FEAR NO MORE BACC CHEMISTRY

Sheambom Nelson
678885794 or 675880935
E-mail: sheambomn@yahoo.com
G.T.H.S Mbengwi.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Writing a book is a bit like gathering some raw materials and through an extensive refining process, shaping
them into a finely tuned, high performance automobile. It takes a great team of skilled and dedicated people
to see a concept, and then turn it into reality. I’ve been blessed to have just such a team working with me on
Fear No More Bacc Chemistry, and I appreciate each person who has contributed.
First, I want to thank the North West Chemistry Teachers Association (NWCTA) especially those of the
Technical Schools for coming together and forming a formidable force for the benefit of their students in
working on the scheme and objectives. This happened under the strict supervision of the Regional
Pedagogic Inspectors (RPI) for Chemistry; Mr Ekwe Gesu and Mr Mba Oscar.
Next, I want to thank the many great authors whose books have helped ‘built the infrastructure’ and
contributed greatly to my continuing education, and I thank each one for the investment you have made in
me.
Special thanks to Ignatius Tamajong, Pipayu Ibrahim, Nsuh Robert, T. Justice,Vugar Samson, Nsabin
Jude, Khan Denis for believing in this project and for going the extra mile to make sure it happened, by
providing key editorial assistance as well as valuable insights and perspectives to my material.
Heartfelt thanks to my mum, Vera Mbem, who loves me, prays for me, and always encourages me. And to
Fonka Emelda, the best mother-in-law a man could ever want! Thanks to my brother, Wendy Rehan, whose
excellence and integrity inspire me; to Wujungkumbom Richard, Gujung Gerald and Akumbom Godlove.
My students, Teche-ngu Emmanuel and Tah Jude for their quest for knowledge moved me into carrying this
project.
To my Pastors, Pst Tanyi Mercy, Pst Penn Justice for their heartfelt prayers and spiritual counsel that has
put me in the realm of excellence and influence in my career. Special thanks to my bossom friends Dr.
Charles Kweche and Kongso Cyrille for inspiration and encouragement.
Dedication

To Pascaline, the love of my life.

Thanks for believing in me and inspiring me to greater things. Your love, friendship, and your kind, gentle
spirit make living with you each day a gift. I would not be who I am without the seeds you have sown in my
life. I respect you, admire you, and look forward to spending the rest of our lives together.

To Lindsay

Thanks for being such an incredible daughter! You are kind, respectful, and have a great sense of humour.
You amaze me with your wisdom, your insight, and your talent. I treasure the time we share together. You
are going to make a significant impact on our world. I am proud to call you my daughter.

To Blossom, my little jewel.

You have such a tender heart, filled with kindness and compassion. You are smart and funny. You are
number one! You are a born king with an awesome future. Thank you son.

To Shalom, my peace in prosperity.

You are the most fascinating and a blessing to your generation; called to bring the peace of our Lord Jesus
Christ to the nations of the world. I love you mighty man!
PREFACE

This book has been written as an aid to studying, understanding and passing Technical GCE, BACC
Physical and Engineering Sciences. It is not a ‘teach yourself’ book and no book can be a substitute for the
work you will do in the class with your teacher. A good habit to cultivate would be to read through the notes
you take after each lesson and relate them to the relevant section of this book. Then check that you have
understood the work by trying the relevant questions at the end of the chapter.
Fear No More Bacc Chemistry has been written after a thorough analysis of all the A Level Technical
Syllabuses. While there is a common core of content for all the syllabuses, each one differs slightly so that it
would be a good idea to find out which syllabus you are following and get a copy of it (or better still ask
your teacher) to check which topics you should be studying.

There are in addition some notes that go beyond the Arrangements but which will be useful to learn. You
can also mark statements with a highlighter pen. You are more likely to benefit from your revision if you
work at a steady rate and follow a study plan. Calculations should always be set out in full, with all
information expressed in symbol form and where necessary changed into SI (basic) units.

SHEAMBOM NELSON 2014.

CHAPTER ONE HYDROCARBONS
1.1 Introduction
Organic chemistry is the study of carbon containing compounds excluding oxides, carbonates and carbides.
Carbon is peculiar in its formation of stable compounds because:
1) A carbon atom has four electrons in its outer shell, allowing it to form covalent bonds.
2) It forms particularly strong bonds with other carbon atoms and thus readily forms chains and rings of
carbon atoms.
3) It forms strong single, double and triple bonds to itself.
4) It has the ability to form four covalent bonds, which means that it is possible to form branched
chains.
1.2 Definition of terms in organic chemistry
1. Hydrocarbons
These are compounds of carbon and hydrogen only. E.g. alkanes, alkenes and alkynes.
The general molecular formula of a hydrocarbon is CxHy ; x and y being whole numbers.
2. Saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons
Saturated hydrocarbons are organic compounds with single covalent between carbon atoms. E.g.

alkanes
Unsaturated hydrocarbons are organic compounds with multiple bonds between carbon atoms. i.e. either
double or triple bonds present. E.g. alkenes
and alkynes .
3. Functional group
A Functional group is an atom or group of atoms, a bond(s) common to a homologous series and which
determines the main chemical properties of the series. E.g.
Homologous series Functional group Name and molecular
formula
Alkanes Ethane C2H6
Alkenes Ethane C2H4
Alkenes Ethyne C2H2
Alcohols Ethanol C2H5OH
Carboxylic acid Ethanoic acid CH3COOH

4. Homologous series
This is a family of compounds which follow a regular structural pattern, in which each successive
member differs in its molecular formula by a –CH2 group. E.g.

Alkanes Alkenes Alcohols

Homologous
series
General CnH2n+2 CnH2n CnH2n+1OH
molecular n≥1 n≥2 n≥1
formula
Members CH4, C2H6 C2H4, C3H6 C2H5OH,
C3H7OH
 Each individual member of a homologous series is referred to as a homologue.
A homologous series has the following properties;

a) They have the same general molecular formula .i.e. they conform to a general molecular formula.
b) They have similar chemical reactions though they differ in vigour.
c) They have the same general method of preparation.
The physical properties of the members change gradually as the number of carbon atoms per
molecule increases. For instance in the alkanes homologous series, the first four members are gases,
with five to seventeen carbon atoms as volatile liquids; while higher members are waxy solids.
1.3 Saturated hydrocarbons (Alkanes)
General formula; CnH2n+2 n≥1 (chains) or CnH2n (rings).
Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons meaning that molecules of alkanes consist of carbon and hydrogen
atoms linked by single covalent bonds only.
Alkanes are named by adding “ ane” to the root name.
The systematic name developed by IUPAC consists of a root which describes the molecule by relating it to
the longest unbranched hydrocarbon chain or ring.
Root meth eth prop but pent hex hept Oct non dec
name
Num 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
of C-
atoms

An alkyl group is a univalent group derived from alkanes by the loss of a hydrogen atom.
Alkyl groups have a general formula of CnH2n+1.
They are named after the parent alkanes by replacing the ending –ane by –yl. E.g.

n alkane Alkyl group

1 CH4 CH3- Methyl
methane
2 C2H6 ethane C2H5- Ethyl
3 C3H8 C3H7- Propyl
propane

Nomenclature
There is a systematic scheme for naming compounds, developed by IUPAC- the International Union of Pure
and Applied Chemistry.
1) Look for the longest carbon chain which determines the name of the alkane .e.g.
The longest C-atom above is five, thus the compound bears the name of the alkane, pentane.
2) Start numbering the chain from the end next to a branch or functional group. E.g

3) Name any group that is attached to the longest chain. From the above example, we have a methyl
group. That is methylpentane.
4) Give the positions on the carbon chain of any group attached.
Remember that the attached group should be given the lowest locant (number) possible. From the
example above, counting from both end, and the name of the compound goes thus; 3-methylpentane.
5) Side groups are arranged in alphabetical order. E.g.

1-chloro-2-methylbutane
Remark;
In naming organic compounds, numbers are separated by a comma, and numbers from letters
by a dash(-).
E.g.

Alkanes are classified into aliphatic i.e.

straight chain

n-butane
Branched chain

2-methylpropane

Cyclic chain
 Physical properties of alkanes
They are volatile and generally have low melting and boiling points.
They burn forming carbon dioxide and water.
They are colourless and often hare characteristic smells.
Chemical reactions (properties)
Alkanes generally undergo substitution reactions. These are reactions in which one or more of the
hydrogen atoms are replaced by another atom.
1) Combustion
Alkanes burn in excess oxygen to produce CO2 and H2O, known as complete combustion e.g.

The values of x and y can be obtained from the equations;

Using the molecular formula for alkanes we have

If n = 7, we have

If oxygen is limited, carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon (charcoal) are produced and referred to as
incomplete combustion
2) Halogenations;
Chlorine reacts with alkanes in diffuse sunlight (u.v light) to produce a series of haloalkanes. e.g.
 3) Cracking;
This is the process whereby long chain alkanes break up to form smaller molecules under the
influence of heat or catalyst. E.g.

Cracking produces more gasoline and is a source of alkenes.

Preparation of alkanes
1. Heating the sodium salt of a carboxylic acid and soda-lime
Soda-lime is made by adding concentrated sodium hydroxide (NaOH) to quick lime (calcium
hydroxide, Ca(OH)2 .
Soda-lime is preferred to sodium hydroxide because it is deliquescent.

2. Action of water on aluminium carbide

Water is added drop by drop from a tap funnel onto some aluminium carbide in a round-bottomed flask.
3. Reaction of alkyl iodide with sodium

The reaction is called WURTZ Reaction and is used to prepare alkanes with two or more carbon atoms.

4. Hydrogenation of alkenes
At temperatures of 150o c in the presence of a finely divided nickel catalyst an alkene is converted
into an alkane.

5. From alcohols by reduction

When alcohols are heated with concentrated hydroiodic acid (HI) and red phosphorus, alkanes are
produced. The heating is done under pressure.

6. From Grignard reagent

 Grignard reagent (RMgX) decomposes when water is added to it. An alkane is formed and a mixture of
magnesium halide and hydroxide.

Uses of alkanes
 They are used as fuels .e.g. bottled gas, kerosene, petrol and diesel.
 They are used as starting materials for the production of many substances like plastics, detergents,
alcohols e.t.c.
 Trichloromethane (chloroform) is used in surgical operations as an anesthetic.
 Tetra chloromethane is used as an important organic solvent.
1.4 UNSATURATED HYDROCARBONS
A) ALKENES
Alkanes form a homologous series with the general formula CnH2n where n≥2.
They are unsaturated because they have a double bond between carbon atoms i.e. two hydrogen atoms
less than their corresponding alkane.
The alkenes are named in the way as the alkanes but with the ending –ane replaced with –ene e.g.
Structure Name
Ethene or ethylene
Propene
But-1-ene
But-2-ene
Pent-1-ene

The alkenes with two double bonds are called alkadienes e.g.

Physical properties of alkenes

 The first three members are colourless gases.
 They are insoluble in water.
 Melting and boiling points increases as the number of C-atom increases. This is due to weak Van
der Waals force which increases with increase in molecular size.
Chemical properties of alkenes
The double bonds between the C-atoms in alkenes, makes them more reactive than the alkanes.
Alkenes burn with a more luminous and smoky flame than the corresponding alkanes.

Addition reactions of alkenes

 An addition reaction is a reaction in which two molecules combine to give a single product, which is
saturated.
a) Hydrogenation
This is the addition of hydrogen molecule to an unsaturated compound. It is done using finely divided
nickel, platinum or palladium catalyst at temperatures of 140- 150oc.

b) Halogenation
This is the addition of halogens.

Bromine is decolorized by alkenes. To test for an alkene two or three drops of a solution of bromine in CCl 4
is added to the alkene. The alkene is decolorized. This is a test for unsaturated hydrocarbons.
c) Hydrohalogenation
At a temperature of about 200oc hydrogen halide (HX) adds onto alkenes to form haloalkanes .e.g.

The ease of the reaction decreases from HI to HF .i.e. HI>HBr>HCl>HF.

