ZENT (PVT) LTD

TRAINING PROGRESS REPORT FOR

Pisirai Grace

POST GRADUATE TRAINEE

(ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING)

Pisirai Grace (pisirai@gmail.com)

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Pisirai Grace (pisirai@gmail.com)

The progress report covers for the period 14May-29June 2012 spent at ZETDC
Telecommunications (Communication Workshop).

Pisirai Grace (pisirai@gmail.com)

Acknowledgements

I would love to extend my sincere gratitude to Telecommunications Services Engineer

C.Babbage, Telecommunications Eng Mohau, K.Mutambirwa for their technical assistance
during my training period at ZETDC Telecommunications.

Pisirai Grace (pisirai@gmail.com)

Introduction

Telecommunication services in power utilities are being widely used for providing important
operational, business and administrative applications of the utilities.
Various telecommunication technologies are utilized to meet the different operational and
business service requirements of power utilities. The applications range from narrow-band
critical teleprotection and SCADA/telecontrol applications, telemetering, voice,
fault/disturbance recorder monitoring to broadband video and corporate ERP needs.
Technologies used range from analogue power line carrier technologies to high-speed fibre
optic and wireless systems. Traditional utility communications technology such as power line
carrier, plesiochronous digital hierarchy (PDH), microwave, lease line and pilot cable networks
have for many years provided reliable telecommunication services for legacy applications.

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Objectives
The sections expected to be covered as per training program were:
Testing and installation of radio and communication equipment
Repair and maintenance of electronic, telephone exchange (PABX).
Modems
Mobile Radios
Hilltops and Base Stations

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Scope
The sections covered as per Telecoms training program were as noted in the table below:

Equipment Guideline of Activities/Requirements

General  Overview of telecoms department
o Organogram
o Mandate/Functions
o Equipment
o Safety
PLC  Basic Function
o Audio Frequency
o Voice frequency
o Super Audio range
o IF stages
o RF stages
 PLC Types
o ETB
o ETI
o ETL
o ETL600
 Telephony
o Connection to PABX
o Engineers handset
 Tele-operation
o Understanding of loop diagram
 Tele-protection
o Purpose
o Types/variants [NSD 61,NSD 600]
 Modem
o Purpose

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 o Types/variants[NSK 4, NSK5]
Multiplexers  Basic Function
o PDH/SDH
o Fibre[G.652D]
 SFP
o Multimode and Single mode
o Ranges
 Tele-protection

PABX  Basic Function

 System Cards
 Extension
 Trunks
 Console
 Remote Logging
 E&M signalling
 Pulse & Tone dialling

Voice/Data Radio  Basic Functions

o Frequency allocations[HF, VHF&UHF]
o Signal ranges
o General antenna properties
o Purposes of coaxial cable
o Use of repeater sites
 Trunked Radio vs Two-way radio

 Data Radio
 Basic function
o Dish
VSAT o BUC and LNB
o IDU
 Advantages and Disadvantages of VSAT
 Spectrum
 Latency and Bandwidth
 GEO vs MEO vs LEO
Charger and batteries  Basic function

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  Supply voltages
 Charging currents
 Charger alarms
 Purpose of boost charge

Basic IT  LAN, WLAN, MAN, WAN

 OSI model
 IP addressing
 Routers and switches
 Bus and Star topologies
 Server types:
o DHCP Server
o DNS Server
o FTP Server
o Proxy Server
o HTTP Server

Procurement  Tendering
 Purchase requisition
 Purchase order
 Goods Received Note
 Stock Transfer Form
 Application for Capital Expenditure
 Petty Cash Voucher

Also managed to
attend to faults as:
 PABX (ISDX-S) fault in Alaska :
Fault: No calls were coming in, any calls going out and no calls were going
through
Solution: The first step was to reboot the system CPU and then the PABX started
working
Explanation: The system is old and so it freezes

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  RTU fault in Chinhoyi and Mutorashanga:
Four RTUs, Mhangura, Horseshoe, Mutorashanga and Chinhoyi communicate
with the NCC via two paths A and B with Mhangura and Horseshoe
communicating via A and Chinhoyi and Mutorashanga via B. The connections
were such that if Chinhoyi fails to communicate (transmit and receive signal) with
the NCC then communication path B will be broken and Mutorashanga gets to
communicate using path A. But if Mhangura fails then path A to the NCC will be
broken and all the other RTUs get to use path B.
Fault: Chinhoyi RTU was not communicating with NCC (transmit, receive was
down) and Mutorashanga was not communicating via path A as shown by the
status of the NSK4 modems.
Solution: Tests had to be conducted on the modems using the frequency and
level meter and the signal generator. Tests were done on the transmitter and
receiver modules of the NSK4 to measure if there was a signal on the modules.
Measures taken for safety of equipment were that we had to do impedance
matching of the equipment (match our equipment impedance to the impedance
of the system modem and plc) to 600Ω. The signal level was set to the level of the
signal expected to be transmitted on that path as per loop diagram which was a G
signal in the super audio range of frequency 2700±90Hz for Chinhoyi and H signal
of frequency 3060±Hz. A reading on the meter of lower than -34dBm shows
faulty modem. So the modem at Mutorashanga for completion of the
communication A path was faulty and so was replaced so that Mutorashanga
communicates using A path.

Set up of secretarial sets (telephones) at Harare substation and NCC, connecting direct
lines (to receive from and call out) and extension lines (calls between secretary and
boss).
Tender adjudication for the supply of digital c/w multiplexers to be used on the new
project of replacing the existing plc system in the whole country with OPGW fibre optic.

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 The formal tenders were from ABB, Hirasho, Pito, InfoRelay, Huawei, Dachser and
Classcode.
Adjudication was done against a set of required technical specifications as:

I. It had to be a KEMA type tested STM16-SDH ADM type of multiplexer with

transmission capacity of 2 488 320kbit/s and minimum of 1channel access
capability on 64kbits/s and on 2Mbit/s, redundant central processor, 40*2Mbit/s
PDH cross connect capacity and with an SDH cross connect capacity, upgradable.
II. Had to have a teleprotection interface with integrated distance teleprotection
interface, addressing of protection commands, loop test for measuring delay
time and 1+1 switch over less than 10ms
III. Had to have a transport level interface, supporting an optical STM-16 interface
with SDH based on SFP technology, electrical SDH interface, optical 8Mbit/s
interface and complies to ITU-T G.703, G.704
IV. Had to have user interfaces , voice module for trunk lines with 1+1 com path
protection individually programmable and digital 2Mbit/s CAS or PRI
V. Had to have integrated teleprotection interface for commands, with a minimum
number of 4 independent commands. In ZESA the commands are permissive
under reach, permissive over reach, direct trips and directional earth fault. A
maximum transmission time of 6ms, protection voltage of 110V and 1+1 com
path protection was required.
VI. Had to be IEC61000-6-5 certified that is for electromagnetic capability immunity
and with operating temperatures of -5....+55°C ,operating voltage of 48-60Vdc
with a redundant power supply and dual power feeding.
VII. Had to have a integrated Ethernet port available on the data module interface
with functions as 1+1 path protection, point – multipoint, performance
monitoring available for individual configuration. The Ethernet module had to be
10/100/1000 Base T with RJ45 ports.

