Review Paper
Materials Technology in Power Generation in the U.K.
L. M. WYATT
Central Electricity Generating Board, London (Gt. Britain)
(Received January 4, 1971)
CONTENTS
1. Introduction
2. Power generation
3. The reactor core
3.1. The Magnox reactor
3.1.1. Growth in ~-uranium metal
3.1.2. Swelling of uranium
3.1.3. The Magnox can
3.2. The advanced gas cooled reactor (AGR)
3.2.1. Thermal expansion effects
3.2.2. Fission gas release from uranium oxide
3.2.3. The stainless steel AGR can
3.3. High temperature reactor (HTR)
3.3.1. Manufacture of HTR fuel
4. Reactor circuit effects
1. INTRODUCTION
The variety of materials used in conventional elec-
trical generation and transmission is comparatively
small. The materials consist mainly of steels for the
stressed components, copper (or aluminium) for
conductors and organic compositions or ceramics
for insulators.
The introduction of nuclear generation has sig-
nificantly widened the range of materials. Reactor
cores include the fissile and fertile metals, uranium,
plutonium and thorium or their oxides or carbides;
materials of low neutron absorption, magnesium
and zirconium; moderators such as graphite; neu-
tron absorbers, boron, hafnium and the rare earths ;
and heat transfer media such as carbon dioxide,
helium and sodium.
Materials are supplied to specifications which dif-
fer not only internationally but between organi-
sations in the same country. For simplicity materials
are referred to in this text by short descriptive titles
which are listed together with the complete analysis
Materials Science and Engineering
American Society for Metals, Metals Park, Ohio, and Elsevier Sequoia S.A., Lausanne-Printed in the Netherlands
5. The boiler
5.1. Environmental attack
5.2. Resistance to imposed stresses
6. Steampipes
7. The turbine
7.1. Discs, shafts and casings
7.2. Blading
7.3. Other turbine components
8. The condenser
9. The generator
10. The transformer
References
and application of each material in Tables 1, 2 and 3.
Items of plant manufactured from these materials
may be subjected to very severe conditions of stress,
temperature and environment and may be very
large in size or else present in very large numbers. All
components except fuels have very long lives, over
100,000 hours operating or 30 years life and periods
in the region of two years between overhauls.
Capital is a major item, contributing in the case
of a modern nuclear station approximately 70 ~ of
the cost of generation, and 40 ~ in the case of an
equivalent conventional station. This in itself
makes reliability the most important parameter,
since the running cost of a 660 MW unit is of the
order of £15,000 per day.
Next in importance comes fuel cost which is
controlled by maximum cycle temperature, and
lastly, but not to be neglected, the wages of the oper-
ating staff.
The criteria which govern the choice of materials
and fabrication processes for electrical generation
are therefore first, reliability; second, cost; and
238 L.M. WYATT

third, the capacity to resist high temperatures

and stresses. The task of the materials technologist
is to optimise these conflicting requirements.

TABLE 1 : BOILERMATERIALS

Steel type Typical chemical composition Application

(%)
C Mn Si Ni Cr Mo V Nb Ti Cu Al B

Carbon 0.20 0.9 0.25 • Boiler drums

Carbon manganese 0.20 1 . 2 5 0.25 Boiler drums
Cr-Mn-Mn-V 0.15 1.25 0.25 0.6 0.25 0.1 Boiler drums; by pass vessels
(Ducol W.30)
Carbon 0.12 0.5 0.3 Boiler tubing
0.15 1.0 0.3 Boiler tubing
1 Cr-~ M~c 0.1 0.5 0.3 1.0 0.5 Superheater tubing, headers
2¼ Cr-1 Mo 0.1 0.5 0.3 2.25 1.0 Superheater tubing, headers
9 Cr-I Mo 0.1 0.5 0.7 9.0 1.0 Superheater/reheat,er tubing
12 Cr-Mo-V 0.2 0.5 0.5 12.0 1.0 0.3 Superheater/reheater tubing
½ Cr-Mo-V 0.1 0.5 0.3 0.5 0.5 0.25 Steam pipe
18 Cr-Ni-Nb 0.08 1.5 0.3 12.0 18.0 1.0 Superheater tubing, steam pipe
(AISI 347)
18 Cr-Ni-Ti 0.08 1.5 0.3 12.0 18.0 0.5 Superheater tubing
(AISI 321)
17 Cr-Ni-Mo 0.08 1.5 0.3 13.0 17.0 2.5 Superheater/reheater tubing,
(AISI 316) steam pipe
Esshete 1250 0.1 6.0 0.5 10.5 15.0 1.0 0.25 1.0 0.005 Superheater tubing, steam pipe
Ificoloy alloy 800 0.1 1.5 1.0 30 to 19 to 0.15/ 0 . 7 5 0.15/ Superheater tubing
max. max. max. 35 23 0.6 max. 0.6
20 Cr-25 Ni-Nb 0.2 0.7 0.6 25.0 20.0 0.7 AGR fuel element can.

TABLE 3: TUBESFOR CONDENSERS/FEEDWATERHEATERS

Material Typical chemical composition Application

(%)
Cu Zn Sn Ni Al Mn Fe As Ti

Commercial brass 70 Bal. 0.4 Condensers

Admiralty mixture 70 Bal. 1.25 0.4 Condensers
Aluminium brass 76 Bal. 2 0.4 Condensers
Bal. 30 2 2
Cupro-nickels Bal. 30 1 1 Condensers
Bal. 10 1 1
Titanium 99 Condensers

C Mn Si Mo B

Carbon steel 0.12 0.6 0.25 Feedwater heaters

max.
Fortiweld 0.06 0.6 0.25 0.5 0.003 Feedwater heaters
(low carbon) steel to 0.10

Mater. Sci. Eng., 7 (1971) 237-267

 o
o

~ o o

o
e,i
~
o.o.

eq c5

ooc5

c5~

0 ~ ee5 tt3 ttq

~ oc5 c5

•--; cs,-J 06

' o o o o o o ~ o o o o o o o c5 ~ c 5 o ~ c~

r,
z~
o o

/4
o~ ~o~ ~ -
<
Mater. Sci. Eng., 7 ( 1 9 7 1 ) 2 3 7 267
240 L.M. WYATT

Fig. 1. 500 MW Boiler under construction. (Photograph from Central Electricity Generating Board.)

Mater. Sci. Eng., 7 (1971) 237-267

 MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY IN POWER GENERATION 241

2. POWER GENERATION gas is burned, or a reactor core, a lattice of rods of

Generating plant can be steam, gas turbine, diesel
or hydro. Steam generating plant operates on the
same basic principles whether nuclear or fossil
fuelled. There is firstly the heat source. This is
either a combustion chamber in which coal, oil or
fissile and fertile materials, usually interspersed in a
moderator.
Heat generated by combustion, or nuclear fission,
is applied directly or via a primary coolant to high
pressure water which is contained in the boiler
(or heat exchanger) (Fig. 1).

A Bi! .... :i;ii i~i~iiiil .......... ~;~ ~ c

Fig. 2. 500 MW Turbine showing high (A), intermediate (B) andJow-pressure (C) stages. (Photograph from AE! Turbine-Generators Ltd.)

nr

Fig. 3. 500 MW Generator. ( Photograph from AEI Turbine-Generators Ltd.)

