t

J
I

II

THE TECHNOLOGY AND ECONOMICS OF SLAKED LIME (KAMBANG) MANUFACTURE

FOR BETEL NUT (BUAI) MASTICATION IN PAPUA NEW GUINEA

D.Mahoneyt, N.Quinn*, P.Afenyat, S.Hugmant, and M.Sapput

(Dept of Chemical Technologyt and Dept of Fisheries*,
Papua New Guinea University of Technology)

1. INTRODUCTION

While it is obvious that marine resources play an important

role in the diet of coastal village people, it is less generally
recognised that these resources also contribute to the economy
and social patterns of the villagers non-nutritive activities.

The people of Papua New Guinea have a long history of making

and doing things using technologies which are consistent with
their social and cultural framework. Fr-orn this rich and diverse
heritage have grown countless technologies, both simple and
complex. Although evolved under differing conditions of climate,
sub-culture, and region, these technologies share basic common
features; they utilise local materials, exert minimal impact on
the environment, and reflect the nature of community life. They
form a tribute to the cultural ingenuity of the people and
provide the basis for further technological development and
assimilation.

This paper examines the village-scale industry which

manufactures slaked lime (kambang.), for use in the chewing of
betel nut (buai,r). The composition and pharmocological effects of
the betel nut have been well researched (Farnworth, 1975;
Farnworth, 1976; Burton-Bradley, 1980), as has the formation of
the red colour when the nut is chewed with lime (Mathew, 1971).
In contrast, there is little information on the production and
quality of slaked lime.

2. THE RAW MATERIAL ·(GASTROPOD FISHERY)

The women of Labu Butu operate Lae's largest slaked lime

'factory'. Gastropod shells [Family Thiaridae; Faunus ater
(Linnaeus, 1758)] are gathered by small groups of women from
between mangrove roots in the estuary. The shell is extremely
common and easily gathered by hand. If the animal has died, the
shell is occupied by. hermi t crabs, but is still useful in making
lime. '

---------------------------~------------------------------------
~ Melanesian pidgin term .
Mahoney et al. ~qmbang Technology

The women return to the village in the late afternoon, ar.=

sun dry the shells the following morning. The shells are the~
placed between layers of sago palm branches which were also
collected the previous day, and burned. At temperatures in
excess of lOOO°C, carbon dioxide is driven off, leaving white
shells which consist of relatively pure calcium oxide (1):

CaC0 3 CaO + C02 iit~ ••••••••• ( I}

Various shells and coral may be used as a source of calcium

carbonate for lime manufacture, and there are even suggestions of
human bones being used for kambang production (Burton-Bradley,
1980).

After burning, the shells are separated from the ashes by

hand, and any which have not turned completely white are returned
to the fire for further heating. Extraneous matter is removed
from the white shells by sieving, then the shells are slaked by
the addition of fresh water (2):

CaO + H 20 Ca(OHh •••••••• ·.~.(2)

The calcium oxide is extremely hygroscopic and expands when water

is added, whilst the shell disintegrates. This exothermic
reaction takes 10 - 15 minutes, and generates temperatures in
excess of 100°C. When the reaction has ceased, the slaked lime
is sifted through a fine mosquito net and packed in various sized
plastic bags for sale at the Lae Market.

Air tight packing and rapid sale are important as the slaked
lime may absorb moisture and its free-running consistency will be
lost. Over extended periods of time, the slaked lime will slowly
absorb carbon dioxide, and revert to calcium carbonate (3):

Ca(OHh + C02 CaC03 + ••••••••••• ( 3 )

3. ANALYSIS OF ,!g\..~BA..."iG

Seven samples of kambang from five provinces were collected

and analysed, and compared with an industrial grade slaked lime
produced in the United Kingdom.

Each sample was dried, digested in HCl, evaporated to

dryness, and made up to volume for analysis of various cations
using a Varian-6 atomic abso~~ion spectrophotometer (AOAC, 1984j
APHA, 1980).

