In nature, there are different types of rocks available, i.e.

, rocks are classified into three categories, Geologically,

chemically, and structurally.

(1) Geological Types of Rocks.

Table of Contents [hide]
 (1) Geological Types of Rocks.
o (i) IGNEOUS ROCKS:
o (ii) Sedimentary Rocks:
o (iii) Metamorphic Rocks:
 (2) Chemical Types of Rocks.
o (i) Siliceous Rocks:
o (ii) Calcareous Rocks:
o (iii) Argillaceous Rocks:
 (3) Structural (PHYSICAL) Rock Types:
o (i) Unstratified (MASSIVE) Rocks:
o (ii) Stratified (LAYERED) Rocks:
o (iii) Foliated Rocks:
 Related Articles

This classification is based on the mode or process of formation of a rock. Thus, some rocks may be formed from
natural hot molten materials.

Others may be formed at ordinary temperatures from compaction of particles or sediments, and still, others may be
formed from the previous two types by the action of temperature, pressure, and fluids on them.

Therefore, in the geological classification of rocks following three types of rocks are recognized.

(i) IGNEOUS ROCKS:

All those rocks that have been formed by cooling and crystallization from an originally hot and molten material are
grouped together as Igneous Rocks.

They are the most abundant rocks of the crust depth-wise. The hot molten material occurs below the surface of the
earth and is known as MAGMA.

Quite Often, it erupts out at the surface as LAVA from cracks in the crust called volcanoes.

MAGMA may cool and crystallize below the surface and change it into solid rocks. Similarly, lava on flowing over
the surface (even underwater in oceans) may also change it into rocks.

Three different types of Igneous rocks are thus formed:

(a) PLUTONIC:  Formed at great depths, generally from 210 km below the surface. These have coarse crystals.

Examples: Granites, Syenites’, Gabbros.

(b) HYPABYSSAL: Formed at the intermediate depth below the surface generally up to 2 km. These have mixed
characters.

Examples: Porphyries of various types.

The Platonic and Hypabyssal are sometimes grouped as INTRUSIVE ROCKS.

(c) VOLCANIC: These are formed on the surface of the earth, even underwater in oceans from the cooling of lava
from volcanoes. They are also called extrusive rocks and are commonly made up of very fine crystals.

Examples: Basalts and Traps.

(ii) Sedimentary Rocks:

These Types of Rocks are also called secondary rocks. At any time, the existing rocks on the surface of the earth are
being broken into smaller particles by the natural process of decay and decomposition called weathering and
erosion.

Atmospheric gases, temperature variation, wind, water, and ice are some natural agencies which break the existing
rocks into small fragments and sediments. These particles are then carried away and deposited at other places such
as at sea-bed, lake-bed, river-bed and so on.

Gradually, the accumulated particles get compressed and compacted under their own load and are thereby
transformed into rock-solid cohesive masses of particles.
In some cases, the particles may be bound together by some natural cementing material; with or without any
pressure. These are also sedimentary rocks.

In seas and oceans, a large number of sea-organisms live and die. Their hard parts also accumulate at the sea-bed
and are gradually transformed into rocks.

Since the particles in such rocks are derived from organisms, they are called organically formed sedimentary
rocks in comparison to the mechanically formed sedimentary rocks of the first type.

The third category of sedimentary rocks is formed due to chemical processes like evaporation and precipitation.
Naturally, they are designated as chemically formed sedimentary rocks.

The sedimentary rocks are very widespread, area wise, on the surface of the earth. Depth-wise, however, they form
only a small proportion of the crust.

Best known and common sedimentary rocks are Sandstones, Quartzite, Limestones, Dolomites, and Shales.

READ MORE:  WHAT IS BEARING CAPACITY OF SOIL? & HOW TO IMPROVE IT?

(iii) Metamorphic Rocks:

This rock type is originally either igneous rocks or sedimentary rocks which have undergone some change in their
structure, shape or composition.
The change might have been due to an increase in temperature or pressure or both. Sometimes, the change is due to
some chemically active fluids that act on the pre-existing rocks.

The nature of change in the rock will depend on;

(i) The nature of existing rock.

(ii) The type of factors operating on the rock (temperature, pressure, fluids).

