Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Industrial Organization
【Starting Questions】
1. What kind of image do you have on the inter-firm competition in Japanese
industries? Which is better, ”Japan INC.” ( the closed and cooperative relationships
between firms and government, and between firms) or “Japan: the land of fierce
competition”? Or another one?
2. Explain why Sony has obtained its dominant position in the game machine market.
3. Are new principles and laws needed to deal with the new network-externality-based
monopolies ? And also new economic approach ?
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Chapter 1 Economic Development and Competition: Entrepreneurship and
Industrial Organization Economics
Discussion:
(1) What are the possible determinants of entrepreneurship ?
Strategy and Incentives of the firm
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Competitive Market Conditions
(2) Also, market structure affects market behavior, and its results are captured by
market performance; market structure(S) → conduct/behavior(C) → performance(P).
(3) Oligopoly may induce an unique or a limited scope of firm behavior and
performance.
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Industrial (Organization) Economics
(applied microeconomics; policy-oriented field)
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II. Diversified, Complicated and Dynamic Industries in a Real-World Economy
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(1) Real world oligopoly is not a simple structure, and includes diversified
industries like competitive and near-monopoly industries. It is expected
that different structures of oligopoly are likely to lead to different firm
behavior and performance.
(2) Market structure, behavior and performance respectively include more elements.
For example, market structure involves more competitive elements as well as
number and size distribution of firms; Also business behavior includes non-price
strategies such as R&D, advertising, M&A as well as price-output decision.
(3) Public policy authority is necessary to look at actual industries, of which the firm
behavior and performance are beyond the explanations of the economics textbooks.
Discussion:
The public understand intuitively that an industry with (1) the possible minimum level
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of prices, and (2) of costs, and (3) an increasing number of development of new products
and processes is socially desirable from the viewpoint of public interest; They enjoy a
cheaper and better-quality product or service. The first condition is concerned with
allocative efficiency in economics term; the second with technical efficiency (X-efficiency),
and; the third with technological progress efficiency (or dynamic efficiency). These 3
concepts of efficiency are called collectively economic efficiency.
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The economic efficiency is improved by the decentralized,
competitive and entrepreneurial economic system.
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The primary goal of policy-makers is to create and preserve
the system, which leads to improved economic efficiency.
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The industrial organization economics present and emphasize the logic of the process
in a theoretical and empirical way, using the concept of economic efficiency.
Discussion:
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I. Basic Concepts: Market Structure, Market Behavior and Market Performance
(1) Market structure: the relatively long-run and stable elements of the environment
of a firm, which affect market behavior.
Two types of structural elements are;
1) strategic in that firms can influence structural elements; concentration, entry
and mobility barriers, product differentiation, international competition.
2) exogenous in that elements are beyond the control of firms. The elements are
sometimes called basic conditions, separated from strategic elements; demand
growth, price elasticity of demand, product durability, legal framework, and
cost structure (the extent of fixed costs).
(3) Market Performance: the results of market behavior. The results include; profits
(for pricing), sales promotion costs (for sales promotion activity), productive
efficiency (for input and cost control), and R&D (for R&D activity). An
industry's performance elements reflect the extent of allocative efficiency, technical
efficiency(cost efficiency), and technological progress efficiency.
Effective competition or effectively competitive performance includes:
1) greater allocative and technical efficiency
2) sales promotion expenses kept to reasonable level
3) being responsive to possibilities for improving products and processes
4) that profits should be sufficient to reward investment and encourage innovation
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These concepts permit economists and policymakers to analyze the
determinants of firm behavior and the results in an industry, and then
evaluate the industry, and further propose remedies when necessary.
Structure
(broad)
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The industrial organization economics explains the structure-behavior-performance
relationships in a theoretical and empirical way, and then proposes public policies.
→ The rule of reason is better than the per se legal or illegal principle.
Discussion:
(1) Shown is the summary of the determinants of behavior and performance in Japan,
which are from existing studies.
