Chapter 15 Our Environment Environment includes all of the external factors affe

cting an organism. These factors may be other living organisms (biotic factors)
or nonliving variables (abiotic factors), such as
temperature, rainfall, day length, wind, and ocean currents.
What happens when we add waste to our environment?
Some of this waste may be broken down by Biological processes (eg. Saprophytes li
ke fungi and bacteria) and this waste is called BIODEGRADABLE. Examples: plant a
nd animal waste, vegetable peels etc. Some of this waste will not be broken down
by Biological Processes and this waste is called NONBIODEGRADABLE. Examples: Pol
ythene bags, plastics, metal objects etc. Non biodegradable substances can be ha
rmful to the environment. An ecosystem is a natural system consisting of all pla
nts, animals and microorganisms (biotic factors) in an area functioning together
with all the non-living physical (abiotic)factors of the environment. The abiot
ic components of an ecosystem include various physical and chemical factors. Phy
sical factors: Eg. Sunlight and shade , average temperature, average
precipitation, nature of soil (for terrestrial ecosystems) etc.
Chemical factors: Eg. Level of water and air in soil , level of plant nutrients
dissolved
in soil moisture (for terrestrial) and in the water (for aquatic) etc.
Biotic Components: Organisms that make up the biotic component of an ecosystem a
re usually classified as autotrophsand heterotrophs, based on how they get their
food or organic nutrients they need to survive. Autotrophs(producers)-are organ
isms that can manufacture the organic compounds they need as nutrients from simp
le inorganic compounds obtained from their environment. In
most terrestrial ecosystems, green plants are the producers. In aquatic ecosyste
ms, most of
the producers are phytoplankton, consisting of various species of of floating an
d drifting
bacteria and protist.
Some producers , mostly specialized bacteria, can extract inorganic compounds fr
om their
environment and convert them into organic nutrient compounds without the presenc
e of
sunlight. These producers are calledchemosynthesis.
Heterotrophs(consumers)-are organisms which cannot synthesize the organic nutrie
nts they need and get their organic nutrients by feeding on the tissues of produ
cers or other consumers. There are several classes of of consumers, depending on
there food source. 1.Primary consumers (herbivores) feed directly on plants or
other producers.
2.Secondary consumers (carnivores) feed only on primary consumers.
3.Tertiary or higher level consumers feed only on animal-eating animals.
4.Omnivores can eat both plants and animals.Examples are pigs, rats, cockroaches
,
and humans. 5.Detrtivores (decomposers and detritus feeders) live off of detritu
s, parts of dead organisms and castoff fragments and waste of living organisms.D
e composers
digest detritus by breaking down the complex organic molecules in these material
s
into simpler, inorganic compounds. Decomposers consist of various bacteria and
fungi.
Natural and Artificial Ecosystems
Natural ecosystems: Forests, ponds and lakes Artificial Ecosystems (manmade): ga
rdens, crop fields, aquarium FOOD CHAINS AND FOOD WEBS A food chain is the flow
of energy from one organism to the next. Organisms in a food chain are grouped i
nto trophic levels from the Greek word for nourishment,trophikos based on how ma
ny links they are removed from the primary producers. They usually start with a
primary producer and end with a carnivore. A food chain shows how each living th
ing gets its food. i.e. WHO EATS WHOM.Each link in this chain is food for the ne
xt link. Most animals are part of more than one food chain and eat more than one
kind of food in order to meet their food and energy requirements. These interco
nnected food chains form a food web. A food web extends the food chain concept f
rom a simple linear pathway to a complex network of interactions. Food webs show
how many animals are interconnected by different paths. FOOD WEBS show how plan
ts and animals are connected in many ways to help them all survive. Transfer of
Energy in Food Chains: Energy and organic compounds are passed from one
trophic level to the next. Whatis the efficiency of the transfer? In a highly ef
ficient transfer
almost all of the energy would be transferred -- 80% or more. In a low efficienc
y transfer
very little energy would be transferred -- less than 20%. In a typical food chai
n, not all
animals or plants are eaten by the next trophic level. In addition, there are po
rtions or
materials (such as beaks, shells, bones, etc.) that are also not eaten. That is
why the transfer of
matter and energy from one trophic level to the next is not an efficient one.
One way to calculate the energy transfer is by measuring or sizing the energy at
one trophic level and then at the next. Calorie is a unit of measure used for e
nergy. The energy transfer from one trophic level to the next is about 10%. For
example, if there are 10,000 calories at one level, only 1,000 are transferred t
o the next. This 10% energy and material transfer rule can be depicted with an e
cological pyramid that looks like this:

To summarize: In the flow of energy and inorganic nutrients through the ecosyste
m, a few generalizations can be made:
1.The ultimate source of energy (for most ecosystems) is the sun
2.The ultimate fate of energy in ecosystems is for it to be lost as heat.
