definition as “teacher of gods and men”:
30 According to Skilling (1997: 66), this is one of the most important and earliest Parittas.
31 S N I. 219: Sakko hi, bhikkhave, devānamindo avītarāgo avītadoso avītamoho bhīru chambhī
utrāsī palāyīti.
32 S N I. 220: Tathāgato hi, bhikkhave, arahaṃ sammāsambuddho vītarāgo vītadoso vītamoho
abhīru acchambhī anutrāsī apalāyīti.
33 The accomplishment of fearlessness figures prominently in many discourses in
which the Buddha vanquishes Māra, such as the Pāsāṇa-sutta (SN I. 243–244); see also
the Bhayabherava-sutta (Majjhima-Nikāya 4).
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224 Shulman
This is He, the Lord, the Arahant, the Fully-Perfected-Buddha, endowed

with wisdom and conduct, the blessed one, knower of the worlds,
the highest leader for people to be tamed, teacher of gods and men, the
Buddha, the Lord.
itipi so bhagavā arahaṃ sammāsambuddho vijjācaraṇasampanno sugato

lokavidū anuttaro purisadammasārathi satthā devamanussānaṃ buddho
bhagavā’ti.
The Buddha assures monks who use this formula that they will be free from
fear.34 Indeed, the itipiso gāthā, as it is commonly known, has been employed
in Theravāda societies into modern times as an easy-to-use Buddhist spell and
as a pivotal articulation regarding the nature of the Buddha (Gombrich 1971:
243; McDaniel 2011: 243n3).35
The Dhajagga thus provides the paradigmatic case of the recollection of
the Buddha, which here is seen to be a protective element in its own right.36
Perhaps the idea of the Buddha is already psychologically comforting, but here
the recollection draws on a more metaphysical understanding — when one re-
calls the Buddha, all fear will be appeased, since he is completely beyond fear,
thanks to his having defeated the defilements of passion, anger and delusion.
By going beyond fear and the defilements, however, the Buddha not only liber-
ates himself from potential danger but becomes a reliable and stable support
for protection. His accomplishment is not private but public and cosmic; being
devoid of passion, he is of a different ontological order. Paritta is thus a way to
draw upon the ultimate source of power, a realized Buddha. By extension, any
Buddhist text is potentially protective, since it participates in the recollection
of the Buddha.
The Dhajagga offers more. Like Sakka, who points to other god-leaders
if he cannot be observed himself, the Buddha recommends contemplating
the Dhamma and the Saṅgha if he cannot be brought to mind (no ce maṃ
34 S N I.219: Mamañhi vo, bhikkhave, anussarataṃ yaṃ bhavissati bhayaṃ vā chambhitattaṃ
vā lomahaṃso vā, so pahīyissati.
35 Classic texts in Theravāda employ this formula in order to structure their discus-
sion of the Buddha; see, for example, the Buddha-anusmṛti chapter of Buddhaghosa’s
Visuddhimagga, or the plan of the Medieval Sinhalese Pūjavalīya. For a view of its con-
tinuous popularity a quick search on the internet will prove fruitful; see for example at
https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=2&v=ivSD7UQABr0 (last accessed
21.6.2018). See further in Nattier 2003.
36 For Buddha-anusmṛti, see Hallisey 1988: ch. 4; and Harrison 1992.
Numen 66 (2019) 207–242

anussareyyātha, atha dhammaṃ anussareyyātha). Again, these are seminal

formulations:
Well-proclaimed by the Lord is the Dhamma, which is directly visible,

timeless, accessible, reliable, to be realized by the wise on their own.
svākkhāto bhagavatā dhammo sandiṭṭhiko akāliko ehipassiko opaneyyiko

paccattaṃ veditabbo viññūhīti
Whoever keeps the Dhamma in mind in this way will allay all anxiety.37 Or,
one may turn to the Saṅgha:
Practicing well is the Lord’s community of students; practicing straight

is the Lord’s community of students; practicing in the right method is
the Lord’s community of students; practicing properly is the Lord’s com-
munity of students. The four pairs of men, the eight types of men: this is
the Lord’s community of students, which is worthy of offerings, worthy
of being treated with reverence as a guest, worthy of gifts, who should be
greeted with an añjali — the unsurpassable field of merit for the world.
suppaṭipanno bhagavato sāvakasaṅgho, ujuppaṭipanno bhaga-

vato sāvakasaṅgho, ñāyappaṭipanno bhagavato sāvakasaṅgho,
sāmīcippaṭipanno bhagavato sāvakasaṅgho, yadidaṃ cattāri purisayugāni
aṭṭha purisapuggalā esa bhagavato sāvakasaṅgho, āhuneyyo pāhuneyyo
dakkhiṇeyyo añjalikaraṇīyo anuttaraṃ puññakkhettaṃ lokassāti.
In the present context, it is most important to observe the continuity estab-

lished between the Buddha, Dhamma, and Saṅgha; the doctrine and commu-
nity are adequate replacements when Buddha himself is unavailable, and they
can be recalled through their own potent formulas.38 Therefore, monks chant-
ing the Dhamma are a reliable protective power, and it makes good sense to
invite them and provide for them with this goal in mind. They, too, embody the
fearless reality that has transcended desire, the ultimate truth of the cosmos.
The careful demonstration of monk-etiquette in the ritual, referred to in the
first part of our discussion, appears not only as a value that creates the right
37 dhammañhi vo, bhikkhave, anussarataṃ … (See note 34).