When a hydrogen halide adds to an unsymmetrical alkene like propene, the Hydrogen atom in the
HX attaches itself to the C-atom with the highest number of H- atoms within the double bond. E.g .

We say the reaction follows Markovnikoff’s rule which states that in addition of a hydrogen halide to
an unsymmetrical alkene, the hydrogen atom attaches itself to the carbon atom of the double bond that
carries the greater number of hydrogen.
When propene reacts with hydrogen iodide in the presence of peroxides a product different from
what is expected according to Mark’s rule is obtained.

This reaction is anti-Markovnikoff.

d) Hydration
This is the addition of water to an alkene thereby producing an alcohol.
If the alkene is unsymmetrical, two alcohols are produced;

The alcohols are isomeric meaning they have the same molecular formula but different structures in space.
Propan-2-ol is the majority product because it production follows Mark’s rule.
OXIDATION OF ALKENES
e) By alkaline potassium permanganate
A diol (glycol) is produced rapidly when an alkene reacts with OH-/KMnO4 SOLUTION. The purple
colour of the MnO4- ion disappears and a precipitate of brown manganese (IV) oxide appears. This reaction
is used as an alternative to the bromine test for multiple bonds.

Ethane-1,2-diol, also known as ethylene glycol, is used as antifreeze in car cooling systems. It is also used in
the manufacture of Terylene.
f) Ozonolysis
If ozone-enriched oxygen is bubbled through a solution of an alkene, an unstable ozonide is first
produced. This then reacts with water to give two carbonyl compounds.

If the two carbonyl compounds are identified (by formation of derivatives with Brady’s reagent, then the
position of the double bond in the alkene can be deduced.
g) Polymerization
Polymerization is the process whereby two or more simple molecules called monomers link together to
form long chains of very high relative molecular mass. The larger molecule is called a polymer. This type of
reaction is called addition polymerization as no molecule is eliminated.
ADDITION POLYMERS
Monomer Polymer Systematic name Typical uses
Polyethene Washing-up bowls

Polypropene Rope
 Polychloroethene or , ,
polyvinylchloride

Plastic models, ceiling

tiles

THERMOPLASTICS AND THERMOSETTING PLASTICS

Plastics that can be softened on heating and melted and set when cooled are called thermoplastics. E.g.
Polyethene, P.V.C, polystyrene .e.t.c. They can be remoulded.
Plastics which do not soften on heating and most often cannot be remoulded are called thermosetting
plastics. E.g. melamine, bakelite.
Advantages of plastics
They are light, cheap and resistant to corrosion.
They can be remoulded and dyed into different colours.

Disadvantages of plastics
They are not biodegradable i.e. microorganisms cannot break them down.
Because they do not decay, they dirty our environment.
Preparation of alkenes
1) Dehydration of a primary alcohol.
Alkenes can be prepared by dehydration of corresponding alcohol. If ethanol is heated with excess conc
sulphuric acid (H2SO4) at 170oc ethylhydrogensulphate will be formed.

Ethylhydrogensulphate then decomposes forming ethene and sulphuric acid.

When other dehydrating agents such as Al2O3,P2O5,H3PO4 are used, the reaction takes place in one step.
2) Action of potassium hydroxide on haloalkane(RX)

But 2-bromobutane gives a mixture of but-1-ene and but-2-ene (both cis and trans isomers) depending
on which hydrogen is eliminated along with the bromine.

USES OF ALKENES
Ethene is used to manufacture polyethene, ethanol, ethylene glycol e.t.c in a large scale.
Propene is used to make polypropylene, propan-2-ol, phenol e.t.c.
B) ALKYNES
It is a family of hydrocarbons with general molecular formula CnH2n-2 where n>2.
They have a lower proportion of hydrogen in their molecules than either alkanes or alkenes.
Alkynes were originally known as acetylenes.

Nomenclature
The names of the alkynes are derived from the corresponding alkanes by replacing the –ane by –yne.

Physical properties of alkynes

 Colourless and almost odourless,
 Appreciably soluble in water but more soluble in organic solvents.
 It can be easily liquefied.
Chemical properties of alkynes

1) Chlorination
The final product of chlorination of ethyne is 1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethane.
2) Hydrogenation

3) Addition of hydrogen halides

 4) Polymerization
If a tube is heated to about 400oc and ethyne is passed through it, benzene will be produced.

Test for alkynes

When ethyne is passed onto ammoniacal copper (II) chloride solution a red –brown precipitate of copper
(I) acetylide (Cu2C2) is formed.
-Alkynes like alkenes decolorize bromine water and acidified potassium permanganate.
Preparation of alkynes
(1) From calcium carbide and water
Ethyne is prepared by the action of water on carbide.

2) Action of alcoholic KOH on a vicinal dihalide

3) It is manufactured from methane by applying a temperature of 1500oc for a fraction of a second.

Uses of alkynes
 In the oxyacetylene flame for welding.
 Manufacture of ethanal by hydration.

 In the production of benzene.

1.5 AROMATICHYDROCARBONS ( BENZENE )
Arenes, often called aromatic compounds, are organic compounds which contain benzene, C6H6.

Aromatic rings are given the special symbol . The ring represents delocalized electrons.
Nomenclature
Monosubstituted benzenes are named as alkyl benzenes. E.g
In some cases more than one substituent is present. To locate the second group relative to the first, we
number the C-atoms thus;

Hence

The prefixes, o-(ortho), m-(meta) and p-(para) can also be used to indicate the relative positions of the two
substituted groups.
Physical properties of benzene
1) Benzene is a liquid at room temperature
2) Benzene has a higher boiling point than the cycloalkane (hexane) because benzene’s flat hexagonal
molecules pack together very well in the solid state.
3) Benzene do not mix with water, but with other hydrocarbons.
Chemical properties of benzene
Types of reactions;
a) Mainly electrophilic substitution.
1) Nitration: The nitrating mixture comprises of concentrated nitric and sulphuric acids at 50oc which
produces the nitronium ion NO2+

2) Halogenation: It takes place in the presence of a halogen carrier e.g. AlCl3, FeBr3
3) Sulphonation: reaction between benzene and concentrated H2SO4 to produce benzenesulphonic acid.

4) Friedel-Craft’s reaction
a) Alkylation:
Treatment of benzene with a haloalkane in the presence of a halogen carrier in order to attach an alkyl group
to the benzene molecule is called Friedel-Craft alkylation.

b) Acylation: It is the substitution of a hydrogen atom in a benzene ring by an acyl group

using halogen carriers e.g. AlCl3, or BF3.

4) Reaction with unsaturated compounds:

c) Addition reactions of benzene

1. Hydrogenation
 2. Chlorination

Remark:
Toluene shows the same reactions.
REACTIONS OF METHYLBENZENE (TOLUENE)
A) Nitration
The methyl group is 2,4 directing or ortho- para.

When temperature is above 55oc, Trinitrotoluene (TNT) is produced.

Remark:
All alky groups are 2,4 directing hence chlorination and Sulphonation will follow the same trends above.
2. Addition reaction
a) Hydrogenation

3. Substitution in the methyl group

Free radical substitution

4. Oxidation of the methyl group

Product of oxidation depends on the oxidizing agent used.
ELECTRON RELEASING, DONATING GROUPS
(+I EFFECT WITH RESPECT TO H)

Decreasing power of positive inductive effect (+I effect).

ELECTRON ATTRACTING GROUPS
(-I EFFECT WITH RESPECT TO H)
NO2, CN-, F-, Cl-, Br-, I-, OH-, NH2,C6H5.
Descending power of –I effect.
O- P directing groups m-directing groups
Activating Deactivating
-CH3( R ) F NO2
-OH Cl SO3H
-O- Br CHO
NH2 I -COOH
-C6H5 CN, COR
They have been classified in accordance with Vorlander’s empirical rule which states that groups
containing double or triple bonds between atoms are meta-directing.

PREPARATION OF BENZENE
A) From sodium benzoate and soda lime

B) From phenol

C) From benzene diazonium chloride

 D) Polymerization of ethyne
We have seen this already
GO BACK CHECK KEY POINTS YOU HIGHLIGHTED

SELF CHECK ONE

1. Name the following compounds;

2. Draw the structural formula of;

a. 2-methylpentane
b. Methylcyclohexane
c. 3-ethyl-4-methylheptane
d. Cyclohexene
e. Cis-but-2-ene
f. 4-chloromethylbenze
3. Three hydrocarbons; X, Y, Z had the following reactions:
X burned with a smoky flame, reacted with conc. H2SO4 and with bromine on exposure to u.v light,
producing HBr and an organic product.
Y burned with a smoky flame reacted with conc. H2SO 4 acid and reacted with bromine solution in the dark.
Z burned with a relatively smokeless flame, had no reaction with conc. H2SO4 and reacted with bromine
only on exposure to u.v light producing HBr as well as an organic product.
a) Classify X, Y, Z as an alkane, alkene or arene. Explain your reasoning.
b) Identify the type of organic compound produced in the reaction with sulphuric acid in each case.
c) What is a cycloalkane?
4. Give the name and structural formula of the compound formed when propene reacts with hydrogen
bromide.
5. 0.252g of a volatile liquid hydrocarbon on vaporization occupied a volume of 67.2cm3 at 273K and
1atmosphere pressure. It gave, on combustion, 0.132g of carbon dioxide and 0.054g of water. Calculate;
a) the number of moles of carbon atoms in the sample,
b) the number of moles of hydrogen atoms in the sample,
c) the molecular mass of the compound.
d) The molecular formula of the compound.
6. Give the reagents and show the mechanism for the conversion of benzene to bromobenzene.
7. a. What is a hydrocarbon?
b. Consider the following hydrocarbons; ethyne, ethene, methane, and cyclohexane.
 i) Which one of these is a liquid at room temperature and does not combine with hydrogen even in the
presence of nickel?
ii) Which one is formed when ethanol vapour is passed over aluminium oxide at 200oc?
iii) Which one of these produces a red precipitate when bubbled through ammoniacal copper (II)
chloride solution?
8. Give reagents and reaction conditions for the following conversions;

9. a. Name the following compounds; H3C-CH(CH3)-CH3, H3C-CHCH-CH3.

b. give the general formula of alkynes.
c. determine the molecular formula of alkynes of molecular mass M =54gmol-.
10. a. Give the general formulae of alkanes, alkenes, alkynes and alcohols ( the number of carbon atoms is
given by n ).
b. 16cm3 of CO2 were obtained on complete combustion of 6cm3 of a mixture of ethane and butane in
excess oxygen.
i) Write balanced equations of the complete combustion of ethane and butane.
ii) Determine the composition in cm3 of the initial mixture i.e. the volume of ethane and that of butane.
c. Write and balance the equation of the complete combustion of ethyne.
CHAPTER TWO ORGANIC COMPOUNDS CONTAINING OXYGEN
2.1 ALCOHOLS
2.1.1. GENERAL FORMULA
Both alcohols and phenols have the functional group –OH attached to a carbon skeleton. With alcohols the
carbon skeleton is an alkyl group and with phenols the –OH is attached directly to an arene ring.
Alcohols have the general molecular formula CnH2n+1OH or CnH2n+2O.
Alcohols are isomeric to ethers.
Three major groups of alcohols exist;
Monohydric alcohols: They contain one hydroxyl group per molecule. E.g. CH3CH2OH, ethanol.
Dihydric alcohols: They contain two hydroxyl groups per molecule. E.g. HOCH2CH2OH, ethane-1,2-diol.
Trihydric alcohols: Contains three hydroxyl groups per molecule. E.g. HOCH2CH2OHCH2OH, propane-
1,2,3-triol.
2.1.2 Nomenclature.
- Alcohols are named using the suffix –OL if the –OH group is the principal group (or,of course ,the only
one) E.g. CH3OH methanol or methyl alcohol
CH3CHO2OH ethanol or ethyl alcohol
CH3CHOHCH3 propan-2-ol
CH3CH2CH2OH propan-1-ol

2.1.3 Classification of alcohols

Monohydric alcohols are classified as primary( 1o ), secondary ( 2o ) or tertiary ( 3o ) according to how
many other groups ( R- ) are bonded to the carbon which has the –OH group.
In the primary alcohol, this carbon has one R- group.