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 VIII. Had to have a 24 port patch panel, with modular components and an integrated
alarm gathering module and a ripple relay control module.
IX. Multiplexer was to come with a configuration tool offering local/remote
operation, integrated management of teleprotection command module and a
network management system for fault and configuration management together
with the 32” GUI and programming laptops.
X. Supplier was to provide factory acceptance test for 2 ZETDC members, local
training 22members for 10work days, 22 manuals, 24months warranty and
spares guarantee for 5years, universal fibre termination kits and proof that the
multiplexers had been in operation in substation environment.
Was also involved in collecting line data for the OPGW project and plotting routes using
Google Earth. The move to replace PLCs with optical fibre being perpetuated mainly by
vandalism of copper wires in Zimbabwe apart from the advantages that fibre
transmission offers.

Power Line Carrier (PLCs)

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Dedicated power line carrier (PLC) systems were one of the earliest technologies used by
utilities worldwide. High frequency carrier signals carrying voice and data messages are
superimposed with the power frequency voltage and current signals on transmission lines. This
feature enabled a fast and cheap method to develop a telecommunication network.
Dedicated PLC equipment are only required at the end stations making them cost effective.
Again, signals are sent over power lines for several hundreds of kilometers without the need for
booster amplifiers or repeaters and PLC lines are reliable and withstand all weather conditions.
However, the PLC lines have in Zimbabwe been subject to vandalism prompting the need to
replace them with OPGW, a project that is ongoing.

Types
The types of PLCs used in Zesa range from the ETBs used in Rusape and Orange Groove, the
ETIs, ETL and the new digital ETL 600 from ABB in Norton and Selous. There is also the Siemens,
ZAP52 and Cegelex.
The method of modulation used in PLCs is Single side band modulation with suppressed carrier
(SSB-SC) with gross bandwidth of 4kHz and net useful bandwidth of 300-3600Hz sub-divided for
multi-purpose operations.

Power Supply
The PLCs e.g. ETL600 are compact with only subrack containing the power equipment and the
second subrack containing all purpose channel equipment.
Output power levels range from 40W to 80W and is usually stated by the type of PLC e.g. ETL42
with 42 denoting 40W power rating and the 2 for the number of channels.
Power supply units available can be mains or battery with a choice of voltages ranging from
48V-60Vdc with mains connection of 110-220Vac, to ensure absolute system reliability.

Functions
PLCs are used to provide private operational telephone communication within a network,
telephony, teleprotection, teleoperation and other data services as facsimile, telex. This is

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achieved by use of the audio frequency, voice frequency and the super audio range. The audio
frequency ranges from 20Hz to 20kHz, voice frequency from 300Hz to 3.4kHz though speech is
only heard from 200Hz to 2khz and is used to transmit speech and the super audio range is
from 2.2-3.6kHz which is used for teleoperation.
PLCs are highly modular so we find that there is module for:
Telephony - which allow for connection to PABX and the Engineers handset for
communication during maintenance or any other operations between controller and
engineer at site. A full duplex link can be implemented with receive – transmit, allowing
simultaneous communication in both directions, that is, speak and be heard at the same
time. Receive and transmit band are separated by any gap in the 4 kHz roster. On the
module is also an indication LED to show whether a call circuit of a particular route
(directional) is busy or not.
Types of connections to PABX
 4 WIRE - 2WIRES FOR TX (MOUTHPIECE) & 2WIRES FOR RX (EARPIECE)
 2 WIRE - ONLY 2 WIRES FOR TX & RX WITH HYBRID
 4 WIRE E&M - 2WIRES FOR TX & 2WIRES FOR RX PLUS ONE FOR SIGNELLING IN (E) AND
ONE WIRE FOR SIGNELLING OUT(M)
 2 WIRE E&M - ONLY 2 WIRES FOR TX & RX PLUS ONE FOR SIGNELLING IN (E) AND ONE
WIRE FOR SIGNELLING

Tele-operation – involves transmission of data signals between substations and the

National Control Center for telecontrol. A loop diagram is there to represent the flow of
data in form of signals in the super audio range e.g. G signal of frequency 2700Hz to and
from NCC via Warren and Alaska RTUs and the PLCs to the other substations.

Tele-protection – uses the voice band for transmission of protection commands for lines
and objects protection. There are four tele-protection commands each denoted by a
different frequency in the voice band and in ZESA we have direct trip, permissive under
reach, permissive over reach and directional earth fault The different types of tele-

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 protection modules in PLCs are the NSD61 and NSD600used for single purpose tele-
protection handling 2 or 4 protection commands.

Modems – sometimes these maybe found in the RTUs and these are data modulation
/demodulation devices for narrow band data, that is data transmission in the bandwidth
of less than 4kHz. It offers a digital modulation scheme, FSK, frequency shift keying, a
special type of modulation for converting digital signals( a stream of 1s and 0s) into
analogue signals of frequency Fa and Fb. They are of two types, the NSK4 (with separate
modules for transmitter and receiver) and the NSK5 which is a later version with
transmitter and receiver on the same module.

Pilot signal, 3178Hz, which lies in the super audio range. The pilot signal is used for
automatic gain control, maintained at 26dBm or 4Vdc and can be measured in dBs, volts
DC or Watts to maintain strength of received signal within certain levels also considering
receiver sensitivity. Also used in transmission of telephone dialing pulses, guard and
keying signals for Ear and Mouth signals in telephony to introduce handshake. Pilot
signal is also used as guard signals for teleprotection signals so that they can be
differentiated from the normal voice since they are superimposed into the voice
frequency band. Pilot signal is also used for receiver synchronization and for carrying out
remote loop back testing.

Diagram below shows components of a PLC

Line trap/wave trap WT – a device installed in series with the power conductors that is
used to block the communication signals which are superimposed with the 50Hz power
frequency currents from being absorbed into substation power equipment.
Coupling capacitor – a device that allows high frequency signals to be coupled into and
extracted from the high voltage network. This device is used in conjunction with
capacitor voltage transformers to provide a electrical insulation between the high
voltage system and the PLC equipment.

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 Line Tuner (Matching Unit) – a device that provides tuneable impedance matching
facilities between PLC equipment and the power line

Drainage coil, lightning arrestor and earth switch act as protective devices protecting the
system from the 50Hz power signal. The surge arrester protects the main coil and tuning device
of the line trap equipment by reducing transient over-voltages to levels corresponding to the
distribution voltage class insulation.

PLC communication is however subject to electromagnetic interference, frequency congestion,

environmental influence and variation in line characteristics and in some parts, PLCs have been
replaced by optical fibre cable and multiplexers.

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Optical Fibre Cables
With liberalization of the telecommunication and power industry, power utilities are investing
in fibre optic infrastructures on power lines either on their own or through joint venture
partnership with telecommunication operators e.g. the joint venture of ZETDC Comms and
Liquid. A ready network of power line infrastructure enables reliable, quick and cheap
installation of optical fibre cables as compared to conventional duct installation.

