Summary: Theoretical Views on Education
MACARAEG 1BSA-1
Beginnings of Education
 Informal education- all people have cared for
their children and prepared them for life.
 Hindu and Hebrew education- How to live a
good life.
 Chinese Education- Lao-Tzu and Confucius
 Egyptian Education- education provided
privileged males
 Eastern civilization developed education prior
to Western civilizations, for the most part.
Contribution of each civilization to education
1. Ancient Jewish- religious education
2. Ancient Chinese- career-oriented education
3. Ancient Egyptian-practical and empirical
(experiences or observations) education.
4. Ancient Greek- liberal and democratic
education
5. Ancient Roman- pragmatic and progressive
education.
7000 BC - 5000 BC
 Pre-literate societies (before writing)
 Educational Goals- to teach survival skills, teach
group harmony.
 Students: Children
 Instructional Methods: Informal, children
imitate adults
 Curriculum: Practice hunting, fishing, songs,
poems and dances.
 Agents: Parents, tribal elders, religious leaders
 Practice on education: Informal, transmission of
skills.
CHINA3000 BC-1900 AD
 China Educational goals: Prepare elites to
govern the empire according to Confucian
principles
 Students: Males of upper class
 Instructional Methods: Memorization and
recitation
 Curriculum: Confucian classics
 Agents: Government officials
 Inference education: Written examinations for
civil service
INDIA 3000 BC TOPRESENT
 Educational Goals: to learn behavior and ritual
based on Vedas
 Students: Males of upper class
 Instructional Methods: Memorizing and
interpreting sacred texts
 Curriculum: Vedas and religious texts
 Agents: Brahmin priest scholars
 Influence on education: Cultural transmission
and assimilations, spiritual detachment.
EGYPT 3000 BC – 300 BC
ROXANNE CLAIRE A.
 Educational Goals: To prepare priests according
to scribe for the empire
 Students: Males of upper class
 Instructional Methods: Memorization and
copying texts
 Curriculum: Religious or technical texts
 Agents: Priest and scribes
 Influence on education: Restriction on
educational priest elites
GREEK 1600 BC – 300 BC
 Educational Goals: To cultivate civic
responsibility
 Students: Male children ages 7-20
 Instructional Methods: Memorization and
recitation on primary schools, lecture,
discussion and dialog in his schools
 Curriculum: Athens: reading, writing,
arithmetic, drill, poetry, music. Sparta: Drill,
military songs and tactical
 Agents: Athens: private teachers, philosophers
Sparta: Military teachers
 Influence on education: Athens: well rounded,
liberal person. Sparta: Concept of military
state
WESTERN EDUCATION
 The Age of Pericles (455-431 BCE), city states in
Greece
 Sparta, from 8 to 18, boys were wards of the
State….education to develop courage,
patriotism, obedience, cunning, and physical
strength (little intellectual content)
 Athens, heavily stressed intellectual and
aesthetic objectives
WESTERN EDUCATION – THE ROMANS
 In 146 BCE the Romans conquered Greece,
many of the advances of the Roman Empire
inspired by the enslaved Greeks
 Between 50 BCE and 200 CE, an entire system
of schools developed
 Quintilian (35-95 CE) described current practice
and recommended the type of system needed
in Rome….very humanistic
ROMAN 750 BC – 450 AD
 Educational Goals: Develop civic responsibility
for the empire, administrative and military skills
 Students: Male children ages 7-20
 Instructional Methods: Memorization and
recitation in ludus; declamation in rhetorical
schools
 Curriculum: reading, writing, arithmetic, law,
philosophy
 Agents: Private schools and teachers, schools
of rhetoric
 Influence on education: practical administrative
skills, relate education to civic responsibility

