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BUSINESS RESEARCH
Unit-1
Why Study Research
Today in this dynamic world dramatic changes have been occurred in all areas of business.
Previously business organizations focused on the production pr their product and don’t care
for customers. But with the evolution in industrials sector and with the invention of new
technology business needs and organization response has been changed.
Now customers, suppliers, stakeholders, employees are all more informed and more sensitive
about their interest. Information technology, globalization, and means of communication
have impact on society and make drastic changes in society.
All these changes required that a manager working in an organization must equip himself
with more knowledge and information which can help him in decision making.
A valued and judged decision depends on the available alternative and capability to make
choices of best one.
So in this complex environment organization needs to research new ways of doing business,
solving problems, designing tools for measurement. All these things required that managers
must have knowledge of research so that new techniques and tool can be used for
quantitative and qualitative methods which can be successful for business.
WHAT IS A RESEARCH
Research is a simple process of finding solution to a problem after a thorough study and
analysis of the situational factors.
BUSINESS RESEARCH
An organized, systematic, data-based, critical, objective, scientific inquiry or investigation
into a specific problem undertaken with the purpose of finding answer or solution to it.
Explanation:
Business research comprises a series of steps designed and executed, with the goal of finding
answers to the issues that are of concern to manager in the work environment. This means
that for research following steps are
To know where the problem area exist in organization
To identify as clearly and specifically as possible the problems that needs to be studied and
resolve
When problem has been identified then gather information, analyze the data, and determine
the factors that are associated with problems and solve it by taking the necessary corrective
measure
So research involves a series of well -thought-out and carefully executed activities that will
enable the manager to know how organizational problems can be solved or at least
considerable minimized.
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1. Decision making require more information for sound decision. If you have knowledge
of research you can gather more information and have multiple choices and
alternative for decision making. When you have not knowledge of research you have
limited choice. So research provides you skill and makes you superior in decision
making and your decision will be valued and judged decision.
2. When higher executive in an organization requires some research work and if you
have such knowledge then there is an opportunity for career building in this
organization by taking this research tasks and make impressing to high executive. So
research knowledge provides you impressing personality.
3. When being a manager you need some research work and you hire some researcher
from outside, you can understand, evaluate the research design and communicate to
other very easily. So research work provides you understanding and evaluating of
other’s research work.
4. when you have research knowledge especially as marketing and finance analyst you
have career opportunities in the market
There are other reasons
1. research sharpen the sensitivity of manager to the numerous variables operating in a
situation and remind then frequently of the multicausality and multifinality of
phenomena , thus avoiding the inappropriate, simplistic notions of one variable
causing other
2. when manager understand research report about their organizations handed to them
by professionals, they will be equipped to take intelligent, educated, calculated risk
with known probabilities attached to the success or failure of their decisions
3. because manager become knowledgeable about scientific investigation, vested
interest inside or outside the organization will not prevail
4. Manager knowing about research shared important information with consultant or
researcher hired.
2. Descriptive: These types of research are carried out to discover answer of those
questions which are not on surface and management wants to surface them. In these
studies researcher develop a profile of group under investigation and define subject.
There are involved one or more than one variable effecting the problem. Descriptive
studies are carried out in planning, monitoring and evaluating the policies. In
descriptive study researcher observe the phenomenon and does not describe the
reason.
3. Explanation: This type of study is based on theory and explain the reason for the
phenomenon
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For example production in an organization continuously declining and manager wants
to know the reasons behind this decline. The study carried out will be explanation
4. Prediction: These types of study are also based on theory and male recommendation
for future implementation of recommendation. This type of study is carried out in
business in some specific course of action or for future value or prediction
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management want to evaluate his research, can understand the procedure followed and
adapted by him.
3. Procedural design clearly defined: researcher should mention the appropriate
representative ness of population or sampling used in design. Which types of study is,
sampling units, measuring units effect of study etc should be clearly defined
4. Researcher should represent his report with full confidence and any flaws and weakness
in procedural design should be clearly mentioned. Report should reflect confidence and
precision.
5. Reliability and validity of data collection method: researcher should analyze the data and
mentioned the methods of data collection and analysis. Which sampling method he used.
Validity and reliability of data should be checked
6. Objectivity: researcher should confine to his finding and be specific to his area of
interest. Conclusions should be limited to justify by data.
7. Researcher Reputation: Experienced researcher are more reliable and their work is more
valued
Applied Research:
Research done with the intention of applying the results of the findings to solve specific
problems currently being experienced in the organization
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Case study involves in-depth, contextual analysis of similar situation in other organizations,
where the nature and definition of the problems happen to be the same as experienced in the
current situation.
Action Research:
Action research is sometime undertaken by consultants who want to initiate change processes
in organization. In other words, action research methodology is most appropriate while
effecting planned changes. Here, the research begins with a problem that is already
identified, and gathers relevant data to provide a tentative problem solution. This solution is
then implemented. The effects are then evaluated, defined, and diagnosed and research
continue on an ongoing basis until the problem is fully resolved.
Action research is constantly evolving project with interplay among problems, solution,
effects or consequence, and new solution. A sensible and realistic problem definition and
creative way of collecting data are critical to action research.
RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
1. Applied research is carried out to solve existing problems by investigating problems
and good managerial decision making
2. the objective of basic research is to generate more knowledge and understanding of
the phenomena of interest and to build theories, based on the research results, such
theories subsequently form the foundation of further studies of many aspect of
phenomena
ACCOUNTING
1. Budget control system
2. Practices and procedure are frequently examined
3. Inventory control methods
4. Accelerated depreciation
5. Time series behaviors of quarterly earnings
6. Transfer pricing
7. Cash recovery rates
8. Taxation methods are researched
FINANCE
1. The operation of financial institution
2. Optimum financial ratio
3. Merger and acquisition
4. Leveraged buyout
5. Inter corporate financing
6. Yield on mortgage
7. Behavior of stock exchange
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MARKETING
1. Product image
2. Advertising
3. Sale promotion
4. Distribution
5. Packaging
6. Pricing
7. After sale services
8. Consumer preference
9. New product development and other marketing aspects
MANAGEMENT
1. Employees attitudes and behaviors
2. HRM
3. Impact of changing demographics on management practices
4. Production operation management
5. Strategy formulation information system
STYLE OF THINKING
Different people think problems differently. Scientific inquiry is a way by which people think
SOURCE OF KNOWLEDGE
There are different sources that provide help in scientific research. These are the sources
through which a researcher reaches at his destination and find the answer of research
question. These sources are:
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RATIONALISM
We mean that reason is primary source of knowledge. Rationalist believes all knowledge can
be deduced from known or basic truth nature
UNTESTED OPINION
Untested opinion is a form of knowing that people stick to despite contrary evidence. “That is
the way we always done it here” is phrase that confuses entrenchment and habit with
efficiency
METHODS OF AUTHORITY
We rely on persons of authority to improve our confidence. Too often authority depends on
status or positions rather that true expertise
LITERARY STYLE
The literary style is responsible for many classic case studies in social science. Case studies
played a prominent role in the development of business knowledge
3. Testability: means that hypothesis developed can be testable and the data gathered
support the logically developed hypothesis.
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4. Replicability: means that the result of tests of hypothesis should be supported again
and yet again when the same type of research is repeated in other similar
circumstances.
6. Objectivity: the conclusion drawn through the interpretation of results of data analysis
should be objective; that is, they should be based on the facts of findings derived from
the actual data, and not on our own subjective or emotional values. The more
objective the interpretation the more scientific the research investigation becomes.
8. Parsimony: means that our research framework will be simple not complex. A simple
framework requires fewer variables to control that contribute to research and are
economically beneficial for research.
Understanding Theory:
Theory, an assumption or system of assumptions, accepted principles, and rules of procedure
based on limited information or knowledge, devised to analyze, predict, or otherwise explain
the nature or behavior of a specified set of phenomena; abstract reasoning.
Sets of systematically interrelated concepts, definitions, and propositions that are advanced to
explain and predict phenomena are theories.
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Theory and Research
In research theory serves in many useful ways.
