DUAL SPORTS

BADMINTON
Badminton is a racquet sport played using racquets to hit
a shuttlecock across a net. Although it may be played with larger
teams, the most common forms of the game are "singles" (with one
player per side) and "doubles" (with two players per side).
Badminton is often played as a casual outdoor activity in a yard
or on a beach; formal games are played on a rectangular indoor
court. Points are scored by striking the shuttlecock with the
racquet and landing it within the opposing side's half of the
court.
Each side may only strike the shuttlecock once before it passes
over the net. Play ends once the shuttlecock has struck the floor
or if a fault has been called by the umpire, service judge, or
(in their absence) the opposing side.
The shuttlecock is a feathered or (in informal matches) plastic
projectile which flies differently from the balls used in many
other sports. In particular, the feathers create much
higher drag, causing the shuttlecock to decelerate more rapidly.
Shuttlecocks also have a high top speed compared to the balls in
other racquet sports. The flight of the shuttlecock gives the
sport its distinctive nature.
The game developed in British India from the earlier game
of battledore and shuttlecock. European play came to be dominated
by Denmark but the game has become very popular in Asia, with
recent competitions dominated by China. Since 1992, badminton has
been a Summer Olympic sport with four events: men's singles,
women's singles, men's doubles, and women's doubles, with mixed
doubles added four years later. At high levels of play, the sport
demands excellent fitness: players require aerobic
stamina, agility, strength, speed, and precision. It is also a
technical sport, requiring good motor coordination and the
development of sophisticated racquet movements.

HISTORY
Games employing shuttlecocks have been played for centuries
across Eurasia but the modern game of badminton developed in the
mid-19th century among the British as a variant of the earlier
game of battledore and shuttlecock. ("Battledore" was an older
term for "racquet".) Its exact origin remains obscure. The name
derives from the Duke of Beaufort's Badminton
House in Gloucestershire,[5] but why or when remains unclear. As
early as 1860, a London toy dealer named Isaac Spratt published a
booklet entitled Badminton Battledore – A New Game, but no copy
is known to have survived.[6] An 1863 article in The Cornhill
Magazine describes badminton as "battledore and shuttlecock
played with sides, across a string suspended some five feet from
the ground".
The game may have originally developed among expatriate officers
in British India, where it was very popular by the 1870s. Ball
badminton, a form of the game played with a wool ball instead of
a shuttlecock, was being played in Thanjavur as early as the
1850s and was at first played interchangeably with badminton by
the British, the woollen ball being preferred in windy or wet
weather.
Early on, the game was also known as Poona or Poonah after the
garrison town of Pune, where it was particularly popular and
where the first rules for the game were drawn up in 1873. By
1875, officers returning home had started a badminton club
in Folkestone. Initially, the sport was played with sides ranging
from 1 to 4 players, but it was quickly established that games
between two or four competitors worked the best. The shuttlecocks
were coated with India rubber and, in outdoor play, sometimes
weighted with lead. Although the depth of the net was of no
consequence, it was preferred that it should reach the ground.
The sport was played under the Pune rules until 1887, when J. H.
E. Hart of the Bath Badminton Club drew up revised
regulations. In 1890, Hart and Bagnel Wild again revised the
rules. The Badminton Association of England (BAE) published these
rules in 1893 and officially launched the sport at a house called
"Dunbar" in Portsmouth on 13 September. The BAE started the first
badminton competition, the All England Open Badminton
Championships for gentlemen's doubles, ladies' doubles, and mixed
doubles, in 1899. Singles competitions were added in 1900 and
an England–Ireland championship match appeared in 1904.
England, Scotland, Wales, Canada, Denmark, France, Ireland,
the Netherlands, and New Zealand were the founding members of the
International Badminton Federation in 1934, now known as
the Badminton World Federation. India joined as an affiliate in
1936. The BWF now governs international badminton. Although
initiated in England, competitive men's badminton has
traditionally been dominated in Europe by Denmark. Worldwide,
Asian nations have become dominant in international
competition. China, Denmark, India, Indonesia, Malaysia,
and South Korea are the nations which have consistently produced
world-class players in the past few decades, with China being the
greatest force in men's and women's competition recently.
The game has also become a popular backyard sport in the United
States
RULES

The Laws of Badminton

The Laws of Badminton and Competition Regulations in the BWF
Statutes provide the detail on every aspect of the game of
badminton.
Below is a brief overview  - simplified rules.
Scoring System

o A match consists of the best of 3 games of 21 points.

o Every time there is a serve – there is a point scored.
o The side winning a rally adds a point to its score.
o At 20 all, the side which gains a 2 point lead first, wins
that game.
o At 29 all, the side scoring the 30th point, wins that game.
o The side winning a game serves first in the next game.

Interval and Change of Ends

o When the leading score reaches 11 points, players have a 60

second interval.
o A 2 minute interval between each game is allowed.
o In the third game, players change ends when the leading
score reaches 11 points.