 Roman education – students: social
transformation, contribution to national devt
goal, utilitarian
 Greek education – military training
 Spartan education – soldier citizens and art of
war
 Athenian education - individual excellence
EDUCATION IN TRANSITION (1300-1700)
 Renaissance and Reformation
 Renaissance represented the protest against
the dogmatic authority of the church over social
and intellectual life…review of classical learning
called humanism
 Reformation represented a reaction against
corruption in the church which kept most
people in ignorance
ARABIC 700 AD -1350 AD
 Education Goals: Cultivate religious
commitment to Islamic beliefs; expertise in
mathematics, medicine and science
 Students: Male children of upper class ages 7-
20
 Instructional Methods: Memorization and
recitation in primary schools, imitation and
discussion in higher schools
 Curriculum:Reading, writing, arithmetic,
religious literature, scientific studies
 Agents:Mosques, court schools
 Influence on education:Arabic numerals and
computation, medicine and science materials
MEDIEVAL 500 AD – 1400 AD
 Education Goals: Develop religious
commitment, knowledge and ritual; establish
social order, prepare for appropriate roles
 Students:Male children of upper class, girls and
women entering religious community ages 7-20
 Instructional Methods: Memorization and
recitation in lower schools, text analysis
discussion in higher schools and universities
 Curriculum: Athens: reading, writing,
arithmetic, philosophy, theology, military and
chivalry
 Agents: Parish, charity, cathedral schools,
universities, knighthood
 Influence on education: structure and
organization of the university,
institutionalization of knowledge
RENAISSANCE 1350 AD - 1500
 Education Goals: Cultivate humanist expert in
Greek and Latin classics; prepare people to
serve dynastic leaders
 Students: Male children of aristocracy and
upper class, ages 7-20
 Instructional Methods: Memorization and
translation and analysis of Greek and Roman
classics, classical literature, poetry and art.
ROXANNE CLAIRE A. MACARAEG 1BSA-1
 Curriculum:Latin and Greek classical literature,
poetry and art.
 Agents:Classical humanist educators and
schools like lycee, gymnasium and Latin school
 Influence on education:Emphasis on literary
knowledge, excellence and style in classical
literature, two track system of schools
EDUCATION IN TRANSITION
 Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556), to combat the
Reformation, began the Jesuits in
1540….established schools to further the goals
of the Catholic Church, were involved with
teacher training from early on
 Comenius (1592-1670), wrote many texts, first
to use illustrations, writings based on science
 John Locke (1632-1704) tabula rasa
 Reformation
 Education Goals: Cultivate a commitment to a
particular religious denomination, and general
literacy
 Students: Boys and girls ages 7-12 in vernacular
schools, young men of upper class in humanist
schools
 Instructional Methods: Memorization drill,
indoctrination, catechetical instruction in
vernacular schools, translation and analysis of
classical literature in humanist schools
 Curriculum: Reading, writing, arithmetic,
catechism, religious concepts and rituals. Latin
and Greek theology
 Agents: Vernacular elementary school for
general public, classical schools for upper class
Influence on education: Commitment to
universal education to provide literacy for
everyone, origins of school systems, dual track
school system based on socio economic class
and career goals.
THE REFORMATION
 Formal beginning in 1517….ninety-five theses of
Martin Luther….his disagreements with the
Church
 The Church believed its duty was to pass on the
correct interpretation of the Bible to the
laity….Luther thought each should interpret for
self, and thus individual education was
important….to attain salvation
 Luther’s coworker in education, Philipp
Melanchthon, stressed universal elementary
education….education should be provided for
all regardless of class, compulsory for both
severe state controlled and state supported
MODERN PERIOD (1700 TO PRESENT)
 Descartes (1596-1650), laid the foundations for
the modern period and rationalism
 Reason is supreme, the laws of nature are
invariable, truth can be verified empirically

 Frederick the Great (1712-1786), leader of
Prussia, friend of Voltaire, interested in better
training for teachers
 Francis Bacon suggested use of inductive
method of teaching and believed that all
scientific progress must be based on nature.
 Wolfgang Ratke, advocated that everything
should constantly be repeated to ensure
mastery.
 John Locke advocate of disciplism….tabula rasa.
A child’s mind is like a blank tablet and
experiences will be the ones to write on that
tablet
 Jean Jacques Rosseau-believed that man at
birth is naturally good and societal influences
 Make man evil, and that the stronger the body,
the more it obeys and the weaker the body the
more it commands.
 Johan Heinrich Pestalozzi advocated that
learning is through observation and experience
and education is basically a “contact of souls”
and the teacher must feel respect and
sympathy for the children he teaches.
 Johan Friedrich Herbart known for Herbatian
method of teaching, which is composed of
preparation, presentation, association,
generalization and application.
 Friedrich Wilhelm August Froebele established a
child centered school in 1840, came to be
known as “Kindergarten”.
 Maria Montessori developed a child centered
curriculum and emphasized manipulation and
experimentation to promote independence and
creativity.
 John Dewey a proponent of sociological
movement, believed that education must be
democratic, and considered as life and not just
the preparation for life.
 John Dewey postulated the famous “learning by
Doing dictum”, learner learns best if he is an
active participant in the teaching learning
process.
 John Milton – boys study formal education and
grammar
 Francois Rubelais – education must be
attractive and pleasant rather than compulsive
 Michael de Montaigne – use of field trips and
finishing schools
 John Amos Comenius-wrote
“OrbisPictusSensualism” World of Sensible
Things Pictured, its textbook on using visual aids
in classroom teaching
 Richard Mulcaster-education in accordance
with nature of child, expression and devt. And
not to suppress them.
EMMERGENCE OF THE COMMON MAN
 A period during which developed the idea that
common people should receive at least a basic
education as a means to a better life
 Rousseau….most important educational work,
Emile (1762) about the liberal eduction of
ROXANNE CLAIRE A. MACARAEG 1BSA-1
youth….naturalism, education must be natural
not artificial “….we ascribe too much
importance to words. With our babbling
education we make only babblers.” Children are
born good but corrupted by society
 K’ung Fu Tzu or Confucius-believed that the
only remedy toward the present disorder and
lack of moral standards is to convert people
once more to the principles and precepts of the
sages (wisemen) of antiquity. Human action are
based on five virtues of kindness, uprightness,
decorum, wisdom and faithfulness that
constitute the whole of human duty.
 Socrates was a Greek Thinker who believed that
knowledge is virtue and all virtuous actions are
based on knowledge.
 Plato believed that the social class is the person
belongs or determine their education.
 Aristotle believed that virtue is brought by
doing not by knowing and advance the idea that
man is a social animal and must use his reason
to attain his ultimate end, which is the
“cumnumbonum” or highest/supreme good.
 Socrates considered great teacher of ethics who
argued that virtue is knowledge; virtue is good
both for the individual and for the society;
education can make people moral.
 Plato-the soul of a good person is harmoniously
ordered under the governance of reason, and
the good person finds truly satisfying
enjoyment in the pursuit of knowledge; argued
that good is an emotional element of reality.
 Thomas Aquinas-acts must be considered in the
purpose for which they are done and in the
circumstances in which they performed. There
is nothing on this earth more to be prized than
true friendship.
INDUSTRIALIZATION
 In England and all over Europe after the French
revolution, there is an expansion of technology
such as machinery that works with petrol and
steam
 Education was influenced by these changes
 Factory workers came about
 In this period, systems such as Socialism,
Communism, Liberalism and Capitalism started
gaining popularity
 The free thinking brought by the French
revolution combined with industrial revolution
caused education to take shape in this direction
 Education was needed by large masses
 New philosophies came about: Materialism,
Socialism, Positivism etc.
LATEST DEVELOPMENTS
 Teacher education
 1997 Educational faculties
 Education in post graduate education
 Constructivist approach
 Multiple intelligences