Three types of cable construction that are installed on transmission lines are:-
OPGW - it is now common for power utilities to install optical fibre ground wire (OPGW)
on all new transmission lines.
Wrapped or lashed optical fibre cable - installed on existing lines.
All dielectric self-supporting optical fibre cables - installed on existing lines .

Retrofitting lines with fibre optics with either wrap/lashed, self-supporting type or even OPGW
depends on power system operation constraints, tower structure design, environmental
conditions and local statutory requirements.

Design and construction of optical fibre cables on power lines shall meet the following criteria:
 mechanical strength – the cable shall be able to withstand continuous stress and
exposure to harsh environmental conditions.
 Light weight – the cable shall impose minimal loading on support structure.
 Consistent optical properties - the optical properties shall be stable even at the most
severe conditions.
 Good electrical properties - if the cable is used as a ground wire, the electrical
requirements on fault current carrying capacity and conductivity shall be met.
 Withstand effects of EHV - dielectric optical cable shall withstand effects of high electric
field on its sheath for long years of service.

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 OPGW
Optical ground wire or OPGW is a composite earth wire conductor that contains optical fibres in
its central core. Loose tube or tight buffered single mode optical fibres are centrally located in
aluminium tubes or in aluminium slots and are covered by one or two layers or aluminium clad
steel wires or aluminium and steel wires.
As OPGW functions as both electrical and optical transmission media, its design and
construction shall satisfy both the electrical and optical specifications. The two major electrical
requirements of the cable are low DC resistance and fault current withstand capability. The
optical performance of the cable shall be stable and unaffected during lightning and fault
conditions. Particular attention should be given on fibre strain as the cable is under tension
throughout its life. The conductor is subject to continuous changes in strain due to temperature
and wind load variations. OPGW is very robust as the fibres are well protected against
mechanical damage by the aluminium clad steel strands.

All dielectric self-supporting or ADSS cables are retrofitted on existing transmission lines. A
central GRP rod prevents cable kink. Loose tubes containing optical fibres are jelly filled to
prevent moisture ingress and also to act as a buffer for the fibres. A layer of aramid strength
material provides the necessary tensile strength. An anti-tracking outer sheath of HDPE
material provides protection against sheath degradation when the cable is placed in high
electric field zones. These cables can be installed under hot-line or live line conditions in utilities
where local statutory regulations permit such installations. Optical cables installed in this
manner are de-coupled from the power system unlike OPGW and wrapped/lashed optical fibre
cables. The flexibility of ADSS installation enables installation and maintenance to be carried
out without power line outage. The cables are attached to the power line structures along the
centre line of the transmission route at points where the electrical field potential is low.
ADSS cables are under constant and dynamic load conditions and span lengths can be
extremely long, for instance 800 - 1000m. When installed on high voltage lines above 132kV,
the cable sheath is subject to high electrostatic stress and will experience tracking and dry-band

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arcing activity. Dry-band arcing and tracking are major factors that determine the cable life on a
power line. Factors that contribute to dry-band arcing are field potential at ADSS cable location,
pollution level, amount and type of rain, jacket material and maximum line voltage. Research
has shown that for dry band arcing to occur, a field potential of at least 25kV is required to
cause sheath damage. Dry band arcing results in 3 failure modes, viz.
. tracking - carbon tree on polymer leading to polymer deterioration
. erosion - polymer bond gives way to stress and strain and heat generated from dry
band arcing activity.
. puncture - creating a hole in the sheath due to generation of substantial heat from
arcing.

Wrap Around Optical Fibre Cable

Wrapped cables were lashed or wrapped around phase conductors initially but were later
installed on earth wires. Compared with OPGW and ADSS cables, wrapped optical cables are
the lightest, smallest and have the least fibre count. Wrapped cables introduces minimal
mechanical loads on tower structures and requires minimal installation tools and manpower
compared with the installation methods for OPGW and ADSS optical cables. However,
specialized installation tools are required. Wrapped optical cables can be installed under life-
line conditions on power line with a single central earth wire or if sufficient clearance is
available on two earth wire constructions. If low fibre counts are sufficient, this type of cable
installation is especially suited for installation on power lines that traverses along rough and
inaccessible terrain.

Multiplexers

Multiplexing is a means of sharing a communication link by enabling simultaneous transmission

of more than one signal on the same physical bearer. A bearer is simply a transmission link
between any two points.
Types of Multiplexing
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Multiplexing falls into two groups:
· Frequency division multiplexing
· Time division multiplexing
In Frequency division multiplexing (FDM) simultaneous transmission is achieved by dividing the
bandwidth available on the communication link among the various signal channels.
In Time division multiplexing (TDM) simultaneous transmission is achieved by assigning the
whole physical medium to each channel for a fraction of the transmission time. Telephone
channels are combined using TDM to form an assembly of 24 or 30 channels. This is known as
the primary multiplex group. The primary multiplex group is used as a building block for
assembling larger channels in higher order multiplex systems. The frame for the 30-channel
system is divided into 32 time slots, each with 8 digits. Each byte of eight digits is obtained by
sampling the analogue signal at 8kHz (i.e. 8000 times per second). Hence the total bit rate is
8000* 8* 32 = 2 048 000 bits/s = 2.048Mbits/s. Time slot 1 to 15 and 17 to 31 are each
allocated to a speech channel. Time slot 0 is used for frame alignment (that is channel 0 for
timing/ synchronization) whilst time slot 16 (channel 16) is used for signaling.

The Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy (PDH)

The primary multiplex group of 24 (for the 24 channel Multiplex) or 30 channels (as used in the
European 30 channel system) is used as a building block for larger numbers of channels in
higher order multiplex systems. At each level in the hierarchy, several bit streams, known as
tributaries, are combined by a multiplexer. The output from a multiplexer may serve as a
tributary to a multiplexer at the next higher level in the hierarchy, or it may be sent directly
over a line or radio link. There are 2 Plesiochronous digital hierarchies: the European one
(based on the 30 channel format and known as the PCM 30 Hierarchy) and the North American
one (based on the 24 channel format and generally known as the PCM 24 Hierarchy).

The Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH)

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PDH is a sufficient technique for transporting telephony signals, but with the increase in other
services such as video and data there is a clear need to come up with a transmission system
capable of multiplexing and transmitting information streams of various bit rates. The
Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) provides a simple mechanism of multiplexing and de-
multiplexing information streams of various bit rates.
The key advantages of SDH are as follows:
_ Universal standards:
SDH is based on universal standards that permit interworking of all telecommunications
networks and manufacturer’s equipment
_ Easier multiplexing and de-multiplexing
It is cheaper to add and drop signals to meet customer requirements. To extract a 64 kbit signal
from a 140 Mbits multiplexed stream in a PDH hierarchy, one has to de-multiplex down to the
64 kbit level before the required stream can be extracted. With SD, a 64 kbit stream can be
extracted directly from the high order multiplex level without the need of first de-multiplexing
_ Smaller and cheaper equipment
Because of the advanced techniques employed in SDH technology, equipment size is greatly
reduced, resulting in significant savings in space and power.
_ Comprehensive performance monitoring
Equipment performance monitoring is comprehensive and centralized.
Performance parameters can be measured at a number of levels in the SDH hierarchy and test
signals can be remotely injected and analyzed.

