CHAPTER 1:

Characterization,
Generation &
Disposal of Solid
Waste
Dr. Norhusna Mohamad Nor
Course Learning
Outcomes
The students should be able to:
– Describe the physical, chemical and
biological properties of solid waste.
– Analyze factors contribute to solid waste
generation
– Understand the principle of different
methods for solid wastes disposal
technologies.
 OUTLINES

– Physical, chemical and biological properties

– Solid waste generation
– Solid waste disposal techniques
– Composting
– Landfill
– Incineration (waste to energy)
– Biogas from solid waste
Solid Waste???
– All type of wastes produced by human and
animal activities that are normally solid and that
are discarded as useless/unwanted.

– Solid waste encompassing the heterogeneous

mass of throwaways from urban community
and homogenous accumulation of agricultural,
industrial and mineral wastes.
Sources of Solid Wastes
• Single family & multifamily detached
• Residential dwelling, apartments, condominiums, etc.

Municipal Solid Wastes

• Stores, restaurants, markets, office building,
• Commercial hotels, motels, prints shops, service stations,
auto repair shops, etc.

• Schools, hospitals, prisons, governmental

• Institutional centers.

• Street cleaning, landscaping, parks and

• Municipal Service
beaches, recreational area

• Treatment plant • Water, wastewater, industrial treatment

processes, etc.
Sources of Solid Wastes
• Construction • New construction sites, road repairs,
& Demolition renovation sites/building, broken pavement,
etc.

Non-Municipal Wastes
• Construction, fabrication, light and heavy
• Industrial manufacturing, refineries, chemical plants,
power plants, demolitions, etc.

• Field and row crops, orchards, vineyards,

• Agricultural dairies, feedlots, farms, etc.
Physical Properties
of MSW
– Specific weight (density)
– Moisture content
– Particle size and size distribution
– Field capacity
– Permeability of compacted waste
 Specific Weight (Density)
– Specific weight is defined as the weight of material per unit volume (lb/ft3 or kg/m3).
– Usually is refers to un-compacted/compacted waste.
– It varies with geographic location, season of the year, and length of time in storage.
𝑾𝑾𝑪 − 𝑾𝑪
𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒄𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 = ( )
𝑽𝑪
where:
WWC - weight of container filled with the wastes (kg)
WC - weight of empty container (kg)
V - the volume of container (m3)
 Refer Table 4.1
(samples of typical Typical Specific Weight
Values
specific weight for
MSW)

– Specific weight data often used to

assess the total mass and volume of
the waste that need to be managed.
– Little or no uniformity of specific
weight reported in literatures.
– Specific weight for MSW as delivered in
compaction vehicles is vary from 300 to
700 lb/yd3 (typical value = 500 lb/yd3).
 Moisture Content
– Moisture content is an important parameter affecting processing parameters
(e.g: composting, incineration, landfill).
– Usually expressed in a wet basis unless otherwise indicated.
– Most moisture content in MSW (Ref – United States) vary from 15 to 40%, depending
on the composition of the wastes, the season of the year, the humidity and weather.
𝑾𝒘 − 𝑾𝒅
𝑴𝒐𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒕 (𝑴𝑪) = 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑾𝒘
where:
Ww – Initial weight of sample as delivered (lb or kg)
Wd – Weight of sample after drying at 105 °C (lb or kg)
Example 1
Estimate the overall specific weight and moisture content of a wastes
sample as tabulated in the following table. The total wet weight of the
wastes sample is 65 lb.

