Inequalities of Gender PDF

Chapter 7
Inequalities of Gender
7-1
Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Canada Inc.
Learning Outcomes
1. What is gender stratification?

2. How do sex and gender differ and why do the
behaviours of males and females differ?
3. Is gender inequality universal?
4. Is the feminist movement new?
5. Where and how does gender inequality occur?
6. What forms does violence against women take?
7. What progress has been made in reducing
gender inequality?
Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Canada Inc. 7-2

Issues of Sex and Gender

Gender Inequality
• Gender inequality: males’ and females’

unequal access to power, property, and
prestige on the basis of sex.
What are some examples

of gender inequality?

Sex vs. Gender
• Sex: the biological characteristics that

distinguish males and females; inherited.
– Male ♂
– Female ♀
• Gender: what a social group considers
proper for its males and females; learned.
– Masculinity
– Femininity
Biology or Culture? The
Continuing Controversy
Do biological differences control our behaviours?

Or are our behaviours learned in social settings?
This is known as the

nature versus nurture debate.
Which side do you think sociologists favor?

The Dominant Position in
Sociology
• Sociologists favor nurture.
• Symbolic interactionists assert that:
– Biological differences do not come with meanings built
into them.
– Human groups determine what these differences
mean.
• People learn contrasting expectations of life on
the basis of their sex and are given different
access to society’s privileges.
• This is not to say that biology doesn’t play a role.
Gender Inequality
in a Global Perspective

Global Perspective
• Every society sets up barriers that provide

unequal access to property, power, and
prestige on the basis of sex.
• Although these barriers vary globally, they
almost always favour men.
– So women are a minority group, a group of
people who are discriminated against.

Global Perspective
• These barriers manifest in many settings,

including:
– Work
– Education
– Politics
– Violence
Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 10

Example: The World of Work
• Sex typing of work

– Sex typing: every society associates certain
activities with one sex or the other.
• What are some examples of men’s activities?
• What are some examples of women’s activities?
– Pursuits deemed feminine in one society may
be deemed masculine in another.
• Anatomy ≠ occupational destiny.

Example: The World of Work
• Prestige of work
– Greater prestige is typically given to male
activities.
• The pay gap
– Women earn 70–90 percent of the wages that
men earn.

Gender Inequality
in Theoretical Perspective

The Origins of Patriarchy
What is patriarchy? Where did it come from?

• Patriarchy: men dominating society.
• One theory: consequence of biology
– Women: child-bearing and child-rearing = being
physically encumbered à tasks around the home
– Men: hunting = interacting with others (both known
and unknown) à tasks away from home
• Led to an increase in both power and prestige for men.
• Cemented male dominance.
• Other theories have been advanced.
Theoretical Perspectives
on Gender
What do you think each major
paradigm would say about gender?
• Functionalist: considers the different
roles played by men and women distinct
and necessary for well-being.
– Does not focus on power and inequality.
– Derived from biological explanations.

Theoretical Perspectives
on Gender
• Conflict: explains gender differences as
based on power differences between men
and women.
– Focuses on power and inequality.
– Questions men’s control over women at all
levels.

Feminist Perspectives
• Feminism: the fundamental belief in

equality between women and men.
Based on this definition, do you
consider yourself a feminist?

Feminist Perspectives
• Three major branches of feminism:

– Liberal: concerned with equality of
opportunity.
– Socialist: argues that women in a patriarchal
capitalist system are exploited within both the
economy and the home.
– Radical: calls for the end of patriarchy.

Queer Theory
• 1980s: arguments among feminists about

sexuality
– Traditional vs. radical sexual practices among
lesbians
• Gave rise to the notion that there are
multiple expressions of sexuality.
• Initiated the emerging disciplines of
lesbian and gay studies known as queer
theory.
Postmodernism
• Starts with the understanding that gender

is interrelated with race, class, and sexual
orientation.
• Asserts that all of these are socially
constructed.

Gender Inequality In Canada

Fighting Back:
The Rise of Feminism
• Historically, women have been treated as
second-class citizens.
• Basic rights for women are a result of
prolonged struggle.