Singles

o At the beginning of the game (0-0) and when the server’s

score is even, the server serves from the right service
court. When the server’s score is odd, the server serves
from the left service court.
o If the server wins a rally, the server scores a point and
then serves again from the alternate service court.
o If the receiver wins a rally, the receiver scores a point
and becomes the new server. They serve from the appropriate
service court – left if their score is odd, and right if it
is even.
 Doubles

o A side has only one ‘set’.

o The service passes consecutively to the players as shown in
the diagram.
o At the beginning of the game and when the score is even, the
server serves from the right service court. When it is odd,
the server serves from the left court.
o If the serving side wins a rally, the serving side scores a
point and the same server serves again from the alternate
service court.
o If the receiving side wins a rally, the receiving side
scores a point. The receiving side becomes the new serving
side.
o The players do not change their respective service courts
until they win a point when their side is serving.

If players commit an error in the service court, the error is

corrected when the mistake is discovered.
In a doubles match between A & B against C & D.  A & B won the
toss and decided to serve. A to serve to C. A shall be the
initial server while C shall be the initial receiver.
 
Course of Score Service Server & Winner  
action / from Receiver of the
Explanation Service rally
Court
  Love Right Service A serves A
All Court. Being to C A &
the score of and C are B
the serving the
side is even. initial
server
and
receiver.
A & B win a point. A & B 1-0 Left Service A serves C
will change service Court. Being to D &
courts. A serves again the score of D
from Left service court. C the serving
& D will stay in the same side is odd
service courts.
 C & D win a point and also 1-1 Left Service D serves A
right to serve. Nobody Court. Being to A. &
will change their the score of B
respective service courts. the serving
side is odd.
A & B win a point and also 2-1 Right Service B serves C
right to serve. Nobody Court. Being to C &
will change their the score of D
respective service courts. the serving
side is even.
C & D win a point and also 2-2 Right Service C serves C
right to serve. Nobody Court. Being to B &
will change their the score of D
respective service courts. the serving
side is even.
C & D win a point. C & D 3-2 Left Service C serves A
will change service Court. Being to A &
courts. C serves from Left the score of B
service court. A & B will the serving
stay in the same service side is odd.
courts.
A & B win a point and also 3-3 Left Service A serves A
right to serve. Nobody Court. Being to C &
will change their the score of B
respective service courts. the serving
side is odd.
A & B win a point. A & B 4-3 Right Service A serves C
will change service Court. Being to D &
courts. A serves again the score of D
from Right service court. the serving
C & D will stay in the side is even.
same service courts.
Note that this means:

o The order of server depends on the score odd or even same as

in singles. 
o The service courts are changed by the servicing side only
when a point is scored. In all other cases, the players
continue to stay in their respective service court from
where they played previous rally. This shall guarantee
alternate server.
 TENNIS

Tennis is a racket sport that can be played individually against

a single opponent (singles) or between two teams of two players
each (doubles). Each player uses a tennis racket that is strung
with cord to strike a hollow rubber ball covered with felt over
or around a net and into the opponent's court. The object of the
game is to maneuver the ball in such a way that the opponent is
not able to play a valid return. The player who is unable to
return the ball will not gain a point, while the opposite player
will.
o Tennis is an Olympic sport and is played at all levels of
society and at all ages. The sport can be played by anyone
who can hold a racket, including wheelchair users. The
modern game of tennis originated in Birmingham, England, in
the late 19th century as lawn tennis.[1] It had close
connections both to various field (lawn) games such
as croquet and bowls as well as to the older racket sport
today called real tennis. During most of the 19th century,
in fact, the term tennis referred to real tennis, not lawn
tennis: for example, in Disraeli's novel Sybil (1845), Lord
Eugene De Vere announces that he will "go down to Hampton
Court and play tennis. "[2]
o The rules of modern tennis have changed little since the
1890s. Two exceptions are that from 1908 to 1961 the server
had to keep one foot on the ground at all times, and the
adoption of the tiebreak in the 1970s. A recent addition to
professional tennis has been the adoption of electronic
review technology coupled with a point-challenge system,
which allows a player to contest the line call of a point, a
system known as Hawk-Eye.
o Tennis is played by millions of recreational players and is
also a popular worldwide spectator sport. The four Grand
Slamtournaments (also referred to as the Majors) are
especially popular: the Australian Open played on hard
courts, the French Open played on red clay
courts, Wimbledon played on grass courts, and the US
Open also played on hard courts.
 HISTORY