1. First as orientation, it narrows the range of facts we need to study
2. Theory suggest that how the problems be studies and which way is most important for
better results
3. Theory suggest for researcher the system for data gathering and classifying it in
meaningful way
4. Theories summarize what can be observed and what is beyond the observation of
researcher.
5. Theory can be used prediction of further facts
Model
Model is a representation of a system that is constructed to study some aspects of that system
or the system as a whole.
Source of concepts:
1. Shared usage developed concept
2. Through personal experience
3. Some concepts are unique to particular culture and are not easily translated
Importance to research
Concepts are basic to all thoughts and communication
1. We design hypothesis using concepts
2. We devise measurement concept by which to test these hypotheses statements
3. We gather data using these measurement concepts
4. We invent new concepts to express ideas
The success of research depends on
1. How clearly conceptualize and
2. How well others understand the conceptive use
DEFINITION
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There are different types of definition; the most familiar are dictionary definition. In these a
concept is defined with synonym. For example a customer is defined as patron: a patron in
turn is defined as customer or client of an establishment
OPERATIONAL DEFINITION
An operational definitional is one stated in term of specific testing criteria or operation.
These terms have empirical referent ( that is we must be able to count, measure or in some
other way gather the information through our sense)
Whether the object is defined is physical (i.e machine tool) or highly abstract e.g
achievement motivation) the definition must specify the characteristics to study and how they
are to be observed. The specification and procedure must be so clear that any competent
person using them would classify the object in the same way. The basic purpose of definition
or operational definition is to provide an understanding and measurement concept.
VARIABLE
A variable is any thing that can take on differing or varying values. The values can differ at
various times for the same object or person, or at the same time for different object or person.
TYPES OF VARIABLES
Dependent Variable: the dependent variable is the variable of primary interest to the
researcher. The researcher’s goal is to understand and describe the dependent variable, or to
explain its variability, or predict it. In other words it is the main variable that lends itself for
investigation as a variable factor.
Dependent Variable
Independent Variable
Moderating Variable: the moderating variable is one that has a strong contingent effect on
the independent variable-dependent variable relationship. That is, the presence of a third
variable (moderating variable) modifies the original relationship between the independent
and dependent variable.
Intervening Variable: An intervening variable is one that surface between the time the
independent variable start operating influence the dependent variable and the time their
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impact is felt on it. There is thus temporal quality or time dimension to the intervening
variable. The intervening variable surfaces as function of the independent variable operating
in any situation, and help to conceptualize and explain the influence of the independent
variables on the dependent variable.
MV
Coach
Training Game
IV DV
Team Work
Intervening Variable
THOUGHT PROCESS:
REASONING:
Research problems are solved through reasoning. Every day we reason (think) with varying
degree of success and communicate our message, called meaning, in ordinary language or, in
special case, in symbolic, logical form.
There are two type are reasoning
Deductive Method:
The process by which we arrive at a reasoned conclusion by logical generalization of a
known facts
Example: all high performers are highly proficient in their job. If Aslam is high performer we
then conclude that he is highly proficient in his job.
Inductive Method:
Induction is a process where we observe certain phenomena and on this basis arrive at
conclusion. In other words, in induction we logically establish a general proposition based on
observed facts.
Example: production processes are prime feature of factories or manufacturing plants. We
therefore conclude that factories exist for production purposes
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fact and ask, “Why is this” answer this question we advance a tentative explanation
(hypothesis). The hypothesis is a good if it explains the event or condition (fact) that
prompted the question. Deduction is the process by which we test whether the hypothesis is
capable of explaining the fact.
1. You push the light switch and find no light
2. You ask the question “Why no light”
3. You infer a conclusion (hypothesis) to answer the question and explain the fact that
the bulb is burned out
4. You use this hypothesis to conclude (deduce) that the light will not go on when we
push the switch. We know from experience that a burned out bulb will not light.
5. A new bulb put in the lamp will result in light when the switch is pushed
6. We put in the new bulb and push the switch. The light goes on.
(Induction)
Fact 1
?
(Deduction)
Hypothesis
(Deduction)
Fact 2
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
The theoretical framework is the foundation on which the entire research project is based. It
is logically developed, described and elaborated network of association among the variable
deemed relevant to the problem situation and identified through process as interviews,
observation, and literature survey.
Proposition:
A statement about concepts that may be judged as true, or false to observable phenomena.
HYPOTHESIS
A hypothesis can be defined as a logically assumed relationship between two or more
variables expressed in the form of a testable statement. Relationships are assumed on the
basis of the network of association established in the theoretical framework formulated for
the research study. By testing the hypotheses and confirming assumed relationship, it is
expected that solution can be found to correct the problem encountered.
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Example: If the pilots are given adequate training to handle midair crowded situations, air-
safety violation will be reduced
1. IF-THEN STATEMENT
Example: 1 Employees who are more healthy will take sick leave less frequently
Example: 2 If employees are more healthy, then they will take sick leaves less frequently
Example: the grater the stress experienced in the job, the lower the job satisfaction of
employees
It is a directional hypothesis
The null hypothesis is a proposition that states a definitive, exact relationship between
two variables. That is, it state that the population correlation (Population and sample
means=0) between two variables is equal to zero or that the difference in the means of
two groups in the population is equal to zero ( or some definitive number). In general, the
null statement is expressed as no (significant) relationship between two variables or no
(significant) difference between two groups. The alternate hypotheses, which is the
opposite of the null, is the statement expressing as relationships between two variables or
indicating difference between groups
HO: µ m> µ w
or
HO: µ m< µ w
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1. It guides the direction of study.
2. It limits the researcher what shall be studied and what shall not be
3. It identify facts that are relevant and those that are not
4. It suggest which form of research design is most appropriate
5. It provide a framework for organizing the conclusion that result
Good Hypothesis
A good hypothesis fulfill the three condition:
1. Hypothesis be adequate for its purpose. For descriptive hypothesis, this means it
clearly states the condition, size, or distribution of some variable in term of values
meaningful to research task. For exploratory hypothesis, it must explain the facts
that give rise to the need for explanation.
2. Hypothesis must be testable:
3. Hypothesis must be better than its rival
Deductive Method:
The process by which we arrive at a reasoned conclusion by logical generalization of a
known facts
Example: all high performers are highly proficient in their job. If Aslam is high performer we
then conclude that he is highly proficient in his job.
Inductive Method:
Induction is a process where we observe certain phenomena and on this basis arrive at
conclusion. In other words, in induction we logically establish a general proposition based on
observed facts.
Example: production processes are prime feature of factories or manufacturing plants. We
therefore conclude that factories exist for production purposes
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BUILDING BLOCK OF SCIENCE
Refinement of Theory Ob
Or Implementation serv
atio
n
Ide on of
ati blem
nti
Pro ea
Ar
fic
Interpretation of
Data
Theoretical Frame work
or
Network Association
Analysis of data
Hypothesis
Data
Collection
Constructs
Research Design Concept
operational
definition
HYPOTHETICO-DEDUCTIVE METHOD
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5. Further scientific data collection
6. Data Analysis
7. Deduction
RESEARCH PROCESS
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b) types of investigation
i) Causal versus correlational
ii) Group difference
iii) Ranks
c) extent of researcher interference
i) minimal
ii) normal
iii) manipulation
iv) control
d) study setting
i) contrived
ii) non contrived
e) Unit of analysis
i) Individual, dyads, group, organization, culture
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think scientifically and make discoveries. For example Newton third law of force was just his
scientific attitude which makes discovery of force of gravity.
Unit:2
EXPLORATION:
Exploration begins with the typically published data. There are two types of data
1) primary data
2) secondary data
Primary data is one which researcher first time collects
While secondary data means data already gathered by someone else and researcher collects
his for their research.