The analytical results did not show any obvious tre~~f

although there was (considerable variation between samples. ':":-.-::
mean results are shown in Table 1, and highlight the me.::::­
differences between kambans and industrial lime.
Mahoney et al. Kamban~ Technology

TABLE 1: ANALYSIS OF SLAKED LIME (percent dry weight)

SMIPLE MAGNESIUM POTASSIUM IRON SODIUM CALCIUM

KAMBJ\NGt 0.07 0.06 0.04 0.72 52.8

INDUSTRIAL 0.41 0.12 0.08 0.02 51.3

t Mean of 7 samples.

The magnesium, potassium, and iron content of the kambang is

lower than its industrial equivalent, indicating a higher purity
product. The elevated sodium content, demonstrates the marine
origin of the raw materials. Hydration of the calcium oxide by
seawater is not practiced in the village process, furthermore it
would not account for the sodium levels observed in these
samples. Any seawater residues and marine animals left in the
shells would add to the sodium concentration.

The principal component in hydrated lime products is calcium

hydroxide, with varying amounts of calcium oxide and calcium
carbonate. The concentration of calcium in the kambang was
simi lar to tha t found in the indus trial 1 ime, al though the form
in which the calcium existed was not determined.

4. CONSUMER TASTE TRIALS

In order to establish the favoured characteristics of a good

kambang for betel nut chewing, a taste test panel was formed.

Descriptive information on the important characteristics of

t-ambans (eg. colour, texture,· moisture, etc) \'i'as obtained using a
questionnaire (see Appendix 1). Panelists were then given three
samples of 6am!;)ans, a betel nut, and a mustard stick and asked to
indicate their order of preference for the three samples and to
record their degree of like or dislike for the samples using a
five point descriptive scale (see Appendix 2). Two of the
kamban,g, samples were manufactured in village industries (Labu
Butu and Madang), while the third was industrial grade lime.

Respondents indicated a marked preference for a bright

white, fine powder which is free flowing. These are considered
to be the most important characteristics of a good kambang,
although many betel nut chewers stated that they; pr~fer a 'hot'
powder, and claim that they can establish thi~by simply
examining the powder.

The results of the taste tests were analysed by

converting ranks to scores and conducting an analysis of variance
and a T test. Panelists showed a marked preference for lime
manufactured at Labu Butu and Madang, with less than 4 percent of
,

Mahoney et ale Kambans Technology

respondents ranking the commercial lime as their first choice

(Table 2).

TABLE 2: TASTE TEST DATA

SAMPLE FIRST PREFERENCE RANKING MEAN STANDARD DEVIATION

LABU BUTU 48.7% 1.77 0.92

MADANG 47.5% 1.95 1.07
COMMERCIAL 3.8% 3.79

Analysis of the data on the degree of like or dislike,

showed kambang from Labu Butu and Madang were not significantly
different, although there appears to be a non-significant
preference for the Labu Butu lime. Commercial lime was
significantly inferior to lime manufactured in either of the two
village industries (see Figures 1 - 3).

Subsequent studies have indicated that the industrial lime

had undergone deterioration, and was much less alkaline than the
village lime. This obviously affected the results obtained in the
taste tests, and may explain why betel nut chewers appear not to
have turned to this cheaper form of lime. There are significant
savings to be made by purchasing industrial lime, with village
manufactured lime approximately six times the price of commercial
lime.

5. KAMBANG ECONOMICS

The value of the lime industry is difficult to determine

owing to pricing variability. The weight contained in the
smallest quantity sold for 10 toea at the Lae market in 1985
varied from 20 to 35 grams. Additionally, prices change with
volumes sold, thus large bags containing 600 - 800 grams sell
for K2. The women recognise the necessity of presentation in
their product, and hence, seal each bag with a lot of air. The
bag is vigorously shaken before positioning for selling to ensure
the illusion of ple~ftty of lime. During the day the bags are also
periodically shaken to sustain this illusion.

A survey of lime carried to market via the mouth of the

Markham River was performed on 26 mornings from February to May
1982. ~Three hundred and fifty women each carried approximately
12 kilograms, thus over four tonnes of lime was taken to the
market during the survey period (Table 3). A conservative
estimate of K3 per kilogram would place the value of an aver&ge
load of lime per woman at K36. This is consistent with
interviews of village women who report making K40-50 per week.