38 This understanding contributes to some of the texts discussed in the previous section as
well. For example, in the Mahāsamaya, the gods come to see the Buddha and the com-
munity of monks, who are all liberated.
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226 Shulman
atmosphere and mental disposition for participants but also has a clear “theo-
logical” backing; monks, in many respects, are the Buddha, the victorious real-
ity beyond danger, and even more so when they recite the Dhamma. The ritual
is a way to make protective power present and to actualize it.
The continuity between the Buddha-Dhamma-Saṅgha is a central theme
also of the Ratana-Sutta, a remarkable text that is part of any paritta collec-
tion and that should be seen as the paradigmatic text of the genre. Within the
cosmological framework we have outlined, with the Buddha as the nuclear
element of cosmos, the Ratana speaks of the Buddha as the deepest truth,
more valuable than any conceivable reality. With this it moves toward a posi-
tive description of the Buddha’s nature.
The Ratana begins with the Buddha addressing divine beings:
Whatever beings have assembled, whether earthly [gods] or ones in the

sky —
May all beings be content and listen attentively to what is being said.
Therefore, all beings pay attention, and act with love toward humankind,
They who bring you offerings day and night;
Therefore, guard them attentively.
Yānīdha bhūtāni samāgatāni, bhummāni vā yāni va antalikkhe;

Sabbeva bhūtā sumanā bhavantu, athopi sakkacca suṇantu bhāsitaṃ.
Tasmā hi bhūtā nisāmetha sabbe, mettaṃ karotha mānusiyā pajāya;
Divā ca ratto ca haranti ye baliṃ, tasmā hi ne rakkhatha appamattā.
The Buddha addresses potentially malevolent divine beings and asks

them to cultivate metta toward human beings, who bring them offer-
ings. Metta (love) is itself a protective element and will be discussed below.
Here, the protective power is situated in the very nature of the Buddha and
in the realizations he accomplishes. The next verse speaks of the Buddha
himself:
Whatever riches there are here or beyond,

Or whatever highest jewel exists in the heaven,
There is nothing equal to the Tathāgata.
This too is the highest jewel in the Buddha;
By this truth may there be well-being.
Yaṃ kiñci vittaṃ idha vā huraṃ vā, saggesu vā yaṃ ratanaṃ paṇītaṃ;
Na no samaṃ atthi tathāgatena, idampi buddhe ratanaṃ paṇītaṃ;
Etena saccena suvatthi hotu.
Numen 66 (2019) 207–242

This is the pivotal verse of the discourse. It states that anything material, up
to the highest jewel in the heavens, cannot compare with the Buddha.39 The
verse clearly refers to any riches that may be included in this life or the next
(idaṃ vā huraṃ vā) and states that nothing competes with the Tathāgata, who
is a power of a different order, the very truth to which all beings and worlds
adhere. This fact is now said to be “the jewel within the Buddha,” echoing the
reference to the Buddha, as well as the Dhamma and the Saṅgha, as the three
“jewels” (ratana). The fact that nothing compares to the Buddha is a truth that
offers protection and well-being: “by this truth may there be well-being;” by the
ontological fact that nothing in the world can equal the Buddha, protection is
thought to issue.
Again, we encounter the continuity between Buddha and Dhamma:
Extinction, the end of passion, the deathless, the highest,

That which Sakyamuni realized in his concentrated mind;
Nothing is equal to this Dhamma,
And this too is the highest jewel in the Dhamma;
That purity that the highest Buddha described,

That samādhi they call immediate,
There is nothing equal to this samādhi;
By this truth may there be well-being.40
Khayaṃ virāgaṃ amataṃ paṇītaṃ, yad ajjhagā sakyamunī samāhito;

Na tena dhammena samatthi kiñci, idampi dhamme ratanaṃ paṇītaṃ;
Yaṃ buddhaseṭṭho parivaṇṇayī suciṃ, samādhim ānantarikaññam āhu;
Samādhinā tena samo na vijjati, idampi dhamme ratanaṃ paṇītaṃ;
39 The commentary offers a fascinating and elaborate description of the earthly and heav-
enly jewels that do not compare with the Buddha. See a translation in Ñāṇamoḷi 2005:
183–193.
40 Questions arise with regard to how to read the second verse regarding the Dhamma.
Aside from the enigmatic statement about the samādhi “called the immediate, other”
(ānantarikaññam ahū), it is unclear why the Dhamma needs two verses while the Buddha
receives only one. This may suggest that the second verse is a later addition. Other consid-
erations in this respect are that toward the end of the text, following a long list of verses
about the Saṅgha, another two verses will be added regarding the Buddha, after which
another verse about the Saṅgha appears. This gives the impression that this may not be
“the earliest” version of the Ratana-sutta. Such concerns have little impact, however, on
the ideological statement of the discourse, which is our main interest.
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228 Shulman
Truth is the protective power offered by the Ratana-sutta, which is situated