Historians believe that the game's ancient origin lay in 12th

century northern France, where a ball was struck with the palm of
the hand. Louis X of France was a keen player of jeu de
paume ("game of the palm"), which evolved into real tennis, and
became notable as the first person to construct indoor tennis
courts in the modern style. Louis was unhappy with playing tennis
outdoors and accordingly had indoor, enclosed courts made in
Paris "around the end of the 13th century". In due course this
design spread across royal palaces all over Europe. In June 1316
at Vincennes, Val-de-Marne and following a particularly
exhausting game, Louis drank a large quantity of cooled wine and
subsequently died of either pneumonia or pleurisy, although there
was also suspicion of poisoning. Because of the contemporary
accounts of his death, Louis X is history's first tennis player
known by name. Another of the early enthusiasts of the game was
King Charles V of France, who had a court set up at the Louvre
Palace.
It wasn't until the 16th century that rackets came into use, and
the game began to be called "tennis", from the French term tenez,
which can be translated as "hold!", "receive!" or "take!",
an interjection used as a call from the server to his
opponent. It was popular in England and France, although the game
was only played indoors where the ball could be hit off the
wall. Henry VIII of England was a big fan of this game, which is
now known as real tennis. During the 18th and early 19th
centuries, as real tennis declined, new racket sports emerged in
England.
Further, the patenting of the first lawn mower in 1830, in
Britain, is strongly believed to have been the catalyst,
worldwide, for the preparation of modern-style grass courts,
sporting ovals, playing fields, pitches, greens, etc. This in
turn led to the codification of modern rules for many sports,
including lawn tennis, most football codes, lawn bowls and
others.
 Origin of the modern game
Between 1859 and 1865 Harry Gem, a solicitor and his
friend Augurio Perera developed a game that combined elements
of racquets and the Basque ball game pelota, which they played on
Perera's croquet lawn in Birmingham, England, United Kingdom. In
1872, along with two local doctors, they founded the world's
first tennis club on Avenue Road, Leamington Spa. This is where
"lawn tennis" is used as a name of activity by a club for the
first time. After Leamington, the second club to take up the game
of lawn tennis appears to have been the Edgbaston Archery and
Croquet Society, also in Birmingham.
In Tennis: A Cultural History, Heiner Gillmeister reveals that on
December 8, 1874, British army officer Walter Clopton
Wingfield wrote to Harry Gem, commenting that he (Wingfield) had
been experimenting with his version of lawn tennis “for a year
and a half”. In December 1873, Wingfield designed and patented a
game which he called sphairistikè (Greek: σφαιριστική, meaning
"ball-playing"), and was soon known simply as "sticky" – for the
amusement of guests at a garden party on his friend's estate
of Nantclwyd Hall, in Llanelidan, Wales. According to R. D. C.
Evans, turfgrass agronomist, "Sports historians all agree that
[Wingfield] deserves much of the credit for the development of
modern tennis." According to Honor Godfrey, museum curator at
Wimbledon, Wingfield "popularized this game enormously. He
produced a boxed set which included a net, poles, rackets, balls
for playing the game – and most importantly you had his rules. He
was absolutely terrific at marketing and he sent his game all
over the world. He had very good connections with the clergy, the
law profession, and the aristocracy and he sent thousands of sets
out in the first year or so, in 1874. The world's oldest annual
tennis tournament took place at Leamington Lawn Tennis Club in
Birmingham in 1874. This was three years before the All England
Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club would hold its first championships
at Wimbledon, in 1877. The first Championships culminated a
significant debate on how to standardize the rules.
 Tennis Rules
Tennis is a sport that originated in England around the 19th
century and is now played in a host of countries around the
world. There are four major tournaments known as the ‘majors’
that include Wimbledon, US Open, French Open and Australian
tournament

Object of the Game

The game of tennis played on a rectangular court with a net
running across the centre. The aim is to hit the ball over the
net landing the ball within the margins of the court and in a way
that results in your opponent being unable to return the ball.
You win a point every time your opponent is unable to return the
ball 

Players & Equipment

A tennis match can be played by either one player on each side –
a singles match – or two players on each side – a doubles match.
The rectangular shaped court has a base line (at the back),
service areas (two spaces just over the net in which a successful
serve must land in) and two tram lines down either side. A
singles match will mean you use the inner side tram line and a
doubles match will mean you use the outer tram line.

A court can be played on four main surfaces including grass,

clay, hard surface and carpet. Each tournament will choose one
surface type and stick without throughout. All that is required
in terms of equipment is a stringed racket each and a tennis
ball.

Scoring
You need to score four points to win a game of tennis. The points
are known as 15 (1 point), 30 (two points), 40 (three points) and
the fourth would result in the winning point and the end of that
game. If the scores went to 40-40 this would be known as deuce.
When a game reaches deuce the player must then win by two clear
points.

Winning the Game

To win the game you must win a certain amount of sets (best of
three for women’s matches and best of 5 sets for men’s matches).
Winning a set is simply the first player to reach 6 games but
have to be clear by at least 2 games. If your opponent wins 5
games you must win the set 7-5. If the set goes to 6-6 then a tie
break is played and it’s simply the first player to 7 points.