_ Centralized Network monitoring and control

For PDH networks, field personnel carry out fault diagnosis and rectification, but in SDH alarms
and diagnostic tools are very detailed and centralized. This permits fault diagnosis to be carried
out remotely (achieved through the use of network management systems, NMS).
_ Easier to introduce new services
In SDH the reconfiguration of equipment can be carried out remotely permitting new services to
be offered and changes made to already existing services.

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Key Features of the SDH Architecture
The key features of the synchronous digital hierarchy are as follows:
_ The basic modules making up the hierarchy are synchronous with each other
_ Multiplexing is by byte interleaving
_ Any of the existing PDH rates can be multiplexed into a common transport rate of 155.52
Mbits/s, STM-1
_ For each transport level a wide range of overhead bits are included. These include multiplex
overheads such as tributary identity, error performance checks, and network management
channels, all based on a standard format that is independent of equipment manufacturer.
_ Higher transport rates are defined as integer multiples of 155.52 Mbits/s in an n* 4 sequence.
For example the next transport rate after the 155.52Mbits/s (STM-1) rate is the 622.08 Mbits/s
(STM-4) followed by 2488.32Mbits/s (STM-16).
_ Since the modules and their contents are synchronized, it is easy to “drop and insert” and to
cross connect complete basic modules in a switch. This allows drop and insert and cross-
connection down to 2 Mbits/s (in Europe and its former colonies) and 1.5 Mbits/s (in North
America and Japan).
_ The modules are based on a frame period of 125ms. This allows cross connection down to 64
kbit/s. Moreover higher order multiplexed traffic can be fed directly into the switch core of a
digital exchange. This gives both considerable economies and allows broadband switched
services to be provided to customers.
_ The interfaces on the multiplexers can be optical or electrical .

In some countries they use SONET in place of SDH where SDH = 3*SONET as shown in table
below
SONET SDH B(MBit/s) Channels
OC-1 51.84 672
OC-3 STM-1 155.52 2016
OC-12 STM-4 622.08 8064
OC-48 STM-16 2488.32 32256

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OC-192 STM-64 9953.28 129024
OC-768 STM-256 39813.12 516096
The Multiplexing Process
Tributaries from 1.544 Mbits/s up to 139.264 Mbits/s are synchronized, if necessary, with
justification bits, and then packaged in containers of suitable standardized sizes. Control and
supervisory information is then added to the container to form a virtual container (VC). The VC
travels through the network as a complete package until de-multiplexing occurs. Virtual
container sizes range from VC-11 for 1.5 Mbits/s, VC – 12 for 2 Mbits/s, through VC – 3 for 45
Mbits/s to VC-4 for 140 Mbits/s.

Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

• One of the most promising concepts for high capacity communication systems is
wavelength division multiplexing (WDM).

• Each communication channel is allocated to a different frequency and multiplexed onto a

single fibre. At the destination wavelengths are spatially separated to different receiver
locations.

• In this configuration the high carrier bandwidth is utilized to a greater extent to transmit

multiple optical signals through a single optical fibre.

Fibre
Optical Fibres are fibres of glass, usually about 120 micrometers in diameter, which are used to
carry signals in the form of pulses of light using principle of total internal reflection, over
distances up to 50 km without the need for repeaters.
The size of the core and the nature of the refractive index change from n1 to n2 determine the
basic types of optical fibre:
a) Multimode : step-index fibre and graded –index fibre- 50μm core and 125μm cladding
b) Single mode step-index fibre: 8 –12 μm core and 125μm cladding

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Where a fibre supports only one mode, it is called a single mode fibre. If a fibre supports more
than one mode then it is called a multimode fibre. Each mode follows its own propagation path
within the fibre, and this leads to modal dispersion. Modal dispersion places severe limitations
on the useable transmission bandwidth of a multimode step-index fibre. This explains why
multi-mode fibre is used on short distance transmission e.g. looping relays in the backup relay
panels at Norton

There are 19 different single mode optical fibre specifications defined by the ITU-T each type
with its own area of application.
The G.652a and G.652b specifications entitled “Characteristics of a single-mode optical fibre
and cable” define an optical fibre with performance specified at 1310 nm, 1550 nm and 1625
nm but intended for use at, and with a zero chromatic dispersion slope in, the 1310nm region.
These optical fibres would be expected to be found in extended length LAN, MAN and access
network systems. The more recent variants (G.652.c and G652.d) are not specified at 1625 nm
but feature a reduced water peak that allows them to be used in the wavelength region
between 1310 nm and 1550 nm supporting Coarse Wavelength Division Multiplexed (CWDM)
transmission.
The G.653 specifications entitled “Characteristics of a dispersion-shifted single-mode optical
fibre and cable” define an optical fibre with performance specified at 1310 nm and 1550 nm but
with a zero chromatic dispersion slope in the 1550nm region. Such optical fibres were
developed to support long-haul single mode transmission systems using erbium-doped fibre
amplifiers (EDFA) that only operate in the third window.
The G.654 specifications entitled “Characteristics of a cut-off shifted single-mode optical fibre
and cable” define an optical fibre with performance specified at 1550 nm only and which only
support single mode transmission in that wavelength region.
The G.655 specifications entitled “Characteristics of a non-zero dispersion-shifted single-mode
optical fibre and cable” define an optical fibre with performance specified at 1550 nm and 1625

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nm but with a non-zero chromatic dispersion slope in these wavelength regions. Such optical
fibres were developed to support long-haul systems that use Dense Wavelength Division
Multiplexed (DWDM) transmission operating at 1530nm to 1625nm.
The G.656 specification entitled “Characteristics of a fibre and cable with Non-Zero Dispersion
for Wideband Optical Transport” defines an optical fibre with performance specified at 1460
nm and 1625 nm but with a nonzero chromatic dispersion slope in these wavelength regions.
Such optical fibres were developed to support long-haul systems that use CWDM and DWDM
transmission over the specified wavelength range.
The G.657 specifications entitled “Characteristics of a bending loss insensitive single mode
optical fibre and cable for the access network” define optical fibres that produce lower levels of
attenuation due to bends. G.657 Category A1 and A2 optical fibres are intended to be
compatible with the G.652 optical fibres whereas G.657 Category B2 and B3 optical fibres are
not necessarily so

Optical fibres have to be joined together to make longer lengths of fibre or existing fibre lengths
that have been broken have to be repaired. Also the ends of the fibre have to be fitted with
convenient connectors (terminations) to allow them to be easily plugged into equipment such
as power meters, data transmitters, etc. Unlike electrical cables where all that is needed is to
solder lengths of cable together, the process of joining two fibres (splicing) or terminating the
end of a fibre is more complex and requires special equipment.
Splicing is the process of joining the two bare ends of two fibres together. The ends of the fibre
must be precisely lined up with each other, otherwise the light will not be able to pass from one
fibre across the gap to the other fibre. There are four main alignment errors and any splicing
technique is designed to deal with ends of these errors.