in the Buddha and the Dhamma, and, as we will soon see, in the Saṅgha as well.
This truth is not only in the Buddha himself, but it was also realized by him,
so that he and his realization define each other. Specifically, this truth is said
to be situated in states of deep, concentrated meditation (samādhi), which are
known to confer supernatural power (Gethin 2011).
Next, the text will connect the protective power of the Buddha and Dhamma
to the Saṅgha. This naturally takes more effort, since it is more difficult to view
the living community of monks as an embodiment of the same cosmic real-
ity that the Buddha and the Dhamma constitute; one would think that most
monks are, at best, on their way to such a reality. The continuity between
Buddha-Dhamma-Saṅgha is, nonetheless, a central element in the constitu-
tion of Buddhist society, which takes the monks not only as representations of
the Buddha, but as embodiments of the truths he conveys. The text labors this
point with six verses, the main thrust of which is to show that the community
of monks participates in the same realization described in the previous verses:
Those eight men praised by the wise, these four pairs,41

They are the students of the blessed one worthy of gifts;
What is given to them bears great fruits;
This too is the highest jewel within the Saṅgha;
Those who are harnessed with a firm mind, who are dedicated to
Gotama’s teaching,
They have reached attainment, having plunged into the deathless,
[and] enjoy the great quiet, having obtained it for free.
This too is the highest jewel in the Saṅgha;
Like a stake set in the ground, which is unmoved by the winds of the four
directions,
So is the man of truth, who sees having realized the noble truths,
41 This refers to ones who have attained the four fruits (sotāpanna, “stream entry,” etc.) and
ones on the way to each of the four fruits.
Numen 66 (2019) 207–242

Those who realize the noble truths, well-taught by the one deep in
wisdom,
Even if they are completely inattentive,
They will not take on an eighth rebirth.
For him, together with the attainment of true vision,

Three things are destroyed: view of identity, doubt, and any adherence to
vows and morality.
He is freed from the four bad destinations, and the six horrible crimes
will never be for him.
Whatever bad action he performs, whether by body, speech, or mind,

It is impossible that he would conceal it;
This impossibility is said to result from his realization.
Ye puggalā aṭṭha sataṃ pasatthā, cattāri etāni yugāni honti;

Te dakkhiṇeyyā sugatassa sāvakā, etesu dinnāni mahapphalāni;
Idampi saṅghe ratanaṃ paṇītaṃ, etena saccena suvatthi hotu.
Ye suppayuttā manasā daḷhena, nikkāmino gotamasāsanamhi;

Te pattipattā amataṃ vigayha, laddhā mudhā nibbutiṃ bhuñjamānā;
Yathindakhīlo pathavissito42 siyā, catubbhi vātehi asampakampiyo;

Tathūpamaṃ sappurisaṃ vadāmi, yo ariyasaccāni avecca passati;
Ye ariyasaccāni vibhāvayanti, gambhīrapaññena sudesitāni;

Kiñcāpi te honti bhusaṃ pamattā, na te bhavaṃ aṭṭhamamādiyanti;
42 PTS: pathaviṃ sito.
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230 Shulman
Sahāvassa dassanasampadāya, tayas su dhammā jahitā bhavanti;

Sakkāyadiṭṭhi vicikicchitañca, sīlabbataṃ vāpi yadatthi kiñci.
Catūhapāyehi ca vippamutto, cha cābhiṭhānāni abhabbo kātuṃ;
Kiñcāpi so kammaṃ karoti pāpakaṃ, kāyena vācā uda cetasā vā;

Abhabbo so tassa paṭicchadāya, abhabbatā diṭṭhapadassa vuttā;
These verses about the Saṅgha offer an interesting blend of idealization and
realism. On the one hand, they assume that members of the Saṅgha attain a
realization that is similar to the one described in the verses on Dhamma. These
people have “plunged into” (vigayha) the deathless (amata) that the Buddha
was said to experience in his samādhi. They realize the noble truths and are
at most a few steps from complete liberation. On the other hand, monks
can still commit bad deeds (kammaṃ pāpakaṃ) of body, speech, and mind.
Acknowledging the imperfection of the community seems a practical must,
but the main emphasis is on the ideal it represents.
At the heart of the Ratana is the “speech-act of truth” (sacca-kiriya; sacca-
vacana( that is made at the end of each verse: “by this truth may there be
well-being” (etena saccena suvatthi hotu). Why is it that the fact that no jewel
compares with the Buddha is capable of creating a reality of well-being, per-
haps changing a state of famine and plague as expressed by the commentary?
This idea relies on the powerful ideology at work in the text: that the Buddha
not only expresses or realizes truth, but that he is this truth. More carefully,
we may distinguish between three main elements that are part of all verses
in the main body of the poem. The first is the statement about the Buddha-
Dhamma-Saṅgha, that is that nothing equals the Buddha. The second defines
this as the jewel within the Buddha.43 The third is the truth utterance, “by this
truth may there be well-being,” which holds the main protective potency of
43 Why the truths recalled by the text are jewels in the Buddha-Dhamma-Saṅgha is not fully
clear. As I understand the commentary, it relies on the idea that the qualities connected
to “jewelness” exist in the three jewels. The heart of the complex passage explaining the
sentence idaṃpi Buddhe ratanaṃ paṇītaṃ; etena saccena is the following: Yattha pana
cittīkatādiatthasaṅkhātaṃ yena vā tena vā vidhinā sambandhagataṃ ratanattaṃ atthi,
yasmā taṃ ratanattam upādāya ratananti paññāpīyati, tasmā tassa ratanattassa atthitāya
ratananti sijjhati. “That in which there is the meaning of being respected, etc., [the dif-
ferent meanings of “jewel” that the commentary elaborates upon], the nature of being a
jewel (ratanatta) is connected by some way or another, and because it is known as ‘jewel’
depending on that nature of being a jewel, it is established as ‘jewel’ in relation to the
existence of the nature of a jewel.” (Text taken from VRI edition: http://www.tipitaka
Numen 66 (2019) 207–242