 Capital punishment banned at schools
 2005 high schools became 4 years
 12 years mandatory education
 Education starts at 66 months
 Ancient Greece was a powerful civilization that
ruled much of the Mediterranean region.
GREEK EDUCATION
 Greek Education was training for powerful body
of soldiers (Spartan)
 And individual excellence (Athenian). Content of
education was reading, writing, music, poetry
and dancing.
3 TIME PERIODS OF ANCIENT GREECE
1. Archiac period – democracy
2. Classical period – Peloponnesian wars
3. Hellenistic period – Rome conquered Greece
and made Greece a Roman province
 Sophists in ancient Greek were the wandering
scholars who went to Athens to teach Athenian
boys by collecting fees from them
 Protagoras – was the most famous Sophist who
stated that man is the measure of all things.
 The Greek Thinkers flourished in order to
counteract the influences of the Sophists who
were not Athenians, among them were
Socrates, Plato and Aristotle.
 Athens introduced democracy during the
archaic period
 During the classical period, these were the
competing 2 city-states 1. Athens-the arts and
Philosophy, Socrates and Plato 2. Sparta-
fighting
 Alexander the Great-a Macedonian prince,
student of Aristotle, never lost a battle
EGYPT-started 5,000 years ago and ended 2,000 years
ago
EGYPTIAN EDUCATION
 Egyptian Education was both cultural to
preserve and perpetuate culture and
utilitarianism
 To transfer skills from father to son.
 Education for women was vocational
 And the boys were trained by scribes who
taught them how to read and write.
 Nile river-paramount to Egypt civilization
 Pharaoh Tutankhamen-aka King Tut, in 1922 his
tomb was found
 Ancient Egyptians believed that the Pharaoh
was the living body of the God Horus
 Papyrus-paper from reed plants that grow along
the Nile
 Rosetta Stone-it has the same text written in 3
different languages, including hieroglyphics and
classic Greek
 Mummy-body is wrapped and saved in a special
way so it doesn’t break down
ROXANNE CLAIRE A. MACARAEG 1BSA-1
 Slaves were forced to work to build temples and
buildings
 Great Pyramid-took 20 years and 50,000 people
to build
ROMAN EDUCATION
 Roman Education was the development of good
citizen, good soldier and good worker.
 Contents of education were Laws of the Twelve
Tables, Roman history, procedures of court and
the senate, conduct of war, business,
agriculture, sports and use of weapons.
 Girls were taught for domestic life and religious
functions.
 Methodology is memorization and imitation.
 Roman Society-Patricians (nobles), Plebeians
(people) and Slaves
 Contributions of Romans-aqueducts, circuses,
theatres, spas and schools
 Rome is a city in Italy. Rome was founded in
8thcentury BC
 Romulus-according to legend, Rome was
founded by a guy named Romulus in 753 BC. As
you might have guessed, Rome got its name
from Romulus.
 A legend says that a wolf took care of the
brothers Romulus and Remus
 Tiber River meant Rome had access to water,
and water made life and civilization possible.
 The Alps and the Apennines would later make
invasions of Rome more difficult.
 But in 509 BC they were sick of it. At that time
they had a king named Tarquin the Proud.
 Well, the people kicked him out, and they
decided to set up a completely different type of
government. They made people into a republic.
 Julius Caesar-one of the most famous in Roman
history; a great general; a writer
 Julius Caesar’s adopted son Octavian eventually
took over Rome and finally brought peace. He
was renamed Augustus and became the first
Emperor of Rome.
 Augustus was an effective emperor, and
ushered in a period called Pax Romana, where
the majority of people in the Roman Empire
lived their lives without fear of invasion.
 Gladiators-the Colosseum
 Just like us, ancient Romans enjoyed sports and
entertainment. In Ancient Rome, watching
chariot races and fighting were very common.
 Germans invaded Rome-end of Roman Empire
MEDIAVAL EDUCATION OR THE EDUCATION IN THE
MIDDLE AGES
 Education in the Middle Ages (476-1300)
 Roman Catholic Church the greatest power in
government and education (by 476, the fall of
the Roman Empire)
 Spiritual Force
 Has the monopoly of education
 Education for priesthood