(iii) The intensity of factors.

(iv) The duration of action.

Very interesting new rock type may be formed from pre-existing igneous or sedimentary rocks depending upon the
above conditions.

Thus limestone, a sedimentary rock, may change to a variety of MARBLES.

Similarly, sandstone, again a sedimentary rock, may change into a very hard QUARTZITE.

Granite (igneous rock) changes to GNEISS and shale, a sedimentary rock, into the so well known metamorphic rock
SLATE.

Another very important fundamental fact about these metamorphic changes in rocks is that they all take place
essentially in a solid state.

The original rocks are heated and compressed but seldom melted. (Once melted and recrystallized, they form
igneous and not metamorphic rocks).
(2) Chemical Types of Rocks.

On the basis of dominant chemical composition, following three Types of Rock are commonly recognized.

(i) Siliceous Rocks:

These rocks have silica (SiO2 > 50%) as the predominant component. Some sedimentary and metamorphic rocks like
QUARTiZITES may be made up almost entirely (98-100%) of silica.

Naturally, they are considered among the strongest building stones. Some igneous and metamorphic rocks like
GRANITES and GNEISSES respectively have predominantly siliceous composition. When free from decomposed
minerals and micas, these rocks also form excellent building stones.

(ii) Calcareous Rocks:

In these types of rocks, the dominant component is a CARBONATE > 50%, generally of Calcium and also of
Magnesium.

Most commonly they belong to sedimentary and metamorphic groups of geological classification.

Best known examples of calcareous or carbonate rocks are LIMESTONES, DOLOMITES, and MARBLES.

(iii) Argillaceous Rocks:

They are mostly sedimentary and metamorphic rocks having CLAY > 50% (hydrous alumina silicate of Ca, Mg, Ka,
etc.) as the predominant component.
The sedimentary varieties are known as clay stones, siltstones, and shales. They are generally soft and disintegrate
easily in the presence of water resulting into muddy slush.

The metamorphic varieties are phyllites and slates. These represent thoroughly baked and indurated shales. They are
quite hard and brittle but being invariably thin-layered are of only limited use in building construction.

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Watch the video Below to understand the Types of Rocks easily.

(3) Structural (PHYSICAL) Rock Types:

These types of rocks are grouped into three broad classes depending upon the presence or absence of layered
structure and when layered, on the nature of layered structures.

The three types are:

(i) Unstratified (MASSIVE) Rocks:

These types of rocks are free from any layered structure. They form extensive masses of almost same general
structure depth-wise and area-wise. Most of the igneous rocks fall in this class.

(ii) Stratified (LAYERED) Rocks:

In this rock type very easily observed layered structure is the dominant quality. The layers may be thin (1 cm or so)
or thick (1 m and above) and of same or different color and composition.

Most of the sedimentary rocks are stratified in nature.

 (iii) Foliated Rocks:

These type of rocks generally belong to a metamorphic group where a layered structure has been induced under
lateral pressure.

In a foliated rock, the layers are easily separable as the cohesion between the adjoining layers is least, sometimes
negligible.

The best example of a foliated rock is Slate. Gneisses, and schists also show foliation.

Granites. Traps, Limestones, Sandstones, Marbles, and Gneisses. You’ll know all these types of stones in details
here.

Types of Stones.

Table of Contents [hide]
 Types of Stones.
o (1) Granites:
o (2) Basalts (Traps):
o (3) Limestones:
o (4) Marble:
o (5) Sandstones:
o (6) Gneisses:
o (7) Laterite:
o (8) Slates:
 Related Articles
(1) Granites:

A typical granite is an Igneous rock. Its essential mineral components are mineral Orthoclase and mineral Quartz. It
may also contain small quantities of accessory minerals like hornblende, mica, and tourmaline, etc.

Texture and Structure: Granites are coarse to medium-grained in texture, massive, unlayered and crystalline in
structure.

Color: They are commonly of light colors and often spotted. Granites occur in appealing colors and have a capacity
to take very fine, Glossy, mirror-like-finish on polishing.

Building Properties: Most granites possess excellent building properties such as; high strength and hardness, low
absorption value, least porosity, good resistance to frost and weathering, excellent durability.

These have, however, poor resistance to fire.