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Evidence 1 Summary of Determinants of Behavior / Performance in Japan
Mobility − −
Market Share +
Advertising +
Imports − −
Tariff +
Buyer Concentration −
Consumer Goods* +
Distribution Network +
Note: (1) +(or −)suggests that industries or firms with larger ratio of a determinant
tend to gain higher (or lower) profit rate, price change and costs than industries
or firms with smaller ratio. All factors except absolute firm size and consumer
goods are in percentage.
(2) Costs include; wages, and sales promotion and administrative expenses.
Discussion:
Evidence 2:
Concentration, Firm Size and Number of Innovations in the US; 1970-78
Discussion:
(1) How evaluate the role of “industrial policy” in Japanese economic development ?
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(2) Economists are divergent in the evaluations for “industrial policy”. Most of
economists criticize the policy, because the policy is not justified by the market
failure theory. But, some economists such as Cowling (UK) emphasize the
significance of the policy in economic development, since the policy includes
development strategy: better allocation of limited economic resources into targets.
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No.2
[★] Economic resources (i.e., factors of production =land, labor, capital, information / knowledge, and
entrepreneurial talent) should go into industries where people value the output more than others.
I Definition of an Industry
Before discussing IO economics, we will refer to the definition of industry used in IO economics.
Where an industry's boundary should be drawn is of crucial importance for both economists and policy
makers, because the efinition of an industry may affect the evaluation of the performance of a particular
industry. In principle, the economists' concept of an industry corresponds to the way we speak of industries in
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everyday life.
However, there are some difficulties in the definition for the empirical research and/or policy-making.
They come from boundaries between products, and also boundaries in geographical spaces. SIC 4-digit
industry is usually used. The 4-digit industry means, for example products like Whisky, motor vehicle and
watch.
Next, we will discuss the essence of IO economics. It is above suggested that the activity and function
of an industry is captured by the concepts of market structure, conduct (or behavior) and performance.
The structure-conduct-performance (SCP) approach (hereafter we call the approach SCP economics) is
central to the study of IO. It was formulated from both microeconomics and earlier empirical works, and
has been used to provide the theoretical justification for competition policy. The SCP economics may be
the orthodoxor first-runner economics of IO, which introduces new developments. But, the economics has
received many criticisms, reflecting its shortcomings. In these senses, the economics is worth being discussed
first.
The approach postulates causal relationships between the structure of a market (called market structure),
the behavior of firms in the market (called market conduct or behavior), and the industry's economic
performance (called market performance); performance is determined by the behavior of firms, which in
turn is determined by structural characteristics of the market. When the performance is against the public
interest, public actions designed to improve the performance are proposed. The actions may influence directly the
structure of particular industries as well as market behavior. The relationships are shown in Figure 1.
Market structure (broad) here includes both basic conditions and structure (narrow).
However, market structure is not always exogenously determined. Performance and conduct may affect
structure.If firms do not satisfy performance, they may affect structure to gain performance favorable to
themselves. For example, mergers, predatory behavior, innovation and advertising may influence structure.
Therefore, structure is defined as the relatively long-run and stable elements of the environment of a firm,
which affect market behavior.
Now, the three basic concepts will be talked about in turn.
Market structure (broad) describes the characteristics of a market such as; (1) the number and size
distribution of sellers and buyers, (2) nature of product, (3) ease of entry and exit (collectively called
narrow structure), and (4) demand / supply conditions exogenous or external to firms (sometimes called
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basic conditions).
These structural factors will be explained in turn. The first factor is concentration ratio.
for a fixed number of the largest firms、and the latter is H=Σ(Si)2 (i=1,..,m) for all firms, where Si is
market share of firm i. The two measures are used by Japan Fair Trade Commission.
Then, firms include foreign firms (importers and foreign-affiliated firms) as well as domestic firms. If
exports and / or imports are large, then the level of concentration ratio may be different between before and after
adjustment of international trade; The ratio based on output may be different from the ratio based on shipments in
a domestic market.