 Christian doctrines
 Latin language was used
 Medieval education was more on the teaching
of Jesus Christ which is universal and
democratic.
 There are 3 teaching methods that Jesus Christ
used and contributed, which are the
a. Parable
b. Conversational Method
c. Proverbial or Gnomic Method (proverb,
using few words that are difficult to
understand)
Christian education became part of the
mainstream society in Rome when Emperor
Constantine proclaimed Christianity as the
official religion of the Roman world.
CHARLEMAGNE – EDUCATION FOR ALL
 Early middle ages, period of political, cultural,
economic and educational dislocation
 Charlemagne united all Germanic kingdoms
and converted to Christianity
 Charlemagne (742-814) valued education, and
found Alcuin (735-804) and focused on the
seven liberal arts (trivium and quadrivium)
 Charlemagne supported the Monastic schools
and even established court schools to educate
his constituents.
EARLY MIDDLE AGES: AD 500-1000
ALCUIN
 Advised Charlemagne in enacting legislation
where boys should be taught reading, writing,
mathematics, songs, and Latin grammar
 Alcuin (735-804) and focused on the seven
liberal arts (trivium and quadrivium)
MAJOR EDUCATIONAL AGENCIES
1. Church
2. Feudal aristocracy
3. Crafts or vocational education
 Serfs who were the majority remain
uneducated
MONASTICISM
 Monasticism-were education was a religious
discipline, strict, rigid and punishment was
severe.
 Problems were: eliminating corruption and
clarifying doctrines
 Benedictine Monastery introduced austerity
and simplicity while Franciscan Monastery
poverty, innocence and simple devotion
 Guardians of culture
CHURCH RELATED EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
 Parish
 Chantry
ROXANNE CLAIRE A. MACARAEG 1BSA-1
 Monastic
 Cathedral
 Convents or Nunneries for girls, unmarried
women or widows.
STUDIUM GENERALE
 11TH Century
 Cathedral School
 Designated a location of general learning
 Predecessor of the Universitas or University
 Trivium and Quadrivium
 The Medieval University was composed of a
Studium generale (student body) nation,
councilors, facultas, dean and rector.
 Came before the universities
Manoralism – rural territorial organization in the middle
ages consisting of an estate under a lord enjoying a
variety of rights over land and tenants including the
right to hold court
Feudalism – a social system in the middle ages in which
people worked and fought for nobles who gave them
protection and the use of land in return
Chivalry – where education was used as a social
discipline, where a boy of noble birth has to pass
through several stages to be fully accepted as member
of his social class
 A knight should be strong, courageous,
honorable, dutiful and loyal to his feudal lord.
 Under Chivalry, a boy of noble birth has to go
through as a page, squire, and knight to be fully
accepted as a member of his social class.
 A page is an attendant to the noble courts at
the age of 7 years old.
 A squire is an attendant to a knight at the age
of 14 years.
 A knight is a full-pledged warrior who has
vowed to protect the women and the poor,
defend the church and the state, and attack the
wicked and shed blood for the sake of his
country and his fellow men.
REVIVAL OF CITY LIFE AND GUILD EDUCATION
GUILD SYSTEM
 provided education for the middle class that
acquired their fortune from the profits in
commercial and industrial endeavors brought
by the “Crusades”
THE STAGES FOR THE GUILD OR CRAFTSMEN:
Apprentice, Journeyman, Master
FIRST UNIVERSITIES
 Emperor Frederick I chartered the first
organized university, University of Bologna in
1088 (1158), for Civil and Canon Law
 University of Salerno for Medical school from
Greece
 ROXANNE CLAIRE A. MACARAEG 1BSA-1
 University of Oxford in 1096 Before 1521 Education before the coming of
 University of Paris in 1150 Spaniards

“UNIVERSITASMAGISTRORUMMETSCHOLARIUM” 1521 – 1896 Education during the Spanish Regime

 The cathedral schools cannot accommodate the 1896 – 1899 Education during the Philippine
increasing number of students so, Revolution
 The Medieval University started as
“universitasmagistrorummetscholarium” or 1898 – 1935 Education during the American
corporation of teachers and students, chartered Occupation
by the Pope or the Kings. 1935 – 1941 Education during the Philippine
 The students, the church or the King pay the Commonwealth
teachers
 The schools depend on the students’ wit, fund 1941 – 1944 Education during the Japanese
and style Occupation