Rules of Tennis
 The game starts with a coin toss to determine which player
must serve first and which side they want to serve from.
 The server must then serve each point from alternative sides
on the base line. At no point must the server’s feet move in
front of the baseline on the court prior to hitting their
serve.
 If the server fails to get their first serve in they may
take advantage of a second serve. If they again fail to get
their second serve in then a double fault will be called and
the point lost.
 If the server clips the net but the ball goes in the service
area still then let is called and they get to take that
serve again without penalty. If the ball hits the net and
fails to go in the service area then out is called and they
lose that serve.
 The receiver may stand where they wish upon receipt of the
serve. If the ball is struck without the serve bouncing then
the server will receive the point.
 Once a serve has been made the amount of shots between the
players can be unlimited. The point is won by hitting the
ball so the opponent fails to return it in the scoring
areas.
 Points are awarded in scores of 15, 30 and 40. 15 represent
1 point, 30 = 2 and 40 = 3. You
 need 4 points to win a game. If a game lands on 40-40 it’s
known as deuce. From deuce a player needs to win 2
consecutive points to win the game. After winning one point
 from deuce they player is on advantage. If the player wins
the next point they win the game, if they lose it goes back
to deuce.
 To win the set a player must win 6 games by 2 or more. The
opening sets will go to a tie break if its ends up 6-6 where
players play first to 7 points. The final set will not have
a tie break and requires players to win by two games with no
limits.
 If a player touches the net, distracts his opponent or
impedes in anyway then they automatically lose the point.
 The ball can hit any part of the line for the point to be
called in, outside the line and the ball is out.
 The balls in a tennis match are changed for new balls every
6 games
 A player loses a point if they fail to return the ball in
either the correct areas on the court, hits the net and
doesn’t go into opponent’s area or fails to return the ball
before it bounces twice in their half.
 TABLE TENNIS
Table tennis, also known as ping-pong, is a sport in which two or
four players hit a lightweight ball back and forth across a table
using small rackets. The game takes place on a hard table divided
by a net. Except for the initial serve, the rules are generally
as follows: players must allow a ball played toward them to
bounce one time on their side of the table, and must return it so
that it bounces on the opposite side at least once. A point is
scored when a player fails to return the ball within the rules.
Play is fast and demands quick reactions. Spinning the ball
alters its trajectory and limits an opponent's options, giving
the hitter a great advantage.
Table tennis is governed by the worldwide
organization International Table Tennis Federation (ITTF),
founded in 1926. ITTF currently includes 226 member
associations. The table tennis official rules are specified in
the ITTF handbook. Table tennis has been an Olympic
sport since 1988 with several event categories. From 1988 until
2004, these were men's singles, women's singles, men's doubles
and women's doubles. Since 2008, a team event has been played
instead of the doubles.

HISTORY
The sport originated in Victorian England, where it was played
among the upper-class as an after-dinner parlour game. It has
been suggested that makeshift versions of the game were developed
by British military officers in India in around 1860s or 1870s,
who brought it back with them. A row
of books stood up along the center of the table as a net, two
more books served as rackets and were used to continuously hit a
golf-ball.
The name "ping-pong" was in wide use before British
manufacturer J. Jaques & Son Ltd trademarked it in 1901. The name
"ping-pong" then came to describe the game played using the
rather expensive Jaques's equipment, with other manufacturers
calling it table tennis. A similar situation arose in the United
States, where Jaques sold the rights to the "ping-pong" name
to Parker Brothers. Parker Brothers then enforced its trademark
for the term in the 1920s making the various associations change
their names to "table tennis" instead of the more common, but
trademarked, term.
The next major innovation was by James W. Gibb, a British
enthusiast of table tennis, who discovered
novelty celluloid balls on a trip to the US in 1901 and found
them to be ideal for the game. This was followed by E.C. Goode
who, in 1901, invented the modern version of the racket by fixing
a sheet of pimpled, or stippled, rubber to the wooden blade.
Table tennis was growing in popularity by 1901 to the extent that
tournaments were being organized, books being written on the
subject,[7]and an unofficial world championship was held in 1902.
In 1921, the Table Tennis Association was founded, and in 1926
renamed the English Table Tennis Association. The International
Table Tennis Federation (ITTF) followed in 1926. London hosted
the first official World Championships in 1926. In 1933,
the United States Table Tennis Association, now called USA Table
Tennis, was formed.
In the 1930s, Edgar Snow commented in Red Star Over China that
the Communist forces in the Chinese Civil War had a "passion for
the English game of table tennis" which he found "bizarre".[13] On
the other hand, the popularity of the sport waned in 1930s Soviet
Union, partly because of the promotion of team and military
sports, and partly because of a theory that the game had adverse
health effects.
In the 1950s, paddles that used a rubber sheet combined with an
underlying sponge layer changed the game
dramatically, introducing greater spin and speed. These were
introduced to Britain by sports goods manufacturer S.W. Hancock
Ltd. The use of speed glue increased the spin and speed even
further, resulting in changes to the equipment to "slow the game
down". Table tennis was introduced as an Olympic sport at
the Olympics in 1988.