In secondary alcohol, the –OH group is attached to a carbon with two R-groups.

Tertiary alcohols have three R- groups attached to the carbon which is bonded.

2.1.4 Physical properties of alcohols

 The presence of –OH group means that hydrogen bonding occurs between the molecules of both
alcohols and phenol. The hydrogen has two consequences.
  Firstly it leads to boiling and melting temperatures being much higher than those of alkanes of
comparable relative molecular mass.
 Secondly, alcohols with relatively short carbon chains mix completely with water.
 They have a distinctly antiseptic smell.
 A second –OH group in the molecule increases the solubility and benzene-1.2-diol is
considerably more soluble than phenol.
2.1.5 Chemical properties of alcohols
Three types of reactions;
i) Reaction of the –OH group
ii) Oxidation
iii) Elimination reaction.
A] REACTIONS OF THE -OH GROUP
1) Reaction with sodium metal

2) With hydrogen halides

The ease of the reaction diminishes in the order HI, HBr, HCl.
3) Reaction with PCl5 ( test for OH group )

Steamy white fumes of HCl gas indicate the presence of the OH group.
4) Reaction with phosphorus trihalides
Here chloro, bromo and iodoalkanes are produced.

Sulphur dichloride oxide reacts similarly.

This reaction is preferable to others in the formation of haloalkanes ( R-X ) because all its products are
gases and are separated easily from the liquid haloalkane.
5) Reaction with concentrated sulphuric acid
The product depends on alcohol used and conditions:

a) At 0oc

The alkyl hydrogen sulphate undergoes elimination of sulphuric acid at 180oc to give an alkene.

b) At 140oc and with 1o alcohol in excess

 An ether is formed.
6) Reaction with organic acids
Alcohols react with carboxylic acids to form an ester and water only.

The reaction is reversible and is catalyzed by a strong acid such as sulphuric acid. The reaction does not
go to completion.
An equilibrium mixture containing a good deal of all four components is formed.
The reaction is called esterification and is defined as the process where ab alcohol reacts with a
carboxylic acid in the presence of an acid catalyst to produce an ester and water. E.g.

The conc. H2SO4 acts as a catalyst and as a dehydrating agent.

The esterification takes place more readily with acid chlorides, than with carboxylic acids:

The esterification reaction with an acid chloride has two advantages over that with an acid. It occurs
more quickly and it goes to completion. The forward reaction is esterification and the backward
reaction is hydrolysis.
B] OXIDATION REACTIONS
a) Combustion:
All alcohols can be oxidized by combustion to CO2 and H2O.

b) Selective oxidation
Alcohols can be oxidized more selectively by oxidizing agents such as sodium dichromate (VI)
(NaCr2O7), potassium permanganate (VII) in acid solution.
Primary alcohols are oxidized to aldehydes which can themselves be further oxidized to carboxylic
acids. E.g.
 In the reaction the orange Cr2O72- ions are reduced to green Cr3+ ions. To prepare ethanal, from ethanol,
we use fairly gentle oxidizing conditions.
Secondary alcohols are oxidized to ketones which are not readily oxidized further.

Tertiary alcohols are not easily oxidized at all.

This difference in behaviour can be used to distinguish between 1 o, 2o and 3o alcohols. The reason for the
failure of ketones to oxidize further, or tertiary alcohols to oxidize at all, is because in each, oxidation
would require the breaking of a relatively strong carbon- carbon bond rather than a C-H bond which
must break for further oxidation of an aldehyde
c) Chloroform or iodoform test.
2o alcohols are oxidized by iodine in the presence of sodium hydroxide. Ethanol is the only 1o alcohol
which gives a positive iodoform test. The ethanol is oxidized to ethanal followed by chlorination or
iodination.

Methanol does not undergo this reaction.

C] ELIMINATION REACTION
Dehydration: The elimination of water. Alcohols can be dehydrated by passing their vapour over
heated aluminium oxide. Example

2.1.6 PREPARATION OF ALCOHOLS

1) From alkenes

1) From haloalkanes

2) Reduction of aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids and ester.

On reduction, aldehydes, carboxylic acids and esters yield 1 o alcohols, while ketones give 2o
alcohols.
A number of reducing agents can be used.
Esters give two alcohols RCH2OH and R’OH. Example

3) Hydrolysis of esters
Esters can be hydrolysed in either acidic or alkaline conditions to produce alcohols and
carboxylic acids.

4) Fermentation of starch
It takes place in four stages by the action of three enzymes:
a) Wheat or barley are mashed with hot water and then filtered to extract the starch solution.
b) This aqueous solution is heated to about 55oc with malt (partly germinated barley) which contains a
mixture of enzymes known as diastase which hydrolyses the starch to maltose.

c) The liquid is cooled to about 35 oc and yeast which contains the enzyme maltase is added to catalyze
the hydrolysis of maltose to glucose.
 d) The yeast also contains a mixture of enzymes called zymase which catalyzes the decomposition of
glucose.

The fermented solution contains 10-14% ethanol.

When wine is left open to the air, it soon becomes sour because bacteria in air oxidize ethanol to
ethanoic acid.
2.1.7 TEST FOR ALCOHOLS
1) Lucas test: The reagents for this test are ZnCl2 and conc. HCl. The alcohol is shaken with ZnCL 2
and HCl in a test tube.
3o alcohol………………………………….immediate cloudiness
2o alcohol…………………………………..cloudiness after 5minutes
1o alcohol…………………………………..no cloudiness at room temp
2) PCl5 test: Steamy white fumes of hydrogen chloride gas are produced when an alcohol reacts with
PCl5.
1) Iodoform test for ethanol.
2) Chromate test.
2.1.8 USES OF ALCOHOLS
1) Methanol is used in the production of bakelite ( plugs, switches ).
2) Used in making solvents for paints and vanishes.
3) Methanol is used to manufacture Perspex and methylated spirits.
4 Ethanol is used to manufacture alcoholic drinks.
5) Propan-2-ol is used in the production of propanone and hydrogen peroxide.
6) Polyhydric alcohols are used as antifreeze in car radiators, plane wings, polyesters for synthetic
fibres, medical and pharmaceutical products, explosives, e.t.c.
CHECK POINT
1) Name the following;

2) Give the structural formula of;

a) 2-chloropropan-1-ol;
b) 2-methylpropan-2-ol;
c) 4-nitrophenol
d) Benzene-1,4-diol.
3) Classify the following as 1o, 2o or 3o alcohols or phenols:

4) A) Describe briefly, giving essential conditions and equations, the lab conversion of propene into:
i) propan-2-ol
ii) propane-1,2-diol
 B) Convert propan-2-ol to propanone
C) A student carries out the reaction above starting with 12.7g of propan-2-ol and obtains 6.9g of
propanone. Calculate the percentage yield for the conversion.
2.2 CARBONYL COMPOUNDS- ALDEHYDES AND KETONES
2.2.1 Introduction
The carbonyl group is C=O. The term carbonyl compound includes two functional
groups- aldehydes and ketones.
Their general molecular formula is CnH2nO.
In aldehydes, the carbon bonded to the oxygen (the carbonyl carbon) has at least one hydrogen atom
bonded to it, so the general formula of an aldehyde is

, sometimes written as RCHO.

In ketones, the carbonyl carbon has two alkyl ( R- ) groups so the formula of a ketone is;

The R groups in both aldehydes and ketones maybe alkyl and aryl.
2.2.2 Naming, formulae and structure
Aldehydes are named using the suffix –al when the aldehyde is the principal group and
the prefix oxo- when it is not. The carbon of the aldehyde functional group is counted as part of the
carbon chain of the root. So;

as the aldehyde is not the principal group.

Ketones are named using the suffix –one when the ketone is the principal group. No confusion should occur
as in ketones the carbonyl group must come with the chain whereas in aldehydes, it must come at the end.
E.g
REMARKS: Locants are not needed in propanone or butanone. No ketone with fewer than three carbon
atoms is possible.

2.2.3 Physical properties of carbonyl compounds

Because of dipole- dipole forces, the boiling points of carbonyl compounds are higher than those of
alkanes of same molecular mass but not as high as those of alcohols.
The shorter chain carbonyl compounds are completely miscible with water due to the formation of
hydrogen bonds. They have fairly pleasant smells.
2.2.4 Chemical properties
1) Nucleophilic addition reactions
The general pattern for this reaction is as follows:

a) Addition of hydrogen sulphate ions

The nucleophile ( Nu: ) is the SO3H- ion, generated by adding a solution of sodium hydrogensulphite. E.g.

b) Addition of hydrogen cyanide

The nucleophile CN- is generated from HCN or NaCN. E.g

A mixture of NaCN and acid (HCl) is used to avoid using the poisonous HCN gas. The CN - group is called
nitrile and it reacts with acids to give carboxylic acid, so reaction of 2-hydroxynitriles gives 2-
hydroxycarboxylic acids.
c) Addition of alcohols

This product is called a hemiacetal. Further reaction can take place to give an acetal:

Ketals, analogous compounds made from ketones, are more difficult to prepare.
d) Addition of water
Water can also add on across the C=O bond, e.g

3) Addition- elimination ( condensation ) reaction

As the name implies, these reactions involve first addition to form an unstable intermediate which then
rapidly loses (eliminates) a molecule of water.
i) Reaction with hydrazine ( H2N-NH2 )
The reaction occurs as follows:

The product is called a hydrazone.

ii) With hydroxylamine

iii) With phenyl hydrazine

iv) With 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine ( 2,4 DNPH )

The derivatives are usually named by reference to the starting material, e.g. ‘ethanal oxime’ or
‘propanone 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazone’.
Carbonyl compounds forms a yellow precipitate of a hydrazone with 2,4 DNPH.
3) Oxidation-reduction (redox) reaction
Aldehydes are easily oxidized to carboxylic acids using acidified KMnO4 or KCr2O7.

Ketones cannot be oxidized easily but very powerful oxidizing agents oxidize ketones by breaking the
carbon chain.
 Ketones are not, therefore strong enough as reducing agents to reduce Tollen’s reagent, Fehling’s
solution or Schiff’s reagent. These tests provide a simple method of distinguishing between aldehydes
and ketones.
Both aldehydes and ketones can be reduced to alcohols by a variety of reducing agents; e.g. Na\
ethanol, H2\Ni catalyst, LiAlH4 in ether solution, NaBH4 in aqueous solution.

The overall effect is the addition of hydrogen to the C=O bond.

Some aldehydes and ketons can be reduced to hydrocarbons by using amalgamated zinc and
concentrated hydrochloric acid, e.g.

4) Reactions of the alkyl groups of carbonyl compounds

Further substitution can occur, firstly of the same methyl group and then, when that is fully substituted, of
the second.
5) The triiodomethane reaction
Aldehydes and ketones which contain the group;

give a positive triiodomethane reaction. Reaction with iodine and sodium hydroxide produces yellow
crystals of triiodomethane. E.g.
 2.2.5 DISTINGUISHING ALDEHYDES FROM KETONES
1) Tollen’s Reagent:
A solution of Ag+ (silver nitrate) in aqueous ammonia solution is the composition of Tollen’s
reagent.