SCHOLASTICISM 1944 – 1946 Education after the World War II

 Scholasticism – where education was an 1946–Present Education under the Philippine

intellectual discipline and its purpose was to
bring reason to faith and support theology by
using logic.
 Theology was the highest educational degree
PETER ABELARD
 Prominent philosopher at the University of Paris
who reconciled Faith vs Reason through his
conceptualism
SUMMA THEOLOGICA
 St. Thomas Aquinas foremost proponent of
Scholastic movement.
 Summa Theologica of St. Thomas Aquinas states
that the theological inquiry derived from faith
and philosophical inquiry derived from human
experience
 Blended faith and learning and there is no
contradiction on research and learning
THEISTIC REALISM
 Reality is both spiritual and material
 God is both ultimate Being and personal and
caring Greater
 The human being, a rational creature, can
achieve knowledge of reality
 People are endowed with free will, which they
will exercise by making choices
 Object truth and value exists as the surest guide
to human conduct
LANGUAGE
 Exercise language in instructional teaching; use
the most effective language in communication
so that students will understand the teachers’
thoughts.
 Mother tongue
Republic.
FORMS OF GOVERNMENT:
Types of Government
Aristotle, a Greek political philosopher of the 4 th
century B.C., distinguished three principal kinds of
government: monarchy, aristocracy, and polity (a kind
of
enlightened democracy). The differences among them
chiefly concerned whether power were held by one, by
a
few, or by many. Aristotle thought that the selfish abuse
of power caused each type to become perverted,
respectively, into tyranny, oligarchy, and a lower form
of democracy characterized by mob rule. Monarchy
tended to become tyrannical because it vested
authority
in a single ruler. Aristocracy, a government based on
birth and privilege, in which the rulers governed for the
good of the whole society, tended to become oligarchy
as a consequence of restricting political power to a
special social and economic class; only a few members
of the class would have enough drive and ability to
acquire the power to govern. The polity, likewise, would
deteriorate into ochlocracy, or mob rule, if the citizens
pursued only their selfish interests. Aristotle's
classifications suited the societies of ancient
times, but they do not correspond to the power
structure
of later societies. Modern writers have developed a
variety of schemes for classifying governments, based
on the nature of the ruling class, the economic system,
the government's political institutions, the principles of
authority, the acquisition and exercise of power, and
other factors. Some influential writers on government
include Thomas Hobbes, Baron de Montesquieu, Jean
Jacques Rousseau, Karl Marx, Gaetano Mosca, Vilfredo
Pareto, and the sociologist Max Weber.

Monarchy - The most common form of government

TIMELINE

from ancient times to the early part of the 20th century
was monarchy, or rule by a hereditary king or queen.
Monarchy passed through three basic stages, varying
according to the nation and the political and economic
climate. The first stage was that of the absolute
monarch. In the Christian part of the world during the
Middle Ages, a conflict developed between the pope
and the kings who recognized his spiritual authority.
The pope wanted to expand the power of the church
beyond spiritual matters to include the temporal realm.
But some kings proclaimed that God had given them
the right to rule and by proclaiming this divine right
they were able to give legitimacy to their reigns and
limit the pope's power.
Constitutional Government
Today most governments derive their legitimacy from
national constitutions that provide a legal framework
for
their rule and specify how power is to be exercised and
controlled. Even one-party states, such as the
traditional
Communist countries and other nations in Africa, Asia,
and South America, have found it necessary to establish
formal constitutions. In democratic countries the
constitution can be amended or replaced by popular
vote, either directly or through a system of elected
representatives. In authoritarian one-party systems,
however, all political power, including that of revising
the constitution, resides with the leaders of the party.
The constitution may thus be only a paper facade, and
in order to understand how the country is governed one
must examine the actual political process.
Democracy
Representative government in the modern world is
based
not only on a constitution that provides for it but on the
actual rule of law — the assurance that provisions of
the constitution will be enforced. It requires that
citizens be free to organize competing political parties,
engage in political campaigns, and hold elections
according to agreed-upon rules. Democratic
governments vary in structure. Two common forms are
the parliamentary and the presidential. In the
parliamentary form of government, as in Australia,
Britain, Canada, or India, all political power is
concentrated in the parliament or legislature. The prime
minister or premier and the officers of the cabinet are
members of the parliament. They continue in office only
as long as parliament supports — or has "confidence" in
— their policies. In the presidential form of
government, as in France and the United States, the
voters elect a powerful chief executive who is
ROXANNE CLAIRE A. MACARAEG 1BSA-1
independent of the legislature but whose actions are
delimited by constitutional and other legal restraints.
Dictatorship
As a form of government, dictatorship is principally a
20th-century phenomenon. The dictator, often a
military leader, concentrates political power in himself
and his clique. There is no effective rule of law. The
regime may or may not have a distinctive political
ideology and may or may not allow token opposition.
The main function of a dictatorship is to maintain
control of all governmental operations. There have
been some cases — Indira Gandhi in India and several
military dictatorships in Latin America — in which
authoritarian rulers have relaxed their control and have
even allowed open elections. In certain Soviet-bloc
countries of Eastern Europe dictators were forced from
power in bloodless coups or voluntarily relinquished
their authority to popularly elected officials as Soviet
power declined.
Distribution of Authority
Effective government in any form requires a workable
method for distributing authority within the country.
The larger and more diverse the jurisdiction of the
government, the stronger the tendency toward a
federal system in which authority is "layered" or
distributed among different levels. In countries with a
relatively homogeneous population and with a common
tradition, language, and sense of national history, the
central governments may not be federal but unitary —
that is, they may retain most of the administrative
power at the center. Loosely allied autonomous states
sometimes join together to create a type of central
government known as a confederation, in which the
central government exists only at the pleasure of the
sovereign members.
Federal Systems
The United States and India with their state
governments
and Canada and China with their provincial
governments are examples of workable federal systems
in large nations with very diverse populations
Other federal states include Argentina, Australia, Brazil,
Mexico, Nigeria, and Germany. The national
governments of these countries are clearly more
powerful than those of their subdivisions, even though
the constitutions delegate many powers and
responsibilities to the subnational units. In certain
prescribed policy areas a state government may have a
high degree of autonomy. In the United States, for
example, state legislatures pass laws having to do with
state affairs; state administrators carry them out; and
state judiciaries interpret them. Federal systems also
include autonomous local governments such as county
governments and municipal governments — in cities,
boroughs, townships, and villages local governments