ZESA is currently using a few FOX-U multiplexers from ABB apart from a few others of different
make and is found at NCC and another in Norton. The Fox-U is being used for small distance
transmission because repeater circuits would be needed for longer transmission distance.
However, the new multiplexers from ABB ,FOX 515 that are going to be used in the new project

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can cover for long distance transmission of around 300km repeater less because of the
additional small form factor pluggable( covers a distance of 40km without need for repeater)
that can be added to increase transmission distance and it takes up to about 4 SFPs. The FOX
515 is modular with an integrated teleprotection module the TEBIT which offers an electrical
interface for distance protection and OPTIF which offers optical interface for differential
protection.

Network Management System

To manage the operations and performance of the telecommunications network effectively, a
centralized telecommunications network management system located at the network
operations centre is required. The main functions of the operations centre will be as follows:

 provide central network monitoring and control facilities

 assist in network restoration activities

 configure and allocate network resources for optimization

 Detect faults as soon as they occur for immediate restoration

 Monitor network capacity utilization for future expansion plans

 Manage alarms and system faults

 Maintain network database

 Monitor and produce network performance reports

 Plan and schedule network maintenance activities

 Coordinate with grid system operators during emergencies

 Coordinate network restoration activities with regional field staff

 Generate service level agreement performance reports

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The ISO (International Standards Organization) model for NMS has established the following
conceptual areas (FCAPS):
a) Fault Management – equipment and network faults and alarms are captured and notified to
operators via alarms for fast restoration.

b) Accounting Management - network utilization parameters are measured to facilitate

regulated use of network.

c) Configuration Management – network and system configuration information is monitored so

that effects on network operation by different versions of hardware and software can be
tracked and managed.

d) Performance Management – network performance parameters such as error rates, system

availability etc are monitored and captured once the set thresholds have been breached.
e) Security Management - access to network resources are controlled to ensure the network
cannot be sabotaged (intentionally or unintentionally) and sensitive information cannot be
accessed unauthorized staff.

The ABBS FOX 515 digital c/w multiplexers come with a FOXMAN network management system
and the UCST configuration tool.

Private Automatic Branch Exchange (PABXs)

A PABX is a system that allows and controls the sharing of phone lines between telephones and
other communication devices.

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A local PABX is a system which is centralized around a ‘local’ network and does not necessarily
require a direct connection to a branch of a public phone network (public switched telephone
network).
The technical roles of a PBX are:
 To switch between telephone users thereby creating connections
 To make sure the connection remains in place properly by keeping its resources
 To properly end the connection when a user hangs up
 To record the quantities, statistics and metering related to the calls
Practically, they function to:
 Provide a single number that external callers can use to access all persons in a company
 Transfer calls between internal extensions
 Place external callers on hold whilst waiting for requested person to answer
The DCX-600 and ISDX-S are examples of PABXs used by ZESA and they are directional, that is,
facing a certain route for example Alaska-Warren.

PABXs comprise of different cards namely:

i. System/control cards: these consist of the CPU and the UPI. The processing unit
performs apart from other operations call processing functions as call setup and switch
connections, administration, maintenance, diagnostics and/or measurement operations
ii. Shelf interface cards – interface the control cards with the rest of the system.
These include basic extension cards with 16 extensions (extensions used for calls within
the offices) and the trunk cards for long distance call routing explained below.
iii. Miscellaneous cards – these are:
Console cards used for switchboard control and
general purpose input/output (GPIO) card, the remote access card, which allows remote
management as remote logging

Trunks

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Trunks are used to connect your PBX to the public network (a Local Exchange or Central Office
trunk) and to connect your PBX to another PBX as part of a private trunk network (Private
Trunks, Tie Trunks or Private Wires).

PBX's are programmed to allow the extension user to simply dial a code (9 for example) and
then an external number. The call is routed over one of the trunk circuits to the local exchange.
If there is a private trunk network, you would probably just dial the extension number of the
person you wanted in the other office. The call is routed over one of the PBX's private trunks to
the other PBX to ring the extension directly.

Incoming calls from the public network will route over a trunk into the PBX. They go to a fixed
answering point which can be an operator console who will answer the call and then put it
through to the extension. Then anyone can answer the call by dialing a code from any
extension. These are non-dial in trunks - the answer point (console, extension or bell) is fixed
and will always answer the call. The call is controlled by the PBX so if there is no answer from
the answering point the call can be routed elsewhere. If the call was answered by the operator
and put through to an extension that does not answer then the call will 'recall' back to the
console.

Today most businesses use Direct Dial In Trunks - DDI (sometimes called Direct Inward Dial -
DID). This allows the caller to your business to dial the number and be connected straight
through to the extension without going through the operator. For example your office number
may be 0129143XXXX where the X's represent the extension number you want. So, to call
someone whose extension is 7654 you'd dial 01291437654.

There are two basic types: Analogue and Digital. Analogue trunks are slowly disappearing and
most businesses today will be using Digital trunks.

 Analogue trunks use an electrical current (battery and earth) to signal and can't provide
many (if any) features to the caller (such as the number of the person calling). One

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 analogue trunk is one pair of wires between the PBX and the Public Exchange. So if you
needed 5 trunks you'd need 5 pairs of wires (5 circuits).

In ZESA we have carrier trunks IF1 for TelOne lines,IF2 for 2 wire E&M and IF3 for internal
carrier 4wire E&M. 2wire E&M refers to a wire for transmitting and wire for receiving and a
wire for E signaling in and a wire for M signaling out and 4 wire refers to 2wires for transmit ,2
wires for receive and a wire for E and a wire for M.

 Digital trunks use a completely different method to call and signal. A number of
individual trunk channels are multiplexed on one connection known as a digital link. This
link could be a single pair of wires, a coaxial cable or fibre optic cable. There are 32
channels which is known as an E1 link. Two of these channels are reserved for timing
(Channel 0) and signaling (Channel 16) leaving 30 channels for calls. These 32 channels
are multiplexed onto a 2Mbit/sec link (the bandwidth required).

Another digital trunk available is the Basic Rate Interface or BRI. This is 3 channels multiplexed
together. Two channels available for traffic and 1 for timing and control. BRI trunks are used to
connect PBX's to the public exchange where only a few trunk channels are needed and a full or
partial E1 link would be too expensive. BRI trunks are also available from the public exchange to
your home. BRI trunks are also known as ISDN2e.

Digital trunks offer callers a huge range of features such as calling party identification, callbacks
and messages.

Over the years trunks have been developed for all sorts of situations. Some trunks conform to
the Integrated Services Digital Network standard (Euro ISDN - for PRI and Qsig). DASSII, Euro
ISDN PRI and Euro ISDN BRI are all Public Trunk connections from the public exchange to the
PBX. DPNSS and the newer Euro ISDN Qsig are private trunk connections between PBX's and
DPNSS is mostly used by ZESA though they are also adapting to Qsig. They are also all E1 trunks
(refer to multiplexers) and so the difference is in how they signal over Channel 16.