Aldehydes when warmed with Tollen’s reagent, metallic silver (silver mirror) are formed. Ketones give no
reaction to this test.
2) Benedict’s test. (Fehling’s solution)
Benedict’s solution is a mixture of copper (II) ions in an alkaline solution with a complexing agent.
Warming an aldehyde with Benedict’s solution produces a brick-red precipitate of copper (I) oxide.
Ketones give no reaction to this test.
3) Schiff’s reagent
Schiff’s reagent is made by decolorizing a solution of rosaniline in water by sulphur dioxide. Aldehydes
restore the magenta colour.
Remark;
Aldehydes react more readily than ketones for two reasons;
i) In a ketone, the electron-releasing effect of two alkyl groups reduces the positive charge on the carbonyl
carbon making it less easily attacked by nucleophiles;
ii) The two alkyl groups of a ketone tend to get in the way of attacking nucleophiles’
This is sometimes called steric hindrance
2.2.6) Uses of carbonyl compound
1) Methanal- for manufacturing thermosetting plastics.
2) 40o/o solution of methanal is formalin.
3) Manufacture of antiseptics and explosives.
4) Ethanal source of ethanoic acid.
5) Propanone solvent for organic materials, Perspex etc.
CHECK POINTS
1) Two oxygen containing compound with general formula C4H8O have different functional groups
(a) Give the spread out structure of each of the compounds
(b) Give one test (reagents and observations) that is common to the two functional groups.
2) Two alcohols A and B of the same molecular mass were oxidized with acidified potassium
dichromate giving propanal and a ketone respectively.
(i) Identify the alcohols A and B.
(ii) Give the structure of the ketone.

2.3 CARBOXYLIC ACIDS

 They are organic acids with general molecular formula
CnH2n+1COOH where n = 0,1,…or CnH2nO2 where n≥1.
 Carboxylic acids are isomeric to esters.
 The carboxyl group (-COOH) is made up of the carbonyl group C= 0 and the hydroxyl (-OH)
group.
 A monocarboxylic acid is one which contains only one carboxyl group.
 The loss of carbon dioxide from a carboxylic acid to form a hydrocarbon is called decarboxylation
2.3.2. Nomenclature
  The general formula of carboxylic acids (alkanoic acids) is RCOOH Where R stands for hydrogen or
any alkyl group.
 They are represented thus:

They are named by replacing the e of the corresponding alkane with –oic acid. E.g.
HCOOH Methanoic acid (formic acid)
CH3COOH Ethanoic acid (acetic acid)
C2H5COOH Propanoic acid
C6H5COOH Benzoic acid
Dicarboxylic acids contain two carboxylic groups e.g.

2.3.3 Physical properties of carboxylic acids

 They dissolve well with water molecules because they can form hydrogen bonds with water.
 They have characteristic smells; ethanoic acid has a smell of vinegar while butanoic acid causes the
smell of rancid butter.
 They have a higher melting point, higher than that of a corresponding alkane.
 They turn blue litmus to red.
 They have a pH value less than 7 on the pH scale.
 They ionizes in water to form H+ ions.
2.3.4 Chemical properties of carboxylic acids
(1) As acids
(a) Reaction with ammonia (NH3)

Reaction gives ammonium salts which can then be dehydrated by strong heating to give amides.
(b) Reaction with phosphorus pentachloride
PCl5 and Sulphur dichloride oxide or thionyl chloride (SOCl2) both generate the nucleophile Cl- which
replaces the –OH group of the acid to produce an acid chloride.

(c) Formation of esters

Alcohols react reversibly with carboxylic acids in the presence of a strong acid catalyst to form esters:
(2) Dehydration
Phosphorus pentoxide will remove a molecule of water from two molecules of carboxylic acid to yield an
anhydride:

(3) Reduction
Lithium tetrahydridoaluminate(III) will reduce carboxylic acids to primary alcohols:

(4) Soap making:

As we have seen before, esterification is the process where an acid reacts with an alcohol to produce an ester
and water. Esters generally have pleasant smells and are responsible for flavours in fruits and scents in
flowers, and an oily appearance.
The reverse process of esterification is called hydrolysis. Fats and oils are naturally occurring esters.
When hydrolysis is carried out in the presence of caustic alkali i.e. caustic soda (NaOH) or caustic potash
(KOH), the acid produced reacts with the alkali to form the salt of the acid.
Soaps are sodium or potassium salts of long chain naturally occurring carboxylic acids (fatty acids).
They are made by boiling fats or oils with sodium or potassium hydroxide. This yields the salt of the fatty
acid and propane-1,2,3-triol (glycerol, sometimes called glycerine.
The alkaline hydrolysis of an ester is called saponification.
R is a C11-C17 chain with an odd number of carbon atoms.
2.3.5 PREPARATION OF CARBOXYLIC ACIDS
(1) Oxidation of alcohols or aldehydes
Both 1o alcohols and aldehydes can be oxidized to carboxylic acids, by refluxing with excess Cr2O72- and
acid.

(2) From acid derivatives

All the acid derivatives can be hydrolyzed (reacted with water) to give the parent acid. The basic reaction
can be represented:
(3) From nitriles
Nitriles, RCN, are hydrolyzed to carboxylic acids by boiling with aqueous solutions of mineral acids:

2.3.6 TEST FOR –COOH GROUP

Carboxylic acid reacts with Na2CO3 or NaHCO3 to produce carbon dioxide which turns lime water milky.

PAST EXAMS QUESTIONS

1. The following equation describes an esterification reaction.
CH3CO2H + C2H5OH CH3CO2C2H5 +H2O
a) What is an esterification reaction?
b) How can the presence of CH3CO2C2H5 be recognized?
c) What name is usually given to the reverse reaction?
d) Suggest a suitable catalyst for the forward reaction.
e) Give the names of the following compounds
i) CH3CO2H ii) CH3CO2C2H5.
f) C2H5OH could be used as starting material for the preparation of CH3CO2H. Show the steps in the
conversion.
g) Describe a simple chemical test for distinguishing between CH3CO2H and C2H5OH.
2. Ethanol can be converted to a number of compounds as shown below.
Ethanol Ethylethanoate Sodium ethanoate Ethanol Ethene Ethane.
Ethylethanoate Ethanol Ethanoic acid.
a) Suggest reagents which could be used to convert ethanol to ethylethanoate.
b) What reagents are needed to obtain ethane from ethene?
c) Write an equation for the reaction in (b)
d) When sodium hydroxide solution reacts with ethylethnoate, sodium ethanoate and another product are
obtained. Give the name of the other product.
e) Name the type of reaction which occurs in each of the following changes:
i) ethanol ethene ii) ethanol to ethanoic acid iii) ethanol to ethylethanoate iv) ethene to ethane.
f) Palm wine contains ethanol. Why does palm wine go sour when exposed to air?
g) Give two uses of ethanol.

3. Give the structural formula of;

a) 2-chloropropanamide;
b) 2-methylpropanoate;
c) Ethanoic Propanoic anhydride;
d) Propanoyl chloride.
4. Give the products of the following reactions:
a) Propanoic acid and ammonia followed by heating.
b) Ethanoyl chloride plus methanol;
c) Butanoic anhydride plus water;
d) Butanoic acid plus PCl5.
5.An α-amino acid, glycine (H2NCH2COOH) reacts with ethanol in which case the α-amino acid is an acid.
a) What type of reaction is it?
b) Write an equation for this reaction and name the products formed.
c) i.) Define polymerization.
ii) What compound is obtained by the trimerisation of ethyne?
iii) Differentiate between addition and condensation polymerization.
6. i) What are the systematic names of the following organic compounds?
a) CH3CHCH3CH2COOH
b) CH3CHOHCH2CH3
c) C2H4
ii) Which of the above compound will react with acidified Cr2O72- to give a ketone?
iii) One of the compounds can polymerize.
a) Which is this compound?
c) Give the name of the polymer.
c) Show the linkage (bonding) in the polymer
CHAPTER THREE OIL REFINING (PETROLEUM)

3.1 EXTACTION OF NATURAL GAS.

Oil and natural gas occur together and were formed from both plants and animals being buried for
millions of years under pressure and heat.
Coal is a solid so it just sits tight, waiting to be dug up. Since oil and gas on the other hand tend to move,
they seep upwards through porous rocks and may reach the surface.
If they do the gas escapes and the oil forms pools of black sludge.
Oil and gas can form into large pockets if it gets trapped under a layer of non- porous rock.
Oil and gas can be extracted by drilling and since the oil is usually under pressure it comes up of it own
accord.
3.2 CRUDE OIL
Crude oil is a mixture of hydrocarbons of different sized molecules. Hydrocarbons are basically fuels such
as petrol and diesel which originated from the decay of marine organisms millions of years ago.
The bigger and longer the molecules, the less runny the hydrocarbon (fuel) is.
3.2.1 COMPOSITION OF CRUDE OIL.
Crude oil varies considerably in composition depending on its source. As well as alkanes, both
unbranched and branched, it may contain aromatic compounds, and also oxygen-, nitrogen- and Sulphur-
containing compounds.
3.2.2 FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION.
Crude oil is first separated in fractions by fractional distillation, in cylindrical towers called
fractionating towers. In the industrial fractional distillation of crude oil, the column is replaced by a series
of trays. Bubble caps allow the vapour to rise up the tower and overflow pipes let liquid descend.
Vaporized crude oil is fed in continuously. Each tray contains a mixture of different composition or
similar sized compounds over a narrow temperature range corresponding to petrol, kerosene e.t.c. These
fractions are drawn off so that the process operates without stopping.
The crude oil is heated to above 5000c to produce a mixture of gases which pass up the tower. Each
gas condenses when the temperature falls to that of its boiling point. The fractions towards the top of the
tower are the lower boiling points fractions and the ones towards the bottom have higher boiling points.
As the size of the hydrocarbon molecule increases:
1. The boiling point increases;
2. It gets less flammable (doesn’t set fire so easy);
3. It gets more viscous (doesn’t flow so easy);
4. It gets less volatile (doesn’t evaporate so easily).
The vapour of the more volatile hydrocarbon is very flammable and poses a serious fire risk. So
don’t smoke at the petrol station. In fact, don’t smoke at all, its stupid!
FRACTION NO OF CARBON ATOMS BOILING POINT
Refinery gas (bottled gas) C1-C4 below 25OC
Petrol (gasoline) C4-C7 40-100oc
Naphtha C7-C10 90-180oc
Paraffin (kerosene) C10-C15 150-240oc
Diesel oil C15-C20 220-250oc
Lubricating oil C20-C35 255-350oc
Butimen (residue) C35-C40 Above 350oc
This separation is done in refineries as the one at Limbe (SONARA) in Cameroon.
3.2.3 CRACKING HYDROCARBONS.
 Long and higher boiling point hydrocarbons are greater in quantity than the short and lower boiling
point hydrocarbons. The longer ones are converted to the smaller ones that are in a greater demand by
cracking.
Cracking can be done in two ways; thermal and catalytic cracking. Thermal cracking involves the breaking
down of larger hydrocarbons into simpler molecules by heating them.

Catalytic cracking uses catalysts and it is a more efficient process than thermal cracking. It takes place at a
much lower temperature.

In addition to petrol and ethene produced by cracking is hydrogen used in the Haber process.
3.2.4 REFORMING (TRANSFORMATION OF CRUDE OIL)
Straight chain alkanes are relatively poor motor fuels. They cause “knocking” in the engine by detonating
rapidly rather than burning steadily. Branched chains are much better in this respect.
Reforming is a process where straight chain alkanes are heated on pressure with a platinum catalyst to
produce branched chain or cyclic hydrocarbons.
The chains break up and reform as branched chain molecules.

3.2.5 ADVANTAGES OF THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

(1) It provides fuel for automobiles;
(2) It provides raw materials for chemicals;
(3) It provides butimen for tarring roads and fertilizers.
3.2.6 DISADVANTAGES OF PETROLEUM INDUSTRY
1. It brings about air pollution (smog) or water pollution (oil spills in the sea);
2. Combustion of petroleum products emit carbon dioxide which causes global warming;
3. Ozone layer is depleted from the combustion of petroleum products.
 FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION OF CRUDE OIL
3.3 POLYMERIZATION
Polymerization is the combination of simple similar or dissimilar molecules called monomers to
form a large complex molecule called a polymer or macromolecule.
There are two main types of polymers; natural polymers, which are substances which occur in nature e.g.
protein and starch; synthetic polymers which are man made e.g. nylon and Terylene.
These two main types of polymers are produced either by addition polymerization or condensation
polymerization.
3.3.1 ADDITION POLYMERIZATION
This is a reaction in which many small molecules called monomers of the same kind which are
unsaturated, link together to form large complex molecules called polymers without any loss or gain of
material.
Addition polymers include; polyethene, polyphenylethene or polystyrene, Perspex and polyvinylchloride.