Mater. Sci. Eng., 7 (1971)237 267

242 L.M. WYATT
The water is heated in the economiser, converted
to steam in the evaporator, and superheated in the
superheater--three component parts of the boiler.
The steam is transmitted through steam pipes to
pass through the high, intermediate and low pres-
sure stages of a turbine (Fig. 2), where it is converted
into rotational energy. Between the high pressure
and intermediate pressure stages of the turbine the
steam is returned to the reheater, a fourth boiler
component. On leaving the low pressure stage of the
turbine the steam, now at a low temperature and
under vacuum, passes into the condenser.
After this the pressure of the condensed water is
raised by a series of feed pumps, its temperature is
raised by a series of feed heaters and it finally passes
back into the economiser.
The rotational energy produced in the turbine is
transmitted through shaft and couplings to the
generator (Fig. 3), which converts it into electricity.
The relatively low voltage electricity produced by
the generator passes along busbars to a transformer
where its voltage is raised to that required for econo-
mic transmission.
The problems raised have in many cases very
similar characteristics throughout the plant, and
the account which follows illustrates this by high-
lighting the typical problems of each of them.
3. THE REACTOR CORE
The nuclear power programme in the U.K. is based
on the gas-cooled reactor system in its various
developments: the Magnox reactor, the advanced
gas cooled reactor and the high temperature reactor.
The fuel element problems of these reactors will
be described as they are typical of those found in
most systems.
One feature common to all these reactors is that
the basic core structure is provided by a moderator
built of graphite blocks, through which are machined
vertical channels in which are stacked the fuel ele-
ments and through which passes coolant gas.
The graphite stack is restrained on the outside to
prevent relative movement of the graphite blocks,
but since graphite is strong in compression there is
no requirement for an additional in-core structure
to support the fuel elements.
3.1. The Magnox reactor
The Magnox reactor channel is approximately 4
Fig. 4. Magnox reactor fuel element. (Photograph from United
Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority.)
inches in diameter and 20 feet long and the fuel
elements, a typical example of which is shown in
Fig. 4, are stacked in this one above the other 1. The
weight of the superimposed fuel elements or asym-
metry in either temperature or irradiation of the
individual fuel element may lead to bending in
creep. This bending is restrained by lugs on the fuel
element can; it is important to minimise the bending
and for this purpose to understand the parameters
which cause it, so that it can be controlled. It is also
necessary to maintain a smooth uranium surface
and prevent significant changes in length.
All these require a knowledge of the phenomenon
of growth which is characteristic of uranium irradia-
ted at temperatures below 400°C.
3.1.1. Growth in a-uranium metal
If fission occurs in a single crystal of uranium
within the temperature range described it changes in
shape as shown diagrammatically in Fig. 52, in-
creasing in length in the [010] direction, contracting
in length in the [100] direction and remaining di-
mensionally stable in the [001] direction. This phe-
nomenon is the result of the condensation of vacan-
cies and interstitials produced during the fission
process in an anisotropic crystal, and the formation
thereby of dislocation loops (Fig. 6). No significant
density change occurs. Growth is highly tempera-
ture dependent, increasing approximately linearly
as the temperature is lowered below 500°C. The
percentage elongation per atomic percent burn up,
measured in the [010] direction, is negligible at
500°C but is 11000 at - 1 9 6 ° C 3. Growth can also
Mater. Sci. Eng., 7 (1971) 237-267
 MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY IN POWER GENERATION
GROWTH OF SINGLE CRYSTAL
O10 OO1 O I O IOO O 1 0
GP, OWTH WITH WRINKLING
oro Ioo OlO IOO
COARSE WRINKLING
kl I I I I I I I.I I I I I I I ~ ~ the bar must be taken account of in design and opera-
FINE WPqNKLING
Fig. 5. Diagrammatic representation of growth.
t t
m
D of a fine grain size by quenching. In practice, this is
Fig. 6. Deformation and dislocation loops created by extra
layers of atoms ab cd and missing layers ef, gh. (After Buckley3.)
occur as the result of thermal cycling uranium
because of the mismatches in thermal expansion
between adjacent grains which result from the
anisotropy of the uranium crystal 4.
These processes have three results of significance
to reactor technology. Firstly, uranium which has
any preferred orientation will increase in dimen-
sions in that direction which contains more than
the normal proportion of crystals orientated in the
[010] direction.
Secondly, any area of the surface of the uranium
containing a crystal grain with its [010] direction
perpendicular to the surface will rise and any area
containing a crystal grain with its [100] direction
perpendicular to the surface will sink. The surface
will therefore roughen, and the effect can be sub-
243
stantial in highly irradiated coarse grained uranium
(Fig. 7) 5.
The third effect is a decrease in creep resistance.
If two adjacent crystals are so orientated that the
[010] direction in one is parallel to the [1100] direc-
tion in the other, the growth process will force each
of them to strain plastically so that they are compa-
tible in size at the interface. Any additional force
however small applied in the grain boundary plane
will therefore cause creep or plastic flow and this flow
will be proportional to the magnitude of the applied
force. The anisotropy of the uranium gives rise to
enhanced creep under irradiation or thermal cycling.
There is little that can be done to reduce irradiation
creep in s-uranium and its effect on the bending of
tion.
The prevention of bending, length, change and
surface roughening as a result of irradiation is
however highly important and fuel elements must
be produced with a fine grain size and the minimum
preferred orientation.
If uranium is cooled rapidly from the fi or 1' phase,
recrystallisation occurs during transformation. In
pure uranium the grains grow to substantial size,
but fl and ? soluble additions such as aluminium
and iron modify the nucleation processes occurring
during transformation and facilitate the production
carried out by passing the uranium bar through an
induction coil and then through a water spray.
It is not possible to produce a material with
absolutely random orientation for two reasons 6.
The first is that s-uranium crystals grow preferen-
tially in the [010] direction along the temperature
gradient during transformation from the fl phase
and the second that the original orientation tends
to persist after heat treatment. It is therefore impossi-
ble to produce a random orientation in a material
in which a substantial preferred orientation has
previously been produced, for example, by mecha-
nical working, but the cast material normally used
is itself substantially randomly orientated and cast
and heat treated material has very little orientation.
3.1.2. Swellin9 of uranium
The second process needing control in uranium
metal under irradiation is swelling 7. The fission
process converts one uranium atom into two atoms,
the combined atomic weights of which are slightly
less than that of the parent uranium, together with
a number of light particles. The bulk of these fission
Mater. Sci. Eng., 7 (1971)237-267
 244 L.M. WYATT

Fig. 7. Irradiated uranium bar of varying grain size (a) composite photograph of bar (b) micro-section of light wrinkling showing small
grain size (c) micro-section of coarse wrinkling showing large grain size. (After Grainger and MclntoshS.)
 MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY IN POWER GENERATION 245

products are solids but roughly 1 0 ~ are the inert

gases krypton and xenon. These gases diffuse in the ,o
uranium until they coalesce into bubbles which
grow is size by the diffusion of further inert gas
atoms (Fig. 8) 9. When these bubbles are small in ~ 30
size their increase in diameter is controlled by the
surface tension of uranium ~°. As they increase in
size the effect of surface tension diminishes and the ~ 2o
restraining force is the creep strength of the ura-
nium 11 - ~3. If the inert gas mixture can be persuaded
to distribute itself between a very large number of ,o
bubbles, the overall swelling will be much less than
that which would take place if there were only a few
relatively large bubbles. Swelling is highly tempera- o I I I I
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 SO00
ture dependent, there being a general increase with LOCAL IRRADIATION MWD/re

temperature on which is superimposed a break-
away condition of high swelling which is rating and
temperature dependent.
Fig. 9. Volume changes of fuel elements in a typical reactor in the
temperature range 390 + 20°C.
because of the need to maintain the integrity of the
can which prevents the ingress of the oxidising
coolant, and the egress of radioactive fission pro-
ducts. The magnesium alloy cans used in the Mag-
nox reactors have little inherent strength at opera-
ting temperatures and will therefore substantially
follow the changes in dimensions of the uranium
bar. Fortunately, magnesium is a very ductile metal
and if correctly manufactured can accommodate
very considerable deformation without cracking.
The optimum structure is achieved by a metal
working and heat treatment process designed to
produce a fine grain size in the can. When magne-
sium (in common with many other metals) is subjec-
ted to creep or fatigue, vacancies are produced at the
grain boundaries which coalesce to form cavities
( F i g . 10) 17. As this progresses the cavities link up

Fig. 8. Gas bu[pbles formed by irradiation and subsequent

annealing of uranium. (After Eldredg.)

Fortunately the addition of aluminium and iron

to control transformation during heat treatment
and give a fine grain size produces a structure with
a very large number of fine UA12/Fe particles which
together with the aluminium in solution promote
the formation of a large number of very small
bubbles rather than a few large ones 14. This uranium
is extremely resistant to swelling is (Fig. 916).