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viii) identifying the relevant sources
ix) extracting the relevant information
x) writing up the literature review
Data Collection
To the casual observer, it is the methods of data collection which may distinguish qualitative
from quantitative approaches. Whereas quantitative researchers may make use of a wide
variety of data collection instruments including
• laboratory apparatus
• psychometric instruments
• and other forms of pencil and paper tests,
The main data collection instrument of the qualitative researcher is often the researcher
themselves. This is one reason why empathy between the researcher and the participants in a
study is so important in qualitative research. It is also argued that only the human researcher
is capable of recognizing and recording the often very subtle verbal and non-verbal cues
which accompany social interaction. Thus the main task of the qualitative researcher is to
record in as much detail as possible the events, the actions, and the behaviours of all
participants in that event. This will include the responses of the individual, but also perhaps
the pattern of interaction between individuals. Superficially this may seem relatively
straightforward, and indeed this may be one of the reasons qualitative research seems so
attractive, particularly to the inexperienced researcher. But what appears simple is in fact an
immensely complex task and although there are tools available to assist in data collection and
analysis, the complexity of this type of research should not be underestimated. It should also
be noted that the techniques described below, although more likely to be used by qualitative
researchers, may also be found in research which is more traditionally quantitative - the
methods are not exclusive to a particular research approach, quantitative or qualitative.
One obvious way to collect this type of data is to keep a detailed set of notes which describe
the interactions under study. However, since the researcher may be playing an active part in
that interaction this is not always very easy to do. Nowadays it is common for researchers to
make use of available technology to assist in the data collection - e.g. audio or even video
recording. It should be noted however that even this may cause difficulties for some people,
particularly if sensitive issues are being discussed. Obviously where recording is possible it
should be used as this will improve the accuracy and objectivity of the data collected.
Objectivity is important in qualitative research, and even though the researcher may have a
closer relation with the participant than in quantitative research, the nature of this
relationship, nor the ideological biases of the researcher should be allowed to confound the
data collected. The data should be an accurate reflection of the "truth" for a given situation,
otherwise the researcher is engaged in journalism, (or worse - fiction writing!) rather than
research.
Focus groups are an increasingly popular technique used by both quantitative and qualitative
researchers. A focus group is essentially a situation contrived by the researcher in which a
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number of people are brought together to discuss a particular issue. It may be thought of as a
collective interview in which it is hoped that the participants, through their interaction, may
provide data and insights which may not have been revealed through interviews with
individuals. Even within this relatively simple scenario there are a number of variables which
the researcher might manipulate. The size of the group, its composition in terms of age,
gender, social class and so on may all be important. The degree of structure imposed by the
researcher may be important - do they allow a totally open discussion between the
participants or is more structure imposed in terms of the discussion points, time allows for
discusses the nature of the research question, and the resources available will determine
many of these factors. While the researcher might to some extent have an "open agenda" as
far as the focus groups are concerned it is vitally important that they have clear aims and a
well defined purpose for the focus groups.
The use of diary techniques by qualitative researchers is quite common. Diaries may be kept
by the researcher or the participant in a study and may be a rich source of data which would
be unobtainable using any other technique. The difficulty with using diaries as a research tool
is in determining exactly what is to be recorded. Given that it is impossible to record
everything the researcher must have clear criteria for determining what is to be recorded and
what is not. This will be influenced by the nature of the study, but the researchers' own
theoretical perspective may also be important. For example if a researcher was looking at the
development of autism in young children, and believed that an environmental factor (e.g.
diet) was significant, then they may ask parents of autistic children to keep a diary that
included details of food intake. A researcher with a different perspective may not request that
any information on diet be included in a diary but may (for example) choose to focus on
social interaction. While there are many advantages in using diary techniques these types of
studies will be particularly prone to accusations of observer bias and lack of generalisability.
Comparisons between different diary studies, even of the same topic, are often fraught with
difficulty.
Observation studies are of two basic types - participant and non-participant. As the name
suggests, participant observation studies involve the researcher becoming an active
participant in the study. For example a nurse who was interested in the social interaction
between nurses may choose this approach to collect data. The extent to which a participant
observer divulges their research to other participants will depend on the investigation. In
some studies the researcher has let it be known to other participants that they are actively
collecting data for a research project. However in other cases, such disclosure might
prejudice the data collection and researchers have chosen to keep their activities secret from
the other participants (notwithstanding the ethical problems with this!). Participant
observation studies offer a number of advantages to the researcher, but there are of course
also a number of difficulties. Advantages include the degree of flexibility offered by this
approach. Although the aims of the study should be clearly defined, it is not unknown for this
type of study to identify research questions which alter the direction of the research. Field
research in which the social behaviour of groups of people is the focus of the research is
more likely to reveal the "truths" sought, than the more objective techniques. Indeed for this
type of research, a degree of participation by the researcher may be the only way in which
data can be collected. The most obvious difficulty with participant observation is that the
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presence of the researcher (if known) may change the very behaviour under study. For a
researcher to remain hidden from the other participants does not remove all the difficulties.
Participating in the group activities may make the unobtrusive collection of data, at the very
least, difficult, and some would suggest leaves the researcher open to accusations of bias and
distortion. This would be especially so if the researcher had to rely on memory to record data
on an event after a significant period of time - perhaps at the end of the day or even later.
Participant observers will of course become involved with the group at a social and
emotional level. This may well influence their own behaviour and their degree of
involvement with the group - and this of course may change the very phenomena under
study. There may also be ethical problems for the researcher, e.g. if the group under study is
involved in illegal (euthanasia) or unethical (making jokes about patients) activities. If the
researcher attempts to change this behaviour by the group then their research may well be
compromised - even if the behaviour is not directly relevant to the research being undertaken.
The non-participant observer makes little or no attempt to hide what they are doing although
they may seek to minimize their intrusion on the situation being observed. The degree of
structure imposed by the observer on the situation under observation may vary quite
considerably. At one extreme we have the fully controlled laboratory observational study,
though experimental studies are usually excluded from this category. A typical laboratory
observational study might put doctors into a typical interview situation in which actors play
the part of patients. This would be useful if we were interested in the way doctors interact
with patients while collecting a patient history. In another type of study we might install a
video camera in an operating theatre to observe the behaviour of surgeons and how they
interact with other members of the surgical team. In the former situation the people under
study, would of course know this; in the latter study they may or may not depending on
whether the researcher thought it was important. In terms of imposed structure, the laboratory
situation allows a greater degree of control over the situation than does the field study in the
operating theatre. The degree of control that can be exerted will of course influence the
extent to which hypotheses may be formally tested. One of the main problems with any form
of observational study concerns the reliability of the observational techniques used. These
techniques may vary from the very detailed video recording of the situation to rather more
crude time-sampling techniques in which pencil and paper records of the observed behaviour
are made at different intervals of time over the research period. Not only are the instruments
used to record the data important, but so is the person using the instrument, who may or may
not be the researcher themselves. In clinical situations the researcher may be asking
clinicians to record the observations and this may bring into question their reliability in the
task. Clinicians are likely to be very busy with their routine tasks, they may not be well
motivated or even interested in the research, indeed the research outcomes may have negative
implications for their role in the health care team. It is always desirable in observational
studies, where possible, to have some measure of observer reliability, and where more than
one observer is being used, to have a measure of inter-rater reliability.
Data Analysis
Qualitative studies typically produce a great deal of data - audio and video recordings,
interview transcriptions, descriptions of the situations observed. The researcher has to impose
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some form of order onto this data if it is to make sense and to contribute to our understanding
of the research problem. Content analysis, or more commonly now, discourse analysis are
techniques which have been developed specifically for sampling and analyzing data of this
type. These procedures will initially require that the researcher samples from the wide range
of materials that may have been collected. This may involve the researcher in decisions
which are often more subjective than objective, but where possible the researcher should
represent their inclusion/exclusion criteria clearly. In beginning the analysis of the data
decisions about the coding units will also have to be made - these coding units may be
individual words, phrase, themes, stories, characters etc. The time spent on a topic or its
frequency of occurrence may also be used as coding units. Using the chosen coding units the
data analysis might precede by simply identifying the number of times particular items occur,
or it may introduce more sophisticated techniques e.g. requiring the researcher to indicate
how confident they feel about a particular theme that emerges. Again problems of inter-rater
reliability and the potential for researcher bias needs to be considered. In recent years
computer packages (e.g. NUDIST) have been developed to aid the researcher with the data
analysis.