RULES AND REGULATION

 post entitled Table Tennis Rules and Regulations might sound

boring, but it isn’t! At least, I hope it won’t be.
In this post, I will clearly explain the most important rules of
table tennis and in doing so, put an end to the countless
arguments occur each day across the globe.

If you are a casual player or a beginner, this post will attempt

to expose any and all of the mythical, made-up table tennis rules
that crop up on tables the world over. I will also provide a
brief bullet point summary of the basic rules of table tennis.

If you’re an experienced player I hope that you’ll find this

article useful as well. I recently attempted an umpiring exam
paper and despite having been playing table tennis for over 10
years… I failed. There are a few odd and hard to understand rules
and regulations in table tennis and I’ll be highlighted them and
asking for your opinion.

So let’s begin…

Table Tennis Rules: Myth-busters

During the time I’ve been playing and coaching table tennis, I
think I’ve heard every made-up rule there is! Here are a few you
might hear and why they are nonsense.

“Don’t you have to serve diagonally in table tennis?”

 Nope! In tennis, squash and badminton you must serve

diagonally but in table tennis singles you can serve
wherever you like. Yes, that includes off the sides of the
table, if you can get enough sidespin. In table tennis
doubles, you do have to serve diagonally and always from
your right-hand half to your opponents right-hand half.

“The ball hit you, so that’s my point!”

 A common one with the kids in school. Sorry, but if you’ve

whacked the ball at me and it didn’t hit the table, then
that’s a miss. We’re not playing dodge ball!

“I thought you were meant to play up to 21? I don’t like playing

to 11.”
  In this case, many of the older players would probably agree
with you but the ITTF changed the scoring system from 21-
points to 11-points back in 2001. If you play competitively
the game will be up to 11, so you might as well get used to
it!

“You can’t hit it around the net!”

 Actually, you can. And it can be a pretty hard shot to get

back. If you put a ball out really wide, your opponent is
well within the rules to return it around the net. This even
means that in some cases the ball can just roll on your side
of the table and not even bounce! It’s very rare but it does
happen. There are numerous videos on YouTube.

“The ball has to cross the net four times before you start ‘play
for serve'”

 I hear arguments about this a lot. ‘Play for serve’ is made-

up. In a competitive game, the server is usually decided by
a coin toss or picking which hand you think the ball is in.
If you really want to ‘play for serve’, then just agree
before you start at which point you are allowed to start
attacking the rally. However, it’s probably easier just to
put the ball under the table and guess which hand it’s in!

Basic Table Tennis Rules

I’ve summarised the official (and very long) rules of the ITTF in
these basic table tennis rules. These should be all you need to
start playing a game.

Service Rules

1. The service must start with the ball in an open palm. This

stops you from throwing it up with spin.
2. The ball must be thrown vertically, at least 16 cm. This
stops you from serving straight out of your hand and
surprising your opponent.
3. The ball must be above and behind the table throughout the
serve. This stops you getting any silly angles and gives
your opponent a fair chance at returning.
 4. After throwing the ball, the server must get their free arm
and hand out of the way. This is to allow the receiver to
see the ball.

Doubles Rules

1. The service must go diagonally, from the server’s right-hand

side to the receivers right-hand side. This stops you from
getting the opposing pair tangled up before they’ve even hit
a ball.
2. A doubles pair must strike the ball alternately. This makes
doubles challenging. None of that front court/back court
tennis nonsense.
3. At the change of service, the previous receiver becomes the
new server and the partner of the previous server becomes
the receiver. This makes sure everybody does everything.
After eight points you’re back to the start of the cycle.

General match play

1. You have two serves before it is your opponent’s turn to

serve twice. This used to be five serves each but since
changing to 11 it’s now just two.
2. At 10-10 it’s deuce. You get one serve each and must win by
two clear points. This is sudden death or table tennis’
equivalent of a tie break.
3. If you are playing a best of 3, 5 or 7 (as opposed to just
one set) you have to change ends after each game. This makes
sure both players experience conditions on both sides of the
table. You also change ends when the first player reaches
five points in the final game of a match.

A let is called if…

1. An otherwise good serve touches the net. This ensures your

opponent has a chance at making a return.
2. The receiver isn’t ready (and doesn’t try to hit the
ball). This is just common sense really!
3. If play is disturbed by something outside of the players’
control. This allows you to replay the point if your cat
jumps onto the table, etc.
A point is lost if…

1. The service is missed.

2. The service is not returned.
3. A shot goes into the net.
4. A shot goes off the table without touching the court.
5. A player moves the table, touches the net or touches the
table with their free hand during play.

Odd Table Tennis Rules

Here are a few table tennis rules and regulations that surprised
me.

You are allowed to accidentally ‘double hit’ the ball!

 The rules state that you lose a point if

you deliberately strike the ball twice in succession.
 Did you know this? I think it’s a new rule. What do you
think of it?