On a typical Saturday around 20 women carry lime to the main

Mahoney et ale Kambang Technology

LABU Buru LIME

KEY
40
p 1­ Like very much
E 2• Like sl igh tly
R
c 3. Neither like nor dislike
E
N 20 4. Dislike slightly
T
5• Dislike very much

2 3 4 5
RMWHiG

FIGURE 1: RANKING OF LABU BUTU LIME

MAOAt~G LI ME
50

P
E
p
I-~

E
tJ
T

RntH( I NG

FIGURE 2: RANKING OF MADANG LIME

5tir COMI'1ERe I AL L I ~lE

40
P
E
F­
e
30t
~ 20t
131
2 3 4 5
RrHH< I HG
FIGURE 3: RANKING OF COMMERCIAL LIME
 Mahoney et al. Kamban9 Technology

TABI.E 3: MEAN WEIGHT OF LIME CARRIED BY !.ABU WOMEN TO MARKE'l'

--------------------------~--------------------------- ----
DATE DAY NUMBER MEAN WEIGHT (kg) STD DEV.
-----------------------~------------------------------ -----

20/2/1982 Saturday 31 9.3 1.2

27/2/1982 Saturday 17 9.2 1.0
6/3/1982 Saturday 18 9.5 1.2
13/3/1982 Saturday 26 9.2 1.9
20/3/1982 Saturday 22 10.9 2.4
27/3/1982 Sa turday 20 12.0 3 . .3 .
3/4/1982 Saturday 17 9.6 2.5
8/4/1982 Thursday 14 10.9 2.7
9/4/1982 Friday 8 12.0 2.3
10/4/1982 Sa tun1dy 12 10.0 1.8
15/4/1982 Thursday 9 12.3 1.8
24/4/1982 Saturday 16 11.4 2.0
28/4/1982 Wednesday 10 8.7 1.5
29/4/1982 Thursday 14 12.6 2.4
6/5/1982 Thursday 12 11.0 1.3
7/5/1982 Friday 11 14.0 1.9
8/5/1982 Saturday 9 16.9 2.9
13/5/1982 'I'hursday 10 12.8 2.6
14/5/1982 Friday 10 15.5 2.8
15/5/1982 Saturday 6 15.8 1.2
20/5/1982 Thursday 9 10.9 2 . .3
21/5/1982 Friday 10 12.7 3.2
22/5/1982 Saturday 15 16.0 3.6
25/5/1982 Tuesday 7 12.0 2.1
26/5/1982 Wednesday 8 17.3 3.6
t 27/5/1982 Thursday 9 14.4 2.5

-------------------~---------------------~------------
----
TOTAL: 350 MEAN: 11. 6 kg
----------------------------------------------------------
Hahoney et ale Kamban~ Technology

market in Lae, and on an annual basis this commodity is valued at

around K37,SOO. In addition, there are at least two other
smaller city council markets which sell kambanq, and countless
other one person or impromptu markets selling lime. If a lower
act.ivity is considered for the remaining six days of the week, it
would not be unreasonable to estimate the annual value of ls..amban9,
production at well over KIOO,OOO for ?ll of Lae city.

6. CONCLUSIONS

As recently as 1973 the trad i tional use of ma rine resources

were undervalued by anthropologists and others who suggested
that 'such activities were only an intermittent food producing
task which provides no regular contribution to the diet' (Moulik,
1973). We have shown in this paper that a traditional chemical
technology exists for the manufactuce of kambang, by women, which
has resulted in a lucrative industry that is neither acknowledged
as an industrial output by the Govecnment statistician, or taxed
by the Government's revenue collectors. In short, the creative
ingenuity of the Labu Butu people has helped develop a village
based manufacturing industry that meets the critical approval of
thousands of satisfied users, without any outside assistance,
interference or regula tion.

In the words of a former Director of Education, Mr K.R.