It should perhaps be emphasized that unlike quantitative analysis which is usually the end
point in a study, in qualitative research the analysis and theoretical statements which follow
emerge from the data and often influence the subsequent direction of the research. Thus
qualitative researchers may see the data analysis as part of the data collection phase of the
research. Indeed supporters of Grounded Theory argue that researchers should put aside any
theoretical preconceptions when they begin their research. The theory should emerge as the
data is collected, rather than the researcher trying to impose a theoretical perspective on the
situation before the data is even collected.
Qualitative research is often criticized for the degree of subjectivity and lack of rigour in the
techniques used. Although they would argue that their methods produce richer, more valid
data, qualitative researchers have developed other techniques aimed at improving the
reliability and validity of their studies. Triangulation involves using two different methods to
study the same phenomena, e.g. using observational techniques in conjunction with
structured interviews. Hopefully both methods will reveal similar findings about the topic
being researched. Qualitative research tends to operate iteratively i.e. the researcher cycles or
repeats their research activities as themes emerge. This allows the researcher to test their
assumptions and to check hypotheses in a wider context. One major difference between
quantitative and qualitative approaches is that the qualitative researcher may involve the
participants in the study in the analysis of the data. They may consult with the participants to
check the validity of the conclusions arrived at. This would be very rare to find in a
quantitative study.
Research is a sequential process involving clearly defined steps. It is not uncommon that
there exist some variations in these steps, some steps are completed first and some continue
along the pother steps. Some steps carried out simultaneously. However we can say that there
is much similarity among sequence proposed.
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The sequence of the research process is given in the following diagram
Question Answered
Management
Question Problem
Research Question
Exploration
Design
Sampling
Pilot Testing
Revision of Measurement
Project Planning question and procedure
Data Collection
Data Gathering
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Analysis and
Interpretation
Analysis,
Interpretation,
And reporting Result Report
1
OBSERVATION
Broad problems area of research
interest identified
3 4
THEORETICAL FRAME WORK
PROBLEM DEFINITION
Variable clearly identified and labled
Research problem
delineated
2
PRELIMINARY DATA
GATHERING
Interviewing literature survey
5
GENERATION OF
HYPOTHESIS
6
SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
DESIGN
No
7
DATA COLLECTION
ANALYSIS AND
INTERPRETATION
8
DEDUCTION
Hypothesis
Sustanited
Research question answered
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Yes
10 11
9 REPORT Managerial
REPORT WRITING Presentation Decision
Making
In an academic setting , a particular study may grow out of little more a student’s need to
selects a research topic for class assignment. More serious academic research tends to be
developed within the bounds of some theoretical framework. In classical it mey be testing of
theory.
In business research problems originates from the needs of manager. There are so many
needs of manager where he wants to make decisions.
Is it Researchable
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Not all questions are researchable and not all research questions are answerable. To be
researchable, a question must be one for which observation or other data collection can
provide the answer. Question of value and policy can be weighed in management decisions.
Ill-defined question:
Some categories of problems are so complex, value – added, and bound by constraints that
they prove to be intractable to traditional forms of analysis. These ill-defined or ill structured
problems have characteristics that are virtually opposite those of well defined problems.
Questions Hierarchy
• Management Questions: Represents a decision that a manager must make and is the
problems prompting the research
• Research Question: Once a researcher has a clear statements of manager question, he
must translate it into a research question: a fact oriented information question
• Investigating Question: Investigative questions are those the researcher must answer
to satisfactorily respond to general research question
• Measurement Question: Are those we actually ask the respondents
Management
Question
Research
Question
Investigative
Question
Measurement
Question
Making Decisions
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Decisions must be made at many levels in a business, from executive decisions on the goals and
objectives that a business wants to pursue, to the day to day repetitive operations performed by lower
level managers. By definition, a decision is a choice made from two or more alternatives. Through
careful analysis these alternatives can be identified from available opportunities or options. While
many decisions are made in order to solve problems, some decisions are more the result of
opportunities that present themselves. In many cases these opportunistic occasions may provide new
ways of doing things or be the beginning of new business if properly pursued and executed.
• Limiting factors help rule out many possible choices. Time and resources are
usually major limiting factor s to possible decisions.
• Alternatives are the potential solutions that can be identified after considering the
limiting factors.
• Analyzing the alternatives identifies the consequences, the pros and cons, the
advantages and disadvantages for each possible choice.
• Selecting the best alternative is making the choice that offers the most advantages
and the fewest disadvantages.
• Implementing the decision requires taking action to get results. This includes
communicating the decision to appropriate personnel and putting plans, programs, and
procedures into effect.
Establishing a control and evaluation system provides a feedback mechanism for tracking the
implementation of the decision, and allows for modifications or adjustments to be made as necessary.
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1. thoroughly check a wide range of alternatives
2. gathers full range of goals and implications of choices
3. weighs costs and risks of both positive and negative consequences
4. Intensively search for new information for evaluating alternatives
5. take all new information into account, even when it doesn't support initial course of
action
6. reexamine positive and negative consequences of all alternatives, including initially
rejected ones
7. make detailed provisions for implementation, including contingency plans for known
risks
Manager needs information to guide decision in specific area. An appropriate study may
help manager avoid possible losses and increase profit.
Conceptually the value of applied research not difficult to determine. In business, research
produces added value and increase revenue or reduce expenses.
Value of information may be judged in the term of’ “ the difference between the results of
decisions made with the information and result that made without information”
EVALUATION METHODS:
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Unit-4
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In a dictionary sense, to measure is to discover the extent, dimension, quantity, or capacity of
some thing, especially by comparison with a standard
Measurement
Measurement in research consists of assigning number to empirical events in compliance
with a set of rules. This definition implies that measurement is a three part process
1. selecting observable empirical events
2. using the number or symbol to represent aspects of the events and
3. applying mapping rules to connect the observation to the symbol
What Is Measured
Concepts used in research may be classified as object or properties. Object includes the
things of ordinary experience, such as, table, people, books, and automobiles. Objects also
include things that are not so concrete, such as genes, attitudes, neutron, and peer group
pressure.
Properties are the characteristics of the objects. A persons physical properties may be stand
in term of weight, height, posture. Psychological properties include attitudes and intelligence.
Social properties include leadership ability, class affiliation, or status.
In a literal sense, researchers do not measure objects or properties. They measure indicants
(showing) of properties
MEASUREMENT SCALES
Sales classifications employ the number system. The most accepted basis for scaling has
three characteristics
1. Numbers are ordered. One number is greater than, less than, or equal to another
number.
2. Differences between numbers are ordered. The difference between any pair of
numbers is greater than, less than, or equal to the difference between any other pair of
numbers
3. the number series has a unique origin indicated by the number zero
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Types of Scale Characteristics of Scale Basic Empirical Operation
Nominal Scale No order, distance, or origin Determination of equality
Ordinal Scale Order but no distance or Determination of grater or
unique origin lesser values
Interval Both order and distance, but Determination of equality of
no unique origin interval or difference
Ratio Order, distance, and unique Determination of equality of
origin ratios
NOMINAL SCALES
Nominal scale partition a set into categories that are mutually exclusive and collectively
exhaustive.
Nominal scales are least powerful of the four types
They suggest no order or distance relationship and have no arithmetic origin. The scale
wastes any information about varying degree of the property being measured.
Nominal measures are especially valuable in exploratory study where the objective is to
uncover the relationship rather than secure precise measurement.
ORDINAL SCALE
Ordinal scale includes the characteristics of the nominal scale plus an indicator of order.
The use of ordinal scale implies the greater than or less than without stating how much
greater than or less than.