Both of the measures have qualifications. But, the latter is better than the former, since the latter can
capture both the number and size distribution of firms in an industry. Also, concentration is a static indicator,
which can not capture market mobility- changes in firms’ market positions and shares.
Finally, oligopoly may include some patterns like symmetrical and asymmetrical oligopolies; Many of
Very highly-concentrated oligopolies are frequently “dominant firm oligopoly”.
《Problem #1》
What are qualifications of cumulative ratio and Herfindahl index ?
[★1] Recognized interdependence means the following relation. Firms do not take aggressive actions,
expecting counter-actions from their rivals and resultant damages, since P=P(Pr)=P{Pr(P)},
where P is price of a firm, and Pr price of its rivals; P→Pr→P.
[★2] As output increases, unit costs decrease. This relationship is called economies of scale. The lowest
level of unit costs is called minimum optimal size. Also, as output increases, firms may improve
manufacturing and administrative processes under a fixed technology. The latter case is called
learning by doing or experience effect. Thus, firms with larger output are more efficient and
therefore gain larger share
IV Market Behavior
Firm behavior includes: pricing, sales promotion, input and cost control, R&D activity, and mergers
& acquisitions (M&A). These behaviors may be affected by market structure discussed above. Firm
behavior in concentrated industries is likely to be different from counterparts in less-concentrated industries.
First, firms, and in particular large firms, because of recognized interdependence and the presence of entry
and intra-industry mobility barriers, may engage in either implicit or explicit collusion. The collusion results
in anti-competitive pricing, which are set above costs. The level of price is set by anti-competitive and
discretionary principles like the target profit pricing [★], and is coordinated among firms in a collusive way
; cartels and implicit mutual understandings. In Japan, there were many illegal cartels. For example, in
Japanese photo film industry with only 3 firms, price leader set price, and other 2 firms followed the same
price. This example is a case of implicit mutual understandings.
Second, when price competition is restricted, non-price competition like advertising may take place in
Consumer goods. Advertising competition may be excessive and wasteful. These strategies may affect
market structure, promoting buyer preferences for large firms. Also, vertical restraints such as RPM and
distributional keiretsu, may be adopted, which are likely to exert anti-competitive effects. Supply chain
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management (SCM) may have anti-competitive aspect, because the practice is similar to vertical restraints.
Third, as competitive pressures to minimize costs are reduced, managerial slack may develop, permitting
less-efficient operations and associated higher costs and (probably) higher prices. The slack also may lead to
delayed R&D-activity.
Also, firm behavior may be affected by other factors. Firm behavior may vary between
vertically-integrated and non-integrated firms, and also between diversified firms and non- or less diversified
firms.
V Market Performance
The results of market behavior is called collectively industry performance. The results include; profits,
sales promotion costs, production efficiency, and R&D. An industry's performance is normally judged on the
basis of allocative efficiency, technical efficiency (X-efficiency), and technological progress efficiency.
The SCP economics argues that structure elements like high concentration, large product differentiation,
and high entry barriers is likely to induce very poor performance; high profits, higher production costs than
the minimum possible level, excessive advertising, and sub-optimal level of R&D. If an industry has these
results in the long-run, then economists and policy makers evaluate the performance to be socially undesirable
from the viewpoint of economic efficiency, and then propose public actions (public policy), examining the
sources of poor performance. Then, the policies may affect directly market structure as well as behavior;
policies toward behavior are concerned with cartels and restrictive practices, and competition-promoting
policies toward structure with anti-merger and divestiture.
《Problem #2》
The great economist Adam Smith indicates the following sentence (partly revised) in The Wealth of
Nations (1776); "Monopoly is a great enemy to good management, while free and universal
competition forces everybody to have resources to it for the sake of self-defence". Explain the
implication of this sentence
.
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VI Empirical Tests of the SCP Economics
Next, we will look at the empirical tests of the relations suggested by the SCP economics. The tests
have been tried by individual industry studies and cross-industry econometric studies.