may stand in a relationship to their state governments
that corresponds to that of state governments with the
national government. The citizens in each jurisdiction
elect many of the public officials. In addition, certain
special districts exist with a single function, such as
education or sanitation, and have their own elected
officials.
Unitary States
In unitary states the national government performs all
the governmental functions. Subnational national units
administer matters within their jurisdiction, but their
powers are set and delegated by the national authority.
The national government retains the police power —
the inherent power to provide for the health, safety,
and welfare of its citizens. Taxation and major
lawmaking powers also rest almost entirely with the
national government. Most nations are unitary states,
but their institutions and processes may differ
markedly. Great Britain, for example, is considered a
unitary system, yet a certain degree of regional
autonomy exists in Northern Ireland, Scotland, and
Wales, and local county governments perform certain
fairly autonomous functions. In France, however, strict
control over the administrative territorial subdivisions is
exercised by the national government. In other unitary
states there exists only token territorial
decentralization.
Confederations
Confederation produces the weakest central
government.
Member states in a confederation retain their
sovereignty, delegating to the central government only
those powers that are essential for its maintenance. The
individual states jealously guard their power to tax and
to make their own laws. The central government serves
as a coordinating instrument to protect the interests of
all its members. It also represents the confederation in
dealings with outside governments, but its actions are
subject to the review and approval of the confederated
states. The weakness of the confederate form of
government led the United States to abandon that
system in 1789 after only eight years. Confederations,
however, have also served other nations — Germany
and Switzerland, for example — as a preliminary step
toward a more unified government. No modern nation-
state is organized along confederate lines, yet some
international organizations, such as the British
Commonwealth of Nations, the European Union
(formerly the European Community), and the North
Atlantic Treaty Organization, have some aspects of a
confederation.
Divisions of Government
Various political thinkers have distinguished types of
government activity. Montesquieu was the first,
however, to urge the creation of three separate
institutions or divisions of government—the executive,
ROXANNE CLAIRE A. MACARAEG 1BSA-1
legislative, and judicial — a distinction that became
common in almost all modern constitutions. Some
governmental structures, notably that of the United
States, are based on the principle of separation of
powers at nearly every level. Executive, legislative, and
judicial powers are divided into three branches of
government, creating a system of checks and balances
among them and helping to protect citizens from
arbitrary and capricious actions on the part of any of
the three branches. Such protection is crucial in the
area of civil rights — those constitutionally guaranteed
rights that shield the citizen from tyrannical actions
bygovernment. Often, in times of grave national
emergency, when the central government needs more
power, the public is willing to grant it. The executive
branch usually predominates at such time.
PRESIDENT OF THE PHILIPPINES
Emilio Aguinaldo (June 12, 1898- April 1, 1901)
 First and Last President of the First Republic of
the Philippines.
 signed the Pact of Biak-na-Bato, creating a truce
between the Spanish and Philippine
revolutionaries
 known as the President of the Revolutionary
Government
 led the Philippines in the Spanish-Philippine
War and the American-Philippine War
 youngest president, taking office at age 28
 longest-lived president, passing away at 94
Manuel L. Quezon (1935- 1944)
After 34 years of Insular Government under American
rule, Philippine voters elected Manuel Luis Quezon first
president of the Commonwealth of the Philippines. He
is known as the “Father of National Language” (Ama ng
Wikang Pambansa). He died of tuberculosis in Saranac
Lake, New York.
 first Senate president elected as President of
the Philippines
 first president elected through a national
election
 first president under the Commonwealth
 created National Council of Education
 initiated women’s suffrage in the Philippines
during the Commonwealth
 approved Tagalog/Filipino as the national
language of the Philippines
 appears on the twenty-peso bill
 a province, a city, a bridge and a university in
Manila are named after him
 his body lies within the special monument on
Quezon Memorial Circle
Jose P. Laurel (October 14, 1943- August 17, 1945)