Signaling
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Signaling is the exchange of information between involved points in the network that sets up,
controls and terminates each telephone call.

Signaling systems must not only be compatible with switching systems in order to ensure that
the latter operate correctly, but must also be compatible with transmission systems to ensure
that the signals actually get to the switching systems. As a result, the design of signaling
systems has a major influence on both switching and transmission systems.
Two types of signalling are used in the PSTN namely CCS (Common Channel signalling) and CAS
(Channel Associated Signalling).
CAS Channel Associated Signalling (CAS) is the transmission of signalling information within the
voice channel. CAS signalling often is referred to as robbed-bit signalling because user
bandwidth is being robbed by the network for other purposes.
Common Channel Signalling (CCS) is a signalling system used in telephone networks that
separates signalling information from user data. A specified channel is exclusively designated to
carry signalling information for all other channels in the system.
Common channel signalling is widely used in national and international public networks, as well
as in private networks between PBXs. It is also used in conjunction with the Integrated Services
Digital Network (ISDN) over users’ lines.

User-Line Signaling
In the local telephone network, now known as the local loop or last kilometer, the initial
signaling system used was termed loop/disconnect. This was because for the call request signal,
the user’s line was looped through the process of removing the handset from its rest. The dial
periodically disconnecting the loop achieved the dial signals and the clear signal was a
permanent disconnection caused when the handset was restored to its rest. Because
loop/disconnect relied on a direct current path between the user and the exchange, the
electrical resistance of the copper wires limited the length of the line. This was because there
was a minimum line current that the exchange could detect. This effectively meant that users’
lines were limited to a resistance of 1,000 ohms when connected to electromechanical
exchanges. With the economic need to utilize thinner and thinner copper wire, this meant that

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the distance that a user could be from the exchange became less and less. Fortunately, lines up
to 2,000 ohms can be tolerated when used in conjunction with modern digital exchanges.

The dial signals used in the loop/disconnect system are effectively one pulse of disconnection
for every digit, pulse dialing. The speed of this is 10 pulses per second. The exchange must also
be able to detect when one digit ends. Therefore the dial arranges for an inter-digital pause of
between 400 and 500 milliseconds. The period when the line is disconnected must be long
enough for the exchange to detect the disconnection, but not so long that the exchange
interprets it as a clear signal. All of these parameters result in a disconnect period of 33.3
milliseconds and a connected period of 66.6 milliseconds.
As the pulse dials were mechanical devices, it was quite difficult to ensure they retained the
characteristics to produce the required signals, especially as they suffered mechanical wear.
This generated a need for another, more reliable type of dial signal.

This resulted in a tone dialing system where two tones were transmitted to represent each
digit. The tones used are in the voice frequency range. Thus the push-button telephones, using
dual-tone multi-frequency signaling (DTMF) came into being. The decision to use two tones for
each signal, instead of one, was for reasons of security i.e. it was less likely that ambient sounds
would simulate a combination of two frequencies, especially if they were not harmonically
related. Provision was made for additional signals other than the digits 0 to 9, these are the *
and # signals which are now used to allow the user to send special messages to SPC exchanges,
in order to set features such as call diversion.
When two users connected to the same exchange call each other, a number of actions are
performed in response to signals. This uses a ‘handshake’ protocol, where every signal results in
a response, thus verifying correct operation.

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Voice/data radio

Radio spectrum refers to the part of the electromagnetic spectrum corresponding to radio
frequencies, that is, frequencies lower than around 300 GHz (or, equivalently, wavelengths
longer than about 1 mm).

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Different parts of the radio spectrum are used for different radio transmission technologies and
applications. Radio spectrum is typically government regulated in developed countries and, in
some cases, is sold or licensed to operators of private radio transmission systems (for example,
cellular telephone operators or broadcast television station. High frequency, HF, ranges from 3–
30MHz, 100 m – 10 m and finds application in Shortwave broadcasts, citizens' band radio,
amateur radio and over-the-horizon aviation communications, RFID, Over-the-horizon radar,
Automatic link establishment (ALE) / Near Vertical Incidence Skywave (NVIS) radio
communications, Marine and mobile radio telephony.

Very high frequency VHF30–300MHz, 10 m – 1 m, FM, television broadcasts and line-of-sight

ground-to-aircraft and aircraft-to-aircraft communications. Land Mobile and Maritime Mobile
communications, amateur radio, weather radio

Ultra high frequency UHF300–3000MHz, 1 m – 100 mm, Television broadcasts, microwave

ovens, microwave devices/communications, radio astronomy, mobile phones, wireless LAN,
Bluetooth, ZigBee, GPS and two-way radios such as Land Mobile, FRS and GMRS radios,
amateur radio

General Antenna properties

The first concept to understand regarding antennas is that they are passive devices. To operate,
they require no supply voltage. They do not alter or process RF signals and they do not amplify
RF energy. If they are 100% efficient, they radiate no more power than is delivered to their
input terminal.
The basic properties that are used to describe the performance of an antenna include
impedance and VSWR (Voltage Standing Wave Ratio), amplitude radiation patterns, 3 dB beam
width, directivity, gain, polarization and finally, bandwidth. These properties and their impact
on system performance are discussed below:
Impedance and VSWR
In order to achieve maximum energy transfer between a wire or coaxial transmission line and
an antenna, the input impedance of the antenna must identically match the characteristic

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impedance of the transmission line. If the two impedances do not match, a reflected wave will
be generated at the antenna terminal and travel back towards the energy source. This
reflection of energy results in a reduction in the overall system efficiency. This loss in efficiency
will occur if the antenna is used to transmit or receive energy.
The resultant voltage wave on the transmission line is the combination of both the incident
(source) and reflected waves. The ratio between the maximum voltage and the minimum
voltage along the transmission line is defined as the Voltage Standing Wave Ratio or VSWR.
The VSWR, which can be derived from the level of reflected and incident waves, is also an
indication of how closely or efficiently an antenna’s terminal input impedance is matched to the
characteristic impedance of the transmission line. An increase in VSWR indicates an increase in
the mismatch between the antenna and the transmission line.

The radiation patterns of an antenna provide the information that describes how the antenna
directs the energy it radiates the convention of an E-plane and H-plane sweep or pattern is used
in the presentation of antenna pattern data. The E-plane is the plane that contains the
antenna’s radiated electric field potential while the H-plane is the plane that contains the
antenna’s radiated magnetic field potential. These planes are always orthogonal. For dipole and
Yagi antennas, the E-plane is always in the plane parallel to the linear antenna elements.
Once the antenna pattern information is detailed in a polar plot, some quantitative aspects of
the antenna pattern properties can be described. These quantitative aspects generally include
the 3 dB beam width (1/2 power level), directivity, side lobe level and front to back ratio. To
further understand these concepts, we first consider the fundamental reference antenna, the
point source. A point source is an imaginary antenna that radiates energy equally in all
directions such that the antenna pattern is a perfect sphere. This antenna is said to be an
omnidirectional isotropic radiator and has 0 dB directivity. In practice, when an antenna is said
to be omnidirectional, it is inferred that this is referenced only to the horizontal or azimuth
sweep plane. This is a relative measure of how an antenna focuses or directs the energy it
radiates. The higher the directivity, the more focused the antenna pattern. It is important to
note that no antenna can have a directivity less than 0 dB.