McKinnon (1984):

The assumption •.•• is that Papua New Guinea wants a

modern technologically competent society permeated by
distinctivePapua New Guinean values. It will do this
successfully if it can blend international scientific
knowledge with equally valid and important Papua New
Guinean cuI tural knowledge, nei ther shrinking from the
tension that is involved in bringing the two together,
nor failing to seek high quality and clarity of purpose
in both.

Since the introduction of foreign technologies, tradi tional

tools and techniques have diminished in importance and are often
looked upon as being too primitive to be of use in a society in
the process of modernisation. We suggest that the traditional
manufacture of kambang is an example of a successful indigenous
technology that yields a superior product to foreign imports and
is not likely to be rendered obsolete in the forseeable future.
 •

Burton-Bradley, B.(1980). Psychosomatics of arecaidinism.

ENG. r''l.£tL~, 23, (1) , 3--7.

Farnworth, E.R.(1975). 8Ef~£.sL_,"ca.. j;ec;1u and PteeL...!lill.e, in

Papua Nel>f Guinea~ an elerl1'?atal analysis. ~gi,Q12cl?.j!L:~~:!!
Qui~=1' 3,(3),211--214.

l<'arnvvorth, E.R,,(1976). Bet~::l nut its COffil:10sitio,n,

rhernic.·t'·v
l......
......- ._, . ,,_J ''In(]
c"'" "'0 u~p~
~ ..... __ i:).j!, '-"""i""tV~Cl in
;;:"._"'~_ ~ __ .....~ _ ," . _ _
'-~ ~1'--'\1
_ _._._,;~:~:~. Gui!1,:2a, 4,.(2),8.5-90 •

r,tcKinnon, K.H.(1984), ll. 1'(:;'; bll~nding of: the cultures.

C0!1!!IlU n..if_~!:..9 r., 16J 1 6-1 8 •

cJ;:'opping. li~J"!:
and CanbetT(1)
Mahoney et al. Kambang Technology
KAMBANG SURVEY - FORM A
APPENDIX 1

~
WHEN YOU BUY KAMBANG, WHAT FACTORS ARE IMPORTANT:

COLOUR: --+ BRIGHT . EJWHITE rGREYl UNIMPORTANT

WHITE L-J
TEXTURE: ~~ I COARSE 1 I UNH1PORTANT I

MOISTURE:~ FREE
FLO\~II~G
ISTICKY I UNIMPORTANT

OTHER FACTORS:

2. HOW OFTEN DO YOU CHEW?--.Il­ T'_'n_1fZ_s_p_e_r_d_ay.....1

3. Hm~ MUCH WOULD THE BAG OF LIME DISPLAYED HE~EI

COST IN YOUR HOME VILLAGE? p
L.....­
toea
_
")

4. WHAT IS YOUR HOME VILLAGE AND PROVINCE? Vi 11 age

Provi nee"

•.
 --
Mahoney !;?t a1. Kamban2 Technology \. )

KP,MBJ\NG SURVEY
APPENDIX 2

You are given three samples of kambang. Please chew the betel nut, and
try all three kambang samples.

Yu gat tY'ipe la kain kambang. Na mipe la la'i/< bai yupe la kaikai buai na
tY'aim ol dispela kain kain kanibcmg.

1. Rank the three samples, so that Box 1 is the sample you like the most,
and Box 3 is the sample you like the least.

MipeZa laik bai yupela i tl'aim ol dispela karrJ)(mg~ na putim narrba long
wanem kain karribang yu laik moa. Msem narriba wan yu laikim tl'U~ narriba tu
yu la'ikim Uk lik~ na narrba three yu no laikim tumas.

1. 2. 3.

D
D
D

2. Please tick the box below which best describes the taste of the sample of
karrbang you pre fe r the mos t:

PZis ti7dm (./) bol-d,s long kCu'Tbang yu ting & gutpe la stret long laik
b~~long yu:

•• Like very much

D Yu la'ikim tru

D Like slightly.
Yu laikim

D
Neither like nor dislike
Yu Zaikim IiI< Iik tasol

D
Dislike slightly

Yo£ no Iaikim Uk lik

o
Di s 1 ike very much
Y1£ no laikim tY·u