You are allowed a maximum of two advertisements on the back of

your shirt, in international competitions.

 I wonder if they ever check to see if players have three?

 I’ve certainly never heard of a player having to change a
shirt because they have too many adverts on their back!
 Let me know if you ever see a video with someone wearing
three in an international competition.

The playing surface of the table can be made of any material.

 All it has to do is give a uniform bounce of about 23cm when

a ball is dropped from 30cm.
 I’m pretty sure they are always made of wood though but I
may be wrong.

The racket can be any size, shape or weight.

 I’ve seen a few funny home-made bats recently from local

league players. One was made of balsa wood and about an inch
thick!
  At the time I thought, “It’s fine here but they wouldn’t get
away with that in an actual tournament”.
 Well, apparently they would!

If a wheelchair player is playing in an able-bodied tournament

their opponents must play ‘wheelchair rules’ against them.

 I came into contact with this rule coaching at Junior

British League Qualifiers last summer. I was ensured by the
tournament umpires and referees that this was the case and I
myself had no idea, so I had to go with it.
 I since discovered that the rules state that wheelchair
service/receive rules apply simply, “if the receiver is in a
wheelchair”, regardless of who the server
 FIGURE SKATING

Figure skating is a sport in which individuals, duos, or groups

perform on figure skates on ice. It was the first winter sport
included in the Olympics, in 1908. The four Olympic disciplines
are men's singles, ladies' singles, pair skating, and ice dance.
Non-Olympic disciplines include synchronized skating, Theater on
Ice, and four skating. From novice through senior-level
competition, skaters generally perform two programs
(short and free skating) which, depending on the discipline, may
include spins, jumps, moves in the field, lifts, throw
jumps, death spirals, and other elements or moves.
The blade has a groove on the bottom creating two distinct edges:
inside and outside. Judges prefer that skaters glide on one edge
of the blade and not on both at the same time, which is referred
to as a flat edge. During a spin, skaters use the "sweet spot" of
the blade, formally called a rocker, which is the roundest
portion of the blade, just behind the pick and near the middle of
the blade. Skates used in single and pair skating have a set of
large, jagged teeth called toe picks on the front of the blade.
Toe picks are mainly used for the take-off on jumps. Ice dance
blades are an inch shorter in the rear and have smaller toe
picks.
Figure skaters compete at various levels from beginner up to the
Olympic level (senior) at local, regional, national, and
international competitions. The International Skating Union (ISU)
regulates international figure skating judging and competitions.
These include the Winter Olympics, the World Championships,
the World Junior Championships, the European Championships,
the Four Continents Championships, the Grand Prix series
(senior and junior), and the ISU Challenger Series.
The sport is also associated with show business. Major
competitions generally conclude with exhibition galas, in which
the top skaters from each discipline perform non-competitive
programs. Many skaters, both during and after their competitive
careers, also skate in ice shows, which run during the
competitive season and the off-season.

HISTORY
The history of figure skating stretches back to prehistoric
times. Primitive ice skates appear in the archaeological record
from about 3000 BC. Edges were added by the Dutch in the 13th -
14th century. International figure skating competitions began
appearing in the late 19th century—in 1891, the European
Championships were inaugurated in Hamburg, Germany, and in 1896,
the first World Championships were held in Saint
Petersburg, Russian Empire. At the 1908 Summer
Olympics in London, England, figure skating became the first
winter sport to be included in the Olympics.
The exact time and process by which humans first learned to ice
skate is unknown. Primitive animal bone ice skates have been
found in Scandinavia and Russia, some dating back to about 3000
BC.
The earliest clear, written mention of ice skating is found in a
book written in the 12th century by William Fitzstephen,
a monk in Canterbury. In the work, centered on Thomas Becket, he
describes a scene taking place below the northern city walls of
Canterbury during the winter:
...if the moors in Finsbury and Moorfield freeze over, children
from London play. Some of the children have attached bones to
their ankles, and carry well-worn sticks. They fly across the ice
like birds, or well-fired arrows. Suddenly, two children will run
at each other, sticks held high in the air. They then attack each
other until one falls down. Often, the children injure their
heads or break their arms or legs...
The sticks that Fitzstephen refers to were used for movement, as
the primitive bone-made ice skates did not have sharp gliding
edges like modern ice skates. Adding edges to ice skates was
invented by the Dutch in the 13th or 14th century. These ice
skates were made of steel, with sharpened edges on the bottom to
aid movement. The construction of modern ice skates has remained
largely the same. The only other major change in ice skate design
came soon after. Around the same time period as steel edges were
added to ice skates, another Dutchman, a table
maker’s apprentice, experimented with the height to width ratio
of the metal blade of the ice skates, producing a design that
remains almost unaltered to this day. The user of the skates no
longer needed to use sticks for propulsion, and movement on
skates was now freer and more stable.
The first depiction of ice skating in a work of art was made in
the 15th century. The picture, of Saint Lidwina, patron saint of
ice skaters, falling on the ice was the first work of art to
feature ice skating as a main theme. Another important aspect of
the painting is a man seen in the background, who is skating on
one leg. This means that the ice skates the man was wearing must
have sharp edges similar to those found on modern ice skates.