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The 3 dB beam width of antenna is simply a measure of the angular width of the –3 dB points
on the antenna pattern relative to the pattern maximum. These –3 dB points on the pattern
represent the point on the pattern where the power level is _ of the value at the pattern
maximum. Generally, the 3 dB beam width is expressed separately for each of the individual
pattern sweep planes.

Material (metal/dielectric) Losses: All antennas are constructed of discrete materials which
include both metallic and non metallic components. If these components are used as part of
the actual radiating structure, such as wire elements or dielectric substrates, they will dissipate
some energy as heat rather than radiating it. The energy lost as heat in these components
reduces the effective gain of the antenna.
In many cases, the radiating structure of the antenna is housed inside a radome for protection
from the operating environment. In this case, the energy radiated by the antenna must pass
through the radome. In most cases, some amount of radiated energy is dissipated as it passes
through the antenna radome. This dissipated energy reduces the effective gain of the antenna.

The polarization of an antenna describes the orientation and sense of the radiated wave’s
electric field vector

The term bandwidth simply defines the frequency range over which an antenna meets a certain
set of specification performance criteria. Typically, optimum antenna performance is achieved
at the center frequency of the operating band.

Coaxial cables
Coax cable is defined as any cable with the following properties:
• A center conductor
• Insulation covering the center conductor, called a "dielectric"
• A braided shield surrounding the dielectric

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• An optional foil shield
• An outer jacket

RG58
Largely used in the commercial security camera industry, RG58 cable is a low profile,
inexpensive choice for large projects where a high-bandwidth cable is not needed. Most often
terminated with BNC connectors, this type of cable can also be found attached to testing
equipment and 2-way radio systems.
RG59
Once the standard for cable TV, RG59 cables are still found packaged with VCRs and televisions.
RG59 was a good low-cost option for cable TV for years until the cable industry recently began
its move into digital cable television, which needs a thicker cable. Modern satellite television
also requires a higher bandwidth-capable cable and so RG6 coaxial cable is becoming much
more popular, making RG59 no longer the industry standard.
RG6
RG6 cable is differentiated from RG59 cable by having a thicker copper center conductor. RG6 is
primarily being used today for satellite and digital cable TV, where higher frequencies are
required that RG59 cable cannot support. RG6 cable is most often sold with F-pin connectors
for cable or satellite applications.

Use of Repeater sites

A repeater is an automatic radio-relay station, usually located on a mountain top, tall building,
or radio tower. It allows communication between two or more base, mobile or portable
stations that are unable to communicate directly with each other due to distance or
obstructions between them.

The repeater receives on one radio frequency (the "input" frequency), demodulates the signal,
and simultaneously re-transmits the information on its "output" frequency. All stations using
the repeater transmit on the repeater's input frequency and receive on its output frequency.

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Since the repeater is usually located at an elevation higher than the other radios using it, their
range is greatly extended.

Because the transmitter and receiver are on at the same time, isolation must exist to keep the
repeater's own transmitter from degrading the repeater receiver. If the repeater transmitter
and receiver are not isolated well, the repeater's own transmitter desensitizes the repeater
receiver. The problem is similar to being at a rock concert and not being able to hear the weak
signal of a conversation over the much stronger signal of the band.

In general, isolating the receiver from the transmitter is made easier by maximizing, as much as
possible, the separation between input and output frequencies.

Trunked radio vs. Two way Radio

The concept of trunking refers to sharing of resources among a number of different users on
the same system without overhearing or interfering with each others’ conversations. It takes
advantage of the probability that in a given number of different user units, not everyone will
need resources access at the same time.
The system logic then automatically selects the physical radio frequency channel without user
interference. Channel assignment happens automatically through the use of a protocol defining
relationship between radios and the radio network which supports them. Hence, a small group
of people can share an actual small set of frequencies without hearing each others’
conversation. System makes arrangements for handshaking between radios and if all channels

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are busy there is a protocol to queue or stack pending requests until a channel becomes
available. Trunked radio differ from two-way in that in two way/conventional, radio system
uses a dedicated RF for each individual group user and channel is selected by the user, whereas
in trunked there is a pool of channels available for many different users and the system logic
automatically picks physical radio frequency channel.
Benefits of trunked radio over two-way radio:
 Efficient use of channel (spectrum) resources
o Shared traffic among communication paths
o Increased probabilities of obtaining free channel

 Privacy of communications due to each group uses one channel exclusively during the
duration of the call

 Eliminate the need to monitor the channel before transmitting. User just “PTT” and
the system will take care to find available channel for the call

 Redundancy of channel resources. If one channel is down, all reminder channels can
still be used by all groups

 As trunked system has intelligence control, there are more features available that are
not found in conventional system. Some examples are queuing when all channels are
occupied, automatic call back when channel is available, multiple priority level,
automatic retry, etc

Data radios
In order to achieve its purpose, a data radio must contain two components: a
transmitter and a receiver. The data radio transmitter and receiver must contain an
antenna on each device. The transmitter will take the data or information and alter each
of its three components into a single radio wave. These components include the
frequency, amplitude, and a phase. Once converted, the single radio wave will be
transmitted through the air to the data radio receiver through its antenna. The data
radio receiver accepts the single radio wave through its antenna and decodes it and

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 converts it back into a physical form of information. This information can include written
information or data, audio, images, video, and more.

VSATS

VSAT stands for Very Small Aperture Terminal. VSAT is a device (also known as an “earth
station”) that is used to send and receive wireless transmissions by satellite. Millions of VSATs
are in use around the world, allowing people to send and receive two-way data, voice or video
transmissions by bouncing signals off of satellites in orbit. The "very small" component of the
VSAT acronym refers to the size of the VSAT “antenna” or “dish” - typically about 2 to 5feet
(0.55-1.8 meters) in diameter for Ku-band systems - that is mounted on a roof, attached to a
wall or placed on the ground and is capable of both receiving and sending satellite signals. VSAT

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systems can be designed to serve both broadcast and interactive applications whether data,
voice or video, which are now being served by terrestrial lines and can be operated in either
single or multi-user environment. In single-user mode it would interface directly to the
customer's PC. In multi-user mode, it will seamlessly integrate into a local area network with its
built in Ethernet Interface RJ-45 (10/100) and also acts as an access router to support services
to connecting PCs.
VSAT Equipment is mainly consist of-
 ODU ( Outdoor Unit )

 IDU ( Indoor Unit )

Outdoor Unit (ODU):

The outdoor unit system is specifically optimized for use with the Indoor Unit and consists of:
Transmit / Receive Dish (Antenna) (0.75m - 1.8m)

Block Up-converter (BUC) (1W-2W)

Low Noise Block-Down-converter (LNB)

Feed Assembly

BUC
Block up-converter converts incoming I.F. (from IDU) to R.F. transmitting frequency, amplifies it
and passes it to feed.
LNB
LNB amplifies incoming R.F.(Radio Frequency) from feed using low noise amplifier, converts it
to I.F. and passes it to IDU
IDU (Indoor Unit)

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On receiving side, converts I.F. (Intermediate Frequency) from ODU to base band signals which
may be data, video or voice. On transmitting side, converts base band signals to I.F. and passes
them to ODU. I.F. is generally in L band whilst R.F. can be in C, Ku or Ka bands.
The indoor unit may be a small desktop box, or it may be (as in this case) a network module
integrated with a router providing VSAT network connectivity just as any other network module
and provide flexible Interfaces like Ethernet 10/100 BaseT (RJ45), USB with maximum download
speed of up to 4 Mbps and maximum upload speed of up to 2 Mbps.