3.1.3. The Magnox can

Clearly, large changes in diameter or length of the
uranium bar are to be avoided in themselves but Fig. 10. Voids formed at grain boundaries of coarse grained
they are particularly important in fuel elements magnox can by strain at low temperature. (After Eldred".)

Mater. Sci. Eng., 7 (1971) 237-267

246
and form continuous leakage paths along the grain
boundaries. If the grain size is large so that the
whole thickness of the can is effectively composed
of one grain, these linked up cavities can form a con-
tinuous path through the wall permitting the ingress
of coolant and oxidation of the uranium. This can
occur at low reactor temperatures where the rela-
tively low ductility of the magnesium and growth
of the uranium may lead to failure of the can by
cavitation. It is overcome by producing a bar with a
fine random grain size and a can with a fine grain
size which at the low operating temperatures where
growth presents a problem persists through the life
of the fuel elements.
At the higher reactor temperatures at which grain
growth occurs in Magnox even the large grain size
material is highly ductile; however, at the highest
irradiations localised swelling can cause stretching
of the can sufficient to lead to failure.
Magnesium and uranium are completely compa-
tible, being immiscible at all temperatures. There-
fore there is no possibility of any uranium diffusing
through the can. Plutonium which is formed during
service in the reactor is, however, readily soluble in
pure magnesium and will diffuse through (Fig.
11) 18-21. This in itself would not be dangerous
100o ~ X
z
i.-
0
2 \
J
o
I00
\o
\
O 3 feet long, 0.57 inch in diameter and contains
'o
\ hollow pellets of about 0.2 inch bore in a can of
x
\ (*)
\ in a cluster housed within a graphite sleeve.
ok
# 3.2.1. Thermal expansion effects
\
\ the can impose strains on the can which if continued
0 indefinitely cause failure by fatigue 22. The mecha-
0 IO 20 30 40 50 60
DEPTH BELOW I N N E R SURFACE~ /urn
Fig. 11. Diffusion of plutonium through magnesium alloys
(a) containing aluminium (b) aluminium free. (After Pearce~8.)
L.M. WYATT
because the plutonium content of the rod builds up
only slowly during irradiation; only a small pro-
portion of this would actually diffuse through the
can. It would however interfere with apparatus
designed to isolate failed cans by detecting fission
products in the coolant stream and must therefore
be prevented. This is done by using a magnesium
alloy (Magnox A1 80) containing about a half per-
centage of aluminium; when plutonium is trans-
ferred from the uranium to the can it reacts with the
aluminium to form Pu A13 which does no diffuse
through the magnesium and therefore remains on
the inner surface.
Magnox is an excellent canning material, but
its range of operating temperature is restricted to
about 500°C by its melting point and tendency to
soften. This operating temperature is very well
matched by the tendency of uranium to swell, and
the need to avoid the dimensional changes that
would result from extensive cycling of this fuel across
the ~/fl phase boundary.
A change, both in fuel and in canning material,
is therefore required for a reactor designed to gener-
ate heat at a higher temperature and heat rating.
3.2. The advanced gas cooled reactor (AGR)
The AGR, which is the logical next development
of the Magnox reactor, uses an oxide fuel and a
stainless steel can. Uranium oxide retains its
mechanical strength up to about 1200°C but is
extremely brittle and difficult to produce by casting.
Iooo
It is therefore manufactured by pressing and sinter-
ing into solid or annular pellets which are stacked
inside a steel can. The neutron absorption cross
section of steel is substantially higher than that of
magnesium and it is essential to keep volume and
thickness to the minimum. A typical A G R fuel
element is shown in Fig. 12. Each fuel pin is about
0.015 inch thickness. There are 36 of these fuel pins
Relative diameter changes between the oxide and
nism is as follows:
An increase in power leads to an increase in dia-
meter of the oxide pellet. This puts a tensile stress
on the can at constant temperature and the can is
Mater. Sci. Eng., 7 (1971) 237-267
 MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY IN POWER GENERATION
Fig. 12. Typical AGR fuel element. (Photograph from United
Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority.)
therefore stretched. When power is reduced the oxide
contracts and the coolant pressure forces the can to
creep down. An increase in power re-imposes a
tensile strain and if the cycle is repeated sufficiently
often the can may fail by fatigue. If an increase or
decrease in can temperature accompanies the increa-
se or decrease in power the effect is reduced parti-
cularly when a canning material with a coefficient
of thermal expansion greater than that of uranium
oxide is used. Theoretically, it is possible to operate
individual fuel elements without imposing any
fatigue strain on the can; in practice this is impossi-
ble with thousands of fuel elements all at different
levels of temperature and power.
247
The straining effect is enhanced by cracking of
the oxide caused by the thermal stresses, the cracks
tending to localise the strain in the adjacent canning
material. This effect is reduced by the use of annular
pellets.
3.2.2. Fission 9as release from uranium oxide
Fisssion gas can cause swelling of the oxide fuel
but the most important effect is its diffusion to the
surface of the pellet (which occurs only to a very
slight extent with metal fuel) which generates a
pressure inside the can 23'24. Clearly, this pressure
cannot be allowed to rise to a level where can failure
would occur even in a hypothetical transient. It is
therefore important to reduce the diffusion of
fission product gas as far as possible and this can be
done in two ways.
Firstly diffusion occurs more readily in oxide not
compacted and sintered to a high density; secondly
the self diffusion coefficient which also controls the
inert gas diffusion is an order of magnitude lower in
stoichiometric uranium oxide--UO2 than in the
non-stoichiometric form UO2.2. It is therefore
essential to manufacture only stoichiometric UO2
and this can be achieved by reducing the powder, or
the preformed pellet, in hydrogen under closely
controlled conditions.
3.2.3. The stainless steel A G R can
The operating temperature of up to 4, 810°C im-
posed on an AGR fuel element is limited partly by
the mechanical properties of the can, but also by its
tendency to oxidise in the CO2 atmosphere. The
combination of strength and resistance to oxidation
by CO2 at high temperatures with a high coefficient
of thermal expansion and the minimum possible
neutron absorption favours the choice of an austeni-
tic steel as a canning material.
For the A G R the rate of oxidation is reduced by
raising the chromium content to 2 0 ~ compared
with the 1 8 ~ of the normal austenitic steel and
compensating for the effect of this on ductility
associated with the formation of sigma phase during
long term heating by increasing the nickel content to
2 5 ~ compared with the normal 8/o, o/. additional
creep strength is provided by the addition of 0.5 ~o
niobium. This steel has excellent mechanical prop-
erties, and if close attention is paid to the main-
tenance of the optimum grain size and other para-
meters it can be shown to have in the manufactured
condition ample ductility and strength to accept
any strain regime that is likely to be imposed.
Mater. Sci. En#., 7 (1971) 237 267
248 L.M. WYATT

During irradiation, however, a naturally occurring

isotope of boron which is present in small a m o u n t s
in steel interacts with thermal neutrons to produce
helium which substantially reduces the high temper-
ature ductility 25 - 2 8 .
This not o n l y makes it impossible to take ad-
vantage of the beneficial effects of boron additions
but it also requires positive action in the choice of
alloying and crucible materials to minimise the
content of this element.
Clearly, in cans of wall thickness of only 0.015 inch
it is impossible to tolerate inclusions of the size
normally occurring in commercial steels. Steel of
the requisite quality can be achieved by double
vacuum melting. The steel is made in a high fre-
quency furnace and then remelted in a consumable
arc furnace to remove or disperse the non-metallic
inclusions.

3.3. High temperaturereactor(HTR)

Fuel based on the coated particle concept for the

high temperature reactor 29 differs quite significantly
from either of the fuels described previously. The
reactor coolant is helium and this permits the use of
carbon as a canning material both as a structural
material and as an envelope for retaining fission
products. The advantages of carbon are firstly a
very low neutron capture cross section and secondly
strength at very high operating temperatures.