His presidency is controversial. He was officially the
government's caretaker during the Japanese occupation
of World War II. Criticized as a traitor by some, his
indictment for treason was superseded later by an
amnesty proclamation in 1948.
 Puppet Government
 since the early 1960s, Laurel considered a
legitimate president of the Philippines
 organized KALIBAPI (Kapisanan sa Paglilingkod
sa Bagong Pilipinas, or Association for Service to
the New Philippines),  a provisional government
during Japanese occupation
 declared Martial Law and war between the
Philippines and the U.S./United Kingdom in 1944
 with his family, established the Lyceum of the
Philippines
Sergio Osmena Sr. (August 1, 1944- May 28, 1946)
Was the second president of the Commonwealth.
During his presidency, the Philippines joined the
International Monetary Fund.
 became president at 65, making him the oldest
person to hold office
 first Visayan to become president
 joined with U.S. Gen. Douglas McArthur in Leyte
on October 20, 1944 to begin restoration of
Philippine freedom after Japanese occupation
 Philippine National Bank was rehabilitated and
the country joined the International Monetary
Fund during his presidency
 Bell Trade Act was approved by the U.S.
Congress during his presidency
 appears on the 50-peso bill
Manuel A. Roxas (July 4, 1946- April 15 1948)
was the fifth president of the Philippines: the third (and
last) president under the Commonwealth, and the first
president of the Third Republic of the Philippines. He
held office for only one year, 10 months, and 18 days.
 inaugurated as the first president of the new
Republic after World War II
 reconstruction from war damage and life
without foreign rule began during his presidency
 under his term, the Philippine Rehabilitation Act
and Philippine Trade Act laws were accepted by
Congress
 appears on the 100-peso bill
Elpidio R. Quirino (April 18, 1948- December 30, 1953)
Served as vice president under Manuel Roxas. When
Roxas died in 1948, Quirino became president.
 Hukbalahap guerrilla movement active during
his presidency
ROXANNE CLAIRE A. MACARAEG 1BSA-1
 created Social Security Commission
 created Integrity Board to monitor graft and
corruption
 Quezon City became capital of the Philippines in
1948
Ramon F. Magsaysay (December 30, 1953- March 17,
1957)
Was born in Iba, Zambales. He was a military governor
and an engineer. He died in an aircraft disaster while
boaHukbalahap movement quelled during his
presidency
 chairman of the Committee on Guerrilla
Affairs
 first president sworn into office wearing
Barong Tagalog during inauguration
 presidency referred to as the Philippines'
"Golden Years" for its lack of corruption
 Philippines was ranked second in Asia’s
clean and well-governed countries during
his presidency
 established National Resettlement and
Rehabilitation Administration (NARRA)
among other agrarian reformsrding the
presidential plane.
Carlos P. Garcia (March 23, 1957- December 30, 1961)
A lawyer, poet, and teacher, Carlos P. Garcia also served
as a guerrilla leader during the Pacific War. Born in
Bohol, Garcia serviced as vice president under Ramon
Magsaysay and as secretary of Foreign Affairs for four
years. He became president when Magsaysay died in
1957.
 known for “Filipino First Policy,” which favored
Filipino businesses over foreign investors
 established the Austerity Program focusing on
Filipino trade and commerce
 known as the “Prince of Visayan Poets” and the
“Bard from Bohol”
 cultural arts was revived during his term
 was the first president to have his remains
buried at the Libingan ng mga Bayani
Diosdado P. Macapagal (December 30, 1961-
December 30, 1965)
Born in Lubao, Pampanga, Diosdado Macapagal was a
lawyer and professor. His daughter
Gloria Macapagal Arroyo was the
14th, and second female, president of
the Philippines.
 established the first Land Reform Law, allowing
for the purchase of private farmland to be
distributed in inexpensive, small lots to the
landless
 placed the Philippine peso on the currency
exchange market