V-SAT networks can be arranged in point to point, star, mesh, star/mesh, and broadcast
configurations. The preferred arrangement depends on the kind of information flow the
network will service. A point to point network allows two-way communications between two
VSAT sites. A star network allows any number of VSAT sites to have two-way communication
with a central hub. A mesh network allows two-way communications between any VSAT sites in
a network. A central hub is not necessary. Each site communicates to another site with a single
satellite hop.

The V-SAT Broad VSAT network allows secure, reliable and cost effective data, voice and video
transmission and enables an organization to deploy nationwide different services over IP using
the shortest time span. Services offered include:
LEASED LINES Through V-SAT on IP PLATFORM: 4Kbps onwards

High speed Broadband Internet

VPN Networking

VOIP Telephony

Facsimile

Telemedicine

E-learning

IP multicasting

Video conferencing

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Video streaming

Facsimile

Distance Education

Banking

E-learning

On-demand services for WAN backup/disaster recovery etc.

GEO vs.MEO vs. LEO

Traditional communications satellites orbit at what is known as a geosynchronous (GEO) orbit

at a height above the earth of 22,300 miles (36,000 km). The advantage to this very specific
location is that it takes 24 hours for the satellite to orbit the earth, which means that the
satellite remains at the same location above the earth at all times and appears to remain
stationary to an observer on the ground.
This orbit is very convenient in allowing the user on the ground to fix an antenna to a particular
location in the sky. This orbit also provides continuous coverage for any location that can see
the satellite and allows the operator to focus on coverage for particular countries or population
centers. The disadvantage is the distance itself, which is about three times the diameter of the
earth or about 10% of the distance to the moon. In contrast, the International Space Station
orbits at an altitude of approximately 250 miles (400 km), and the earth’s atmosphere extends
out to only about 600 miles (approximately 1000 km). GEO orbit is extremely high, which makes
GEO satellites expensive to launch and impossible to repair in orbit. But most of all, GEO orbit is
so far away that it takes light about 1/4 of a second to travel from earth to the satellite and
back down to the receiver, adding a noticeable delay to voice communications and interfering
with TCP’s round-trip time based algorithms.
Therefore, since distance to GEO satellites causes problems, the obvious solution was to move
the satellites closer to the ground in LEO (low earth orbit) or MEO (medium earth orbit) orbit.
There is no single definition of LEO and MEO orbits, but in general LEO extends from the ground
up to about a thousand miles and MEO extends from there up to GEO orbit.

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In addition to lower delay, the cost of launching LEO and MEO satellites is generally much less
than for GEO satellites. A LEO satellite can potentially be repaired in orbit from the Space
Shuttle.
Because LEO and MEO satellites move in relationship to the ground, multiple satellites are
required to provide continuous coverage so that at least one satellite is in view at all times. The
lower the satellite is to the ground, the more satellites are necessary to cover the earth e.g. the
Iridium system is a constellation of 66 satellites. Store-and-forward tracking systems can work
with only a few satellites, but for voice or Internet service, the full constellation must be in orbit
before the system can be operational since service which is available for a few minutes out of
each hour as the satellite goes overhead will not find many customers. In contrast, a GEO
satellite can provide coverage to users on about 1/3 of the earth with only a single satellite. So
while it may cost less to launch a single LEO satellite, the whole fleet can cost billions of dollars
before the system can be switched on and begin generating revenue.
Also, due to the movement of the satellites relative to the users, a sophisticated hand-off
system is necessary to periodically move the user from one satellite that is disappearing over
the horizon to another satellite that is still visible. On the ground, a sophisticated antenna
which can track moving satellites and switch between satellites on-the-fly may be required,
which would likely make the customer premise equipment prohibitively expensive for
consumers. Satellite telephone systems solved this problem by using a unidirectional antenna
which is sufficient for low power phone service (although the subsequent inability of the phone
to work indoors or even in the shadow of tall buildings may have been a large contributor to
the failure of the businesses) but this type of unidirectional antenna would be unlikely to work
for Internet systems operating at high data rates.
Lastly, while LEO satellites do reduce the round-trip time to just a few tens of milliseconds, the
round-trip time will be highly variable depending on whether the satellite is directly overhead
or on the horizon. Since TCP’s retransmission mechanisms are tied to the round-trip time, TCP
can be highly sensitive to variability in the round-trip time.

Pisirai Grace (pisirai@gmail.com)

 Appendix
ADM – add and drop multiplexer
ADSS – all dielectric self supporting
BUC – block up converter
CAS – channel associated signalling
CCS – common channel signalling

Pisirai Grace (pisirai@gmail.com)

 CPU – central processing unit
DASS – digital access signalling system
DNS – domain name server
DHCP – dynamic host control protocol
DPNSS – digital private network signalling system. Private trunk connections between
PABX
DTMF – dual tone multi-frequency
ERP – enterprise resource planning
FTP – file transfer protocol
GEO – geosynchronous orbit
GUI – graphical user interface
HTTP – hyper text transfer protocol
HF – high frequency
IDU – indoor unit
ISDN – integrated services digital network
LAN – local area network
LNB – low noise block
LEO – low earth orbit
MEO – medium earth orbit
MAN – metropolitan area network
OPGW – optical ground wire
OSI – open system interconnection
PABX - private automatic branch exchange
PDH – plesiochronous digital hierarchy
PLC - power line carrier
PRI – primary rate interfaces as Qsig, DPNSS
PSTN – public switched telephone network
RF – radio frequency
RTU – remote terminal unit

Pisirai Grace (pisirai@gmail.com)

 SCADA – supervisory control and data acquisition
SDH – synchronous digital hierarchy
SFP - small form factor pluggable
SPC – stored program control
STM – synchronous transport module
TCP – transport control protocol
UHF – ultra high frequency
UPI – universal peripheral interface
VSAT - Very Small Aperture terminal
VHF – very high frequency
WAN – wide area network

ITU-T G.703 – digital transmission systems terminal equipment. General

physical/electric characteristics of hierarchical digital interface
ITU-T G.704 – digital transmission system terminal equipment for general synchronous
fame structures used as STM-1, STM-4

Pisirai Grace (pisirai@gmail.com)