3.3.1. Manufacture of HTR fuel

The fuel is made in the form of spherical particles
(Fig. 13) each about 800/~ in diameter coated with
layers of carbon and other compatible materials.
The coated spheres are placed either loose or
bonded together into a graphite tube which provi-
des rigidity and dimensional stability. The bond can
be a thin layer of organic material, or more usually
a graphite/polymer matrix in which the particles
are embedded. The fuel tubes are mounted in
moderator blocks (Fig. 14) so that the whole Fig. 13. Spherical particle HTR fuel (a) before (b) after irradiation.
assembly can be removed during refuelling. (After Shepherd3°.)
The problems of design and manufacture are
two-fold 3°. Firstly, it is essential to maintain the nium/plutonium or uranium/thorium, can be made
integrity of the coated particles during manufacture, of either oxide or carbide. Oxide particles are made
handling and operation so that contamination of by a process of agglomeration followed by sintering;
the coolant by fission products is minimised. Se- carbide particles are made by a melting process.
condly, it is essential to maintain the dimensions Particle coating is carried out by pyrolytic de-
of the compact so that dimensional changes do not composition of a gas in a fluidised bed. In a common-
cause failure of the graphite tube. ly used design of coated particle the first layer is
The fuel particles, which may be uranium, ura- of low density carbon which forms both a reservoir

Mater. Sei. Eng., 7 (1971) 237-267

 MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY IN POWER GENERATION
i ¸ iiii iiii
i,
!!i ..................... i!~ ~?~ : ii( :i
,J
Fig. 14. HTR fuel tubes contained in graphite moderator block.
(After Shepherd3°.)
for fission product gases and a buffer to accommo-
date changes in size and shape of the particle and the
outer layers. The next layer is of high density
carbon, after which comes a layer of silicon carbide
and an outer layer of high density carbon. Deposited
carbon layers of this type can be highly anisotropic,
but the degree of anisotropy can be controlled by
249
changing the temperature and composition of the
gas from which they are deposited 31.
If the wrong conditions are chosen, the pyro
carbon layers tend to contract on to the particle
and crack. This results in the escape of fission
product gas and when the cracking becomes
severe enough the matrix also cracks and may lead
to cracking of the tube.
The purpose of the silicon carbide layer is to
form a strong member in compression which
controls the dimensional changes of the kernel and
also acts as a barrier for metallic fission products 32.
A mode of failure which is apparently due to
chemical causes is observed at high temperatures in
beds of loose particles; this is the so-called Amoeba
failure in which the kernels of particles have been
observed to migrate into the coating with the even-
tual result that the latter is completely penetrated.
This effect appears to be associated with the exis-
tence of high temperature gradients across the
particles (Fig. 15).
4. REACTOR CIRCUIT EFFECTS
The two requirements of the reactor circuit are that
the containing member shall be strong and ductile
enough to prevent failure under the influence of gas
pressure, and that the integrity of the components
of the circuit generally shall not be impaired by the
corrosive effect of the coolant gas.
Corrosion has presented a serious problem in
carbon steel circuit components of the Magnox
reactors 33'34. The amount of penetration has been
insufficient to have a direct effect on the strength of
any given component, but an indirect effect whereby
the increase in dimensions caused by oxidation in
crevices leads to component failure by strain has
more serious consequences. This can be severe in
bolts. Frequently a bolt secures a considerable num-
ber of separate components so that the bolt head
and the nut may have 10 or more surfaces between
them. Oxidation of carbon steels by CO:, occurs as
rapidly in crevices as on free surfaces. The bolt
thread acts as a notch reducing the effective duc-
tility to a very low value. The rate of oxidation is
highly temperature dependent, the doubling time
being approximately 25°C. It is also pressure depen-
dent, increases with increased wetness of the coolant
gas and is very strongly influenced by the silicon
content of the steel 35'36.
The only really effective countermeasure is to
Mater. Sci. Eng., 7 (1971) 237-267
250 L . M . WYATT

Fig. 15. "Amoeba" type failure of HTR fuel showing migration

of core into coating. (After Shepherd3°.)

.9

.B

.7
.c
0
0
0 .6
E

~ .5
_Z
0
I-
I" . 4
reduce the temperature of the gas; the rate Of
attack on carbon steel is sufficiently small at
.3
temperatures below 360°C to present little problem
in reactor lifetimes z'33. Fortunately, reactor struc-
x
tures usually have a fair degree of built-in redun- x
dancy and the failure of a considerable proportion
of the bolts in a given reactor can be tolerated.
In the A G R at low temperatures, the problem of
resistance to CO2 attack is simply one of choosing
the correct temperature at which carbon steel gives i
.I .2
i i
.3 ,4
i
.5
i i
.6 .7
i i
-8
place to chrome and higher alloy steels. An interest- O/oSILICON
ing aspect is the effect of silicon on the 9 Cr-1 Mo Fig. 16. Oxidation of 9 Cr-1 Mo Steels at 500°C in CO 2 atmos-
steels. Figure 1637 shows that this is quite as impor- phere.

Mater. Sei. Eng., 7 (1971) 237 267

 MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY IN POWER GENERATION 251

tant to these steels as for the carbon steels at lower 5.1. Environmental attack
temperatures. Chromium additions of the order of
12 ~o and above mask this beneficial effect of silicon. The resistance to attack of boiler materials depends
In the high temperature areas of the AGR, on the temperature of operation, the composition
austenitic steels must be used. of the steel and the nature of the environment.
Circuit problems of the HTR which might be In pure, oxygen-free water at tempertures above
expected to be of a simpler nature are in some 230°C and below 567°C, and at pH greater than 8
ways more complex than those of the lower temper- (and in CO2 at low temperatures), a stable imper-
ature carbon dioxide cooled reactors 38. The com- vious magnetite Fe30 4 film is formed (Fig. 17). In
plexities arise from the impurities present in the more oxidising conditions, haematite, which is less
helium in small amounts. The reactor circuit will resistant but still confers appreciable protection, is
certainly contain hydrogen by diffusion through formed at temperatures below 567°C. At tempera-
the boiler tubes and in addition there will be leakage tures above 567°C wfistite, FeO which confers little
of water both at a relatively constant rate and in protection, is formed.
sudden bursts. The water will react with the graphite Oxidation at all temperatures is reduced by the
and produce an atmosphere containing hydrogen, addition of certain alloying elements, the most
methane, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and effective of which is chromium.
possibly residual water. The coolant atmosphere At high temperatures the oxidation rate increases
can therefore vary from oxidising to carburising. with small additions of chromium up to 2 O//obut for
The effect on ferritic steels at their operating larger additions in the range of 2-15 o~ (Fe, Cr).~O4
temperatures is negligible but the combination of
carburising and oxidising gas can lead to rapid
inter-granular penetrations of austenitic steels at
temperatures of 700°C and above. Additionally
the high strength alloys creep at rates approximately
three times greater than those in air in a helium
atmosphere. It is not clear whether this is due to the
absence of some protective action normally provi-
ded by the air environment such as internal oxida-
tion or nitriding or is the result of inter-granular
penetration by the carburising atmosphere.
Clearly, however, the effects of these atmospheres
will require careful study for which data from long ¸ ,ioi+i
time corrosion tests are required.

5. THE BOILER

The materials problems of the boiler are twofold.

First, the material of the tubes, headers and pipes
must resist environmental attack by the contained
water and steam, and by the external gases, prod-
ucts of combustion in the case of fossil fuelled
boilers, and CO2 or helium at varying degrees of
purity in the case of nuclear boilers.
Second, the materials must resist the stresses
ili ¸ ii ili il ii~
imposed during operation by the pressure of the
(b) . . . . lo~,,
working fluid, by differential temperatures during
operation, by temperature gradients introduced Fig. 17. Comparison between magnetite film grown in power
during welding and heat treatment, and by hydraulic station and in the laboratory. (a) Boiler tube after 10,000 hours in
pressure during testing. service. (b) Mild steel oxidised for 250 hours at 300~C in 15%
N a O H soln. N a O H promotes the formation of a thick dense
magnetite film.

Mater. Sci. Eng.. 7 (1971) 237 267

252 L.M. WYATT

spinel is formed and the oxidation rates in uncontam-

inated gases (02, H20, CO2) decrease with increas-
ing chromium content. For chromium additions
beyond 15~ the principal type of oxide formed
(in the early stages of oxidation) is (Fe, C r ) 2 0 3 3 9 .
At chromium contents between 16~o and 3 0 ~
there is (for pure oxygen) a shallow minimum in
oxidation rate (Figs. 18 and 19).
This behaviour is modified by the presence of
impurities in the oxidising media.

