MODULE 5

LOGIC AND
REASONING
OVERVIEW
Inductive and Deductive Reasoning
Application of Reasoning: Logic
Puzzles and Mathematical Recreations
Logic
Polya’s Four Step Method
Objectives:
Solve problems involving patterns and recreational
puzzles using inductive and deductive reasoning;
Use different types of reasoning to justify
statements and arguments made about mathematics
and mathematical concepts;
 Solve problems involving patterns and
recreational problems following Polya’s four steps;
 Organize one’s methods and approaches for
proving and solving problems.
Section 13

LOGIC
Logic
the science of reasoning, proof, thinking
or inference
allows us to analyze arguments and
determine whether it is valid or invalid
a tool used in mathematical proofs
Includes: a language for expressing
complicated compound statements, a
concise notation for writing them, and a
methodology for objectively reasoning
about their truth or falsity.
Historical Background
Logic Statements
A statement is a declarative sentence that is
either true or false, but not both true and
false.
Example 1
Simple and Compound Statements
A simple statement is a statement that
conveys a single idea.
A compound statement is a statement that
conveys two or more ideas.
Connecting simple statements with words
and phrases such as and, or, if...then, and
if and only if creates a compound
statement.
Logical Connectives and
Symbols
Example 2
Example 3: Writing Statements in
Symbolic Form
Example 4: Translating Symbolic Form
of Statements
Grouping Symbols
If a compound statement is written in
symbolic form, then parenthesis are used
to indicate which simple statements are
grouped together.
Grouping Symbols
If a compound statement is written as an
English sentence, then a comma is used to
indicate which simple statements are
grouped together.
Example 5
Truth Values and Truth Tables
The truth value of a simple statement is
either true (T) or false (F).
The truth value of a compound statement
depends on the truth values of its simple
statements and its connectives.
A truth table is a table that shows the truth
value of a compound statement for all
possible truth values of its simple
statements.
Truth Table for a Negation
Truth Table for a Conjunction
Truth Table for a Disjunction
Example 6
Example 7
Construct the truth table for the following:
Equivalent Statements
Two statements are equivalent if they
have the same truth value for all possible
truth values of their simple statements
denoted by 

Example:
De Morgan’s Law for Statements
Conditional Statements
written in the form if p, then q (p  q)
shows an implication; that is, given that a
situation p will happen (antecedent or
hypothesis), another situation q will
happen (consequent or conclusion).
Most theorems in mathematics are in the
form of a conditional.
Other Ways to Express p  q
If p, q.
p implies q.
q, if p.
q when p.
p is sufficient for q.
q is necessary for p.
p only if q.
q whenever p.
q follows from p.
Statements Equivalent to p  q
Truth Table for the Conditional
Example 8
Construct the truth table for the following
statements.
Negation of the Conditional

Examples: Write the negation of the

following conditional statements.
1. If they pay me the money, I will sign the
contract.
2. If the lines are parallel, then they do not
intersect.
Converse, Inverse, Contrapositive

Conditional statements can be transformed

into different statements by switching the
antecedent and the consequent or by
negating them.
Converse, Inverse, Contrapositive
Note that
Example 9
Write the converse, inverse, and
contrapositive for the following conditional
statements.
1. If I get the job, then I will rent the
apartment.
2. Whenever I do yoga, I feel calm.
Biconditional Statements
two-way conditional statements
p if and only if q
Note that
Truth Table for the Biconditional
Example 10
Determine if the biconditional statement is
true or false.
Example 11
Write the negation of the following
statements.
1. Some airports are open.
2. All bears are brown.
3. No odd numbers are divisible by 2.
Tautologies and Self-Contradictions
A tautology is a statement that is always
true.
A self-contradiction is a statement that is
always false.
Example 12
Valid and Invalid Arguments
An argument consists of a set of
statements called premises and another
statement called the conclusion.
An argument is valid if the conclusion is
true whenever all the premises are
assumed to be true.
An argument is invalid if it is not a valid
argument.
Symbolic Form of an Argument
If Aristotle was human, then Aristotle was
mortal. Aristotle was human. Therefore,
Aristotle was mortal.

Let:
h: Aristotle was human
m: Aristotle was mortal
Symbolic Form of an Argument
The fish is fresh or I will not order it. The
fish is fresh. Therefore, I will order it.

Let:
f: The fish is fresh.
o: I will order it.
Symbolic Form of an Argument
If she doesn’t get on the plane, she will
regret it. She does not regret it. Therefore,
she got on the plane.

Let:
p: She gets on the plane.
r: She will regret it.
Truth Table Procedure to Determine the
Validity of an Argument
1. Write the argument in symbolic form.
2. Construct a truth table that shows the truth
value of each premise and the truth value of
the conclusion for all combinations of truth
values of the simple statements.
3. If the conclusion is true in every row of the
truth table in which all the premises are true,
the argument is valid. If the conclusion is
false in any row in which all of the premises
are true, the argument is invalid.
Example 1: Aristotle
Example 2
If it rains, then the game will not be played.
It is not raining. Therefore, the game will
be played.

Let:
r: It rains.
g: The game will be played.
Example 3
If the stock market rises, then the bond
market will fall. The bond market did not
fall. Therefore, the stock market did not
rise.

Let:
s: The stock market rises.
b: The bond market will fall.
Example 4
If I am going to run the marathon, then I will
buy new shoes. If I buy new shoes, then I
will not buy a television. Therefore, if I buy
a television, I will not run the marathon.

Let:
m:I am going to run the marathon.
s: I will buy new shoes.
t: I will buy a television.
Standard Forms of Four Valid Arguments
Standard Forms of Two Invalid
Arguments
Examples
1. The program is interesting or I will
watch the basketball game. The program
is not interesting. Therefore, I will watch
the basketball game.
2.
Examples
3. If the movie was directed by Steven
Spielberg (s), then I want to see it (w).
The movie’s production costs must
exceed $50 million (c) or I do not want
to see it. The movie’s production costs
were less than $50 million. Therefore,
the movie was not directed by Steven
Spielberg.
Examples
4. I start to fall asleep (f) if I read a math
book (m). I drink soda (s) whenever I
start to fall asleep. If I drink a soda, then
I must eat a candy bar (c). Therefore, I
eat a candy bar whenever I read a math
book.