(2) Basalts (Traps):

This types of stones are also called Traps. These are volcanic igneous rocks that have formed from cooling of lava
erupting from volcanoes.

Composition: The basalts show a significant variation in their mineral composition. Among their essential minerals,
the felspars and ferromagnesium minerals like Augite and hornblende must be mentioned.

Texture and Structure: Basalts and traps are fine textured crystalline rocks which sometimes show cavities and
pores due to escape of gases at the time of cooling of lava.
Color: Because of their composition (being rich in ferromagnesium minerals) most basalts are dark or light dark in
appearance.

Building Properties: Basalts, like granites, possess very high strength values. They are resistant to weather and
being fine textured impervious to moisture (except when rich in gaseous cavities). Being very hard, they are very
difficult to dress in fine shapes.

(3) Limestones:

Limestones are sedimentary rocks of calcareous composition and generally showing a stratified structure. They are
made up of Calcium Carbonate.

Composition: The essential mineral of all limestones are Calcite (Ca CO3). which may make up as much as 99
percent of some Limestones.

Most limestones, however, consist of a good proportion of Magnesium Carbonate (Mg CO3).

Texture and Structure: Most Limestones are invariably fine textured. Some of them may contain fossils. In
structure, they may be stratified or sometimes massive. They also show great variation in texture and structure.

Color: It varies greatly in limestones. From pure white (Chalk) varieties, Limestones of Grey and dark varieties are
also known. The color depends on the presence of accessory minerals finely dispersed in the carbonate matrix.

Building Properties: All Limestones are not useful for building construction. Some varieties may be practically
unfit (those which are rich in clay or are very soft) whereas other varieties of Limestones may make excellent
building stones.

These are dense, compact, fine textured varieties which are free from cavities and cracks. They can be
easily dressed and take a very fine polish.
The use of limestones as facing stones should be avoided in areas where the air is polluted with industrial gases and
also in coastal regions where Saltish winds can attack them. In both cases, air is likely to strike the rock chemically
and change its surface to spots of reactive compounds.

Limestones are widely used in the making of cement.

READ MORE: REINFORCED CEMENT CONCRETE | ADVANTAGES, USES, TYPES, & PURPOSE.

(4) Marble:

Marble is a metamorphic rock of calcareous composition and often of a layered structure.

Composition: Marble is formed in nature from limestone through the process of metamorphism. Its essential
mineral is recrystallized Calcite (CaCO3). Besides, it may have some impurities finely dispersed throughout the
mass.

Texture and Structure: In texture, marble is a fine-grained rock with a uniform granular (sugar-like grains)
surface. It shows metamorphic structures developed under heat.

Color: Marble occurs in almost all colors from pure white to dense black. The color of marble depends on the
impurities that are finely distributed in it during its formation.

Building Properties: An excellent quality marble satisfies all the requisite properties of a building stone. They are
quite strong, uniform in texture, least porous and take an excellent polish. They are suitable both as ornamental
stones and for general construction.
(5) Sandstones:

These types of stones are sedimentary rocks, siliceous in composition and mostly stratified in structure.

Composition: The essential mineral of all the sandstones is Quartz (SiO2). Among the accessory minerals, micas,
felspars, and dark minerals are sometimes present.

In cemented varieties of sandstones, the cementing material may be siliceous, ferruginous, calcareous or clayey in
nature.

And this is most important in as far as defining the suitability of a sandstone for building construction is concerned.

Texture and Structure: They occur in medium to fine-grained texture and stratified structure.

Color: Sandstones occur in many colors: white, gray, pink, red, maroon and dark.

Building Properties: Some sandstones are excellent building stones. These are the varieties that have a light color,
and are rich in quartz and have a siliceous cement and a line grained uniform texture. They must be free from fine
layers or minerals like mica and chlorite.
(6) Gneisses:

A Gneiss is geologically a metamorphic rock. It is generally siliceous in composition and foliated or banded in
structure. In most cases, it resembles closely with granite from which metamorphism commonly derives it.

Composition: Gneisses show wide variation in a mineral composition which depends on the source rock. Granites
changing into gneisses generally contain the same minerals; the only structure is altered. Felspars, Quartz,
ferromagnesium minerals and mica are among the main constituents of gneisses.