3.3.2 CONDENSATION POLYMERIZATION

This is the process whereby many small simple molecules of different compounds react to give a large
complex molecule called a co-polymer with the elimination of a small molecule such as H2O, HCl or NH3.
Monomers that undergo condensation polymerization are usually saturated.
They have different functional groups, that is, two functional group per molecule. Examples include;
3.3.2.1 TERYLENE
The monomers are ethane-1,2-diol and benzene-1,4-dioic acid.
These monomers condense together when heated, eliminating molecules of water between them.

This is exactly in principle to esterification though more complex.

USES OF TERYLENE
 It is a man made fibre used in the production of cloths;
 Used for making the sails of boats;
 Used for making carpets.
3.3.2.2 NYLON
The monomers from which nylon is made from are; hexane- 1,6- dioic acid and
-1,6-diamine hexane
In the process water molecules are eliminated hence condensation polymer.

In nylon, the –CO-

NH- is called an amide bond or amide linkage which is the bond joining the carboxylic acid group of the
hexane-1,6-dioic acid and the amine group of the hexane-1,6-diamine.
Nylon is therefore a polyamide.
Uses of nylon
 In the making of a variety of garments
 In the manufacture of tow ropes
 In the production of nets, brushes, parachutes.

Natural polymers
These are polymers that are made in nature in living cells e.g. carbohydrate, proteins, cellulose, fats, cotton,
wool, silk and rubber.
1. Proteins
  Proteins are polymers built up from monomers called amino acids.
 Amino acids are compounds with a carboxylic acid group and a primary amine, i.e.

 An α-amino acid is a compound which has the amino group and the carboxylic acid attached to an
α-carbon.
 An α-carbon atom is one which is asymmetrical and has four different groups or atoms attached to
it.
 The amino group of one amino acid can react the within the carboxylic acid group of another to form
an amide with the elimination of water.

 Molecules containing up to about 50 amino acids are called polypeptides while molecules with more
amino acid units than this are called proteins.
 A peptide link is the bond joining the α -carboxylic group of another amino acid.
 Proteins are polymers which occur in all living things in places like muscle, fibres, hair and
cartilage, hormones like insulin and enzymes.
 Proteins consist of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen (CHON).

PAST EXAMS QUESTIONS

1) Crude oil is a liquid constituted of a mixture of alkanes, cycloalkanes, and aromatic hydrocarbon. It is
processed in a refinery to obtain useful derivative but whose usage pollutes our environment.
(a) What is a cycloalkane?
(b) What is an aromatic hydrocarbon?
(c) Say in which town in Cameroon that the only refinery is instituted and give it’s name
(d) What name is given to the process of separating crude oil into fractions?
(e) What physical property is employed in the separation process?
(f) The fractions at the bottom of the tower are longer chains hydrocarbon.
(i) State 4 physical properties of long chain hydrocarbons.
(ii) What name is given to the process of converting longer hydrocarbons to smaller ones?
(g) What is reforming? Give an example.
2. a) What chemical process is used in the refining of crude oil in oil refinery?
b) The equation

is an example of REFORMING as
carried out in petroleum chemistry.
(i) Explain the term reforming
(ii) Name A in the equation above.
 ( c ) Poly (tetrafluroethene) PTFE, (Teflon) is a polymer.
(i) How is the polymer formed?
(ii) Give one important use of PTFE and one disadvantage.
3. The combination of two or more α-amino acids with a peptide link to form a protein
molecule eliminates water molecules.
i).Define the underline terms above.
ii).Write the general formula of an α-amino acid.
iii).Write the formula of an amino-ethanoic acid and write the formula of the species that are present
in its aqueous solution.
iv).What are the advantages and disadvantages of petroleum products.
CHAPTER FOUR METALLURGY

4.1 STRUCTURE OF METALS ON ATOMIC AND MICROSCOPIC SCALE.

 All metals have the same basic properties.
 These are due to the special type of bonding that exists in metals.
 Metals consist of a giant structure of atoms held together with metallic bonds.
 These special bonds allow the outer electron[s]of each atom to move freely.
 This creates a sea of free electrons throughout the metal which is what gives rise to many of the
properties of metals.

4.2 Alloys
 Alloys are mixtures of metals or mixtures of metals with carbon.
 Alloys have many applications because they have better properties for many uses than pure metals.
 An alloy can be made by weighing out correctly the different constituent metals and melting
them together.
 The particles in pure metals are able to move past each other much better than the particles in an
alloy, this makes the alloy harder.

4.3 TRANSFORMATION OF BINARY SOLIDS

Alloy constituent elements uses
1. Steel Iron + Carbon cars, ships, tools, reinforced concrete
2. Brass Copper +Zinc ornaments, buttons, screws
3. Solder Tin +Lead joining metals together [soldering]
4. Bronze Copper+ Tin statues
5. Duralumin Aluminum + Magnesium light weight uses as in aircraft panels
Copper + Tin bicycles frame
Uses of some pure metals
Metals use reason for use
1. Copper Copper wires excellent conductor and very ductile
2. Tin coating tin cans not poisonous.
3. Aluminum kitchen foil very malleable
4. Iron wrought iron gates easy to forge
5. Lead flashing on roofs soft, easy to shape and very unreactive

Iron and Carbon

Why are alloys of iron preferred to pure iron?
 Stainless steel contains transition metals of such as chromium and nickel, which does not rust as do
iron.
 Alloys of iron are tough but cast iron is brittle.
 Alloys of iron have no impurities thus their ductility is increased on like iron [cast or pig iron] with
decreased ductility.
4.5 Elaboration of some metals.
 Metallurgy is the science of extracting, refining and purifying metals from their ores.
  A rock is a mixture of minerals.
 A mineral is any solid element or compound found naturally in the earth’s crust e.g. diamond
[carbon], quartz, [silicon dioxide], bauxite [Al2O3].
 A metal ore is defined as a mineral or minerals which contain enough metal in them to make
it worth while extracting the metal from it.
 Metals are extracted from ores using carbon or carbon monoxide i.e. reduction and
electrolysis.
 There are three ores you need to know;
a) Iron ore is called Haematite which is iron [III] oxide , formula Fe2O3
b) Aluminum ore is called Bauxite which is called aluminum oxide, formula, Al2O3
c) Copper ore is called Malachite, which is Copper [II] carbonate, formula CuCO3
 Gold is one of the few metals found as a metal rather than in a chemical compound [an ore].
 Metals higher than carbon in the reactivity series have to be extracted using electrolysis while metals
below carbon in the reactivity series can be extracted by reduction using carbon. .
 This is obviously because carbon can only take the oxygen away from metals which are less reactive
than carbon itself is.
The reactivity series
Potassium K
Sodium Na
Calcium Ca Extracted using Electrolysis.
Magnesium Mg
Aluminum Al
CARBON C
Zinc Zn
Iron Fe Extracted by reduction using carbon
Tin Sn
Lead Pb
A] Extracting Iron – the Blast furnace
 Iron is extracted from haematite, Fe2O3 by reducing in a blast furnace.
 The raw materials are iron ore, coke and limestone.
1. The iron ore contains the iron; e.g. Haematite, Fe2O3 and magnetite Fe3O4 [Triiron tetra oxide].
2. The coke is almost pure carbon for reducing the iron oxide to iron metal.
3. The limestone takes away impurities in the form of slag.
o Hot air is blasted into the furnace making the coke burn much faster than normal and the temperature
rises to about 1500oc.
o The coke burns and produces carbon dioxide

o The CO2 then reacts with unburnt coke to form carbon monoxide.

The carbon monoxide then reduces the iron ore to iron:

 o The iron is of course molten at this temperature and it’s also very dense so it runs straight to the
bottom of the furnace where it is tapped off.
Removing the impurities:
o The main impurity is sand [silicon dioxide] this is still solid even at 1500oc and would tend to stay
mixed in with the iron. The limestone removes it.
o The limestone is decomposed by the heat into calcium oxide and carbondioxide.

o The calcium oxide then reacts with the sand to form calcium silicate or slag which is molten and can
be tapped off:

[molten slag]
o The cooled slag is solid, and is used for;
1. Road building 2. Fertilizers.
Types of iron.
1) Cast iron or pig iron contains carbon which decreases its ductility.
2) Wrought iron is the purest form of iron, which is fairly malleable and magnetic.
B. Extracting Copper –thermal reduction(Treating this is optional)
The process can be divided into two major stages:
i) Extraction of the mineral from the ore
ii) Refining [purifying] of the metal.
1) The main ore of copper is copper pyrites (CuFeS2). Others include cuprite (Cu2O), malachite (CuCO3) etc.
 The ore is roasted in a limited supply of air to form a molten mixture of copper sulphide and iron
oxide.

 The solid mixture is heated with sand in the absence of air and the FeO in the mixture reacts with the
sand to form slag.

 The slag is less dense than Cu2S, hence floats on it and can be tapped out at intervals.
 The Cu2S can be separated from the liquid slag be decantation.
 The Cu2S is then heated in a limited or controlled amount of air to produce copper with purity of
about 97-99

 Some of the Cu2S is converted to Cu2O..

 The formed Cu2O then reacts with the sulphide to form molten copper in an auto-reduction process.
 Where copper of high purity (99,95o/o) is needed, is obtained by electrolysis.
2) Purifying copper by electrolysis.
 The electrolyte is copper (II) sulphate solution.
 The anode is a big lump of impure copper, while the cathode is a thin piece of pure copper.
 When an electric current is passed into the solution, copper dissolves from the anode and is
deposited on the cathode.
  The copper atoms (anode) go into solution as Cu2+ ions and then migrate to the cathode.

 The anode is gradually being eaten away and all the copper is deposited at the cathode.

 Impurities in the anode either dissolve in the electrolyte or are deposited as sludge round the anode.
Uses of copper
 Production of electric wires.
 Electroplating due to its attractive appearance and resistance to corrosion.
 Production of hot water pipes, kettle, boilers because it does not affect water and have high thermal
conductivity.
 Production of alloys e.g. Cupro-nickel for making coins.
 Used for ornamental works because of its less ability to be oxidized by air.
C) Extracting Aluminium-Electrolysis.
 Aluminium occurs naturally as bauxite Al2O3,2H2O which consists of alumina (Al2O3) and some
impurities such as Fe2O3 and SiO2
 The extraction of aluminium takes place in two main stages viz;
1) Purification of ore
 The bauxite is crushed and alumina is extracted from the impurities by dissolving it in hot NaOH
solution.
 The Al2O3 then reacts with NaOH to form sodium aluminate, which remains in solution.

 The solid impurities are removed by filtration.

 Some freshly prepared aluminium hydroxide is added to ‘seed’ the solution of sodium aluminate and
precipitate aluminium hydroxide.

 The NaOH (aq) regenerated is reused thus reducing cost.

 The precipitated Al(OH)3 is filtered , off, washed ,dried and strongly heated to about 1200oc to obtain
pure Al2O3.

2) Electrolysis of alumina
Metallic aluminium is not gotten from electrolysis of molten alumina because;
i) Al2O3 has a very high melting temperature (2000oc).
ii) The molten alumina is a very poor conductor of electricity.
To get the molten alumina in solution and to make it conduct electricity, it is put in molten cryolite
(Na3AlF6) which helps to lower the melting point to about 900oc which makes it much cheaper and easier.
The electrodes are made of graphite (carbon).
At the cathode;
The Al3+ ions are reduced by electron gain to aluminium metal.
The metal then sinks to the bottom of the cell from where it is removed from time to time as needed.
At the anode;
The oxide ions are oxidized by electron loss to produce oxygen atoms which form a molecule and escape as
a gas.

At high temperature of the cell, the oxygen reacts with graphite anode to give carbondioxide .i.e.

As a result of this the anode must occasionally be replaced.

The overall electrolytic reaction is

In Cameroon, the extraction is done by the ALUCAM industry in Edea.

