Amplitude Modulation: Digital QAM A type of modulation which converts digital signals via Resulting Phase Shifts

• The goal of quadrature sampling is to be able to digitize discrete frequency changes in the carrier signal
an analog bandpass signal
• It is a form of digital modulation where the digital 2-ary FSK (BSFK)
information is obtained in both the amplitude and phase • Two carrier frequencies, f1 and f2, represent
of the transmitted carrier. binary 1 and 0.
Bits per symbol of M-aryPSK

COHERENT - phase is imposed and measured with respect to a

fixed carrier of known phase.
BSFK: Fourier Transform
Quadrature Sampling DIFFERENTIAL - phase change between two consecutive symbols

BPSK Generation

Bit rate
rb=rlog2M
Transmission Bandwidth
BT=r= rblog2M
Efficiency
rbBT= log2M BSFK Bandwidth (Carson’s Rule) : B=2∆f+f
Symbol Duration
D= 1r= log2Mrb BPSK Detection

Binary Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

Continuous Phase FSK (CPFSK)
• Due to the 1/Tb restriction, the signal has a continuous
phase in inter-bit transitions.
• f should be a multiple of 1/Tb, so that starts and ends at
the same point
BFSK Generation: QPSK Equation
• Switching modulation - switch
• Product modulation - diode + multiplier
8-QAM Transmitter • Voltage-controlled oscillator
BFSK Detection: QPSK Generation
• Coherent detection
○ Carrier phase must be continuous
○ multiplier + LPD + Added + Level Converter
• Non-coherent detection
○ No synchronization
○ BFS + Envelope detectors + sample and hold + Level
Converter
M-ary FSK Equations:
8-QAM Reciever General
equation
st= A cos QPSK Detection
( 2πfit)
equation for
the
fi= fc+2iT Fc = center
frequency
frequencies I = ith frequency
(fi)
Bandwidth
BT= 2MT T = symbol duration

16-QAM MFSK Generation: series to parallel conv + 2x4 Decoder +

multiplier + adder 8PSK Modulation
MFSK Detector: multiplier + LPF + decoder + Parallel to
Series converter

Phase Shift Keying

• Involves the carrier signal changing between phases
determined by the logic states of the input bit stream
Frequency Shift Keying • Change the phase of the sinusoidal carrier to indicate
information
 X6+X4+X3+X+
– Parity Check Matrix H
2
+X+1
1 X7+X6+X5+X4+1
X6+X5+1 X7+X6+X5+X4+X
X6+X5+X2+X+ 2
+X+1
1 X7+X6+X5+X4+X
X6+X5+X3+X2+ 3
+X2+1
1
X6+X5+X4+X+
1 – Descending order then convert to binary, n-k×n
Galois Field GF(2m) matrix
– It begins with the two elements from GF(2), 0 and 1 and – DECODING S=YHT, construct syndrome table based
introduce a new symbol α which is a primitive
element of the field GF(2m).
on HT
– Note: GF(2m)  { 0, 1, 2, 3, …, 2m-1}; GF(2m) = { 0, 1, α,
Systematic – obtain Cyclic generator matrix by making (G=[P|
α2, α3, ... αj } Ik])
FINITE FIELDS AND GALOIS FIELDS – GF(2m) = { 0, 1, α, α2, α3, ... α2m-2 }; The set GF(2m) – Add vector to obtain a vector with desired identity
Properties of Finite Field is a Galois field of 2m elements. – X=MG, code word is composed of parity bits then
– Convention : f(x) = fyxy + f(y-1)x(y-1) + … + f1x + f0 Making GF24 message
– Finite Field - a field with a finite amount of elements. – Sincem=4 form the table of primitive polynomials – Check Matrix H : hx→HPTI→HT
– Elements : – Set fα=α4+α+1=0 then α4=α+1
– Decoding : S=YHT (syndrome table construction is
the same)
– The number of elements in a Finite Field must be a prime α α2 α3 α4= α5=α2 Perfect Codes
power, say q = pm, where p is prime.
Primitive Elements = =α =α α+1 +α+1… – Codes- Cn,k,d, where d is the min. hamming
distance.
– An element whose powers constitute all the non-zero α 2 3
elements of the fields (e.g. in GF(7), primitive element = 3) Roots of Polynomials – d≥t+1;
Code C can DETECT up to t errors:

– Let a= primitive element, multiplicative inverse a is: j – Polynomials may have roots which are not from their – d≥2t+1
Code C can CORRECT up to t errors ;