3.Energy and nutrients are passed from organism to organism through the food cha
in as
one organism eats another.
4.Decomposers remove the last energy from the remains of organisms.
5.Inorganic nutrients are cycled, energy is not.
Biological magnification Biomagnification,also known asbioamplif ication, or bio
logical magnification is the increase in concentration of a substance, such as t
he pesticide DDT, that occurs in a food chain as a consequence of: Food chain en
ergetics Low (or nonexistent) rate of excretion/degradation of the substance. Bi
ological magnification is the tendency of pollutants to become concentrated in s
uccessive trophic levels. Often, this is to the detriment of the organisms in wh
ich these materials
concentrate, since the pollutants are often toxic. Biomagnificationoccurs when o
rganisms at
the bottom of the food chain concentrate the material above its concentration in
the
surrounding soil or water.
Pollutants
that biomagnify have another characteristic. Not only are they taken up by the p
roducers, but
they are absorbed and stored in the bodies of the consumers. This often occurs w
ith
pollutants soluble in fat such as DDT
The "best" example of biomagnification comes from DDT. This long-lived pesticide
(insecticide) has improved human health in many countries by killing insects suc
h as
mosquitoes that spread disease. On the other hand, DDT is effective in part beca
use it does
not break down in the environment. It is picked up by organisms in the environme
nt and
incorporated into fat. Even here, it does no real damage in many organisms (incl
uding
humans). In others, however, DDT is deadly or may have more insidious, long-term
effects.
In birds, for instance, DDT interferes with the deposition of calcium in the she
lls of the bird's
eggs. The eggs laid are very soft and easily broken; birds so afflicted are rare
ly able to raise
young and this causes a decline in their numbers.
HOW DO OUR ACTIVITIES AFFECT THE ENVIRONMENT? Environmental Problems: Depletion
of Ozone Layer, Waste Disposal Ozone depletion describes two distinct, but relat
ed observations: a slow, steady decline of about 4 percent
per decade in the total amount of ozone in Earth's stratosphere since around 198
0; and a
much larger, but seasonal, decrease in stratospheric ozone over Earth's polar re
gions during
the same period. The latter phenomenon is commonly referred to as the ozone hole
.
CFCs and other contributory substances are commonly referred to asozone-depletin
g
substances(ODS). Since the ozone layer prevents most harmful UVB wavelengths (27
0 315 nm) of ultraviolet light (UV light) from passing through the Earth's atmosp
here, observed and projected decreases in ozone have generated worldwide concern
leading to adoption of the Montreal Protocol banning the production of CFCs and
halons as well as related ozone
depleting chemicals such as carbon tetrachloride and trichloroethane. The ozone
layer in the stratosphere blocks out the sun s deadly ultraviolet rays. It acts as
our planet s
natural sunblock.It is suspected that a variety of biological consequences such
as
increases in skin cancer, damage to plants, and reduction of plankton population
s in
the ocean's photic zone may result from the increased UV exposure due to ozone
depletion.
Waste Disposal Every year, millions oftons of "trash are generated.. Less than on
e-quarter of it is
recycled; the rest is incinerated or buried in landfills. With a little forethou
ght, we
could reuse or recycle more than 70 percent of the landfilled waste, which inclu
des
valuable materials such as glass, metal, and paper. This would reduce the demand
on virgin sources of these materials and eliminate potentially severe environmen
tal,
economic, and public health problems.
The Eco friendly mantra is REDUCE REUSE RECYCLE Answer the following questions:
1.Why is non biodegradable waste more harmful than biodegradable waste?
2.A crop field is termed as an artificial ecosystem. Why?
3.Why does the same enzyme not break down everything that we eat?
4.Animals like cows can digest cellulose , but humans cannot. Give reasons. 5.Co
mment on the statement we will not get any energy if we eat coal. 6.What is the ro
le of UNEP in protecting the ozone layer? 7.What would happen if there was no oz
one in the stratosphere? 8.Classify the following as biotic and abiotic componen
ts: Rainfall, a rose plant, soil, fish, earthworm, fertilizer, temperature, bact
eria. 9.Match the following: Herbivores Producers First Trophic level Plants Sec
ondary consumers Second Trophic level Small carnivores Primary consumers Third T
rophic level Large carnivores Tertiary consumers Fourth Trophic level 10.Why doe
s a food chain normally consist of only 4-5 steps? 11.How is the flow of energy di
fferent from the flow of nutrients in an ecosystem?
12.Wheat , meat and humans will have varying amounts of pesticide residues in th
eir body. Comment on the statement and explain the phenomenon involved. 13.How m
uch solar energy is captured by the green plants? Trace this energy in a food ch
ain till it reaches the lion. The other members of the food chain are plants and
deer. The plants are receiving 1000,000 joules of energy from the sun.