the text. Indeed, as some interpreters have observed, truth is therapeutic.44

Yet the truth beckoned by the Ratana is not only a philosophical or theoretical
one but consists of the very ontological reality that Buddha is truth itself, as
are his embodiments in Dhamma and Saṅgha. Here we reach the main idea of
this reading in paritta: truth is effective by nature; this truth is specific, how-
ever — it is the fundamental reality of the cosmos, the supremacy and imma-
nent power of the Buddha. One does not use a propositional or abstract truth
to fight malevolent powers but adduces the cosmological reality that has the
Buddha at the core of the cosmos and takes the Dhamma and Saṅgha to have,
and to offer, access to him.
The commentary to the Ratana-sutta, a later work that is part of the
commentary on the Khuddaka-pāṭha and is considered an important early
source on paritta, defines the statement, “This too is the jewel in the Buddha/
Dhamma/Saṅgha; by this truth may there be well-being,” as a “truth-utterance”
(sacca-vacana) that causes the malevolent supernatural beings to evacuate
the city. The fact that truth can act to change reality — a familiar theme from
Buddhist narrative45 — is metaphysically pregnant. The Buddha can be relied
on in this way because he, unlike anyone else, is thoroughly pervaded by truth,
to the degree that he is truth itself. His complete realization has made him ut-
terly reliable and protective.
The framing of the Ratana in the commentary, which provides one of the
earlier indications for the traditional reception of the text, offers a cogent ar-
ticulation regarding the cosmological and metaphysical nature of the Buddha
at work in paritta texts. This commentary, which from our point of view can
teach us about the traditional reception of the text, is an important source on
paritta that contains one of the earliest statements on the subject in Pāli litera-
ture and that refers to some of the core practices involved in the ritual, such as
the sprinkling of water. The commentary takes the Ratana to be uttered by the
Buddha in order to deal with the danger of the Supernaturals (amanussa) who
.de/roman/atthakatha/suttapitaka%20(atthakatha)/khuddakanikaya%20(atthakatha)/
suttanipata-atthakatha/2.%20culavaggo.html).
44 See the first section above, as well as Harvey 1993; see also Anālayo 2015: 18.
45 The idea of a “truth act” (sacca-kiriya) is widely attested in the Jātakas (e.g. the Sāma-
Jātaka, no. 538, or the Maccha-jātaka, no. 75); see also Skilling 1992: 145–149. In the
context of paritta, the notion of a truth-utterance is particularly active in the fascinat-
ing Angulimāla-sutta/paritta. The horrible killer Aṅgulimāla has been converted by the
Buddha; he makes a truth-utterance that he has never harmed a living creature since he
has been ordained in order to help a woman in a complicated labor (MN II.103). His vers-
es can be repeated to this day in order to ensure safe delivery at child-birth.
Numen 66 (2019) 207–242

232 Shulman
were troubling the people of Vesali,46 following the death of many people as
a result of a plague brought about by drought. After the people ascertain that
the drought was not caused by the king’s non-dharmic action, they send for the
Buddha, who is escorted into town with exceedingly lavish pomp and splen-
dor. At the very moment that the Buddha arrives, great rain-clouds assemble
and intense showers pour from the skies. The very presence of the Buddha thus
changes the course of nature and fixes all meteorological problems. Again, this
results from the Buddha’s unique being and his central cosmic role. In order to
deal with the problem of the Supernaturals, he then chants the text.
The Ratana teaches us that in important ways, Buddha is truth, or at least
that he realizes truth in a strong sense of the term “realize.” According to the
logic of paritta, he is also Love (or care, metta), which again emerges as a pro-
tective power that the Buddha commands by being thoroughly pervaded by it.
Metta is a central element in paritta, and is thought to have exceptional protec-
tive power, mainly because when one harbors a mind of love, any being who
would contemplate harming him or her would be spontaneously appeased. A
simple demonstration of this appears in the Khandha-Paritta, considered one
of the oldest protective Buddhist texts. Here the Buddha teaches the monks
to develop a mind of loving-kindness toward snakes after a monk died from
snake-bite; the monk would have been protected if he would have practiced
metta toward snakes. Buddha then provides a set of protective verses that help
one develop a mind of loving kindness toward snakes and other creatures.
These include
All beings, all creatures, each and every one —