In ordinal scale we use as
Greater than or less than
Superior inferior
When more than one property is interested, than it can crate misleading concept for
researchers. For example when we compare colour, flavour or any other property
between
INTERVAL SCALE
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The interval scale has the power of both nominal scale and ordinal scale and plus one
additional strength. It incorporate the concept of equality of interval (distance between 1
and 2 is equal to distance between 3 and 4). Calendar time is such a scale
RATIO SCALE
Ratio scale incorporates all the power of previous ones plus the provision for absolute
zero origin. The ratio scale represents the actual amount of variation. Measure of weight,
height, distance and area are example
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There are four criteria for evaluating a measurement tool
• Validity
• Ability
• Practicability
Validity: many form of validity are mentioned in the research literature, and the numbers
expand the concern for more scientific measurement. There are most important are external
and internal validity
The external validity of research finding refers to their ability to be generalized across
persons, setting, and times.
Internal validity is the ability of the research instrument to measure for what its designer
claims it does.
Validity in this context is the extent to which difference found with measuring tools reflects
true difference among respondents being tested. The difficulty of meeting this test is that
usually one does not know what the true difference are; if one did , one would not do the
measuring.
There are three concept the improve validity
1. Content Validity: the content validity of a measuring instrument is the extent to which it
provides adequate coverage of the topic under study. If the instrument contains a
representative sample of the universe of the subject matter of interest , then content
validity is good
2. Criterion Related Validity: this form of validity reflects the success of measure used for
prediction or estimation.
3. Construct Validity: one may also wish to measure or infer the presence of abstracts
characteristics for which no empirical validation seems possible. Attitudes scales and
aptitude and personality test are generally concern concept that fall in this category.
Reliability: A measure is reliable to the degree that it supplies consistent result. Reliability is
a contributor to validity and is a necessary but not sufficient condition for validity.
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Reliability is concerned with estimates of the degree to which a measurement is free of
random or unstable error. Reliable instrument used frequently with confidence. And this
confidence is due to
1. Stability: a measure is stable if you can secure consistent results with repeated
measurement of the same person with the same instrument
2. Equivalence: a second perspective on reliability considered how much error may be
introduced by different investigators or different sample of items being studied
3. Internal Consistency: A third approach to reliability uses only one administration of an
instrument or test to assess consistency or homogeneity among the items
Improving Reliability: One can improve reliability if external sources of variation are
minimized and the conditions under which the measurement occurs are standardized
Practicality: The scientific requirement of project call for the measurement process to be
reliable and valid, while operational requirement call for it to be practical. Practicality has
been defined as economy, convenience, and interpretability.
1. Economy: some trade-off is usually needed between the ideal research project and
the budget.
2. Convenience: a measuring device passes the convenience test if it is easy to
administered
3. Interpretability: this aspect of practicality is relevant when persons other than that
the test designer must interpret the result
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1. Concepts Development
2. Concepts Specification
3. Indicator Selection
4. Formation of Indexes
CONCEPT DEVELOPMENT: The first task is to develop the concept (construct). In
developing these ideas one must enumerate the specific ways the corporation may be
involved with various groups and what the nature of each of these involvement is
CONCEPT SPECIFICATION: the second task is to breakdown these concepts into various
components
INDICATORS SELECTION: once the dimensions have been set, the indicators to measure
each concept must be developed. Since there is seldom a perfect or absolute measure, several
possibilities should be considered. Indicators can be questions, statistical measures, or other
scoring devices.
FORMATION OF INDEXES: When there are several dimensions of a concept or different
measure for each dimension, it may be considerable to combine them into single index. It is
reasonable to believe that each individual indicator has only a probability relation to what we
really want to know. Any single indicator may not be fair representation of what is being
measured. Use of more than one indicator lends stability to the scores and improves their
validity.
SCALING DEFINED
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Scaling: is a procedure for the assignment of number ( or other symbol) to a property of a
objects in order to impart some of the characteristics of numbers to the properties in question.
What is defined: Procedurally, we assign numbers to indicants of the properties of objects. If
you wants to measure the temperature of the air, you know that property of temperature is
that it variation leads to an expansion or contraction of material such as mercury.
SCALE CLASSIFICATION
Selection of scale require the decision in six key areas
1. Study Objective: A scale may be designed to
a. Measure the characteristics of the respondents who complete it or
b. Use these respondents as judge of the objects or stimuli presented to them
2. Response Scale: Scale may be defined as categorical and comparative. These
approaches are also known as rating and ranking respectively. Categorical (rating
scale) are used when respondent score some objects without direct reference to other
object. In comparative (Ranking) scaling, the respondents are asked to choose which
one of pair is best one.
3. Degree of Preference: Scaling approach may also involve preference
measurement or non preference evaluation. In the former, respondents as asked to
choose object each favours or solution each would prefer. In the latter, they are
asked to judge which objects has more of some characteristics or which solution
takes the most resources, without reflecting any personal preference toward objects
or solutions.
4. Scale Properties: Scales approaches may also be viewed in the term of the scales
properties possessed by each. Such as nominal scale, ordinal scale, interval and ratio
scale.
5. Number Of Dimension: Scales are either unidimensional or multidimensional.
With unidimensional scale, one seeks to measure only one attribute of the
respondent or object. Multidimensional scaling recognize that an object might be
better describe in attributes space of n dimensions rather than on a unidimensional
range.
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6. Scales Construction: We can classify scale by the methods used to build them.
There are five scale design techniques
a. Arbitrary Approach: In which the scale is developed on an ad hoc basis.
b. Consensus Scale: A panel of judges evaluates the items to be included in the
instrument based on relevance to the topic area and lack of ambiguity.
c. Item Analysis Approach: Individual items are developed for as test that is
given to a group respondent. individual items are then analysed to determine
which one discriminate between persons or objects with high total scores and
low total scores.
d. Cumulative Scale: are chosen for their conformance to a ranking of items
with ascending and descending discriminating power.
e. Factor Scale: are constructed from Interco relation of items. Common
factors counts for relationship.
RESPONSE METHODS:
RATING SCALE: Rating scales have several response categories and are used to
elicit response with regard to the object, event, or person studied.
Rating Scales:
1. Dichotomous Scale: is used to elicit yes or no answer
2. Category Scale: use multiple items to elicit a single response
3. Likert Scale: is designed to examine how strongly subjects agree or disagree with
statements on five points scale
4. Semantic Differential: Several bipolar attributes are identified at the extreme of the
scale and respondents are asked to indicate their attitude
5. Numerical Scale: The numerical scale is similar to semantic differential scale with
the difference that numbers on the 5 points or 7 points are provided with bipolar
objective at end
6. Itemised rating Scale: A 5 point or 7 point scale with anchor ,as needed, is provided
for the each item and the respondent states the appropriate number on the side of each
item
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7. Fixed Or Constant Scale: The respondent are asked to distributes a given number of
points across various items
8. Stapel Scale: This scale simultaneously measure the direction and intensity of the
attitude toward the item under study.
9. Graphic Rating Scale: a graph is used to represent the answer of the question
10. Consensus Scale: A panel of judges evaluates the items to be included in the
instrument based on relevance to the topic area and lack of ambiguity
RANKING SCALES
Ranking scales make comparison between or among object, events, or persons and elicit
the preferred choice and ranking among them.
1. Paired Comparison: Is used when, among a small number of objects
respondents are asked to choose between two objects at a time. Formula
(n ( n+1))/2
2. Forced Choice: The forced choice enables respondent to rank objective relative
to one another, among the alternative provided.
3. Comparative Scale: The comparative scale provides a benchmark or a point of
reference to assess attitude toward the current object, event, or situation under
study
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SCALE CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES
ARBITRARY SCALE
Arbitrary scales are designed by collecting several items that are believed are unambiguous
and appropriate to given topic. Some are chosen for inclusion in the instrument. Consider the
following example for image of company
We might score each of these from 1 to 5 depending upon the degree of favorableness
reported. The results may be studied in several ways. Total may be made by individual items,
by company, by company as palace of work, for ecological concern and so on. Totals for
each company, or for individual may be calculated to determine how they compare to others.