I I I I I I 1 I

o
/
: /
,I
Fig. 19. The protective oxide M203 formed on Fe-19 ~o Cr after
i: " ,,' / 6 h at 950°C in 02. Partial spalling on cooling reveals void
formation at the metal/oxide interface. (From Holmes39.)

o x /

~ \xI / o

\o_1 °
f f I I I I f I I
O 20 40 60 80 IO 0
X wt°lo Cr

Fig. 18. Corrosion rates of chromium iron alloys in pure oxygen

as a function of chromium content. A, after Whittle and Wood,
at 1000°C. x, after Footner, Holmes and Mortimer, at 950°C.
(3, after Barrett, Evans and Baldwin, at 900°C. Fq, Tedomm at
1000°C. The concentration (15 ~ Cr) marked by " x " indicates
approximately the concentration above which the oxide M 2 0 a Fig. 20. On-load corrosion pit in boiler tube.
forms.

is formed. The rate of penetration can increase to

Carbon steels offer very good resistance to attack inch in a few weeks (Fig. 20).
by steam, water and mixtures of the two provided At temperatures below 230°C there is a tendency
that the water chemistry is satisfactory. to form ferrous hydroxide which is less protective
Under certain conditions breakdown of the mag- than magnetite. Though not strictly a problem of
netite film can occur. This is favoured by high heat the boiler, this may cause difficulties in tubular feed
transfer rates, low liquid circulation and the presen- heaters (Fig. 21) where the tubes are much thinner
ce of anions such as chlorides in solution and oxide and the water velocities high.
debris in suspension in the water. Originally cupro-nickel was used for feed heater
When porous deposits form at points in the boiler tubes, but this material is really too weak for use
and boiling occurs within them, the ingress of water in high pressure systems and oxygen, traces of
and the outflow of steam concentrate chlorides and which may gain admission during start up or shut
other water-soluble materials at the wall of the tube down, can lead to corrosive attack 4°. This is impor-
and under these conditions unprotective magnetite tant not only because of the effect on the tubes

Mater. Sci. En#., 7 (1971) 237 267

 MATERIAPS TECHNOLOGY IN POWER GENERATION 253

If higher chromium additions are needed, they must

be accompanied by nickel and possibly manganese,
giving an austenitic structure. This substantially
increases the rupture strength of the steel, but the
addition of nickel has disadvantages from the point
of view of corrosion.
In the first place the austenitic steels are much
more subject to stress corrosion than are the ferritic
steels. This poses problems in operation which are
usually overcome by ensuring that only dry steam
enters an austenitic superheater, and also vastly
increases the precautions needed during fabrication,
particularly those designed to avoid chloride pick
up. Where stress corrosion is a serious danger, and
the high creep strength of the austenitic matrix is es-
sential, additions of higher quantities of nickel up
to 40 ~ are beneficial. The nickel, by reducing stack-
ing fault energy and increasing stacking fault width,
reduces the susceptibility to stress corrosion but at a
considerable economic penalty. A further disad-
vantage of nickel additions is that in oil-fired boilers
where appreciable percentages of sulphur combined
with vanadium are present, nickel markedly re-
duces the corrosion resistance of the steels so that
an 18 Cr-8 Ni austenitic steel is inferior to a 2¼
Cr-1 Mo ferritic steel (Fig. 22) 41.

Fig. 21. Typical feed heater before inserting into casing. (Photo-
graph from Weir Pumps Ltd., Glassgow.) 2.5 I00

themselves, but also because the dissolved copper

and nickel may deposit in the boiler, or in the case of
supercritical boilers, in the turbine.
The use of copper base alloys for feed heaters ul 7O
has therefore been abandoned in favour of carbon i
steel, with considerable advantage in capital cost. ~ 1.5 60 o

Unfortunately attack by water resulting from x

occasional excursions into an oxidising condition so ~- r

throws doubt on the life of tubes of this material, U
Z
and corrosion resistant and at the same time welda- I 4O
ble alloys are now being investigated. 0_1
Tubular feed heaters are now giving way to the 30
direct contact type the problems of which do not
include corrosion. 0,5 20
The oxidation resistance conferred by chromium
can be used to advantage in many parts of the Io
water/steam circuit. For relatively low temperature
components additions of up to 17 ~ are practicable 0 I i
400 500 600 700
and confer very significant resistance to attack. AVERAGE MID-WALL METAL TEMPERATURE (°C')
For high temperature parts, the addition of Fig. 22. Corrosion of superheater tube materials in oil fired boiler
chromium to the ferritic matrix is limited to 12 ~. showing maximum metal loss after 10,000 hours.

Mater. Sci. Eng., 7 (1971} 237 267

254 L . M . WYATT

The austenitic steels, because of their combination improvements in tooling and furnace atmospheres
of creep strength and corrosion resistance, are it is now possible to obtain almost equivalent
however used extensively in both coal-fired and dimensions and surface finish by Mannesman
nuclear boilers where in general they give satis- piercing and hot finishing.
factory service. In certain aggressive coals with a Considerable advances have also been made in
high alkali content however the molten alkali sul- welding. A few years ago the established techniques
phates contained in the flue ash migrate towards were flash butt welding in the shop and gas welding
the tube and increase the rate of oxidation. on site. Flash butt welding however suffers from the
need to optimise two opposing requirements.
5.2. Resistance to imposed stresses The process includes an "arcing" stage which heats
the two tube ends which are to be welded followed
The strength requirements of boiler steels are high by an "upsetting" stage which completes the weld.
yield or proof stress at low operating temperatures (There may also be a "post heat" stage to heat treat
and a high creep strength at high operating tempera- or stress relieve the weld.) It is necessary on the one
tures with adequate ductility. These properties hand to control the upsetting process very closely to
must be achieved by the addition of the minimum minimise any protrusion into the bore of the tube
possible quantity of expensive alloying metals. (Fig. 23). On the other hand the larger the upset the
These requirements can best be met in ferritic stronger is the weld and the more complete is the
steels by the addition of molybdenum which in penetration. Very careful control is needed to
conjunction with the chromium required for oxida- ensure an acceptably low proportion of reject
tion resistance can generate a range of alloys in welds.
which a bainitic structure can be produced by heat Gas welding on site is satisfactory provided that
treatment. the welder has the necessary skill and the conditions
The relative economics of the higher yield
strength 1 Cr-~ Mo steel as compared with the
weaker but cheaper carbon manganese steel for
low temperature operation depends on local condi-
tions of steel pricing and code requirements. As,
however, progressive stages of superheat and reheat
raise the temperature of the steam and its contain-
ment 1 Cr-~ Mo steel is used for its superior creep
strength. This is progressively replaced first by 2¼
Cr-1 Mo, and then with 9 Cr and 12 Cr ferritic
steels, or by the austenitic steels, AISI 316 and
Esshete 1250, for improved creep strength and
corrosion resistance.
Whatever steel is used, the very high cost of plant
outage and the multiplicity of tubes and welds
demand the highest standard of tube manufacture
and inspection and the choice of the most consistent
welding procedure.
High alloy superheater tubes are made by ex-
trusion followed by drawing. Carbon and 1 Cr-~ Mo
steel economiser boiler and superheater tubes have
been made by the electric resistance welding (ERW)
process which has the advantage of good finish and
dimensional control. This requires a high standard
of ultrasonic inspection and multi-head ultrasonic
devices have been produced to maintain a very fine
pattern of inspection.
More recently however there has been a trend
away from the ERW tube because as a result of Fig. 23. Protrusion on tube wall in flash butt welded tubes.