RULES AND REGULATION

Figure Skating Rules

Figure Skating is a sport in which single athletes or teams of

athletes conduct artistic performances on ice. Both men and women
participate in their own singles events with pair skating events
and ice dancing events open to both genders (usually one male and
one female).

Athletes produce a wide variety of moves in order to impress a

panel of judges, who score the athletes based on their grace,
flair and control. Moves include jumps and spirals in the air,
spins on the ice and a number of different step sequences.

Figure Skating has been a part of the Winter Olympics since the
games first began in 1924, and also made appearances at 1908 and
1920 Summer Olympics before that.

The United States are the current world leaders in Olympic Figure
Skating, holding a total of 49 medals overall. Russia and Austria
are the closest rivals with 26 and 20 medals, respectively. The
Soviet Union also picked up 24 medals during their time in the
competition.

Object of the Game

The overall objective in Figure Skating is to score the highest

marks possible from the judges, although there are different ways
to score points depending on the nature of the event.

For all Figure Skating competitions, athletes are required to

perform a number of different moves in order to obtain the
highest possible score from the judges. During a typical
performance, athletes will execute a selection of spins, jumps
and steps.

In pair skating competitions, athletes perform actions with one

another in order to score high points, such as throwing a partner
in the air and spinning the partner around in various directions.

Ice dancing is somewhat similar to pair skating, although the

focus here on is on footwork and coordination as partners dance
together in time with music being played overhead.

Players & Equipment

Both men and women participate in Figure Skating, and there is

little equipment involved other than specially made pairs of
skates called “Figure Skates”.

Figure Skates

Figure Skates are specially designed skating shoes with thick

steel blades at the base and jagged grooves at the front known as
“toe picks” – which assist athletes with their footwork on the
ice, as well as landing and spinning. The specific style of toe
picks can vary.

The main blades are ordinarily around 4 millimetres thick,

although they can vary depending on the shoe size of the athlete.
They also curve round to one side in order to assist with turns
on the ice.
Athletes will always attempt to skate on the very edges of the
figure skate blades.For ice dancing, athletes usually have
slightly shorter blades on the base of their shoes, with

slightly different design to accommodate step-work rather than

jumping.

Costumes

Men and women are required to wear specific costumes in order to

perform on the professional stage. Men are asked to wear
trousers, whilst women are required to wear tights, trousers, or
unitards, as well as skirts.

Scoring
Athletes in Figure Skating are scored according to the ISU
Judging System by a panel of judges (usually nine judges
including a technical inspector, and also a referee). This system
functions by awarding athletes different amounts of points for
different types of moves, as well as how efficiently and
effectively these moves are executed. A Grade of Execution (GoE)
is calculated, and then a Scale of Value Table is used to turn
this grade into an overall mark.

The main aspects scored during a typical Figure Skating

performance include skill, footwork, performance, interpretation,
overall execution, choreography and timing. Often, the more
complex manoeuvres will be scored highest provided they are
executed correctly. For example, the more rotations in a jump
will lead to a higher mark.

Winning

The winner of a Figure Skating event is the individual/team who

achieves the highest overall score.

Rules of Figure Skating

 Athletes in Figure Skating must keep their performances

varied. The Zayak Rule states that no participant can
attempt triple or quadruple jumps on more than two
occasions.
 Judges may also mark down participants or disqualify them
completely if they fail to adhere to rules and regulations
for music and costumes. Certain types of music are not
permitted, and costumes cannot contain “excessive
decoration” or be considered as too revealing.
 Athletes can also be disqualified for time violations.
 Rowning
Modern rowing as a competitive sport can be traced to the early
10th century when races were held between professional watermenon
the River Thames in London, United Kingdom. Often prizes were
offered by the London Guilds and Livery
Companies. Amateurcompetition began towards the end of the 18th
century with the arrival of "boat clubs" at the British public
schools of Eton College, Shrewsbury School, and Westminster
School. Similarly, clubs were formed at the University of Oxford,
with a race held between Brasenose College and Jesus College in
1815. At the University of Cambridge the first recorded races
were in 1827. Public rowing clubs were beginning at the same
time; in England Leander Club was founded in 1818, in Germany Der
Hamburger und Germania Ruder Club was founded in 1836 and in the
United States Narragansett Boat Club was founded in 1838
and Detroit Boat Club was founded in 1839. In 1843, the first
American college rowing club was formed at Yale University.
Rowing is one of the oldest Olympic sports. Though it was on the
programme for the 1896 games, racing did not take place due to
bad weather, but male rowers have competed since the 1900.
Women's rowing was added to the Olympic programme in 1976. Today,
only fourteen boat classes race at the Olympics: Each year
the World Rowing Championships is staged by FISA with 22 boat
classes raced. In Olympic years only the non-Olympic boat classes
are raced at the World Championships. The European Rowing
Championships are held annually, along with three World Rowing
Cups in which each event earns a number of points for a country
towards the World Cup title. Since 2008, rowing has also been
competed at the Paralympic Games.