Based on a total for these four items, each company would be scored from 4 to 20 by each
respondent. These data may be analyzed from a respondent centre point of view. Thus, we
might use attitude score of each individual to study difference among them
Advantages:
• Easy to develop
• Inexpensive
• Highly specific
Disadvantages
• Designed approach is subjective
• No evidence that respondent view each item with same frame of reference
CONSENSUS SCALE
Consensus scale require that items are selected by a panel of judges who evaluate them on
1. relevance to topic area
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2. potential for ambiguity , and
3. the level of attitude it represents
A widely used approach is Thur-Stone Differential Scale
A Differential Scale also known as the method of Equal appearing Interval was developed to
create an interval rating scale for attitude measurement. Often 50 or more judges evaluate a
large number of statements expressing different degree of favorableness toward an object.
There is one statement per card. The judges sort each card into 1 of 11 piles representing
their evaluation of the degree of favorableness that the statements express. The judge’s
agreement or disagreement with the statement is not involved. Three of the 11 piles are
identified to the judges by labels of “favorable” and “unfavorable” at the extreme and
“neutral” at the midpoint. The eight intermediate piles are unlabled to create the impression
of equal –appearing interval between the three labled positions.
The scale position for a given statement is found by calculating its medial score. A measure
of dispersion, usually the interquartile range, is calculated for each statement. If a given
statement has large interquartile range, it is judged to be too ambiguous to be used in final
scale. Statements included in the finale attitude scale are selected by taking a sample of those
with median scores spread evenly from one extreme to other and with small interquartile
range.
Advantages:
• differential scale are reliable
Disadvantages
• It is costly
• Time consuming
• Involve 50 or more individual for decisions
ITEM ANALYSIS
The item analysis procedure evaluates an item based on how well it discriminates between
those persons whose total scores is high and those whose total score is low. The most popular
type using this approach is summated scale
Summated scale consists of statements that express either a favorable or unfavorable attitude
toward the object of interest. The respondent is asked to agree or disagree with each
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statement. Each response is given a numerical score to reflect its degree of attitude
favorableness, and the score are totaled to measure the respondent’s attitude.
The most frequently used form is the likert scale. With scale the respondent is asked to
respond to each statement by choosing one of five agreement choices
Example
I consider my job rather unpleasant
Strongly Agree Agree Neither Agree Disagree Strongly
nor Disagree Disagree
1 2 3 4 5
The number indicates the values to be assigned to each possible answer with 1 indicating the
least favorable degree of job satisfaction and 5 the most favorable.
CUMULATIVE SCALE
Total score on cumulative scale have the same meaning. Giving a person’s total score, it is
possible to estimate which item were answered positively and negatively. The major scale of
this type is Guttman scalogram. Scalogram analysis is a procedure for determining whether
a set of items forms a unidimensional as defined by Guttman. A scale is said to be
unidimensional if the responses fall into a pattern in which support of the item reflecting the
extreme position results also in supporting all items that are less extreme.
Suppose we are surveying the new style of running shoe. We have developed a preference
scale of four items as follow
1. Style X is good looking
2. I will insist on style X next time because it is great looking
3. The appearance of style X is acceptable to me
4. I prefer style X to other style
Respondents are asked to express themselves on each item by indicating whether agree or
disagree. If these items form a unidimensinal scales, the response pattern will be approach
the ideal configuration as shown
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Items
2 4 1 3 Response
x x x x 4
- x x x 3
- - x x 2
- - - x 1
- - - - 0
x = agree
- = disagree
In developing a Scalogram, one first define the universe of content. Assume you are
interested in attitude of people toward television advertising. You might define the universe
of content as “viewer attitude toward TV advertising” the second step is to develop items that
can be used in pretest that tell us if this topic is scalable. Guttman suggest that a pretest
includes 12 or more items, while the final scale may have only 4 to 6 items. Pretest
respondent numbers may be small say 20 or 30 but final scale use should involve 100 or
more respondents
Take the pretest results and order the respondents from top to bottom – form those with the
most favorable totals to least favorable. Then order the statements left to right from the most
favorable to least favorable. The next step is to discard those statements that fail to
discriminate well between favorable and unfavorable respondents. Finally calculate a
coefficient of Reproducibility (CR)
Reproducibility = 1- e/n(N)
Where e is the number of errors, n is the number of items, and N is the number of cases.
Reproducibility should be 0.90 or better for a scale to be considered uni-dimensional
FACTOR SCALE:
Factor Scales includes a variety of techniques that have been developed for two problems
1. how to deal with the universe of content that is multidimensional and
2. How to uncover underlying dimension that have not been identified.
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There are many approaches used for factor scale but most important is
(E) Sociable (7) ___ : ___: __: ___: ___: ___: ___: (1) Unsociable
(P) Weak (1) ___ : ___: __: ___: ___: ___: ___: (7) Strong
(A) Active (7) ___ : ___: __: ___: ___: ___: ___: (1) Passive
(E) Progressive (7) ___: ___: __: ___: ___: ___: ___: (1) Regressive
(P) Yielding (1) ___ : ___: __: ___: ___: ___: ___: (7) Tenacious
(A) Slow (1) ___ : ___: __: ___: ___: ___: ___: (7) Fast
(E) True (7) ___ : ___: __: ___: ___: ___: ___: (1) False
(P) Heavy (7) ___ : ___: __: ___: ___: ___: ___: (1) Light
(A) Hot (7) ___ : ___: __: ___: ___: ___: ___: (1) Cold
(E) Unsuccessful (1) ___ : ___: __: ___: ___: ___: ___: (7) Successful
Unit-5
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1. Primary Data: Those come from the original sources and are collected especially to
answer our research question. Researcher collects that information which he needed.
He can specify its operational definition, eliminate it, or control and record it.
2. Secondary Data: Study made by other for their own purpose.
1. Locating
2. Accessing
3. Evaluating
a. Purpose of study
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b. Organization who conducted it
c. Information collected (how was it measured?0
d. When information collected
e. How information obtained (how representative)
f. Consistency with other information
4. Analyzing
5. Reporting
Documentary
• Organization’s records
• Organizations’ communications
(internal and external)
– Primary data not secondary
• Books, journals, newspapers, etc.
– Secondary
• Use of a table on, say,
consumer expenditure
Government surveys and economic statistics
Censuses
– Census of Population
– Census of Employment
Official statistics
– Mainly time-series
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On the basis of above mentioned types of sources we can divide sources into two types
Internal sources
External sources
Internal Sources
Internal sources of organization data are so varied that it is difficult to provide generalization
about their use. Main sources are all the departments of an organization
Management
Accounting
Research and development
Marketing
Finance
MIS
Interviewing of Secretaries of company
External Sources
All the sources outside the organization are external sources. But published sources of data
are classified into five categories.
1. Computerized Databases: they are composed of interrelated data files. The files are
sets of records grouped together for storage on some medium. Assess may be through
on line of VD-ROM
2. Periodical: the 32nd edition of Ulrich’s International Periodical Directory lists
approximately 140000 periodicals worldwide.
3. Books: it is estimated that 47000 books title are published in US annually
4. Government Documents:
5. Diverse material from special collection. Within this category there are many
reference books, university publication, doctoral dissertation and research record.
Company publication such as financial statements etc.
Research Procedure
An important source of data collection is library.
Search for Bibliography: bibliography makes the entire research project more
efficient because you quickly find an inventory of a material on subject. By
inspecting the title s, authors, dates and other indexing information, you can selects
the priority sources for further study.
The logical first step to learn is whether any one else has already prepared a
bibliography on the subject. In contrast to electronic library manual library are time
consuming and costly but can be used as search for data collection.
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Secondary data evaluating depends upon two forms
1. Data Pertinency
2. Data Quality
Data Pertinency means having logical precise relevance to the matter at hand. Or we can say
the how well do the data fit the research need
Data quality means that what confidence you can put in the accuracy and legitimacy of the
data.
The question of data quality is first a question of data accuracy. It is good research practice to
go to the original source of the information rather than use an intermediate source that has
quoted from the original. This enables you to avoid any error in transcription and review the
cautionary and other comments that went along with the original data. Finally you may
uncover revisions that have been made in the data since the intermediate source use it.