 declared June 12, 1898 to be Philippines’
Independence Day
 signed the Minimum Wage Law
 created the Philippine Veteran’s Bank
Ferdinand E. Marcos (December 30, 1965- June 16,
1981)
Born in Sarrat, Ilocos Norte, Ferdinand Edralin Marcos
was a lawyer and Senate President for three years. He
was president for 21 years. He ruled under martial law
and his dictatorship was known for its corruption and
brutality. Marcos was removed from office after the
People Power Revolution.
 first president to win a second term
 declared Martial Law on Sept. 22, 1972
 increased the size of Philippine military and
armed forces
 by 1980 the Philippine GNP was four times
greater than 1972
 by 1986 the Philippines was one of the most
indebted countries in Asia
 built more schools, roads, bridges, hospitals,
and other infrastructure than all former presidents
combined
 the only president whose remains are interred
inside a refrigerated crypt
Maria Corazon C. Aquino (February 25, 1986- June 30,
1992)
The first woman president of the Philippines and the
first woman to become president of an Asian country,
Corazon Aquino was born in Paniqui, Tarlac. She was a
prominent figure in the People Power Revolution that
brought down Ferdinand Marcos' dictatorship. Her
husband, Benigno Aquino Jr., was a senator during the
Marcos regime and its strongest critic. He was
assassinated while Marcos was still in power.
 restored democracy
 abolished the 1973 Marcos Constitution and
ushered in the new Constitution of the Philippines
 reorganized the structure of the executive
branch of government
 signed the Family Code of 1987, a major civil
law reform, and 1191 Local Government Code,
which reorganized the structure of the executive
branch of government
 initiated charitable and social activities helping
the poor and the needy
 named “Woman of the Year” in 1986 by Time
magazine
 on the new 500-peso bill together with her
husband Benigno Aquino
Received honors and awards including:
 100 Women Who Shaped World History
ROXANNE CLAIRE A. MACARAEG 1BSA-1
 20 Most Influential Asians of the 20th Century
 65 Great Asian Heroes
 J. William Fulbright Prize for International
Understanding
Fidel V. Ramos (June 30, 1992- June 30, 1998)
Was the chief-of-staff of the Armed Forces of the
Philippines before he became president. He was also a
civil engineer. As president, he restored economic
growth and stability in the country, even during the
Asian Financial Crisis in 1997. He is the first, and so far
the only, non-Catholic president of the Philippines.
 oversaw Philippine economic growth
 presided over celebrations of Philippine
Independence Centennial in 1998
 received British Knighthood from the United
Kingdom by Queen Elizabeth II (Knight Grand Cross
of the Order of St. Michael and St. George)
 hosted the fourth Asia Pacific Economic
Cooperation Leader's Summit in the Philippines in
1996
 Philippine Stock Exchange became an
international favorite during his presidency
 death penalty reinstated while he was in office
 signed peace agreement with the rebel Moro
National Liberation 
Joseph E. Estrada (June 30, 1998- January 20, 2001)
 Was the first president who had been a famous film
actor. His presidency was controversial. During his years
in office economic growth was slow and he faced
impeachment proceedings. He was ousted from the
presidency in 2001. He was later convicted of stealing
from the government but was pardoned. He ran
unsuccessfully for president in 2010.
 during his presidency Moro Islamic Liberation
Front headquarters and camps were captured
 joined other leaders and politicians to try to
amend the 1987 Constitution
 cited as one of the Three Outstanding Senators
in 1989
 among the “Magnificent 12” who voted to
terminate the agreement that allows for U.S.
control of Clark Airbase and Subic Naval Base
Maria-Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo (January 20, 2001-
Arroyo oversaw road and infrastructure
improvements and higher economic growth that
presidents before her, but there was also controversy.
The so-called "Hello Garci" controversy involved
recordings that allegedly captured Arroyo ordering
the rigging of the election that put her in office. In
2005 Arroyo faced impeachment proceedings related
to the recordings but the impeachment failed. After

she had left office Arroyo faced additional charges of
election fraud and misuse of state funds.June 30,
2010)
 second female president of the country
 first and only female vice-president of the
Philippines so far
 first president to take oath outside Luzon
 former Economics professor at the Ateneo de
Manila University, where current president
Benigno Aquino III was one of her students
 ex-classmate of former U.S. President Bill
Clinton at Georgetown University’s Walsh School
of Foreign Service, where she maintained Dean’s
list status
 oversaw higher economic growth than the past
three presidents before her
 peso became the best-performing currency of
the year in Asia in 2007
 eVAT Law was implemented under her term
 currently on the 200-peso bill
Benigno Simeon Cojuangco Aquino III (June 30, 2010-
June 30, 2016)
ROXANNE CLAIRE A. MACARAEG 1BSA-1
Joined GENDER
the House ANDofDEVELOPMENT
Representatives and the Senate
before MRS. OPULENCIAHe is the first president who is a
his presidency.
bachelor; he is unmarried and has no children.
 created the no "wang-wang" (street siren)
policy
 appointed statesman Jesse Robredo to serve as
secretary of Interior and Local Government in
2010, where Robredo served until his death in
2012
 initiated K-12 education in the Philippines
 renamed the Office of the Press Secretary to
Presidential Communications Operations Office
and appointed new officers
 suspended allowances and bonuses to
Government Owed and Controlled Corporation
and Government Financial Institution board
members
 oversaw 7.1% growth of the Philippine
economy in 2012
Rodrigo Duterte (June 30, 2016-June 30, 2022)
 Sixth President of the 5th Republic of the
Philippines.