All economists do not provide support for the SCP economics. In particular, the Chicago School
economists suggest an alternative view on competition; "Competition is robust". This stance is supported
by the Austrian School and the contestability theory. The two approaches are summarized in Figure 2.
The better approach, an eclectic one, includes both the views; Oligopolists sometimes engage in
collusion, and sometimes compete fiercely for their advantages. This stance is shared by the strategic
competition theory and the game-theoretic theory.
The first test is about profit rate. Profits are a primary problem, since they may reflect the extent of
allocative efficiency. In free and competitive markets, capital moves in and out of industries, following the
inter-industry differentials in profitability. As a consequence, resources are allocated efficiently among
industries, increasing social welfare. Resources move away from industries with low profit rate to industries
with higher profit. As a consequence, profit rate tends to reach the competitive level. High abnormal profits
in an industry may suggest that the resource allocation mechanism works imperfectly.
It is necessary to examine the profits-pricing-structure relation. But, most of the existing analyses have
tested the short-circuited version of the relationship, i.e., the association between profits and structure. The
pioneering study is the simple analyses by Bain (US) and Matsushiro (Japan), which are shown in Table 1.
Source: Bain, J.S., 1951, “Relations of Profit Rates to Industry Concentration: American Manufacturing, 1936-
1940,” Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol.65, No.3, p.313
Matsushiro, K, 1970, “Industry Concenration and Profit Rate in Japan: 1961-1965,” Sanken Ronshu,
Vol.1, p.51.
The table shows that there is a positive correlation between the two variables, supporting the effect of
market power in concentrated industries. But, the analyses have some qualifications; (1) the sample has small
size and May include biased selection; (2) although there are some possible determinants of profits, the analys
is does not take into account other factors (see Problem # 3); (3) the time period examined may involve a
disequilibrium state, not an equilibrium state assumed in the micro economics.
Sophisticated econometric analyses have examined the association, using larger number of industries,
multi-variables, and different time periods. The findings show that; (1) there is still a significant, positive
correlation between seller concentration and profits across industries; (2) larger mobility tends to lead to
more competitive pricing and profits, (3) there are wider inter-firm differentials in profit rate for concentrated
industries than for less concentrated industries; (4) product differentiation(+), entry barriers(+), international
competition(+,−), buyer concentration(−), distributive outlets (+) have a significant influence on profits
respectively. Also, tariffs(+) have a positive effect on profit rate, implying restricted import competition due
to tariffs.
Furthermore, there is a positive relationship between market share and profit rate cross firms. The
finding suggests that large firms have market power due to intra-industry mobility barriers, relative to smaller
firms.
The relations between profit rate and its possible determinants observed in Japan are summarized in
Table 2.
《Problem #3》
What kind of sources do high profits come from ?
《Problem #4 》
We can find the speeches of company presidents in newspapers. Sometimes the speeches are
interesting from the viewpoint of IO economics. The president of a large firm told; "If price is raised,
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then imports will increase. Now, it is difficult to stabilize prices in an artificial way." What are the
implications of his speech ?
《Problem #5》
In real world, a puzzling case may take place; economies of scale raise productive efficiency,
but enhance market power due to increased concentration. Concentration (for instance through mergers)
increases welfare (social benefits) by economies of scale, but reduces welfare by market power. This
case is called welfare trade-off. What kind of policy do you propose ?
Table 3 Concentration, Firm Size and Number of Innovations in the US; 1970-78
The table suggests that there is an eclectic relationship (i.e., an inverted U-shape). Therefore, there is an
optimal concentration level or its range. Also, it is worth noting that smaller firms are responsible for larger
share of innovations. Now, the role of independent and vital smaller firms (which are called venture
business in Japan) in innovations is among the contemporary research interest. The recognition of small
business as an innovative and competition-promoting unit is of an importance for public policy.
Further theoretical and empirical studies are necessary, since technological opportunities change over time.
(NOTE: My lecture will start, refering to the contents of this text, and then discuss higher level
of issues )
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