Another aspect of data accuracy concern with it completeness: how does the reported
material cover? Is it based upon a narrow sample, a large population or what? Answer to
these questions may suggest that data are nor appropriate for the problem. Another aspect
Data quality concern the capability of sources of the data. In this context there are two
concerns
1. First are the persons who conducted the study people in whom you can have
confidence? Are they highly regarded? Is their organization well regarded
2. Second aspect of source capability concern the original source: Could the respondent
answer this question? What are the chances that the respondent would know and be
willing to give such information under the study condition?
A concern that any investigator has in studying the quality of secondary data is the degree
to which the accurately reflects reality.
Unit-6
CHARACTERISTICS OF A SURVEY
To survey is to question people and record their response for analysis
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Strength: The greatest strength of questioning as primary data collection techniques is its
versatility
Surveys are more efficient and economical than observation
Survey by using telephone or mail can cover moiré geographical area
PERSONAL INTERVIEWING
A personal interview (face to face) is a two way conversation initiated by an interviewer to
obtain information from a respondent.
SUCCESS REQUIREMENT
Three broad conditions must be met to have a successful personal interview. They are
1. availability of needed information from the respondent
2. an understanding by the respondent of his role
3. adequate motivation by the respondent to cooperate
INTERVIEWING TECHNIQUES
2. The Introduction:
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Interviewer should immediately identify themselves by name and organization,
showing any special identification
2. Response Error:
When the data reported differ from the actual data, response error occur
3. Interviewer Error:
a) when interviewer not establish good cooperation with respondent
b) interviewers are inconsistent of way of interviewing
c) when interviewer fail to obtain or motivate the respondent
d) interviewer are expensive
TELEPHONE INTERVIEWING
Telephone interview helps in setting up personal interviews and screening population for
unusual types of respondents. It is unique mode of communication.
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2. response rate is high
3. no requirement of administrative cost and supervision
IMPROVING RETURN
Response of mail survey can be improved by different techniques. These are
1. Follow Up: Follow-up or reminders are very successful in increasing response rate
2. Preliminary Notification: advance notification particularly by telephone is effective
in increasing response rate
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8. Size, Reproduction and color
9. Money incentive
10. Deadline Dates
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What it measures Advantages Disadvantages Example
Methods
opinions, attitudes, can be inexpensive samples must be agents report
Surveys (Includes beliefs, behaviors, sample can be used to carefully selected to how
personal reactions, and provide information ensure statistical frequently
interviews, attributes in response about a population meaning. they use
drop-off to specific questions can provide an subject to certain
questionnaires, opportunity for many misinterpretation, resource
telephone people to be involved in depending on how center
interviews.) decision-making questions are designed materials
process and asked workshop
can be used to record tendency for scope of participants
behaviors as well as data to be limited— indicate their
opinions, attitudes, omission of likes and
beliefs and attributes underlying behavioral dislikes
usefulness enhances if patterns about the
combined with other time-consuming program
methods, i.e., compared with less offered
observation or case formal methods
study
What it measures Advantages Disadvantages
Method Example
opinions, attitudes, efficient for volume of low response rate extension
Mail Surveys beliefs, behaviors, information collected one or two follow-ups personnel
reactions, and people more likely to are needed for a good asked their
attributes in response provide frank, return opinion of
to specific questions thoughtful, honest questionnaire must be staffing
information, tension- easy to understand extension
free situation difficult to summarize clientele
gives people more time open-ended questions questioned
to complete the accurate mailing lists to deter-
questionnaire are required mine level
all respondents receive overuse of this method of
same questions in may make some satisfaction
printed form—free people reluctant to with
from bias respond extension
privacy, programmin
confidentiality, and g
anonymity must be
assured
can be expensive
scope is limited
results may be
misleading if only
respondents who are
interested in topic
respond
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What it measures Advantages Disadvantages
Method Example
response rate is high time consuming workshop
Telephone Surveys cost is competitive with telephone numbers are participants
mail survey needed called to
speedy and efficient proportion of unlisted determine
source of data numbers or reaction to
researcher can provide households without program
clarification on unclear phones may cause extension
questions frame error personnel
respondents are more questions should still called to
relaxed with a stranger be simple and easy to assess their
by telephone than face understand (no more opinion of
to face than five response the pre-
interviewer can read categories) service
questions from script interviewer’s voice or training
and take notes without identity may lead to process
concern of distracting some biasing
respondents respondents may feel
respondents cannot read interview is an
the interviewer’s body invasion of privacy
language interviewer has little
opportunity to “loosen
up” the respondent
interviewer cannot
read respondents’
body language
scope of survey is
limited
interviewer training
may be necessary
What it measures Advantages Disadvantages
Method Example
Group Administered opinions, attitudes, can collect a lot of data may require the
Survey beliefs, behaviors, inexpensively by cooperation of others end of meeting,
reactions, and having everyone at a (i.e., school program
attributes in response meeting or program administrators, etc.) questionna
to specific questions complete the survey reach only those who ire
form are present
easy to clarify items group dynamics may
which present difficulty affect individual
provides greatest sense responses
of respondent opportunity for
anonymity researcher influence
good method to collect
baseline and attitudinal
data
high response rate
can be used for
quantitative and
qualitative methods
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What it measures Advantages Disadvantages
Method Example
INTERVIEWS
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studying a “small unit” plan for
such as a classroom, representativeness is
Extension Council, etc. developed
if observer chooses to
be involved in the
activity, he/she may
lose objectivity
not realistic for use
with large groups
What it measures Advantages Disadvantages
Method Example
Mass media/public opinions, ideas all citizens would have the “extremes” of a use of
hearings an opportunity to population tend to public
respond respond—those television
teleconferencing, call definitely “for” or to address
in, and town meeting “against” the national
methods would be use of public issue of
quick methods of television and “Youth at
obtaining input teleconferencing is Risk”
limited to those who public
have access to public hearing or
television and a phone community
public hearings are meeting
time consuming, concerning
especially for the environment
interviewers al issues of
summary and analysis use of
of data can be difficult pesticides
response to public and water
hearings is affected by quality
location, distance &
date
Interviewing Techniques:
It is important that the interviewer ask the question properly, records the response accurately
and probe meaningfully. To achieve these aims interviewer must be trained to carry out those
procedures that foster a good interviewing relationship.
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Unit-9
PROPOSAL
Proposal may be defined as a kind of report in which the person consult, analyze the specific
problems or issue and then submit proposal to solve the problems, to change the procedure,
to find the answer of an important question, offer advise and training to carryout research for
the improvement of products or services or procedure.
PURPOSE OF PROPOSAL:
The proposal are generally requires or asked to solve the problems changing the procedure,
to construct the plan or to improve good and services etc. such as the govt. may require the
proposal for to sell the property, to construct the building, to clean the city and traffic control.
TYPES OF PROPOSAL
There are two types of proposal.
1. Research proposal: The research proposals are academic in nature. These proposals may
be solicited or unsolicited. If govt. agency request or asked for proposal it will be solicited
proposal. And if some one put proposal without any request it will be unsolicited.
2. Business Proposal: These proposals may be solicited or unsolicited. These proposals are
prepared specifically to solve the business problems to improve the business activities.
PARTS OF PROPOSAL
2. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY/ABSTRACT:
It facilitate the reader to get the over view of the proposal rather than to read the entire
proposal. It summarizes how the objective wills be met and what procedure will be followed.
It is most important part of proposal.
3. DRAFT AGREEMENT/CONTACT:
This part of proposal contains written term and conditions.
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4. TABLE OF CONTENT:
Brief proposal usually do not require table of content. Long proposal do require one as well
as list of table figure, and illustration.