May all experience good fortune, and not come to any harm.
Sabbe sattā sabbe pāṇā, sabbe bhūtā ca kevalā;

Sabbe bhadrāni passantu, mā kañci pāpam āgamā.
The power of the Buddha is brought in to ensure protection:

The Buddha is without measure;
The Dhamma is without measure;
The Saṅgha is without measure;
Crawling creatures are measurable.
46 By “Supernaturals” I mean mainly the Pāli category of amanussa — “non-humans” —
which refers to different kinds of gods and spirits.
Numen 66 (2019) 207–242

Appamāṇo buddho, appamāṇo dhammo;

Appamāṇo saṅgho, pamāṇavantāni sarīsapāni
Even in this limited context we notice the intense care toward others — snakes
included! — that the Buddha demands of himself and his students. Such ex-
treme concern is apparently part of what makes the Buddha “immeasurable”
(appamāṇa). The fact that the Buddha, his teaching, and his students are all
defined as beyond measure is again an ontological truth that affords protec-
tion against things or creatures that are not beyond measure, a statement
with interesting philosophical resonance. We seem to encounter here another
intuition regarding the Buddha’s protective power, which derives from the
ontological transformation inherent in his enlightenment — becoming
boundless, he has power over anything that has been formed; having no end,
he can impact that which is limited and thereby transform it. These are ideas
that call for further inquiry.
The theme of the protective power of the Buddha’s love attains its full ar-
ticulation in the Metta-sutta (or Kāraṇīya-metta-sutta), one of the core paritta-
texts historically and today. Here, care becomes all-extending and is directed
to all beings in a more emphatic manner. If we trust the commentary, the text
is again given by the Buddha in order to combat Supernaturals who are pre-
venting monks from meditating during the rains-retreat (vassa). The Buddha
provides them with this set of beautiful verses, which will help them develop
a protective mind of love:
May all beings be safe; may all beings be happy;

Whatever beings there are, all of them —
Moving or still, long, large, middle-sized, small or tiny,
Seen or unseen, those who live far or near,
Ones who have come into being or are coming into being —
May all beings be happy.
May one not harm another, may anyone not despise another, anywhere;
May one not desire pain for another due to anger or conflict.
As a mother would guard her son, her only son, with her life,
This is how one should develop a boundless mind toward all creatures.
One should develop a boundless mind of love toward all the worlds,
Above, below, and in-between, with no obstruction, no hostility or rivalry.
Whether he is standing, sitting, or lying down,
So long as he is not dull-minded,
He should harbor this attention, which they call
The Brahma-abode here and now.
Numen 66 (2019) 207–242

234 Shulman
Sukhino va khemino hontu sabbe sattā bhavantu sukhitattā.

Ye keci pāṇabhūt’ atthi tasā vā thāvarā vā anavasesā;
Dīghā vā ye mahantā vā majjhimā rassakā aṇukathūlā.
Diṭṭhā vā ye vā addiṭṭhā ye ca dūre vasanti avidūre;
Bhūtā vā sambhavesī vā sabbasattā bhavantu sukhitattā.
Na paro paraṃ nikubbetha nātimaññetha katthacinaṃ kañci;
Byārosanā paṭighasaññā nāññamaññassa dukkham iccheyya.
Mātā yathā niyaṃ puttamāyusā ekaputtam anurakkhe;
Evampi sabbabhūtesu mānasaṃ bhāvaye aparimāṇaṃ.
Mettañca sabbalokasmi mānasaṃ bhāvaye aparimāṇaṃ;
Uddhaṃ adho ca tiriyañca asambādhaṃ averam asapattaṃ.
Tiṭṭhaṃ caraṃ nisinno vā sayāno vā yāvatāssa vigatamiddho;
Etaṃ satiṃ adhiṭṭheyya brahmam etaṃ vihāram idham āhu.
In a similar-way to the Ratana, the Metta-sutta is a “self-aware” paritta (as is the

Khandha-Paritta just discussed), yet it goes beyond this protective element in
phrasing its statement. The Buddha gives these verses to the monks in order
that they may bring their minds to their full potency for care and love. The im-
plication is, however, that the Buddha himself has completed the meditation,
so that his mind has become utter care and love for all beings. This is clear also
from the association with the Brahma-vihāra meditations, an important early
meditative technique.47 We here encounter a crucial element in the Buddhist
understanding of the Buddha, at least as it is alive in paritta: the Buddha is a
cosmological element at the core of reality; there is nothing abstract about
him; he protects because he cares, because he has become utter care, so that
he is fully identified with the protective power of love itself.48
The final text that comprises the category of “great protective texts” (Mahā-
pirit) today is the Mahā-maṅgala-sutta, which used to include the Dhajagga in
its stead. The Maṅgala is not consistently included in the older lists of paritta-
texts. Nonetheless, it has become a prime expression not only of Buddhist
protection but also of Buddhist values in general, and it was apparently an
important text historically.49
47 On this subject see Aronson 1980; Anālayo 2015.

