Chapter 2: Literature Review

2.1. Formulaic sequences

2.1.1. Definitions of formulaic sequences

Formulaic sequences in English include syntactic rules and word-string’s meaning.

Ellis (1996) indicated that native speakers frequently use chunk of words in daily
conversations, leading to the need of memorizing whole chunk as a “native-like
selection.” Likewise, Wray and Perkins (2000: 1) defined formulaic sequence a
prefabricated word grouping retained and utilized as a whole, “rather than being
subject to generation or analysis by the language grammar.”

2.1.2. Categories of formulaic sequences

There are formulaic sequences types with influence on communication. Wray and
Perkins (2000: 11, 12) categorized these types with two fundamental roles, including
“social interaction” and “constraint of memory.” Two tables below summarize
formulaic sequence types and their effects.
Table 2.1a. Formulaic sequences as a device of social interaction
 Table 2.1b. Formulaic sequences as a facilitator of short-cut in memory

2.1.3. Benefits of formulaic sequences

Regarding formulaic language functionality, speakers and listeners gain advantages

when including these sequences in dialogues. For users, they fill the silence and
express intent while thinking and speaking simultaneously (Iwasaki, 2009, as cited in
Khodadady & Shamsaee, 2012). Besides, Schmitt (2010) proposed that formulaic
sequences enhance fluency and improve communicative targets. For listeners, they
discern the interlocutors’ expressions (Wildner-Bassett, 1994, as cited in Hatami,
2014. The following diagram illustrates formulaic sequences’ benefits.
 Figure 2.1. Advantages of formulaic sequences (Wray & Perkins, 2000: 18)

Concerning ESL/EFL learners, formulaic sequences affect fluency and linguistic

accuracy. According to Wood (2010), they facilitate L2 learners producing speech
faster and more native-like. Storing and retrieving enhance linguistics accuracy
through a “zone of safety” (Boers et al., 2006: 247).

2.1.4. Challenges of formulaic sequences

Despite their advantages, ESL/EFL learners consider these chunks challenging. A

problem cited by Wible (2008) is most primary sources of noticing and acquiring
formulaic sequences for EFL learners are text format. Ohlrogge (2009) raised two
other issues involving abnormalities of formulaic sequences and a variety of
expressions for one discourse. From his examination, the author indicated that these
sequences do not follow linguistic rules, hindering learning new forms. Since learners
must memorize different expressions in a given context, they often avoid using
unfamiliar sequences (Yorio, 1989, as cited in Khodadady & Shamsaee, 2012).

2.2 Teaching and learning formulaic sequences

2.2.1. Teaching formulaic sequences

According to Hatami (2014: 118), integrating psychological elements into vocabulary

learning - “noticing, retrieving and generating” - provides effective teaching method.
For formulaic sequence teaching, the “noticing” phase focuses on new forms. Then,
the second phase offers practices in receptive or productive skills. The last phase sets
different contexts to use formulaic sequences appropriately.

2.2.3 Interventions in teaching formulaic sequences

For teaching strategies, handouts and ability grouping are applied in classrooms.
First, according to Boers et al. (2006), “noticing” phase is important to increase
fluency of use. To raise learners’ awareness, highlighted input through handouts is
utilized to provide quality of lesson main points and reviewing information (Race,
2007).
Second, Shoba (2016) suggested group discussions help learners analyze thought-
provoking issues, voices opinions, retrieves and generates appropriate formulaic
sequences. Exley and Dennick (2004: 152) also stated mixed levels grouping
enhances “peer support” and “practice-based experience.”
Additionally, extrinsic motivation from teachers’ rewards engage young learners with
short-term interest in learning (Cameron, 2001, as cited in Williams & Stockdale,
2004).

2.3. Group discussion

2.3.1. Definition of group discussion

Group discussion refers to communicative situations among a tentatively small group

with shared objectives. A discussion allows participants to share ideas regarding
certain topics. For teaching, group discussion is a student-centered strategy. It is an
activity which students form groups and discuss a particular subject. Group
discussions relate to exploring new concepts. Students can compare opinions, develop
ideas, pursue interest (Bierman, Butler & Reuter, n.d). Therefore, discussions help
students restructure knowledge and process information.

2.3.2. Benefits of group discussion

Past research has introduced various group discussion benefits. This learner-centered
strategy generates positive responses and fosters learning. Dallimore et al. (2006)
confirmed that frequent discussions increase students’ comfort. This is supported by
Occhipinti (2003), stating that small group discussions increase students’ contribution
and cooperation in class. Other studies indicated group discussion’s impacts on
critical thinking and active learning (Meyer, 1986; as cited in Garside, 1996).
Particularly, discussions put students in situations encouraging them to “elaborate,
defend, and extend their positions, opinions, and beliefs” (Hamann, Pollock, &
Wilson, 2010). 
Finally, group discussion enhances students’ oral communication. Vansickle and
Hoge (1991) found a correlation between group work and students’ abilities to present
and evaluate problems effectively by verbalizing thoughts coherently to convince
group members and developing skills in justifying others’ opinions. Overall, they gain
“communicative and metacognitive skills” for disciplinary knowledge (Smith et al.,
2009). 

2.4. Studies on group discussion and formulaic sequences

Despite the mentioned benefits, few studies investigated their effects on students’ use
of formulaic sequences.
In Shoba (2016)’s study, he analysed formulaic expressions to help learners use them
in appropriate contexts. He proposed that discussion enhanced language skills,
opportunities for extended practice to all contributors.
Mandani & Daca (2019) ‘study implemented formulaic expression to enhance oral
fluency. Data were obtained through questionnaires, pre-test, posttest and delayed
test. Findings indicated formulaic expressions help increase fluency
Zavialova (2016) examined the effectiveness of explicitly instructing formulaic
sequences, particularly thanking sequences, in enhancing language competence. The
study found that while teaching formulaic language develops fluency, explicit
instructions may lead to more concise and appropriate productions.
Gonzalez Cid (2019) did an exploratory study on the effects of highlighted input
towards learners’ awareness of greeting and closing sequences. Findings suggested
that incorporating input enhancement in teaching formulaic language develops
communicative competence.
Generally, previous studies mainly employed formulaic sequences to enhance
language competence. The majority shows that explicit instructions or form-focused
instructions positively affect the acquisition of formulaic expressions and oral
fluency. Nevertheless, there is insufficient literature, especially local studies, on using
group discussions to improve learners’ use of formulaic expressions, particularly in
giving opinion.