Mater. Sci. Eno., 7 (1971} 237-267

 MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY IN POWER GENERATION
Fig. 24. Orbital welding equipment for tube butt welds. (Photo-
graph from Superheater Co.)
permit him to exercise it but it is very difficult to
control heat input satisfactorily and bad access,
bad setting up and poor protection from the weather
Fig. 25. "Bracelet" probe device for rapid and consistent inspection of tube butt welds.
255
can result in a very high proportion of unsatisfactory
welds.
The present trend in welding is to use TIG* for the
root pass and metal arc or MIG** (either continuous
or pulsed arc) for the filler metal passes. These
processes can be automated on the shop floor and
to a limited extent in the field.
Orbital welding equipment (Fig. 24) is available
which can operate satisfactorily in both environ-
ments. The automated equipment has an advantage
in that unlike the skilled welder who can overcome
incorrect setting up at least so far as appearance is
concerned, it does not accept bad setting up.
The large number of welds in the boiler and the
need to inspect all of them have encouraged the
development of rapid testing equipment such as the
* TIG: A process of inert gas welding using a tungsten electrode
which is not consumed.
** MIG: A process of inert gas welding with an electrode made
of filled metal which melts and is transferred to the weldment.
Mater. Sci. Eny.. 7 (1971 237 267
256
bracelet device incorporating several probes (Fig,
25) which can satisfactorily achieve a preliminary
sorting inspection in a few minutes.
The 5 ~ or so welds which it rejects are then exam-
ined either by manual ultrasonic techniques or by
radiography.
The thicker section components of the boiler
present a much more serious problem than do the
tubes. The heavy sections and the low cooling rates
which result from them make it more difficult to get
satisfactory properties in materials, increase the
risk of brittle fracture in plane strain and add to the
difficulties of welding because the high temperature
differentials on cooling leave high multiaxial stres-
ses.
The very large size of some of the components
makes it essential to use high strength steels to
minimise the section thicknesses and the weights
of the components which must be fabricated and
transported. The thrusts and moments exerted by
Fig. 26. Failure of Ducol W.30 boiler drum during hydraulic pressure test. (Photograph from South of Scotland Electricity Board.)
L.M. WYATT
pipework must be limited because of their effects
on other components, since there is usually not
room in a power station layout for large expansion
loops, even if these were justifiable on ground of
cost and pressure drop. For this reason higher
strength materials must often be chosen to minimise
the wall thickness and stiffness of the pipe.
To overcome the difficulties inherent in the fabri-
cation of plant of this nature requires care in
overall design,, care in detail design of each weld-
ment so that it can be satisfactorily made and
inspected, a satisfactory structure and heat treat-
ment condition of the base material, a proper
choice of consumable, correct preheat, welding
procedure and post heat treatment and adequate
inspection. Neglect of one o r several of these pre-
cautions has, in the past, led to failures during fab-
rication, inspection or service.
There are several examples of failures which
illustrate the importance of these aspects. A Ducol
Mater. Sei. Eng., 7 (1971) 237-267
 MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY IN POWER GENERATION 257

W 30 boiler drum (Fig. 26) in the Cockenzie Power

Nozzle
Station 4~ failed by brittle fracture during a final
hydraulic pressure test (7°C). The failure was
traced to a pre-existing, arrested brittle crack Crack
about 13 in. long and 3 in. deep (Fig. 27). There was
no defect found in the plate material or weld metal
which could have initiated such a crack. The
character of the crack was typical of that associated
with stress cracking of highly restrained nozzle
welds. Drum
U nfused "Land "

(a)

Fig. 27. Pre-existing crack from which failure in Cockenzie

boiler drum propagated. (Photograph from South of Scotland
Electricity Board.)

The crack was associated with an economiser nozzle

which had been replaced during drum manufacture,
but there was no evidence to suggest that the nozzle
replacement contributed to the formation of the
crack. The presence of an angle bracket welded to
the shell immediately adjacent to the nozzle probably
resulted in an undesirable stress concentration in
the zone where the crack was initiated. The crack
was present during the stress relieving treatment
which this section of the drum received and the
evidence indicates that the crack occurred during
the initial heating up stages of the stress relieving
treament.

Fig. 28. (a) Sketch of drum nozzle showing cracking in weld

metal starting at unfused land. (b) Crack in weld metal of boiler
drum nozzle.

Mater. Sci. En9., 7 (1971) 237 267

258 L.M. WYATT

A related problem encountered on a number of

thick walled boiler drums concerned the discovery
of hairline cracks in the vicinity of nozzles welded
into the drums (Fig. 28). Small cracks were noticed
on the surface of the weld which could not be dressed
out. This led to a thorough ultrasonic examination
of the drum/nozzle welds and confirmed the presen-
ce of cracking starting at the root of the weld, next
to the land and running towards the weld surface.
It is highly probable that crack initiation occurred
at the land root during fabrication from small
cracks at the base of the weld not capable of detec-
tion by non destructive examination. Residual
stresses of the order of 10 t.s.i, were measured on
the cracked nozzle welds, and it is believed that
substantial stresses were induced during the welding
process and that these, combined with the stress
intensification at the land root, caused the cracks
to propagate during post-weld heat treatment.
These drums were repaired by changing the
design to produce a through weld eliminating the
unwelded land, and by changing the weld metal to a
softer, more ductile type. It is interesting to observe
that very little propagation occurred in service and
no incidents arose as a result.

6. STEAMPIPES Fig. 29. Terminal weld failure in steampipe.

Because of the difficulty of welding this material

The main steam pipework material used in most
with a matching electrode, welds were produced
generating units is ½ Cr-~ Mo-~ V, since this mate-
using 2¼ Cr-1 Mo. These welds failed in service at
rial offers the best ratio of creep strength to cost, but
very low ductility by creep at a weak layer at the
no matching electrode is available, and the weld
junction of the weld and the parent metal (Fig. 30).
metal used is the lower creep strength 2¼ Cr-1 Mo
Where high temperatures or long service lives
material. The minor constituents of the weld metal,
in particular the ratio of silicon to manganese, have
been shown to exert a marked influence on the
quality of the weld. Important advances have been
made in the understanding of this, and an electrode
composition based on fundamental understanding
has been developed, and has effectively overcome
weld metal cracking 43.
More serious problems arise at the terminal
joints where pipes are welded to castings. Welds of
this kind are very sensitive to design of the weldment,
and to the correct choice of preheat temperature.
An example of a failure due to incorrect joint design
and insufficient preheat is shown in Fig. 29.
Great advantages would result if higher strength
ferritic material were avaialable. However, the use
of more creep-resistant ferritic material may bring Fig. 30. Creep cracking through weak layer at weld and parent
complications as was found in the use of Rex 500. metal junction of Rex 500 welded with 2 ~ Cr-1 Mo.

Mater. Sci. Eng., 7 (1971) 237-267

 MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY IN POWER GENERATION
demand material of rupture strength greater than
that achievable in ferritic materials steam pipes (and
headers) are made from austenitic steel. This
material costs more per lb. and has a higher coeffi-
cient of thermal expansion in comparison with
½ Cr-~ Mo-~ V, but because of the thinner sections
which can be used the finished pipework generates
lower stresses and moments, and the cost may be
comparable, or even lower in some countries. The
two most commonly used austenitic steels are the
molybdenum containing AISI 316, and the high
creep, and high temperature proof stress, Esshete
1250 steel.
These steels are relatively free from the weld
cracking troubles originally associated with weld-
ing AISI 347 (Fig. 31). These were eventually
traced to the use of an excessively strong weld
metal which imposed strains on the low ductility
heat affected zone produced by precipitation of
niobium carbide under the temperature regime
produced by welding.
/ base filler metal. Satisfactory experience has been
(o)
Fig. 31. (a) Fine cracking at edge of large lug weld (unetched, × 8).
(After Jackson and Forrester-Coles.) (b) Mouth of cracking of
Fig. 31(a) showing intergranular double crack system.
259
The use of a lower strength weld metal, and a post
weld solution treatment of the joint (or for repairs to
existing welds the latter alone), removed the sus-
ceptibility to cracking.
The most serious problem in austenitic pipework
however arises at the junctions with ferritic pipes.
These troubles arise partly from the different ex-
pansion coefficients of the two materials which gener-
ate shear stresses at the interface proportional to
the diameter of the joint and also from t ~ presence
of material with unsatisfactory properties at the
interfaces between austenitic steel and weld metal,
and weld metal and ferritic steel.
Lines of weakness can take one of two forms.
One, more commonly found in nickel/ferritic alloy
interfaces, takes the form of a series of brittle inter-
metallic compounds which are liable to cleavage
fracture in fatigue. The other, associated with aus-
tenitic/ferritic alloy interfaces, takes the form of a
zone of low resistance to deformation, typically
where the ferritic alloy is weakened by carbon mi-
gration into the austenitic. ~lthough the ductility of
such a material is high, its presence as a thin film
can lead to a low ductility type fracture.
There are several different types of transition
joint but the ones most commonly in use at present
are effectively butt welds, with either iron or nickel
achieved with a controlled ferrite molybdenum
bearing austenitic steel weld metal using a design
of joint in which carbon migration from the ferritic
steel to the austenitic weld metal is prevented by a
barrier layer of niobium bearing 2~ Cr-1 Mo ~4
(Fig. 32).
Good results have been achieved in the United
States by the use of nickel base weld metals. These
have the advantage of thermal expansion coeffi-
cients intermediate between those of the austenitic
and the ferritic parts of the pipework.
A most attractive technique, which was used for
some of the earliest successful joints and is now being
redeveloped for the more difficult requirements,
is to cast (and subsequently forge) a member in
\\ .............. f7
\ MOLYBOENUM- BEAF~ING~'
1
"\\ ~.@
~21]4 Cr Mo Nb C A R ~ N DIFFUSION gARR~ER
Fig. 32. Diagrammatic sketch of transition joint using austenitic
weld metal and barrier layer to prevent carbon diffusion.
Mater. Sci. Eng., 7 (1971)237 267
260 L . M . WYATT