48 Echoes of the “this-worldly,” warm, caring aspects of the Buddha can be identified in im-
portant strands of Buddhist literature, and particularly in the Jātakas. See Hallisey 1988:
ch. 2; see also Shulman (forthcoming).
49 This can be attested by its inclusion in Khuddaka-pāṭha (a canonical collection of parit-
tas, perhaps?) and by the commentary it receives in this collection, which it shares with
the opening of the commentaries on the Vinaya and Majjhima Nikāya, and with some
variation with that of the Dīgha Nikāya. See further in Salomon 2011: 194–196.
Numen 66 (2019) 207–242

At first reading, it may seem that the Maṅgala has risen to prominence pre-
cisely because it articulates a moral approach to Buddhism that is devoid of
metaphysical, cosmological, or “religious” commitments. The text begins with
a certain deity approaching the Buddha and asking him what is the highest
maṅgala — blessing, auspiciousness, goodness, welfare, luck — given that
many gods and men have searched for blessings (maṅgalāni), hoping for well-
being (ākaṅkhamānā sotthānaṃ). The Buddha responds with a long list of
positive endeavors that he defines as the highest blessing (etaṃ maṅgalam
uttamaṃ). Many of these include simple and direct moral instructions that
can potentially be carried out by anyone: associating with the wise and not the
foolish, being truthful and speaking kindly, taking care of one’s parents, chil-
dren, and spouse, avoiding evil, being patient, respectful, humble, and gentle.
At this level of the text, one could argue that this is a paritta that presents itself
as working only through the modernist paradigm, that is, by creating a positive
mind-set.
A more careful examination reveals, however, that the Maṅgala is eas-
ily integrated into the cosmological paradigm of the protective Buddha, and
is even a potent expression of its logic. Simply put, in line with the Ratana- and
the Metta-Suttas, which posited the Buddha as the very essence of Truth
and Care (capitals intended), respectively, the Maṅgala positions the Buddha
as the embodiment and source of Blessing. Although the statements it makes
in this regard are less explicit than the ones made in the other Mahā-parittas,
the implications are clear.
As we have seen, the Maṅgala begins with a verse in which a deity asks
the Buddha about the highest blessing. This continues a common theme in
Buddhist narrative, which places gods and other supernatural beings in an in-
ferior relation to the Buddha. The question we should ask is why the Buddha
is considered to be the authority that is able to explain the highest blessing.
Following the understanding conceptualized through the Ratana- and Metta-
Suttas, we can say that this is not because he knows what the highest bless-
ing is in a philosophical sense, but because he has fully realized the highest
blessing through his being. When the Buddha instructs his followers in the
Maṅgala, for example, “to live in worthy places” (patirūpadesavāso), “to have
wholesome self-intention” (attasammāpaṇidhi), “to have well-practiced dis-
cipline (vinayo susikkhito), “to avoid and turn away from evil things” (ārati
virati pāpā), to be content (santuṭṭhi) and grateful (kataññutā), to worship the
worthy (pūjā pūjaneyyānaṃ), to practice “hearing” or “speaking the dhamma
from time to time” (kālena dhammasavanaṃ/sākacchā), this is because he has
brought these values to utter, complete perfection, so that all he is and all he
speaks is a potent encapsulation of these very values. Once again, the Buddha
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236 Shulman
is the complete materialization of goodness and truth, which he has cultivated

over many life times and brought to full maturation in his final rebirth. Here,
enlightenment is not conceived of as an abstract event but as a completely
embodied one in which truth and goodness manifest to the extreme. His real-
ization turns him into Blessing itself.
Read in this way, the Buddha’s statements on the highest blessing are un-
derstood not only as authoritative speech but also as speech imbued with the
nature of blessing, which the Buddha has materialized. His words express what
blessing is conceptually, but more than that, they are blessing and act as rel-
ics of his realized being and awareness. Here we can perceive the full potency
of Buddha-vacana, “the Word of the Buddha,” not merely as a transmitter of
information about the Buddha and his thought, but also as living revelations
of the state of awareness he has attained. This is why understanding paritta
entails an understanding of “the whole of Buddhist literature,” as defined by
Skilling (see above). Ultimately, just hearing or reciting the Buddha’s Speech
(Buddha-vacana) causes one to be imbued with its powers of benevolence
(Harvey 1993: 57–58). As unenlightened beings, people may not become such
truth and blessing through hearing paritta-recitation, but they may nonethe-
less be temporarily protected by them.
The inherent force of the Buddha as blessing becomes manifest in the
final three verses of the poem. Here the Buddha moves on from expressing
values that anyone can cultivate to defining the “highest blessing” as reflect-
ing the achievements of the experts in Buddhist practice and meditation. All
people can go “see recluses” (samaṇānaṃ dassanaṃ), but a very rare few live
by austerity (tapo) and spiritual practice (brahmacariyo), see the noble truths
(ariya-saccāna-dassanaṃ), or realize nibbāna (nibbāna-sacchikiriyā). Most
people will not obtain the following blessing in their lives:
He for whom when he encounters things of this world