USES OF ALUMINIUM
 Used in making cooking utensils because it is cheap, light and a good conductor of heat.
 Used in making overhead electric cables because it is light, and has, good electrical conductivity.
 Powder aluminium suspended in oil is used in paints and for mirror of cars because of its high
reflectivity.
 Its powder is used in aluminothermy .i.e. in the thermite process for welding together broken parts of
machines and equipment.
 Aluminium foils are widely used as packaging materials .i.e. sweets cigarettes and chocolates.
 Al3+ ions are used as coagulating agents .e.g. Aluminium sulphate (Al2(SO4)3) is used in water
treatment plant to remove colloidal organic matter.

HEAT TREATMENT

 Metals and alloys may not possess all the desired properties in the finished product.
 Alloying and heat treatment are two methods which are extensively used for controlling material
properties.
 In Heat Treatment;
 The microstructures of materials are modified.
 The resulting phase transformation influences mechanical properties like strength, ductility,
toughness, hardness and wear resistance.
 Purpose of Heat Treatment is to increase service life of a product by increasing its strength or
hardness, or prepare the material for improved manufacturability.
Heat Treating Metals - Basically, heat treatment of steel consists of raising the material some specified
temperature. The process is performed to change certain characteristics of steel to make them more suitable
for a particular kind of service. Some of the reasons for heat treating are:

1. To soften a part so that it can be machined more easily

2. To relieve internal stresses so that a part will maintain its dimensional stability (i.e., not warp or fail
prematurely due to locked-in stresses)

3. To refine the grain structure so that the part will be less apt to fracture abruptly (or to toughen).

4. To thoroughly harden a part so that it will be stronger.

5. To case harden a part so that it will be more wear resistant.

Heat Treatment is the controlled heating and cooling of metals to alter their physical and mechanical
properties without changing the product shape. Heat treatment is sometimes done inadvertently due to
manufacturing processes that either heat or cool the metal such as welding or forming.

Softening: Softening is done to reduce strength or hardness, remove residual stresses, improve toughnesss,
restore ductility, refine grain size or change the electromagnetic properties of the steel.

Heat Treatment Processes

1. Hardening (as applied to the heat treatment of steel): Heating and quenching to produce increased
hardness and increased strength, respectively.
 Hardening is performed to impart strength and hardness to alloys by heating up to a certain
temperature, depending on the material, and cooling it rapidly.
 Steel is heated and held there until its carbon is dissolved, and then cooled rapidly, the carbon does
not get sufficient time to escape and get dissipated in the lattice structure. This helps in locking the
dislocation movements when stresses are applied.
 Quenching is performed to cool hot metal rapidly by immersing it in brine (salt water), water, oil,
molten salt, air or gas.
 Quenching sets up residual stresses in the work piece and sometimes results in cracks. Residual
stresses are removed by another process called annealing.

2. Annealing: Generally refers to the heating and controlled cooling of a material to remove stresses, make
it softer, refine its structure, or change its ductility, toughness, or other properties.

 Annealing is performed to reduce hardness, remove residual stresses, improve toughness, restore
ductility, and to alter various mechanical, electrical or magnetic properties of material through
refinement of grains.
 Cooling rate is very slow around 10oC per hour.
 Process is carried out in a controlled atmosphere of inert gas to avoid oxidation.
 Used to achieve ductility in work hardened steels.
3. Normalizing: Heating to about 100°F above the critical temperature and cooling to room temperature in
still air. Provision is often made in normalizing for controlled cooling at a slower rate, but when the cooling
is prolonged, the term used is annealing.
 The process is similar to annealing and is carried out to avoid excessive softness in the material. The
material is heated above austenitic phase (1100 °C) and then cooled in air. This gives relatively
faster cooing and hence enhanced hardness and less ductility.
  Normalizing is less expensive than annealing. In normalization variation in properties of different
sections of a part is achieved.
 The selection of heat treatment operations is strongly influenced by the carbon content in the steel.
4. Tempering: Reheating after hardening to a temperature below the critical temperature and then cooling.
 Martensite is very hard and brittle. Tempering is applied to hardened steel to reduce brittleness,
increase ductility, and toughness and relieve stresses in martensite structure.
 In this process, the steel is heated to lower critical temperature (350-400 °C) keeping it there for
about one hour and then cooled slowly at prescribed rate.
 This process increases ductility and toughness but also reduces hardness, strength and wears
resistance marginally.
 Increase in tempering temperature lowers the hardness.
Surface Hardening
 Heat treatment methods in general change the properties of entire material.
 Hardening improves wear resistance of material but lowers impact resistance and fatigue life.
Therefore sometimes there is requirement of surface hardening.
 Two methods are used, first is heating and cooling to get required phase, and second is thermo-
chemical treatment.
 Induction heating
 Flame hardening
 High frequency resistance heating
 Laser beam hardening
 Electron beam hardening
 Carburizing
 Nitriding
 Cyaniding
GENERAL PROPERTIES OF METALS
The internal reactions of a metal are known as mechanical properties. The reactions with external forces are
mechanical properties which are directly related to each other. A change in one property usually causes a
change in one or more additional properties.
For example, if the hardness of a metal is increased, the brittleness usually increases and the toughness
usually decreases. Following is a brief explanation of the mechanical
properties and how they relate to each other.
1) TENSILE STRENGTH
Tensile strength is the ability of a metal to resist being pulled apart by opposing forces acting in a straight
line. It is expressed as the number of pounds of force required to pull apart a bar of the material 1 inch wide
and 1 inch thick.
2) SHEAR STRENGTH
Shear strength is the ability of a metal fractured by opposing forces not acting in to resist being a straight
line. Shear strength can be controlled by varying the hardness of the metal.
3) COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
Compressive strength is the ability of a metal to withstand pressures acting on a given plane.
4) ELASTICITY
Elasticity is the ability of metal to return to its original size and shape after being stretched or pulled out of
shape.
5) DUCTILITY
Ductility is the ability of a metal to be drawn or stretched permanently without rupture or fracture. Metals
that lack ductility will crack or break before bending.
6) MALLEABILITY
Malleability is the ability of a metal to be hammered, rolled, or pressed into various shapes without rupture
or fracture.
7) TOUGHNESS
Toughness is the ability of a metal to resist fracture plus the ability to resist failure after the damage has
begun. A tough metal can withstand considerable stress, slowly or suddenly applied, and will deform before
failure.
8) HARDNESS
Hardness is the ability of a metal to resist penetration and wear by another metal or material. It takes a
combination of hardness and toughness to withstand heavy pounding. The hardness of a metal limits the
ease with which it can be machined, since toughness decreases as hardness increases. The hardness of a
metal can usually be controlled by heat treatment.
9) MACHINABILITY AND WELDABILITY
Machinability and weldability are the ease or difficulty with which a material can be machined or welded.
10) CORROSION RESISTANCE
Corrosion resistance is the resistance to eating or wearing away by air, moisture, or other agents.
11) HEAT AND ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY
Heat and electrical conductivity is the ease with which a metal conducts or transfers heat or electricity.
12) BRITTLENESS
Brittleness is the tendency of a material to fracture or break with little or no deformation, bending, or
twisting. Brittleness is usually not a desirable mechanical property.
Normally, the harder the metal, the more brittle it is.

PAST EXAM QUESTIONS

1) Bauxite is an ore of aluminium. It contains amongst others alumina.
(a) In which region in Cameroon is this ore found?
(b) What is the chemical formula of alumina?
( c) Give the name of the method used to obtain aluminium from alumina.
2) The five metals below are listed in the order in which they occur in the activity series. The most active is
at the top and the least active at the bottom.
Sodium, Magnesium, Zinc, Copper, Silver.
(a) Which of these metals is most likely to be found in the free state in nature?
(b) Which of these metals is most likely to tarnish readily when exposed to the air?
( c) Which of these metals is likely to react with water?
(d) Which two of these would you expect to be extracted by electrolysis of their molten chlorides?
(e) What would you expect to happen if;
i) powdered zinc is added to aqueous copper (II) sulphate?
ii) powdered copper is added to aqueous zinc sulphate?
(f) If anhydrous aluminium chloride is heated with a suitable metal, it is possible to reduce it to aluminium.
i) Give the name of ONE metal which would do this.
ii)Write an equation for the reaction.
iii) Why is the formation of aluminium by this reaction regarded as reduction?
3) Iron is extracted from two important ores, haematite and magnetite, using the blast furnace.
(a) Give the name and formula of the iron compound present in each ore.
(b) Name two substances that are used to extract iron from its ore in the blast furnace.
( c) State the specific function of each of the substances in (b) above.
(d) Write the equation for the conversion of an ore of iron into the metal.
(e) Give two uses of iron, relating each use to a specific property of the metal.
(f) What physical property is the basis for separating the iron from slag?
(g) State one other general method of extracting metals from their ores and explain why this method is
unsuitable for the extraction of iron.
4) Aluminium, iron, and copper are used in Cameroon.
(a) Give the most common ore used in the extraction of
i) Aluminium ii) Iron ii) Copper.
(b) Write the equation which involves the final stage in the extraction from the ore of
i) Aluminium ii) Iron iii) Copper.
( c) For each of the metals give ONE important use in Cameroon. Uses should be different for each metal.

(d) Which of these metals has an oxide that would undergo both reactions shown above?
5) (a) Give any two conditions that are necessary in choosing a suitable method for the extraction of a metal.
(b)Complete the table below for the extraction of some metals.
Metal Common ore Equation for final stage
Aluminium
Copper

( c) Without mentioning electricity give one use of i) Aluminium ii) Copper.

(d) Both Aluminium and Copper are used in electric cables.
i) Why are they both used in in electric cables?
ii) Why is aluminium preferred to copper in overhead cables?
6) Why are alloys of iron preferred to pure iron?
7) Metals are malleable and ductile. State the meaning of the underlined terms.
CHAPTER FIVE FERTILIZERS

5.1 Chemical study of the soil.

Weathering breaks up the surface of parent rocks into small particles.
 Air and water enter the spaces between the particles and chemical changes take place which result in
the production of chemical substances.
 Bacteria and plant life soon appear.
 When plant and animal organisms die, they decay and produce a substance called humus; which is
very important to soil fertility.
 The end product of mechanical, chemical and biological processes is soil which is one of the world’s
most important natural resources.
Chemical composition.
 All soils contain mineral matter, organic matter, water, air and living organisms, especially bacterial.
 If any one of these is seriously reduced in amount or is removed from a soil then the soil
deteriorates.
 The main characteristics of soil are its colour, texture, degree of permeability /porosity, profile and
its pH.
ACIDITY AND ALKALINITY
 Acidity and alkalinity of the soil are no less important for growth and distribution of plants than the
availability of plant food in the soil and the physical condition of it.
 Soils containing a certain amount of lime (CaO), calcium carbonate are alkaline while soils
containing a certain amount of humus, as in marshes and forest, are acid.
 These conditions may, however, be altered by the addition of one or the other, as the case may be.
 The acidity or alkalinity of the soil may be expressed in terms of pH.
 For plant growth and for field experiments the most useful range of the pH value of the soil is
between 4 and 9. The colour reactions vary from red (pH=4) to deep blue ( pH=9) through yellow
and green according to acidity or alkalinity. The neutral lies at 7.
pH range Type of crop
4.8 – 5.5( slightly acidic) Potatoes, maize, barley, tomatoes
7.5 -9 ( slightly alkaline) Leguminous crops
Neutral soils Beet, Lucerne e.t.c.
FERTILIZER OF THE SOIL
A soil may be regarded as fertile when all the conditions- physical, chemical and biotic- are satisfied.
Absence of any one of them acts as a limiting factor and thus affects normal growth of the plant, and the
crop as a whole suffers.
Percentage composition Condition
50- 70 Mineral particles
30- 50 Pore space (containing water and air)
5- 15 Organic matter ( humus)
0.1- 0.5 N
0.08- 0.5 P
1.5 – 3.0 K
5.2 NEEDS OF PLANTS
Plants require the following elements for their proper growth.
Major elements Trace elements
Carbon, C Iron, Fe
Hydrogen, H Manganese, Mn
Oxygen, O Copper, Cu
Nitrogen, N Zinc, Zn
Phosphorus, P Boron, B
Potassium, K Molybdenum, Mo
Calcium, Ca Chlorine, Cl
Magnesium, Mg
Sulphur, S

 Carbon comes from carbon dioxide in the air; hydrogen and oxygen come from water.
 These materials are called nutrients.
 There are three important elements that must be present in the nutrients nitrogen, phosphorus, and
potassium.
 These elements exist in the soil as compounds, such as soluble nitrate, and phosphates.
 Their main uses in plants are;
5.3 ROLE PLAYED BY THE ELEMENTS IN THE PLANT BODY

Element Use(role) in plants Deficiency

 Potassium, K (KNO3  Catalytic agent in
and KCl are the the synthesis of
usual forms in carbohydrates and
which potassium is proteins.
absorbed by plants).  Enable plants to
produce healthy
flowers, seeds and
fruits.
 Helps in the growth
of plants.
 Starch grains are not
formed.
 Plant growth is
checked; the stem
becomes slender and
the leaves lose their
colour and gradually
wither.