HISTORY
Ever since the earliest recorded references to rowing, the
sporting element has been present. An Egyptian funerary
inscription of 1430 BC records that the
warrior Amenhotep (Amenophis) II was also renowned for his feats
of oarsmanship. In the Aeneid, Virgil mentions rowing forming
part of the funeral games arranged by Aeneas in honour of his
father. In the 13th century, Venetian festivals
called regataincluded boat races among others.
The first known "modern" rowing races began from competition
among the professional watermen in the United Kingdom that
provided ferry and taxi service on the River Thames in London.
Prizes for wager races were often offered by the
London Guilds and Livery Companies or wealthy owners of riverside
houses. The oldest surviving such race, Doggett's Coat and
Badge was first contested in 1715 and is still held annually
from London Bridge to Chelsea. During the 19th century these
races were to become numerous and popular, attracting large
crowds. Prize matches amongst professionals similarly became
popular on other rivers throughout Great Britain in the 19th
century, notably on the Tyne. In America, the earliest known race
dates back to 1756 in New York, when a pettiauger defeated a Cape
Cod whaleboat in a race.
Amateur competition in England began towards the end of the 18th
century. Documentary evidence from this period is sparse, but it
is known that the Monarch Boat Club of Eton College and the Isis
Club of Westminster School were both in existence in the 1790s.
The Star Club and Arrow Club in London for gentlemen amateurs
were also in existence before 1800. At the University of
Oxford bumping races were first organised in 1815 when Brasenose
College and Jesus College boat clubs had the first annual
race[14] while at Cambridge the first recorded races were in
1827. Brasenose beat Jesus to win Oxford University's first Head
of the River; the two clubs claim to be the oldest established
boat clubs in the world. The Boat Race between Oxford University
and Cambridge University first took place in 1829, and was the
second intercollegiate sporting event (following the first
Varsity Cricket Match by 2 years). The interest in the first Boat
Race and subsequent matches led the town of Henley-on-Thames to
begin hosting an annual regatta in 1839.

RULES AND REGULATIONS

All athletes must comply to the requirements of the event they

wish to enter, and must prove they are the citizen of the country
they are representing by means of an official document. An
athlete with dual citizenship may only choose one country to
represent.
 The main regulation involving the coxswain is that the male
athlete must weigh the minimum of 55kg when wearing the race
uniform and the female athlete must weigt a minimum of 50kg. To
make up this weight, the athlete may carry a maximum of 10kg of
dead weight placed as close to them as possible when on the boat.
The organising committee may perform a spot check of the weight
at any one point before the race and after disembarkation.
Boats are held in alignment at the start of the race to prevent a
false start, and crews are allowed only one false start. A second
false start will result in disqualification. During the race,
athletes may only receive data like the time on the clock, their
stroke speed, velocity and their heart rate. Any other
information sent electronically or otherwise may lead to a
disqualification.

Athletes may receive the following penalties for any breach in

rules and regulations:

 A reprimand
 A Yellow Card (first warning)
 Relegation of placement deemed appropriate in accordance to
the rules
 A Red Card (exclusion from the event)
 Disqualification
 An order to re-row the race

Athletes excluded or penalised at the start of the race must make

their objections known at the point of the penalty. Athletes
wanting to object to issues that happened during the race must
report the objection to the umpire immediately after the race,
before leaving the finish line area, by raising their arm.

Objections that have been rejected, or athletes that have been

disqualified, excluded, ruled Did Not Finish (DNF) or Did Not
Start (DNS), and those wanting to dispute the published results
may convey their protest in written form to the Jury President no
later than one hour after the Umpire communicated his decision.
The jury will make its decision regarding the protest before the
next round of races in the event concerned or no later than two
hours after the last race of the day and may postpone the victory
ceremony or have the medals re-awarded if the ceremony has taken
place.
 SCORING
Rowers get points for racing and beating crews. The higher up you
finish in an event, and the more crews you beat, the more Ranking
Points you’ll get. The maximum number of points you can get in an
event is 145. The competition organisers pass this information to
British Rowing who updates members’ records.

Ranking Points are awarded for heads and regattas and for sweep
and sculling, coxes are also awarded Ranking Points depending on
how well their crew does.

A competitors Personal Ranking Index (PRI) is the sum of Ranking

Points of your eight highest-scoring events after allowing for
how long ago they were awarded. If you haven’t raced eight
competitions a ‘PRI Max’ is calculated. This is calculated based
on the Ranking Points for the events that you have entered, with
the average multiplied up to the equivalent of eight events.