His mind never stirs,
Free of grief or desire, utterly peaceful —
This is the highest blessing.
Phuṭṭhassa lokadhammehi, cittaṃ yassa na kampati;

Asokaṃ virajaṃ khemaṃ, etaṃ maṅgalamuttamaṃ
It is here that we see that the highest maṅgala is more than an ethical advan-
tage; it refers to the realization obtained by the Buddha. A good way to express
the statement of the ending of the Maṅgala is that most people will not obtain
such an ultimate “blessing” through their own efforts, but they can reach it
Numen 66 (2019) 207–242

through those of the Buddha. His potent, protective speech is readily available
to allow people direct contact with the reality and source of Truth, Care, and
Blessing, as we have seen here. These realities offer protection by their very
nature, which is equal to the nature of the Buddha.
3 Conclusions
In Theravāda societies, all authentic speech of the Buddha is considered po-

tent; protective texts are an extension of this idea and possess extra dimen-
sions that materialize power. Here, we have identified three elements in the
logic of paritta. First, some parittas are “self-aware,” so that they explicitly
define protective elements within themselves. This is a more basic or literal
level on which paritta functions, which is given clear indication in texts such
as the Mora- or Khandha-parittas, and which finds explicit expression in the
commentaries to the central Ratana- and Kāraṇīya-metta-suttas. Next, we
identified the cosmological aspect of paritta, according to which the Buddha
is positioned at the core of the cosmos, so that he controls malevolent forces
and has a positive influence on all natural and supernatural powers. Important
texts in this regard are the seminal Āṭāṇāṭiya- and Mahā-samaya- Suttas. The
full-blown expression of this cosmological picture is when the Buddha is un-
derstood to embody and provide access to the inner, benevolent realities of the
cosmos: Truth (sacca), Care/Love (metta) and Blessing (maṅgala). According
to the thought-world of paritta, this is what a Buddha actually is, ideas that
are accessed through the “Great Parittas” that are among the core texts of the
genre. Third, we saw that paritta, as potent Buddhist Speech (Buddha-vacana),
is understood as more than mere words or rhetoric and beyond propositional
or informative statements. Rather, it is an embodiment of the very power that
the Buddha realizes, an extension of his knowledge, awareness, and state of
mind, a remnant of his awakening and grasp of Dhamma. Buddha’s speech
is the Dhamma, a protective power in its own right, so that his words are, in
effect, his relics. By throwing light on these ideas, I hope to have answered at
least part of Peter Skilling’s call to investigate the logic of paritta in order to
obtain an improved understanding of the nature of Buddhist literature as a
whole.
There is more than one dimension to paritta. Some of the concrete psycho-
logical effects it affords — through participation in the ritual or through close
contact with the Buddhist sense of truth and well-being — have been identi-
fied by other scholars. Following these studies, a second stage of scholarship
examined the role of paritta in the training of monks. The present study aims
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238 Shulman
to mark a new phase in which we may identify the underlying metaphysical

understandings that are at work in this type of Buddhist protection; turning
back to the texts with a new awareness that does not prioritize them over
the concrete and localized aspects of lived religion, we can decipher some
of the subtle ideology that permeates the Buddhist thought world. Our anal-
ysis has shown that the metaphysical picture at work in paritta-texts hinges
upon the peculiar powers of the Buddha; as the core of the cosmos, he fully
manifests its inner truths and beneficial potentials.
We must notice that the protective Buddha is a starkly positive one, a
Buddha who may have renounced the world, but who did so in order to mate-
rialize its powers. This is a Buddha that people may rely on to help and guide
them; one who is close and affectionate, and who is accessible even in his phys-
ical absence. Although we have focused on Buddhist protection in the specific
context of Theravāda, the notion of the Buddha it employs seems close to what
we are familiar with from discussions of Mahāyana: a Buddha with evident
metaphysical dimensions, whose continuous presence outweighs his absence.
Buddhist protection thus speaks of a continuity in the understanding of the
Buddha between Theravāda and Mahāyāna.
Scholars have struggled to carve a space between the Buddha’s sup-
posed disappearance into parinibbāna upon death, a dominant doctrine for
Theravāda Buddhology, and his potential presence in his relics or images (e.g.,
Eckel 1992; Ray 1994: ch. 11; Trainor 1997: ch. 4; Kinnard 1999; Swearer 2004).
Here, this idea is extended to his speech and texts as physical remnants of the
Buddha’s awareness.50 The context of paritta demonstrates that the presence
of the Buddha — not his body, but his impact or power — in these texts is
taken for granted, and that the ritual even offers a mechanism for bolstering
his presence.
The Buddha of Buddhist civilization, as he appears through the ideological
framework of paritta, is far removed from the Buddha of austere philosophers
and meditators. The latter’s Buddha remains aloof and inaccessible, beyond
the realms of conditioned existence. Being beyond anything physical, mental,
or any conceivable form of being, the philosophical Buddha can thoroughly be
with no attachment, blown out in nirvāṇa. The Buddha of Buddhist society and
religion, however, somehow finds his way back. Nominally beyond this world,
he still acts in it for the welfare of his followers. He has, indeed, receded from
life, but this very act imbued him with the ultimate capacity to offer refuge and
protection. Perhaps the empty Buddha is superior to the full, active one; per-
haps they are two sides of the same coin. Or we could say, through the ideology
50 Compare Schopen 1975.
Numen 66 (2019) 207–242