Type of Waste % by Weight Specific Weight Moisture Content

(lb/yd3) (%wt)
Food wastes 18 490 70
(mixed)
Paper 56 150 6
Plastics 14 110 2
Glass 12 330 2

Answer:
i) Moisture content = 16.48 %
ii) Specific weight = 175.2 lb/yd3
 Particle Size &
Size Distribution
– Important for material recovery,
composting, incineration, landfilling etc.
– Affects the porosity and permeability of
waste in the landfill.
– The size and distribution of the
components of wastes are important for
the recovery of materials, especially when
mechanical means are used, such as
trommel screens and magnetic
separators.
 Particle Size & Size
Distribution
– The size of waste components can be determined using the
following equations:

*depending on wastes’
dimension
 Field Capacity
– The total amount of moisture that can be retained in a waste sample
subject to the downward pull of gravity.
 Field Capacity
– Very important in determining the formation of
leachate in landfills.
– Water in excess of field capacity will be released as
leachate.
– Varies with the degree of applied pressure and the
state of decomposition of wastes.
– Typical values for un-compacted commingled wastes
from residential and commercial sources are in the
range of 50-60%.
 Permeability of Compacted
Waste
– The permeability (hydraulic conductivity) of compacted solid waste is an
important physical property because it governs the movement of liquids and
gases in a landfill.
– Permeability depends on:
✓ Pore size distribution
✓ Surface area
✓ Porosity
– Typical values for intrinsic permeability of compacted waste are in the range
of 10-11 and 10-12 m2 in the vertical direction and 10-10 m2 in the horizontal
direction.
 Chemical Properties
of MSW
– The economic recovery of material and/or energy often
depends on the chemical composition of waste, the
individual chemical as well as the heat value.
– Important in evaluating the alternative processing and
recovery options:
– To be used as fuel
– Organic fraction can be composted
– Organic fraction can be used as feedstock for the production of
biological conversion products
Chemical Properties
of MSW
– The feasibility of combustion depends on the
chemical components of MSW.
– Available analyses:
– Proximate analysis
– Fusing point of ash
– Ultimate analysis (major elements)
– Energy content
 Proximate Analysis
– Proximate analysis of MSW is carried out to determine:
➢ Moisture content – loss of moisture when heated to 105 °C.
➢ Volatile combustion matter – loss of weight on ignition of the dried
sample waste at 950 °C in a covered crucible.
➢ Fixed carbon – combustible residue that is left after the volatile
matter is removed from the waste.
➢ Ash content – weight of residue of waste after the combustion in an
open crucible.
– Table 4.2 tabulated the proximate analysis data for the combustible
components of MSW.
 Fusing Point of
Ash
– Temperature at which the ash
resulting from the burning of wastes
forms a solid by fusion or
agglomeration.
– Typical fusing temperature for
formation of clinker from solid wastes
range from 1100 to 1200 °C.
 Ultimate Analysis
➢ Based on elemental compositions which consist of
determination of percentage of its various chemical
constituents e.g. Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Sulfur,
Ash and Halogen.
➢ Characterization of chemical compositions of organic matter
in solid wastes.
➢ C/N (carbon to nitrogen) ratio defines the proper mix of
waste materials and is an important factor for composting as
it controls biological conversion activity of the wastes.
Typical data on ultimate
analysis of combustible
materials found in solid
waste
Example 2
Determine the chemical composition of the organic fraction, without
and with sulfur and without and with water of a residential MSW with
the typical composition shown in the following table:

Component Wet weight, lb Dry weight, lb

Food wastes 9.0 2.7
Yard wastes 18.5 6.5
Plastics 7.0 6.9
Paper 34.0 32.0
 Energy Content
– Heat values - important in resource recovery (expressed in kJ/kg which commonly
measured using bomb calorimeter).
– Heat value is expressed in terms of organic materials, inorganic materials, with water
or without water.
Btu/lb (dry basis) = Btu/lb (100/100 - %moisture) Note: kJ/kg = 2.326 Btu/lb
– Another means of defining heat value is to also subtract the inorganics, so that the
heat value is moisture and ash-free (ash is defined as inorganic upon combustion).
Btu/lb (dry basis) = Btu/lb (100/100 - %moisture - %ash)
– Dulong formula:
Btu/lb = 145C + 610(H2 – 1/8O2)+ 40S + 10N
Note: use elemental% compositions
Example 3
Determine the energy value of a typical residential MSW with the
average composition shown in the following table:
Component Wet weight, lb
Food wastes 9.0
Yard wastes 18.5
Plastics 7.0
Paper 34.0