such a way that the composition changes smoothly
from the fully austenitic to the fully ferritic.
It should not be supposed that this has the effect
of producing a series of alloys with properties
varying smoothly from those of the austenitic to the
ferritic steels in the same way as the composition
varies. Property changes are sudden, and there may
be several intermediate phases, some with undesira-
ble characteristics of ductility, creep resistance or
thermal expansion, but in a properly manufactured
joint of this type any undesirable features are distri-
buted throughout the joint, and do not form a
continuous line of weakness, or stress intensity.
7. THE TURBINE
The main material problems in the turbine stem
from the large size of the moving parts in which
very high stresses are generated by centrifugal force
and the thick sections of the stationary parts which
result from a combination of large size, high steam
pressure and the relatively poor properties of heavy
castings.
carbide precipitates in a bainitic structure (Fig. 33)
in a 1 Cr-Mo-V steel. Complicated heat treatments
are required.
In the low temperature rotors (and in generator
rotors) the main problem is to provide a material
which combines high yield strength with a high
fracture toughness in very large sizes. In the last
few years considerable advances have been made
both in the understanding and solution of the prob-
lems involved in the provision of the very large low
pressure turbine (and generator) rotors. A compo-
nent must be produced of shape and dimensions
similar to that shown in Fig. 34, with properties
such that any defect (pre-existing, enlarged by fa-
tigue or produced by corrosion) will not lead to
brittle fracture in normal running or at overspeed
during a fault condition or during testing.
The development of the concepts of fracture
toughness and fatigue crack propagation has

7.1. Discs, shafts and casings

The main failure effects which have to be guarded

against are :
In high temperature rotors and casings
(i) Distortions caused by creep, temperature differ-
entials or unsatisfactory heat treatment
(ii) Cracking in creep
(iii) Cracking in high strain fatigue.
In low temperature rotors and discs
Brittle fracture.

These problems are compounded by the problems

which arise during manufacture of components of
this size. Some of the turbine rotors and in particular
the generator rotors are so large as to stretch the
resources in melting, handling, forging and heat
treatment facilities of the forgemasters.
Superimposed on the actual handling problems
are the solidification problems which occur in the
very large ingots. Compositions must be chosen
which are not prone to excessive segregation and the
methods used in pouring the ingots must minimise
these effects.
The high creep and high yield strength at temper-
ature required in intermediate pressure rotors are Fig. 33. Bainitic structures in 1 C r - M o - V steel showing (a) high
produced by controlling the form of the vanadium creep strength structure, (b) low creep strength structure ( x 5000).

Mater. Sci. Eng., 7 (1971)237-267

 MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY IN POWER GENERATION 261

Fig. 34. "Gashed" forgings of 660 MW L.P. rotor (on lathe) and 660 MW I.P. rotor (suspended by crane). (Photograph from British
Steel Corporation.)

enabled the material properties and the permissible

defect configurations to be specified with greater ,2o
accuracy, and the improvements in ultrasonic
testing have greatly increased the precision with ,oo x
which the sizes of inclusions and other defects can x x
be determined. ~ Bo ×

The fracture toughness itself has been improved x

partly by the developments in alloy composition ~, X

X
X
(Fig. 35) and partly by improvements in steelmaking ~ 6o
which reduce or eliminate undesirable residual ~
alloying elements, o 4o x x
X

The first improvement has arisen from the intro- x

x X
X

duction of the electric arc furnace in place of the ~F- 20 X

X
x
X

open hearth for steel making. This has the effect of X

x
xX

reducing the contents of phosphorus and sulphur, o X x

and also non-metallic inclusions. The second im- X

provement lies in the careful choice of raw materials

×
by which means the contents of copper, tin, anti- -3o I I I I
2.6 3.0 3.,4 3.8
mony, arsenic, etc., can be controlled and reduced. 2.2 NICKEL CONTEr~r~, O/o

The third and possibly the most significant ad- Fig. 35. Effect of nickel content on toughness of Ni Cr Mo V
vance lies in the introduction of vacuum techniques L.P. rotors.

Mater. Sci. Eng., 7 (1!)71)237 267

262 L M. WYATT
of steel making and pouring. Besides eliminating
troubles associated with hydrogen this allows much
more freedom in choosing deoxidation methods
and can improve both fracture toughness and in-
clusion content by eliminating the need for silicon
additions.
The improvements in steel making have been
accompanied by corresponding improvements in
forging and heat treatment. The use of double up-
setting has increased the forging deformation which
can be applied to all parts of the ingot, and ways have
been found of increasing cooling from the austenitis-
ing temperature, which reduces grain size, and hence
increases low temperature ductility, and from the
tempering temperature, which reduces temper
embrittlement which is also reduced by the reduc-
tion in prior austenitic grain size. Very large vertical
heat treatment and quenching facilities have been
installed for this purpose.
Originally most LP rotors were of shrunk on disc
construction. This minimises the size of the forgings,
but can lead to v~ry high stresses at the bore of the
disc, particularly where a key is used to prevent
rotation (Fig. 36). In addition the interface between
the bore of the disc and the shaft can act as a crevice
1.55
1.44
1.33
RADIUS
"~ORERADIUS
1.22
I.II
I I
O 2
TANGENTIAL STRESS
BORE TANGENTIALSTRESS TANGENTIAL STRESS
WITHOUT sO~'~ TANGENTIAL STRESS
KEYWAY
Fig. 36. T h e influence of a k e y w a y o n the t a n g e n t i a l stresses in a t y p i c a l s h r u n k - o n t u r b i n e disc.
to concentrate any soluble impurities carried over
in the steam, and this can be the cause of stress cor-
rosion (Fig. 37)45.
The improved techniques described have made
it possible to use monobloc forgings instead of the
shrunk on construction for 3,000 r.p.m, turbines of
up to about 900 MW. The basic alloy composition
has also been improved, and the accepted compo-
sition for large monobloc low temperature forgings
is now the 3½ Ni~Cr-Mo-V. Further advances will
however be needed for turbines in excess of 1000
MW.
Another way of producing large LP rotors is by
welding together individually forged and machined
discs, employing argon arc root fusion and sub-
merged arc bulk welding. Experience has already
been gained by providing some 500 MW and 660
MW LP welded rotors for current stations. The
process could be developed to large machine sizes
but requires research into suitably weldable steels
of higher strength both for the discs and filler weld
metal. The quality of the discs has to be extremely
good in the region of the weld and the design de-
mands discs without a central bore hole. There are
considerable difficulties in selecting a composition
;5
O,52 t O.69
O.SS _ O,75 4
3
O,64~~O'59,
O.
861.151.O
2
0.7
hO I I i i
O I 2 S
CONTOURSOF:- TANGENTIALSTRI~SS
BORE TANGENTIAl.STRESS
WITH
KEY WAY
Mater. Sei. Eng., 7 ( 1 9 7 1 ) 2 3 7 - 2 6 7
 MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY IN POWER GENERATION 263

the 36 in. blades of the 660 MW turbines, but higher

strengths will be required for the larger blades of the
future larger sets. Austeno-ferritic steels of the Rex
520 type have adequate strength properties for these
blades.
The large last stage blades operate in an atmos-
phere of water droplets which is strongly erosive
at the high, tip speeds. Protection is provided by
attaching shields of erosion resistant material to the
leading edge. The best materials have been found
to be stellites (alloys of cobalt with tungsten carbide)
and the metallurgical problems of producing these
amount to the dispersing of the maximum possible
amount of carbide as finely as possible. This has
been achieved by consumable arc melting followed
by mechanical working and optimisation of the
proportion of tungsten carbide (Fig. 38). Higher
concentrations of carbide lead to better resistance
to erosion but increase the difficulty of working.
The attachment of the shields to the austeno-ferri-
tic steels presents a problem because the lower tern-