5. INTRODUCTION:
It may consist of
a) Purpose: Here we will define that how this proposal will facilitate the respondent,
organization or person who required proposal.
b) Problems: First define the problem that why we changing the proposal. What are
the problems for which this proposal is preparing?
c) Scope: Define the boundaries of proposal. This proposal can be effective within
these limits and ineffective beyond these limits.
d) Project Team: Mentioned the name of team takes part in proposal. Who lead the
team, experience of participants, qualification, pervious proposal planned etc.
e) Back Ground: Tell about company previous experience, proposal prepared and
effective in fields. How companies earned profit by adopting proposal of this
company.
f) Procedure: What procedure we will adopt.
g) Equipment and facilities: Equipment required for this proposal. Technology
adopted or will be adopted. Machinery required etc.
h) Personnel: Human resource used in project.
i) Budget: It is most important part of proposal. First of all allocate budget for
proposal.
j) Appendix: It contains photograph and other related information.
Business report
Business report
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2. Consider who will receive the report.
While reporting a report keep the person or organization in mind
who will consider this report. So that it should be according to
understand level of receiver.
3. Determine ideas to include.
Get an idea of source to which you may turn.
4. Collect needed material.
For collection of material that may support your idea, you may
adopt
(a) Primary research. (b) Secondary research.
5. Sort, analyze and interpret data.
Analyze your idea, suggestion in report and if there is some special
them interpret it.
6. Organize data and prepare final outline.
Means arrange in systemic form and prepare the main structure of
the report on the basis of that data.
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PARTS OF REPORT
Prefatory Items
Prefatory materials do not have direct bearing on the research itself.
Instead, they assist the reader in using the research report
1. Letter of Transmittal:
When relationship between the researcher and client is formal, a
letter of transmittal should be included. It is important when a
report is for a specific client and when generated for an out side
organization. The letter should refer to the authorization for the project
and any specific instructions or limitation placed on the study. It should
also state nad explain the purpose and scope of study.
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6. Table of Contents: It contains information about chapter and
topic of report.
INTRODUCTION
Introduction prepares the reader for the report by describing the parts of
project it includes:
Problems Statement:
The problems statement contains the need for the research project.
The problems is usually represented by a management question
Research Objective:
Research objectives address the purpose of the project
Background
Background material may be of two types
1. It may be the preliminary results of exploration from an
experience survey, focus group, or another source.
2. It could be secondary data from the literature review
METHODOLOGY:
In short reports and management reports, the methodology should not
have a separation section. Then it should be mentioned in the
introduction with details placed in an appendix. However, for a technical
report, the methodology is an important section. It contains a least five
parts
FINDINGS:
This is the longest section of the report. The objective is to explain the
data rather than draw interpretation or conclusion. When quantitative
data can be presented this should be done as simply as possible with
chats, graphs and tables.
CONCLUSION:
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Summary and Conclusion: The summary is a brief statement of
the essential findings. Sectional summaries may be used if there are
many specific findings
Conclusion may be presented in a tabular form for easy readings
and reference
TYPES OF REPORT
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4. Letter report: simply a report in letterform and it is often used to
send information from outside organization. There are two types of
letter reports.
(a) Information letter report (b) Analytical letter report
Sampling Design
Population: Population refers to the entire group of people, events, or things of interest that
the researcher wishes to investigate.
Population Framework: The population frame is a listing of all the elements in population
from which the sample is drawn. The payroll of an organization would serve as the
population frame if its members are to be studied.
Subject: A subject is a single member of the sample, just as an element is a single member of
the population.
Probability Sampling: The elements in the population have some known chance or
probability of being selected as sample subject
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Disadvantages: not as efficient as stratified sampling
3. Cluster Sampling: Groups that have heterogeneous members are first identified; then
some are chosen at random; all the members in each of the randomly chosen groups
are studied.
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primary units, probability sample of the secondary sampling unit is
then drawn; a third level of probability sampling is done from each of
these secondary units and so on.
5. Double Sampling: The same sample or subset of the sample is studied twice.
Non- Probability Sampling: The elements in the population have not known chance or
probability of being selected as sample subject
1. Convenience sampling; the most easily accessible member are chosen as sample.
2. Judgment Sampling: subjects selected on the basis of their expertise in the subject
investigated
3. Quota Sampling: Subjects are conveniently chosen from targeted groups according
to some predetermined number or quota.
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Business Research Methods
Marketing research
Research
Research covers the search for and retrieval of information for a specific purpose. Research has
many categories, from medical research to literary research.
Marketing research - Marketing research (also called "consumer research") comprises a form of
applied sociological study which concentrates on understanding the behaviours, whims and
preferences, mainly current and future, of consumers in a market-based economy.
Market research - Market research has a broad scope and includes all aspects of the business
environment. It asks questions about competitors, market structure, government regulations,
economic trends, technological advances, and numerous other factors that make up the business
environment. (See Environmental scanning.) Sometimes the term refers more particularly to the
financial analysis of companies, industries, or sectors. In this case, financial analysts usually carry out
the research and provide the results to investment advisors and potential investors.
Product research - This looks at what products can be produced with available technology, and what
new product innovations near-future technology can develop. (see New Product Development)
Advertising research - This attempts to assess the likely impact of an advertising campaign in
advance, and also measure the success of a recent campaign.
test marketing - a small-scale product launch used to determine the likely acceptance of the product
when it is introduced into a wider market
mystery shopping - An employee of the company conducting the research contacts a salesperson
and indicates they are shopping for the product they sell. They then record the entire experience. This
method is often used for quality control or for researching competitors products.
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demand estimation - to determine the approximate level of demand for the product
sales forecasting - to determine the expected level of sales given the level of demand
customer satisfaction studies - exit interviews or surveys that determine a customer's level of
satisfaction with the quality of the transaction
price elasticity testing - to determine how sensitive customers are to price changes
consumer decision process research - to determine what motivates people to buy and what
decision-making process they use
positioning research - how does the target market see the brand relative to competitors? - what
does the brand stand for?
brand name testing - what do consumers feel about the names of the products?
All of these forms of marketing research can be classified as either problem-identification research or
as problem-solving research.
A similar distinction exists between exploratory research and conclusive research. Exploratory
research provides insights into and comprehension of an issue or situation. It should draw definitive
conclusions only with extreme caution. Conclusive research draws conclusions: the results of the
study can be generalized to the whole population.
Both exploratory and conclusive research exemplify primary research. A company collects primary
research for its own purposes. This contrasts with secondary research: research published
previously and usually by someone else. Secondary research costs far less than primary research,
but seldom comes in a form that exactly meets the needs of the researcher.
Qualitative marketing research - generally used for exploratory purposes - small number of
respondents - not generalizable to the whole population - statistical significance and confidence not
calculated - examples include focus groups, depth interviews, and projective techniques
Quantitative marketing research - generally used to draw conclusions - tests a specific hypothesis -
uses random sampling techniques so as to infer from the sample to the population - involves a large
number of resondents - examples include surveys and questionnaires
Observational techniques - the researcher observes social phenomena in their natural setting -
observations can occur cross-sectionally (observations made at one time) or longitudinally
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(observations occur over several time-periods) - examples include product-use analysis and
computer cookie traces
Researchers often use more than one research design. They may start with secondary research to
get background information, then conduct a focus group (qualitative research design) to explore the
issues. Finally they might do a full nation-wide survey (quantitative research design) in order to devise
specific recommendations for the client.
Many of these techniques resemble those used in political polling and social science research. Meta-
analysis (also called the Schmidt-Hunter technique) refers to a statistical method of combining data
from multiple studies or from several types of studies. Conceptualization means the process of
converting vague mental images into definable concepts. Operationalization is the process of
converting concepts into specific observable behaviours that a researcher can measure. Precision
refers to the exactness of any given measure. Reliability refers to the likelihood that a given
operationalized construct will yield the same results if re-measured. Validity refers to the extent to
which a measure provides data that captures the meaning of the operationalized construct as defined
in the study. It asks, “Are we measuring what we intended to measure?�
Applied research sets out to prove a specific hypothesis of value to the clients paying for the
research. For example, a cigarette company might commission research that attempts to show that
cigarettes are good for one's health. Many researchers have ethical misgivings about doing applied
research.
Sugging forms a sales technique in which sales people pretend to conduct marketing research, but
with the real purpose of obtaining buyer motivation and buyer decision-making information to be used
in a subsequent sales call.
Frugging comprises the practice of soliciting funds under the pretense of being a research
organization.
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