Example 4
Determine the energy value of typical residential MSW with chemical
composition of:
C500H2500O700N10S
Biological Properties
– Biodegradability of organic waste - is a process where
almost all organic compounds are degraded and
converted into biologically gases (CO2, water, methane)
or simple organic molecules via aerobic/anaerobic
digestion processes.
– Excluding materials like – plastic, leather, rubber, glass.
– Biological conversion indirectly produced:
✓ Production of odours
✓ Breeding of flies
– Characteristics of biological properties:
• Water soluble constituents (such as sugars, starches, amino acids and
other organic acids)
• Proteins (composed of chains of amino acids)
• Fats, oils and waxes (esters of alcohols and long-chain fatty acids)
• Hemicellulose (a condensation products of sugars, a product of 5 and 6-
carbon sugar)
• Cellulose ( a condensation product of glucose)
• Lignin content (a polymer material)***
• Lignocellulose (a combination of lignin and cellulose)
***lignin content is an important characteristics of biodegradability of waster and helps
in the selection of appropriate processing technique.
 Biodegradability
– Rate of degradation - MSW is often classified as rapidly and slowly decomposable.
– Almost all the organic components can be convert biologically to gases and relatively
inert organic and inorganic solids.
– Volatile solids (VS) is often used as a measure of the biodegradability of MSW.
– The use of VS in describing the biodegradability always mislead due to some of organic
constituents of MSW are highly volatile but low in biodegradation (e.g. newsprint,
certain plant trimmings).
– Thus, biodegradable fraction is estimated using Lignin content:
BF = 0.83 - 0.028 LC
where,
BF= biodegradable fraction expresses on a volatile solids basis
LC= Lignin content of the volatile solids expressed as percent of dry weight
 Production of
Odours
– Resulted from anaerobic decomposition of readily
decomposable organic components in MSW.
– Developed when solid wastes are stored too long.
– Can be bad in warm climates.
– Odours problems contributed by formation of variety of
sulphides.
– Sulfate is reducing to sulfide (S2-), which subsequently
combines with hydrogen to form H2S

2CH3CHOHCOOH + SO42-  2CH3COOH + S2- + H2O + CO2

Lactate Sulfate Acetate Sulfide ion
4H2 + SO42-  S2- + 4H2O
S2- + Fe2+  H2S
 Production of
Odours
– The Sulfide ion can also combine with meal
salts that may be presents, such as iron, to
form metal sulphides (FeS).

– Biochemical reduction (anaerobic condition):

Methionine  methyl mercaptan + aminobutyric acid

CH3SH (methyl mercaptan) + H2O  CH4OH (methanol) + H2S
 Breeding of Flies
– Happened rapidly during summer/ for warm
climate country.
– Developed in less than 2 weeks.
– The flies developed from larval (maggot) stage in
on – site storage container depending on the
behaviour of maggots.
– The maggots can crawl from uncovered can and develop
into flies in the surrounding environment
Breeding of Flies
– Life history of the common house fly:
 Transformation
Physical
• Individual components found in
of Solid
• Component separation
• Volume reduction •
commingled MSW
The original waste reduced in volume Waste
• Size reduction • The original waste altered in form and
reduced in size
Chemical

• Combustion • CO2, SO2, other oxidation products, ash

• Pyrolysis • Gas stream containing a variety of gases,
• Gasification tar, oil and char
• Low/high Btu-gas, char, pyrolytic oil
Biological