of paritta, that by his turning away from all objects, Buddha is understood as
having become a reliable vessel that may offer access to the core, positive ele-
ments of being that he has realized. Turning toward him who is nothing, one
can reach the very powers of love, truth, and blessing that he has known and
embodied. Whatever the relation between these two aspects — the positive
and the silent — of the Buddha may be, paritta demonstrates that Buddhist
religion is not dominated by a vision of the Buddha as beyond the world, but
that there are even methods of making not only his power, but even his very
being, present.
Acknowledgments
I wish to thank the three anonymous reviewers for Numen for their insight-
ful and very helpful remarks on this article, as well as the editors for their
meticulous attention and thoughtful comments. I also wish to thank the stu-
dents of the seminar on “The Buddha in Buddhist Imagination” at the Hebrew
University in the fall of 2016 for thinking with me about the Buddha of paritta
while reading through the CBV.
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The Protective Buddha On The Cosmologica PDF

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The Protective Buddha: On the Cosmological Logic

Paritta — ritual chanting — is a central institution in Theravāda Buddhism, with deep

Paritta – ritual chanting – Theravāda – Buddha-vacana – Buddhist texts – Buddhist

© koninklijke brill nv, leiden, 2019 | doi:10.1163/15685276-12341533

Rakṣās, in one form or another, are an integral part of mainstream

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Though Buddhism found no room for ritual and ceremonialism in its

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from the Buddhist philosophical standpoint. Gradually a solution was

According to de Silva, paritta was a way to relate to peoples’ psychological

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an act of sacrifice that is at the root of gift-giving and thus participates in

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Blackburn’s study (1999) marked the beginning of a second stage in schol-

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supported by the social setting and the participation in a culturally honored

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power is active in Buddhist texts — considered “The Word of the Buddha”

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such as the Khandha-paritta, the Mahā-samaya-sutta and the Mora-paritta,

1 Self-aware Parittas and Their Map of the Cosmos

In Buddhist societies, canonical texts are considered to be intrinsically potent,

The sole king of vision, rising,

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I worship the Brahmins who have knowledge of all things —

Udetayaṃ20 cakkhumā ekarājā,

Ye brāhmaṇā vedagū sabbadhamme,

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Praise be to you, Buddha, you who are liberated in all respects.

Namo te buddha vīratthu, vippamuttosi sabbadhi;

Tathāgataṃ arahantaṃ, candimā saraṇaṃ gato;

By the very power of the Buddha’s speech, Rāhu is defeated; he runs to

Why, Rāhu, are you so agitated, having released Moon?

Kiṃ nu santaramānova, rāhu candaṃ pamuñcasi;

To this Rāhu replies,

I have been bound23 by a verse sung by the Buddha.

Sattadhā me phale muddhā, jīvanto na sukhaṃ labhe;

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The protective formula of the Āṭāṇāṭiya is too long to be analyzed in its

Ito sā purimā disā, iti naṃ ācikkhatī jano;

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Sutaṃ netaṃ abhiṇhaso, tasmā evaṃ vademase.

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yebhuyyena sannipatitā honti bhagavantaṃ dassanāya bhikkhusaṅghañca).28

2 Buddha as Truth and Love

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be heard on national radio or on loudspeakers positioned in Buddhist temples.

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This is He, the Lord, the Arahant, the Fully-Perfected-Buddha, endowed

itipi so bhagavā arahaṃ sammāsambuddho vijjācaraṇasampanno sugato

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anussareyyātha, atha dhammaṃ anussareyyātha). Again, these are seminal

Well-proclaimed by the Lord is the Dhamma, which is directly visible,

svākkhāto bhagavatā dhammo sandiṭṭhiko akāliko ehipassiko opaneyyiko

Practicing well is the Lord’s community of students; practicing straight

suppaṭipanno bhagavato sāvakasaṅgho, ujuppaṭipanno bhaga-

In the present context, it is most important to observe the continuity estab-

37 dhammañhi vo, bhikkhave, anussarataṃ … (See note 34).

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Whatever beings have assembled, whether earthly [gods] or ones in the

37 dhammañhi vo, bhikkhave, anussarataṃ … (See note 34).

42 PTS: pathaviṃ sito.

47 On this subject see Aronson 1980; Anālayo 2015.

50 Compare Schopen 1975.