 Phosphorus, P  Aids nutrition and  In the absence,

(absorbed as hastens maturity and leaves become
phosphate of ripening of fruits, chlorotic and the
calcium or particularly of stem slender.
potassium) grains.
 It promotes the
development of the
root system.
 It promotes nuclear
and cell divisions.
 Carbohydrate
breakdown in

 Nitrogen,N( absorbe
d as nitrates)
respiration
 It is an essential  Stunted growth
constituent of  Yellow leaves
protein, chlorophyll
and protoplasm.
 It is essential for
growth of leaves

Excess of nitrogen causes vigorous growth of vegetative parts, especially leaves, but delays reproductive
activity; plants become readily susceptible to the attacks of fungi and insects in an excess of nitrogen.
Nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium are all quickly removed from the soil by plants no matter how much is
present. They may be easily washed out of the soil by rainwater.

5.4 THE NITROGEN CYCLE

This is a summary of how nitrogen is fixed (converted into compounds) and subsequently returns to the
atmosphere as molecular nitrogen.

 Nitrogen is fixed by bacteria in the root nodules of plants such as clover, beans, peas (leguminous
plants). They use nitrogen in the air to make nitrates.
 It is also fixed by conversion to nitrogen oxides (and thence nitric acid) in lightning flashes and in
combustion reactions in vehicle engines and power station.
 The nitric acid then produces nitrates which may be converted back to nitrogen by soil bacteria or
converted to organic nitrogen compounds directly by plants or animals.
 Ammonia may be produced from these organic compounds by decay of their waste products or by
decay of the animals and plants themselves after death.
 Other bacteria convert ammonia back to nitrogen or (via nitrites) to nitrates.
  The whole system is in equilibrium, the amount of atmospheric nitrogen remaining constant.
5.5 DEFINITION OF FERTILIZERS
 Fertilizers are chemical compounds given to plants to promote growth by replacing the essential
elements in the soil. OR
 Substances containing the essential nutrients added to the soil to promote healthy growth of plants.
They are usually applied either through the soil, for uptake by plants root or by foliar feeding for uptake
through leaves.
There are two main types of fertilizers;
(i) Organic fertilizers e.g. leguminous plants, compost, animal droppings, manure.
(ii)Inorganic (synthetic) fertilizers e.g. ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3) ammonium sulphate ( (NH4)2SO4),
potassium nitrate (KNO3) e.t.c.
5.5.1 TYPES OF SYNTHETIC FERTILIZERS.
Compounds used as fertilizers must;
(a) contain at least one of the essential elements; nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium;
(b) also be soluble in water so that they can be absorbed through the roots of plants;
(c) be easy to spread. Large lumps are difficult to spread evenly, and do not dissolve very well either.
5.5.1.1 SIMPLE FERTILIZERS.
They contain only one fertilizing element. Examples include;
(a) SIMPLE NITROGEN FERTILIZER; ammonium sulphate, (NH4)2SO4.

It is prepared in the Lab by the neutralization of dilute sulphuric acid with aqueous ammonia.
In the industry it is usually manufactured by passing ammonia and carbondioxide into fine suspension of
calcium sulphate or gypsum in water.

(b)SIMPLE PHOSPHORUS FERTILIZER; calcium phosphate (Ca3(PO4)2.

Calcium phosphate in the form of bone ash or rock phosphate is not very useful because it is insoluble.
Instead, the compound is treated with 65% sulphuric acid to form a mixture of calcium
dihydrogenphosphate and calcium sulphate known as superphosphate.

Triple phosphate is a more effective fertilizer.

(c) SIMPLE POTASSIUM FERTILIZER; potassium sulphate ( K2SO4).

5.5.1.2 BINARY FERTILIZERS

They contain two fertilizing elements .e.g.
(i) N-P- ammonium phosphate.
(ii) N-K- potassium nitrate

(iii) K-P- potassium phosphate

5.5.1.3 TERTIARY, COMPLETE OR COMPOUND FERTILIZER.

NPK, compound, tertiary, composite or complete fertilizer is one containing all the essential or
fertilizing elements in their respective percentage ratios.
On a fertilizer bag is written the following numbers x.y.z, which gives the percentage composition of each
fertilizing element NPK respectively.
x = % of nitrogen in the total mass of fertilizer.
y= % of phosphorus in the total mass of fertilizer.
z= % of potassium in the total mass of fertilizer
The proportions of each compound in the mixture varies e.g. 20: 10 :10, 15: 15: 21 and 18:51:20.
If you require a nitrogen fertilizer, the percentage by mass of nitrogen for each compound can be calculated
and values compared.

5.6 WORKED EXAMPLE

Which of these two fertilizers, ammonium nitrate and potassium nitrate contains more nitrogen? (Ar N=14,
H=1, O=16, K=39).
HINTS
Calculate the relative formula mass, Mr of the compound e.g.

Element Ar Num of atoms in Formula Mass

formula(n)
N 14 2 28
H 1 4 4
O 16 3 48
TOTAL= 80

For KNO3,
Element Ar Num of atoms in Mass
formula(n)
K 39 1 39
N 14 1 14
O 16 3 48
Total=101

We can see that ammonium nitrate contains more nitrogen than potassium nitrate.
This type of calculation can be done for any element in any compound.
An 18:51:20 fertilizer bag is reported thus;
18% nitrogen, N;
51% phosphorus as P2O5 and
20% potassium as K2O.
The other 11% is known as ballast and may or may not be valuable to the plants depending on what is used
as ballast.
In general, the mass fraction of fertilizing elements is given by;
Phosphorus is given by
Mass % of elemental P= 0.436X %P as P2O5
That is %P = 0.436X51 =22%P.
Potassium is equal to
Mass % of elemental K = 0.82X%K as K2O.
That is elemental mass of K in the above fertilizer is 0.82X20 =16%K.
Mass % Nitrogen is reported directly
5.7 ADVANTAGES OF FERTILIZERS.
 Increase crop yields dramatically;
 Reduce cost of food;
 Do not harm the soil;
 Nitrates have not yet been proven harmful to animals;
 Manufacturing fertilizers uses only about 1% of all fossil fuels used in the world.

5.8 PROBLEMS RESULTING FROM THE USE OF FERTILIZERS.
 Natural fertilizers are being wasted;
 Fertilizers are expensive to make;
 Nitrates in plants and streams may cause cancer to human systems;
 Nitrates in streams can lead to rapid growth of algae which later leads to depletion of oxygen in the
water (eutrophication).
 Decompose to produce ammonia which kills young seedlings.

Phytopharmaceutical or phytosanitary (Pesticides)
Phytopharmaceutical or phytosanitary products, also known by the more general term of pesticides, are
products used to treat plants. They are designed to protect crops from harmful insects and diseases, to
improve the yield.

Using plant health products to protect seeds is a vital procedure. This is the only way proper health of seeds
and plants can be guaranteed and our food supply ensured without harming the environment. Maïsadour
Semences is fully persuaded of this and is investing extensively in this field alongside its partner suppliers:

 providing the most effective fungicidal and insecticidal, products and treatments allowed on each
market.

 Spécific equipment in our manufacturing facilities.

Treatment of seed with plant protection products assures seed and plant health by restricting pests and
pathogens. This helps to secure crop quality, safety and yield. And
it can all be achieved with only very limited amounts of chemicals! Seed Treatments therefore offer great
benefits: environmentally, in public health, and economically!

Seed is the starting point for all plant production. Throughout history, mankind has developed plant varieties
that are ever more sophisticated, with higher potential for yield, resistance to pests and pathogens, and
suitability for specific uses or areas of cultivation. Protecting the seed has always been crucial for plant
breeders, seed producers, farmers and those involved in
crop protection. Protecting the seed is the base for a healthier, better crop.

PESTICIDES CHARACTERISTICS AND USE

Pesticides that are used in landscapes are placed into categories based on their toxicity.

Toxicity is the inherent poisonous nature or how dangerous a pesticide is under experimental conditions.

Toxicity is commonly expressed as LD50, the dose required to kill 50% of a pest population, such as insects,
mice, rats, and birds.

Units used are mg/kg, milligrams of toxicant (active ingredient) per kilogram of body weight.

This can be measured as either acute or chronic toxicity.

Acute toxicity refers to immediate effects of a single, short-term exposure to a pesticide whereas chronic
toxicity is repeated exposure to a pesticide.

In addition, LD50 may be determined based on how a pesticide enters the body, such as orally (ingestion),
dermally (skin), or by inhalation (breathing).

This information is then extrapolated to humans. The lower the LD50 value, the more toxic the pesticide is to
humans.

Based on this information, pesticides can be placed into four categories.

Category I II III IV
Signal words Danger/poison Warning Caution Caution
LD50 value 0 to 50mg/kg 50 to 500mg/kg 500 to 5000mg/kg Greater than
5000mg/kg
Description Highly toxic Moderately toxic Slightly toxic Very low toxicity
Insecticides and miticides are categorized by their chemical composition.

Classes of pesticides include; chlorinated hydrocarbons (organochlorines), organophosphates, carbamates,

pyrethroids, macrocyclic lactone, chloronicotinyls, insect growth regulators, and soaps and oils.

Another class of pesticides, often referred to as microbials, is derived from bacterial and fungi.e.g. include
Bacillus thuringiensis var.

When using insecticides or miticides to manage pests in landscapes, it is equally important to minimize
impact on bees and other beneficial organisms.

The following recommendations will minimize any toxic effects to bees and other beneficial insects and
mites.

o Do not apply pesticides directly to flowers.

o Avoid spraying pesticides when bees are foraging. Bees generally don’t fly before dawn, after
dark, or when temperatures are less than 55oF.
o Use so-called biorational or reduced risk pesticides that have minimal impact on bees and
beneficial insects and mites. Avoid the use of broad spectrum pesticides.
o Select pesticide formulations that are less toxic to bees and other beneficial insects and mites.
E.g, granules or soil-applied formulations are less toxic than sprays. Wettable powders and
microencapsulated pesticides are most harmful to bees because the capsules adhere to foraging
bees and are packed along with pollen into pollen baskets where thgey are carried back to the
hive and may be consumed. Systemic pesticides injected or applied to soil pose minimal hazard
to bees and beneficial insects and mites, because they are not sprayed on the foliage. However, if
the insect feeds on plant parts containing the pesticides, there is the possibility that it may have
an effect.

TACTICS AND TOOLS

When using pesticides in landscapes it is equally important to avoid plant injury (phytotoxicity). Excessive
application rates are common causes of plant injury.

Another cause of phytotoxicity is tank-mixing two pesticides that are incompatible, which is a physical
condition that prevents pest control materials from mixing properly in a spray solution.

Phytotoxicity may not always be due to solvents in the formulation (for example, xylene) or impurities in
the water mixed with the pesticide.