Texture and Structure: In texture, gneisses are coarsely crystalline rocks. They often show a banded or layered
structure in which case mica minerals are segregated in distinct bands separating felspars and other granular
minerals. This destroys the usefulness of gneiss as a building material.

Building Properties: When coarsely crystalline and uniformly textured, gneisses are as good building stones as
granites. These are varieties light in appearance and free from mica. Dark colored, mica-rich and banded types,
however, are to be discarded.
(7) Laterite:

This type of stones are sedimentary rock composed mainly of oxides of aluminum with varying amounts of oxides
of iron.

Texture and Structure: The rock is formed from the chemical decomposition of alkaline igneous rocks by leaching
of some components. This results in the development of porous or spongy texture of laterites.

Building Properties: The laterites are light to dark red in color depending upon the quantity of iron in their
composition. They are poor in compressive strength which varies from 20-30 kg/cm2. They are quite often used in
the ordinary type of construction and also as a road material.

READ MORE: MANUFACTURING OF BRICKS | METHOD, PROCESS, TYPES.

(8) Slates:

These type of stone are the metamorphic rock with a distinct foliated (cleavage) structure. It is commonly siliceous
in composition.

Texture and Structure: Slate is a very fine textured rock, so much so that its constituents can hardly be identified
even under a microscope.

It shows typical slaty cleavage which means that the rock can be split into large thin sheets in certain directions. This
slaty cleavage makes it an excellent rooting material for ordinary Construction.

Building Properties: Slate shows great variation in its building properties which depend on the thickness of the
sheets and the color of the rock. Black colored thin sheets are used for ordinary roofing.

This type of stones are practically impervious to moisture. Thickly layered slates have good compressive strength
and may find use in sills and for pavements.
It means if object is far from vertex than it cover more area and if it is near than it cover less area because ratio
is constant.

By this principle, Tacheometer is work.

There is object which is far from instrument but if we take reading in instrument then it appears as low distance
in diaphragm.

Now, Let's see the some Advantages of using survey from Tacheometer instead of other methods of surveying.

Advantages of Tacheometric surveying

There is many advantages of doing survey by Tacheometry which is as follow:

It is not necessary to do chain operation that is required in other method of surveying.

 We can do survey in area like Hill and mountain where it is very difficult to do survey by other
methods.
 If we not need very high standards and accuracy then this is right method.

 It require low amount of time compare to other ways of surveying.

 Because Tacheometry is indirect method that we do not require some instrument that is necessary in
plan table surveying or in theodolite surveying.

Generally this survey is used when it is not necessary to have high accuracy in observation.

There is many applications of tacheometey.

It show that where to use tacheometric surveying.

Let's see uses of tacheometry in detail.

Uses of tacheometry
Tacheometry have many applications like below.

It's usefulness is due to fact that it does not need chaining or horizontal measurement.

 It is used for the preparation of contour map in case when both horizontal and vertical distances
needed.
 It is very useful for triangulation surveying also.

 Sometimes work of surveying is in difficult areas when it is not possible to use some direct methods
like Theodolite traversing or plane table surveying.

 Tacheometry is reconnaissance survey for highways, roadways and railways.

 It can be used as establishment of secondary control points.

There may be many more uses.

Now, let's see method.

There is two main method which is generally used. Let's see method of Tacheometry in detail.

Method of Tacheometric surveying

There is basically two method and one of this method is further classified into sub methods.

Main two clarification is as follow:

1. Stadia Method
2. Tangential Method

This classification is based on taking observation.

The first classifications stadia Method which is further divided into two parts which is as below.

1. Movable hair method

And second is.

 2. Fix hair method

From using this methods we can calculate RL, elevation and horizontal distance.

Usually, fix hair method is preferred because it consume less time compare to movable hair method.

The theory of stadia Tacheometry is as in image.

This methods is very useful for determine various information and taking readings to know details of various
measurements.

Now, let's see more detail about the method.

First let see Stadia method.

Stadia method of tacheometry

Almost all survey is based on stadia method because it is easy and convenient. 

In this method we use theodolite that has three hair on it.

It is usually done by stadia rod.

There is two subtype that as we see that is as follows. 