Fighting Back:
The Rise of Feminism
• Waves of feminism
– Late 1800s/early 1900s: first wave
• Conservative branch: focused on winning the vote for
women.
• Radical branch: wanted to reform all the institutions
of society.
– 1960s: second wave
• Broad goals including changing work roles and
changing policies on violence against women
• Yet gender inequality continues today.
Gender Inequality in Education
• Wollstonecraft (1792): education is the

key to liberation.
• Historical issues for women:
– Lack of access to higher education
– Inability to take certain classes (such as
shop)
– Encouraged to take other classes (such as
home economics)

• Current trends:
– More women than men are enrolled in
Canadian universities.
– Graduation rates for women are climbing.
– Men and women study very different
subjects.
• Men: engineering, math
• Women: health professions, education, performing
arts
• See next slide, Table 7.1
But why do men and

women enter different fields?
• Because of gender socialization.
– Gives men and women different orientations
to life.
– Enter postsecondary education with gender-
linked aspirations.

• Current issues for women:

– Lower prestige and income in female-
dominated fields
– Unaccommodating and intimidating
environments for women who enter male-
dominated fields
– Difficulty being hired and promoted in male-
dominated fields

Gender Inequality
in Everyday Life
• Devaluation of femininity: women’s
capacities, interests, attitudes, and
contributions are not taken as seriously as
those of men.
– Masculinity = success & strength à valued
– Femininity = weakness & lack of
accomplishment à devalued

Gender Inequality
in Everyday Life
• Inequalities in social interaction
– Men are more likely to interrupt.
– Men more often control the topic.
– Different roles:
• Men = dominant
• Women = subordinate

Gender Relations
In the Workplace

Women’s Participation
in the Labour Force
• While women have always worked,
historically much of their labour has been
unpaid.
• Over time, more and more women have
entered the paid labour force.
• Labour force participation rates:
– 1921: 17 percent
– 1944: 33.5 percent
– Today: 60 percent
The Pay Gap
• Shows up at all levels of education and

exists in all industrialized nations.
• Progress:
– 1960s: women earned 58 cents for every
dollar their male counterparts earned.
– Today: women earn 74.5 cents for every
dollar their male counterparts earn.

The Pay Gap
• Explanations for the gap:

– Different degree paths \ different career
trajectories
– Gender-based discrimination
• Example: child penalty / mommy track
• Can you think of any other examples?

The Glass Ceiling or
the Glass Escalator?
• Glass ceiling: the mostly invisible barrier
that keeps women from reaching the
executive suite.
– There is a penalty for women who enter
male-dominated fields.
– Causes:
• Pipeline: women are pushed into support roles
that are less likely to be tracks to promotion.
• Lack of mentorship: there are few successful
female executives to serve as mentors.
The Glass Ceiling or
the Glass Escalator?
• Glass escalator: the invisible engine that
moves men in female-dominated fields
into higher-level positions.
– There is a benefit for men who enter female-
dominated fields.
– Cause: the stereotype that men are more
capable.

Women, Family, and Inequality
• Women are more likely to be the

caretakers in a family.
– Maintain family ties
– Care for others
– Do housework

Women, Family, and Inequality
• So men and women spend substantially

different amounts of time on housework
and caretaking.
– Women: 1 hour, 13 minutes more per day
– For employed women, this is referred to as a
double day, a shift of unpaid work at home in
addition to her paid work.
• Balancing work and family creates role
conflict for employed women.
Sexual Harassment
What is sexual harassment?

• Sexual harassment: unwanted sexual
comments, touches, looks, or pressure to
have sex, particularly in occupational or
school settings.
• First acknowledged in the 1970s.

Sexual Harassment
• MacKinnon (1979): sexual harassment is

a structural problem.
– It is not the result of a few men doing
obnoxious things.
– It is a case of men abusing their positions of
authority to force unwanted sexual activities
on women.

Gender and Violence

Violence against Women
What forms does violence

against women take?
• Women are more likely to be the victims

of battering, stalking, sexual assault,
spousal homicide, and psychological
abuse.

Violence against Women
• Example: sexual assault

– Includes a range of behaviours from
unwanted sexual touching to sexual violence
resulting in injury.
– Focus is on the use of power and
intimidation.
– Hard to get an accurate picture of the
prevalence due to underreporting.
– Date rape represents half of all the sexual
assaults reported.
A Feminist Understanding
of Gender Patterns in Violence
• Symbolic interaction
– To associate strength and virility with
violence—which is common in Canadian
culture—is to produce violence.
• Conflict theory
– As gender relations change, males are losing
power and some become violent in response
as a way to reassert their power and status.
Which explanation makes the most sense to you?
Why?
Solutions
What can we do to combat

violence against women?
• Any solution must break the connection
between violence and masculinity.
• Suggestions:
• Educational programs
• Interventions across multiple settings
• Media reform
Gender and Change

The Changing Face of Politics
• Women constitute about 24 percent of all

elected politicians in Canada.
• Canada ranks forty-first (out of 150) in
terms of women’s representation in
government.