In addition, environmental conditions, including temperature and sunlight at the time of application, may
influence phytotoxicity e.g, pesticides should not be applied when the ambient temperature is greater than
85oF and humidity is high.
Phytotoxicity symptoms include slight burning or browning of leaves (necrosis), bleaching of foliage, or
death of the plant. The following guidelines will help to avoid problems of phytotoxicity.

 Calibrate application equipment before use.

 Follow recommended label rates. In addition, check label for certain plant species or cultivars
that are susceptible to possible injury. E.g horticultural oils should not be applied to Colorado
blue spruce (Picea pungens “Glauca”) because the oil changes the foliage color from blue to
green.
 Select pesticide formulations that have low potential for phytotoxicity.
 Make pesticide applications in the early morning or late in the afternoon.
 Maintain plant health. Never spray plants under stress from drought or nutritional deficiencies, as
these conditions increase susceptibility to spray injury.
 Properly store pesticides. Avoid exposing pesticides to extremes of hot or cold temperatures. In
addition, in order to avoid contamination, never store insecticides and miticides with herbicides.
Never use a spray tank that has contained herbicide to apply insecticides.
 When combining pesticides, be sure to perform a “jar test” to determine their compatibility. This
involves mixing a sample of the spray solution.(e.g, one pint) in an empty glass jar or other
container, and letting the solution sit for approximately 15minutes. If the pesticides are not
compatible there will be noticeable separation or layering, or precipitates such as flakes or
crystals may form. If they are compatible the solution will appear homogeneous or look like
milk. Applications of pesticides that are not compatible with each other may result in plant
injury.

MAJOR CHEMICAL CLASSES AND THEIR MODE OF ACYTIVITY

CHEMICAL CLASS MODE OF ACTIVITY

Organophosphates and carbamates Inhibit the enzyme cholinesterase. This
prevents the termination of nerve impulse
transmissions.
Pyrethroids and chlorinated hydrocarbons. Destabilize nerve cell membrenes.
Macrocyclic Lactone Affect gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA)
dependent chloride ion channels which inhibits
nerve transmission.
Insect Growth Regulators. Chitin synthesis inhibitors or juvenile hormone
mimics. Chitin synthesis inhibitors prevent the
formation of chitin, which is an essential
component of an insects’ exoskeleton. Juvenile
hormone mimics cause insects to remain in a
young stage.
Damage the waxy layer of the exoskeleton of
Soaps and Oils. soft-bodied insects, which results in
desiccation or the smothering of insects by
removing the breathing pores (spiracles).
Chloronicotinyls Inhibit reception of nerve impulse which
results in loss of normal behavior.
Wearing the adequate protective clothing will help protect people concerned by a potential contamination of
toxic products or viruses through the skin. When choosing the right chemical protective clothing, several
factors need to be taken into account including the nature of the task, the state of the substance as well as its
concentration, the best balance between protection and comfort. Poorly fitted garments run a higher risk of
tearing and restrict movement, which can affect the wearer’s ability to carry out work safely and efficiently.

Does it affect me, and to what extent?

Phytosanitary products are generally used in spring and at the end of the summer. The workers who actually
apply the products and those nearby are directly concerned by the risks of phytosanitary products.
Remember to protect yourself!

People exposed to phytopharmaceuticals

Light exposure Intense exposure

The person who applies the product. The person who handles the product.

The workers who handle the treated plants or The person who prepares the spray mixture.
who reap the harvest.

Other people present at the time of treatment
even if they are not indispensable to applying
the treatment (colleagues).
The people in contact with
phytopharmaceutical waste (empty
phytopharmaceutical packaging and unusable
phytopharmaceuticals): from rinsing the empty
packet through to the elimination of empty
packaging or unusable products.

The people who maintain the equipment used The people who clean the equipment used
during treatment or check that the equipment is during treatment.
compliant.

Manufactured in Tyvek®, these suits are among the most lightweight of their category, affording level Type
I protection in a breathable material.

 Elasticated hood for an excellent fit around a full face respirator.

 Self-adhesive flap to cover the zip, with integrated chin flap.
 Stretch rubber thumb loop attached to the end of the sleeves to prevent the suit sleeve from riding
up.
 Elasticated waist for optimum fit to body.
  Stitched and over taped seams offering equal barrier as the protective clothing material.

PAST EXAM QUESTIONS

1) Some of the most important elements for conditioning the soil and the growth of plants include
calcium, nitrogen and phosphorus.
(a) Give the name of one chemical compound of phosphorus which may be used as a fertilizer.
(b) Lime is commonly used as soil conditioner.
(i) Give the chemical name and formula for lime.
(ii) Which one of the following is likely to benefit from the addition of lime:
a soil of PH 5 or one of PH 10?
(c ) Two commonly used nitrogenous fertilizers are ammonium sulphate and ammonium nitrate. Give
the chemical formulae and calculate the percentage of nitrogen in each compound.
(d) If the cost of ammonium sulphate is two-thirds that of ammonium nitrate, which substance is the
cheaper source of nitrogen? Show how you arrived at your answer.
2) List two effects of potassium deficiency in plants.
3) The following are fertilizers; urea, ammonium sulphate, ammonium phosphate. Classify these as
single or compound fertilizers and define the underlined terms.
4) a) Give the names of two fertilizers.
b) Write well balanced chemical equations to show how they are produced.
c) State two environmental problems resulting from the use of each fertilizer given in 4a above.
5) Nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus are the important elements that plants need for their normal
growths and are provided for by fertilizers. Name the fertilizer from which the element nitrogen,
potassium and phosphorus are obtained respectively.
6) a) On a bag of fertilizer the following figures are written: 5:12:10. What does each of the figures
stand for?
b) What do these numbers 15-0-0 on a fertilizer bag represent? Is this fertilizer a simple or a
composite one (complete). Give reasons for your answer.
7) A farmer plans to add 144kg nitrogen per hectare to a small field of wheat. The area of the field is
7ha. Calculate the mass of nitrogen needed.
8) Give the nature of the following fertilizers: NH4NO3 and (NH4)3PO4.

9) What is a fertilizer?
10) What are phytosanitary products?
CHAPTER SIX ORGANIC NITROGEN COMPOUNDS.

6.1 NITRO COMPOUNDS

They have the general formula R-NO2
E.g. CH3NO2 - nitromethane

They are prepared by;

(1) Treating an alkyl halide with alcoholic silver nitrite solution (AgNO2).

(2) Nitrating benzene with concentrated nitric and sulphuric acid.

6.1.2. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

1) Reduction to primary amines.

2) If hydrolyzed, nitroalkanes give the carboxylic acid and hydroxyl amine.

6.1.3 USES OF NITRO COMPOUNDS
 Production of TNT for dynamite;
  Fuels for small engines;
 As a starting material for preparing primary amines;
 Solvents for synthetic dyes.
6.2 NITRILES
Nitriles contain the functional group –CN.
When the suffix – nitrile is used, the carbon of the functional group is counted as part of the root so ;
CH3CN - ethanenitrile

CH3CH2CN - propanenitrile
Nitriles are moderately polar and those with short chains are liquids which dissolve quite well in water.
Nitriles are prepared from
1) Haloalkanes

This reaction is very important in organic synthesis as it enables the length of the carbon chain to be
increased by one.
2) By dehydration of amides

3) From aldehydes or ketones

The reaction of Nitriles are summarize below;

6.3 Amines
Amines are derived from ammonia, NH3, by replacement of one or more hydrogen atoms by alkyl or aryl
groups.
Three classes of amines exist. e.g.
Primary amines have the general formula R-NH2 e.g. CH3NH2 Dimethylamine.
Secondary amines have the general formula

Tertiary amines have the general formula

Amines have a pyramidal shape based on that of ammonia.

Amines are polar, and 1o and 2o amines can hydrogen bond so short – chain amines are soluble in water.
Preparation
1. Action of ammonia on haloalkanes

2. Reduction of nitro compounds

This method is useful for producing aromatic amines from aromatic nitro compounds. Only 10 amines can
be made. A variety of reducing agents can be used including lithium tetrahydridoaluminate(III), tin and
hydrochloric acid, and catalytic hydrogenation, for example:

3. Reduction of Nitriles or amides

Chemical properties
1. Amines will burn in air to form carbon dioxide, water and nitrogen.
2. Other reactions of amines are summarized in the table below

The Hofmann degradation of amides produces an amine with one carbon atom less than the starting
amide
Uses of amines
Amines are industrially important in the manufacture of
-Azo dyes, polyamides, polyurethanes and a number of types of drugs.
-Plastics and synthetics
6.4 Amino Acid
These molecules have two functional groups- a carboxylic acid group and a primary amine.
-All the important naturally occurring amino acids, of which there are about 20, are α- amino acids (2-amino
acids) that is, the amino group is on the carbon next to the- CO2H group.
α - amino acids have the general formula

R can be a whole variety of groups (including ones with functional groups).

Except for the case when R is H, - NH2 or – CO2H, the carbon marked * (ASTERISK) has four different
groups bonded to it and is therefore asymmetric.
An asymmetric or chiral carbon is one which has four different groups or atoms bonded to it.
-Examples include

TWENTY NATURALLY OCCURRING AMINO ACIDS

Acid and base properties
Amino acids have both acidic and basic groups in their structure.
-The carboxylic group has the tendency to lose a proton (act as an acid)

-The amine group has the tendency to accept a proton (act as a base)

-Amino acids give a neutral solution with water and are thought to exist in water as a dipolar ion or
Zwitterions.
-Zwitterions or dipolar ions have both an anion and cation in the same molecule. e.g.

-Amino acids are therefore amphoteric i.e. react with both acids and alkalis. e.g.

-The amphoteric character of amino acids makes them act as buffer solutions in plants and animal systems.
-In solutions, the pH at which the concentration of the Zwitterions is maximal is called the isoelectric point.
(The pH at which the amino acid is neutral).
Chemical properties of amino acids.
1. Reaction with nitrous acid.

2. Polymerization
-Amino acid undergoes polymerization to form peptides, polypeptides and finally proteins.
-It occurs by the reactions between the amino group of one molecule and the carboxylic acid group of the
other molecule. The bond formed is known as the peptide linkage.

When this is
repeated many times using different amino acids, a polymer (protein) is formed: That is above 50 amino
acids.
-Ala -gly- Val -
-Gly –leu-thr-
-One end of any protein or peptide has a free –NH2 group and the other a free-CO2H group. These are often
referred to as N-terminal end and the C-terminal end respectively. It is usual to write the N-terminal end
on the left.
-Proteins can exist as enzymes, hormones antibodies, collagen, and keratin.
Preparation of amino acids
1.) From halogeno-acids:
Monohalogenated carboxylic acids may be converted to amino acids by direct reaction with ammonia.

2.) From aldehydes

When aldehydes are treated with cyanide ion in the presence of ammonium ions, amino Nitriles are
formed that are hydrolyzed to give amino acids

3.) From proteins

-The main source of amino acid is from the hydrolysis of protein in plant and animals.
-The major enzymes in animal that hydrolyze proteins are pepsin, tysin, endopeptidases
and exopeptidases.
Uses of amino acids.
1.) Production of new cells in plants and animals, for growth and repairs of plant and animal tissues.
2.) Production of enzymes .
3.) Production of hormones.
Remark:
Amino acids can be separated by electrophoresis or chromatography because they have different Rf. Amino
acids can be differentiated because they have different iso-electronic points and different angles of optical
rotation.
Test for the amino acid, add a few drops of very dilute CuSO4 solution and warm, a violet or pink
coloration is observed.
PAST EXAM QUESTIONS
1. Proteins are macromolecules formed as the result of the condensation of α (alpha) amino acids. What is
an α – amino acid? Give the general formula of an α-amino acid.
2.(a) An α amino acid CnH2n+1-CH-CO2H CH2
has 117glmol of molar mass.
What are the empirical and the possible semi- developed formulae of this α- amino acid?
b) Which α- amino acid is it, if its formula has an asymmetric carbon and a single ramification?
3. Identify and name the following structure;
4. Write an equation to show two glycine joining with one alanine molecule to give a new molecule in
which the order of the amino acid is glycine- alanine-glycine.