Fig. 37. Stress corrosion crack in turbine LP disc material.

for the discs with a tempering temperature compati-

ble with that required for stress relief of the weld as
the strength requirements are increased to that
needed for 1300 MW rotor. For these reasons, the
development of monobloc techniques is preferred.
One important development, which has not yet
been applied to the largest forgings, is ingot produc-
tion by electroslag melting. This method allows
production of an ingot for subsequent forging vir-
tually free from centre shrinkage, segregation and
inclusions with consequent reduction in amount of
top and bottom end discards. A very much smaller
ingot may be used as the starting point for a forged
monobloc and the ingot requires less forging for
centre consolidation with the avoidance of upsetting
operations. It is also claimed that the greater clean-
liness of the steel results in improved fracture
toughness, and the freedom from centre line defects
should allow forgings to be manufactured without
central bore holes.

7.2. Bladin9

Turbine blades of current design do not present Fig. 38. Stellite erosion resistant alloy. (a) Fine structure produced
serious problems as far as strength is concerned. by consumable arc casting and forging ( x 350). (b) Coarse struc-
12 C r - M o - V - N b steels are adequate for sizes up to ture produced by casting ( x 350). (From Baker47.)

Mater. Sci. Eno., 7 (1971)237 267

264 L.M. WYATT
pering temperature of these steels precludes the
brazing method which is satisfactory with the
ferritic 12 Cr steels. It is necessary therefore to de-
velop methods of welding the stellites to the steels,
and the very narrow fusion zone of the electron
beam process makes this a favoured technique.
7.3. Other turbine components
Turbine bolts have in the past presented problems.
These components are very highly stressed, and
steels must be developed which combine a very high
resistance to relaxation, with adequate notch
ductility.
Both engineering and materials techniques have
contributed to the solution of this problem. Bolts
have been designed with reduced shanks so that the
strain is not concentrated at the root of the first
few threads, and both the technique and number of
retightenings have been rigidly controlled.
Fig. 39. Differing behaviour of (a) carbon steel and (b) 3 Cr-Mo
steel journals on rubbing by swarf. Transformation of surface of
steel A prevents failure. (From Burns and Hill46.)
Steels of the 1 Cr-Mo-V type have been developed
with additions of zirconium and boron which are
satisfactory for steam temperatures of up to 565°C.
Higher steam temperatures or difficult designs
require more advanced bolting materials. Warm
worked austenitic steels, nickel alloys and more com-
plex alloys have been used successfully.
An interesting problem arose in the performance
of white metal bearings in large turbines. Failures
occurred when the journals were "improved" by a
change in material from carbon steel to 3 Cr-Mo
steel. There was evidence that the failures were asso-
ciated with the presence of swarf in the bearing, but
it was not clear for some time why the alloy steel
should be worse than the carbon steel. It was found
that with the carbon steel the heat generated by
interaction with swarf was sufficient to form a layer
of martensite (Fig. 39 (a))46. This was hard enough to
wear away the swarf and the bearing then ran nor-
mally. In contrast, with the 3 Cr-Mo shaft the stabi-
lity of the carbide C r 7 C 3 w a s sufficient to prevent the
formation of a protective layer of martensite (Fig.
39(b)) and the rotor was liable to be grooved by any
swarf entering the bearing, producing the charac-
teristic "wire-wool" debris.
8. THE CONDENSER
The condenser consists essentially of a nest of tubes,
held betweentube plates with cooling water inside
the tubes and the condensing steam on the outside.
Tube integrity is of great importance because of the
need to maintain the purity of the condensate.
The extent of the materials problem is related to
the cooling water composition, admiralty brass
being adequate for the purest water, but sea water
and the reducing sulphide conditions present in
many estuaries require the more expensive alumi-
nium brass or cupro-nickel.
Very severe conditions, where reducing sulphide
pollution may alternate with oxidising sea water,
may tax the ability of any copper alloy to withstand
attack. In situations like this titanium tubes have
given very good service. However, there are two
main difficulties. The first is that, in spite of the
recent cost reductions, titanium tubes still cost ap-
preciably more than most copper alloys used. The
second arises from the electrochemical potentials
developed between titanium and copper alloys,
which would cause preferential corrosion of an
admiralty brass tube plate used with titanium tubes.
M a t e r . Sci. Eng. , 7 (1971) 237-267
 MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY IN POWER GENERATION
Experiments are in hand on means of protecting
the tube plate with rubber and plastics coatings,
with the manufacture of titanium sheathed steel
tube plates (which have to be welded to produce the
necessarily large size of plate for a modern condenser)
and in the assessment of the relative resistance to
attack of various alternative copper alloys.
There are apparent advantages in the use of
stainless steel for condenser tubes. This material
might be expected to resist corrosion by aggressive
waters, would have the advantage of eliminating
copper-containing materials from the steam circuit
and might reduce cost in some areas of the world.
However, trials in the U.K. have been disappointing,
and the stainless steels have not been introduced for
condenser applications. The trials showed that in
even slightly brackish water the tubes suddenly
develop deep, isolated pits, in material which is
otherwise uncorroded 4v.
9. THE GENERATOR
The main problem in the generator is the vastly
increased size of the rotor forgings which poses
problems similar to those discussed in the section
on the turbine.
A generator component in which the combined
size (48 in. diam. and 4 in. wall thickness) and strength
Fig. 40. Coil retaining generator end ring.
265
requirements (70 tons/sq.in, yield) have caused
particular difficulty is the end ring (Fig. 40) which
must in addition be non-magnetic.
This component is made by forging a ring in 18
Mn~4 C r ~ C steel which is, after solution treatment,
warm worked to increase its diameter. This of
course works the material to a different extent across
the section, and the mechanical and thermal treat-
ments must be chosen carefully if a satisfactory
strength at the outside where the elongation is least
is to be combined with satisfactory toughness prop-
erties at the bore where the maximum work occurs.
A problem which will arise in the larger generators
now under consideration is the development of high
strength, higher conductivity copper alloys for the
outer turns of the rotor winding which sustain a high
crushing load as a result of high centrifugal force.
Strength and conductivity are of course mutually
exclusive properties in copper, but the recently
developed alloys containing magnesium and zir-
conium 4s show promise of the most acceptable
combination yet achieved.
10. THE TRANSFORMER
The materials problems in the transformer consist
in the production of low loss core material with low
magnetostrictive properties.
/ii!!!i _
Mater. Sci. Eny., 7 (1971) 237 267
266 L.M. WYATT
The best commercial solution yet found is to use
cold rolled oriented 3 ~ silicon-iron strip. A fine
grain "roof top" longitudinal orientation is pro-
duced in this strip by a process of rolling a high
sulphur material. This orients the sulphides present
and the preferred texture nucleates from them dur-
ing annealing. The sulphur is removed by the action
of hydrogen, and the strip is then cold rolled, coated
With a mineral insulant and finally annealed.
Very careful control of residual elements and roll-
ing and heat treatment schedules is needed to main-
tain the high degree of orientation and uniform grain
size needed to achieve low electrical losses and noise,
level in the final transformer.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author is indebted to the Central Electricity
Generating Board for permission to publish this
paper.
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