1. Fixed hair method

Measurements that is taken is upper hair reading, lower hair reading and verticle angle.

Hair is kept fixed and we take reading on staff.

After Calculate horizontal distance from following formula.

             H = AS+B

Here, vertical angle is zero.

H is horizontal distance. 

A is multiplying constant.

B is addictive constant.

And 

S = upper reading - lower reading (on staff)

However, this formula is only apply if vertical angle is zero.

Or we can say that it is only apply if

V=0

But sometimes we need formula for which V is not equal to zero.

Like a situation in mountain.

Or hilly areas.

When there is slope and some vertical distance above horizontal line then there is other formula which even
apply if angle is negative.
Formula for horizontal distance when V is not equal to zero

As we know, it is for some angle to horizontal line.

Let, angle is x
H is horizontal distance

A and B is multiplying and addictive constant.

Here, angle is available.

So, we take help of trigonometry to this equation.

And the equation have function like cosine and cosine square.

The formula is..

H = A (cos^2 x) S + B cos x

Here vertical distance is as follow:

V = H tan x

Because

tan x = V/H

Therefore,

V = A (sin x *cos x) S + B sin x

This is fundamental formula for techeometry that is used almost all calculations.

Just remember formula for H and after you find V by calculating...

 H tan x

In some calculations, ask for RF then draw diagram or figure.

Figure make work easy and fast to calculate this type of problems.

Introduction Geology is the study of the Earth, it embraces knowledge of geological materials
(characteristically soils and rocks) and the processes that formed them and that currently transform
them. Engineering geology is the application of the science of geology to the technology of ground
engineering. The subject requires a comprehensive knowledge of geology, as well as an understanding
of engineering properties and behaviour of the geological materials. The practice involves site
investigation and site characterization specific to the needs of the engineering project. In outline, the
investigation should cover the area of terrain that is affected by the project, and any adjacent terrain
from which geological processes could affect the project. Engineering geology provides the link between
geology and engineering through the formation of geological models which can be used to identify
geological hazards and uncertainty, plan effective ground investigations, and define blocks of ground
and geological structures in an engineering context to facilitate geotechnical risk assessment and design.
The geotechnical engineer plays a key role in most civil engineering projects as most structures are built
on or in the ground. Geotechnical engineers assess the properties and behaviour of soil and rock
formations. In order to ensure safety, long term stability and quality control in modern tunneling
operations, the acquisition of geotechnical information about encountered rock conditions and detailed
installed support information is required. There are many rock mass classification schemes which are
frequently used for different purposes such as estimation of strength and deformability of rock masses,
stability assessment of rock slopes, tunneling and underground mining operations etc. Constructing
tunnels have always challenged engineers, from the early basic drill and blast tunnels to modern TBM
tunnels that are more like a gigantic tunnel factory. When constructing tunnels you always follow some
basic steps 1. Ground investigation, 2. Excavation and 3. Support and maintenance. As all scientists,
structural geologists follow research strategies that call upon concepts such as: fact, hypothesis, model,
theory, and law. A good understanding of these terms is essential to all scientists.

A fact is a bit of truth. For a structural geologist a “fact” could be the dip direction of a bedding plane.
Having measured that north is to the left on the photo on the right, then it is a fact that the dip direction
of the bedding is to the south.[1] Figure.1 – Dip direction Figure.2 – Describing orientation of geologic
features with strike and dip A hypothesis is an assumed fact. It is a short statement one makes to go
further into reasoning. For instance, assuming that the bottom right photo contains the stretching
lineation (hypothesis), then one can infer that the sense of shear deduced from the tilling of K-feldspars
in this orthogenesis is top to the right. [1] A model is a self-consistent framework providing a coherent
explanation for the observed facts. A model combines as many facts as possible and as little hypotheses
as possible. A good model allows making verifiable predictions. A model is proven wrong if key
predictions are not verified. It can be iteratively strengthened via minor modifications to account for
both the facts and the predictions. A theory is a very robust model which accounts for a large number of
independent facts; and who are numerous predictions have been verified over a long period of time. A
law is a simple, fundamental concept that is always verified by experiments and that underpin our
understanding of the world. For instance, the law of gravity and the laws of thermodynamics underpin
our understanding of Physics and Chemistry