The Changing Face of Politics
• Why do women remain underrepresented

in politics?
– Underrepresentation in the fields—law and
business—from which politicians are drawn.
– Don’t identify as needing bloc political action.
– Incompatibility of the political schedule with
women’s roles as mothers.
– Reluctance of men to present women as
viable candidates.
Women in Sports
• Canadian women have developed a

notable presence in sports communities at
multiple levels and across multiple sports.
• Example: hockey
– Olympic champion Canadian women’s ice
hockey team
– Establishment of girls leagues
– Prominent female players have fans

Women in Sports
• Continued challenges:
– Exclusion from prestigious golf clubs
– Underfunding and marginalization
– Androcentric equipment
– Stereotypes about lesbianism among female
athletes

Changing Roles of Men
What has the women’s movement meant for men?

•Men are adapting.
– Personal level:
• Development of men’s affective side.
• Socially acceptable to share intimate feelings.
• Encouraged to play more active roles in
childrearing.
– Structural level:
• Rise in “house husbands.”

Changing Roles of Men
• Challenges for men:

– Increasing concern about body image.
– “Crisis of masculinity”: violence is the
masculine norm.

Glimpsing the Future—With Hope

A Hopeful Future
• Women and men are challenging gender

stereotypes.
• This leads to new perceptions of
themselves and others.

A Hopeful Future
• Outcomes:
– Women: greater access to power and control
over their environment
– Men: feel and express greater emotional
sensitivity
– Changes in relationships between the sexes
• Jaggar (1990): Hopefully someday gender
inequality can become less a goal and more
a background condition for living in society.
Summary and Review

• What is gender stratification?

– Gender inequality: unequal access to power,
prestige, and property on the basis of sex.
– Every society establishes a structure that
assigns privilege based on sex and gender.

• How do sex and gender differ and why do

the behaviours of males and females
differ?
– Sex is based on biological distinctions while
gender refers to socially determined
behaviours for men and women.
– Nature vs. nurture debate
• Nature: biology à behaviour
• Nurture: social learning à behaviour
Gender Inequality
in a Global Perspective
• Is gender inequality universal?
– Patriarchy is nearly universal.
– All societies have sex-linked activities.
– Other areas of discrimination include
education, politics, and violence.

Gender Inequality in Canada
• Is the feminist movement new?

– Early 1900s: first wave, met with opposition
– 1960s: second wave, continues today

Gender Inequality in Canada
• Is there gender inequality in education, in

the workplace, and in everyday life?
– Education: feminine and masculine fields,
men dominate in scientific disciplines, starting
to change
– Workplace: women have rapidly entered the
paid labour force, gender gap in pay persists
– Everyday life:
• Devaluation of Femininity
• Male dominance of conversation
Gender and Violence
• What forms does violence against women

take?
– Victims of battering, sexual assault, incest,
and spousal murder are overwhelmingly
women.

Glimpsing the Future—
With Hope
• What progress has been made in

reducing gender inequality?
– Women are playing a fuller role in decision-
making processes across social institutions.
– Men are re-examining their traditional roles.
– Gender equality allows both men and women
to pursue their individual interests unfettered
by gender.

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Chapter 7

1. What is gender stratification?

Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Canada Inc. 7-2

Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Canada Inc. 7-3

• Gender inequality: males’ and females’

What are some examples

Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Canada Inc. 7-4

• Sex: the biological characteristics that

Do biological differences control our behaviours?

This is known as the

Which side do you think sociologists favor?

Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Canada Inc. 7-6

Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Canada Inc. 7-8

• Every society sets up barriers that provide

Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Canada Inc. 7-9

• These barriers manifest in many settings,

Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 10

• Sex typing of work

Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 11

Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 12

Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 13

What is patriarchy? Where did it come from?

Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 15

Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 16

• Feminism: the fundamental belief in

Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 17

• Three major branches of feminism:

Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 18

• 1980s: arguments among feminists about

• Starts with the understanding that gender

Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 20

Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 21

Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 22

• Wollstonecraft (1792): education is the

Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 24

But why do men and

Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 27

• Current issues for women:

Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 28

Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 29

Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 30

Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 31

• Shows up at all levels of education and

Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 33

• Explanations for the gap:

Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 34

Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 36

• Women are more likely to be the

Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 37

• So men and women spend substantially

What is sexual harassment?

Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 40

• MacKinnon (1979): sexual harassment is

Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 41

Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 42

What forms does violence

• Women are more likely to be the victims

Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 43

• Example: sexual assault

What can we do to combat

Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 47

• Women constitute about 24 percent of all

Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 48