– ;
field but from their extension fields (not from GF(2) but
from GF(2m)
– Hamming bound : Md=0tnd(q-1)d≤qn where
Divisibility and Roots
– If β is an element and root of an extension field, β2l is M=2k
– For an element in the field, a, if it is a root of the – For q=2: Md=0tnd=2n
polynomial such that f(a) = 0 then the polynomial is a root of f(x) and also a conjugate of β Check Sum
divisible by x-a. Minimal Polynomials
– Fixed sized datum computed from an arbitrary block of
Irreducible Polynomials – The minimal polynomial ϕ(x) of an element β of a digital data.
– f(x), a polynomial of degree m over GF(p) is said to be Galois Field is the product of x-β and every x-β2l .
– E.g. Parity Bits, Cyclic Redundancy Check
irreducible over GF(p) if f(x) is not divisible by any – Parity Checking – adds on bit to the pattern and requires
polynomial over GF(p) of degree less than m but – If β is a root of f(x) then fxis divisible by ϕx. modulo 2-sum of all the bits of the pattern & the parity
greater than zero. LINEAR BLOCK CODES have defined answer
Primitive Polynomials of GF(2m) Terminology (k=message length, n=codeword, ○ Even (sum=0), odd (sum=1)
– f(x), a polynomial of degree m, is said to be primitive if:
q=n-k=chkbits) Parity Checking using Square Arrays
1. Irreducible and monic (coefficient of highest degree – K message bits in square array. Rows & columns are
is 1) 2. The smallest possible integer n for which f(x) Block code (n,k), code efficiency RC=kn
checked by 2k parity bits.
divides xn-1 where n=2m+1 and m is the Distance – (# of different bits on same position), weight =no. of non zero bits
Cyclic Codes – all cyclic shift of a codeword is also a codeword, all zero Burst Error Detection using Parity bits
degree of the polynomial codeword is included in C, and sum of any two other codewords is also a valid – Divides the message in frames then put the parity.
– Table of Primitive Polynomials codeword.
Transmit many bits together just one from each frame
Primitive m Primitive NonSystematic
m Cyclic Redundancy Check
2
Polynomials
X2+X+1 7
Polynomials
X7+X+1
– Generator Matrix for nonsystematic (same with primitive
– it is characterized by specification of generator
X3+X+1 X7+X3+1 polynomial)
3 polynomial used as the divisor in a polynomial long
X3+X2+1 X7+X3+X2+X+1 division over a finite field, taking the input data as the
X4+X+1 X7+X4+1 dividend (stuffed with (highest degree gen. polynomial)
4
X4+X3+1 X7+X4+X3+X2+1
# of 0’s), and where the remainder becomes the result.
X5+X2+1 X7+X5+X2+X+1
– Standard Polynomials for G(x)
X5+X3+1 X7+X5+X3+X+1
X5+X3+X2+X+ X7+X5+X4+X3+1
1 X7+X5+X4+X3+X
2
– r=n-k,
ascending order then convert to binary,
X5+X4+X2+X+ +X+1
5
1 X7+X6+1 n×n matrix
X5+X4+X3+X+ X7+X6+X3+X+1
1 X7+X6+X4+X+1 – ENCODING X=MG, X is the transmitted codeword;
X5+X4+X3+X2+
1
X7+X6+X4+X2+1
X7+X6+X5+X2+1
xn-1=gxhx. to get the check matrix h, divide
6 X6+X+1 X7+X6+X5+X3+X xn-1 by gx.
HAMMING CODE
Hamming Code
– Uses multiple parity bits to be able to do single error
correction, double error detection (SECDED) – ENCODING
– Each message or data bits gets checked by at least 2 – DECODING
parity bits
– (n,k) where n = total # of bits, k = message length,
q=n-k
– Must satisfy 2q≥q+k+1
– Systematic (message before parity or vice versa);
Nonsystematic (no particular order)
(7,4) Binary Hamming Code
– Given 4 data bits (d1,d2, d3, d4) parity bits can
be defined as:

–
– ENCODING
○ Represent each data bits and parity
(depending on the data bit they’re checking)
with a column vector

○ →generator matrix G
(4 x7)
○ X=MG
– Decoding → based from the arrangement of the parity
and data bits.
– ERROR? Construct H

– Get transpose of H and multiply by the received

codeword. The S, result, is the position of error (based
from HT)
– NON SYSTEMATIC

– ERROR CORRECTION
○ Received : 1010111
○ Add the received parity and the calculated
parity based from the data received. The
result is the position (p3p2p1)
– USING GENERATION MATRIX