• Aerobic composting • Compost

• Anaerobic digestion • CH4, CO2, trace gases, digested
• Anaerobic composting humus/sludge
• CH4, CO2, trace gases, digested waste
 Solid Waste Generation Rate
– The quality and general composition of waste material that is generated is
of critical importance in the design and operation of solid waste
management system.
– Unfortunately, reliable quantity and composition data are difficult to
obtain.
– Therefore the following analysis are recommended for estimation of solid
waste quantities;
➢ Load count analysis
➢ Mass volume analysis
➢ Material mass balance analysis
 Load Count Analysis

Quantity and composition of

solid waste are determined by
The total mass and mass
recording the estimated volume
distribution by composition is
and general composition of each
determined using average density
load of waste delivered to a
data for each waste category
landfill or transfer station during
a specific period of time.
Example 5
The following data shows waste generated for a residential area consisting of 2200 homes. The
observation location is a local transfer station that receives all of the wastes collected for
disposal. The observation period was one week.

-Number of compactor truck loads = 7

-Average size of compactor truck = 25 yd3

-Number of flatbed loads = 9

-Average flatbed volume = 3 yd3

-Number of loads from individual residents’ private cars and trucks = 30

-Estimated volume per domestic vehicle = 10 ft3

a) Estimate the unit waste generation rate per week.

b) Determine the unit waste collection rate based on the assumption that each household is
comprised of 4 people.
 Mass-volume Analysis

Unless the density of each

This method of analysis is
waste category is determined
similar to load-count analysis
separately, the mass
with the added feature that
distribution by composition
the mass of each load is also
must be delivered using
recorded.
average density values.
The only way to determine
Material Mass Balance
the generation and Analysis
movement of solid waste
Outflow (combustion
with any degree of gases and ashes)
reliability.

Stored materials (raw Outflow (materials)

Inflow material, products,
(materials) solid waste) Outflow (products)

Outflow (solid wastes, solids in

wastewater)
 Rate of Rate of flow of Rate of flow of Rate of generation of
accumulation of material into the material out of the waste material within
material within the = system boundary - system boundary + the system boundary
system boundary

Accumulation = Inflow - Outflow + Generation

 Factors Affect Generation
Rates MSW

Collection
Geographic Use of kitchen
Season of the year frequency (affect
location waste grinder
amount collected)

Extent of
Characteristics of
salvaging and Public attitudes Legislation
populace
recycling
 Solid Waste Disposal
Techniques
Composting

Landfill

Incineration (waste to energy)

Biogas from solid waste

 Composting
– Composting is an aerobic process and the end-product is the
partially decomposed organic fraction.
– Composting is often promoted as a ‘natural’ process of solid waste
treatment.
– The compost piles can be
readily constructed in the
backyard, and the product is the
useful soil conditioner.
 Landfilled
– A landfill is an engineered method for land disposal
of solid or hazardous wastes in a manner that
protects the environment.
– Within the landfill: biological, chemical and physical
processes occur that promote the degradation of
wastes and result in the production of leachate
(polluted water emanating from the base of the
landfill) and gases.
 Incineration
– Incineration - combustion process that uses an excess oxygen and/or air to burn
the solid waste.
– MSW is fed into the fluid bed boiler with operating temperatures between 1000
and 2000°F.
– Excess air/Oxygen is used for combustion of the combustible MSW. High-
pressure steam produced in the fluid bed boiler is sent to the power plant for
energy generation. Hot exhaust gases from the fluid bed boiler are sent for gas
clean up and heat recovery sent to the power plant for generation of energy.
– The power plant produces electricity using steam turbines and saleable excess
electricity to the grid.
– Drawbacks/negative environmental aspects of the incineration is the production of
ash/air pollution.
 Biogas from solid waste
– Biogas from solid waste –anaerobic digestion.
– Anaerobic - organic matter decays without free or combined oxygen
conditions, the end-products include such gases as methane (CH4),
carbon dioxide, small amount of hydrogen sulphide, ammonia and a few
others.
– Methane is an excellent fuel  wastewater-treatment plant design
engineers to digest (decompose) waste solids and capture this gas for use
in heating building and running machinery in the treatment plant.