TITLE: Effects of oil spillage on soil properties in the Mangrove and Rainforest of Niger Delta

of Nigeria

INTRODUCTION
Petroleum exploration and production in the Nigeria’s Niger Delta region and export of oil and
gas resources by the petroleum sector has substantially improved the nation’s economy over the
past five decades. However, activities associated with petroleum exploration, development and
production operations have local detrimental and significant impacts on the atmosphere, soils
and sediments, surface and groundwater, marine environment, biologically diversity and
sustainability of terrestrial ecosystems in the Niger Delta. Discharges of petroleum hydrocarbon
and petroleum-derived waste streams have caused environmental pollution, adverse human
health effects, and detrimental impact on regional economy, socio-economic problems and
degradation of host communities in the 9 oil-producing states in the Niger Delta region.
Although there are other potential anthropogenic sources of pollution, some of the major
environmental consequences such as air pollution, global climate change and oil spills in the
Niger Delta may be regional or global in scale. Apart from other anthropogenic emission
sources, atmospheric pollution in the region is associated with emissions from flaring and
venting of petroleum associated natural gas by petroleum industries. Release of petroleum
hydrocarbons into the environment, whether accidentally or due to anthropogenic activities, is a
major cause of controlled water and soil pollution and may also contribute to regional
atmospheric pollution.
Petroleum is a naturally occurring complex mixture made up predominantly of hydrocarbon
compounds and frequently contains significant amounts of nitrogen, sulphur, and oxygen
together with smaller amounts of nickel, vanadium, and various elements. Petroleum compounds
can occur in solid form as asphalt, liquid form as crude oil and/or gaseous form as natural gas.
Petroleum hydrocarbon contamination of soils and sediment is a global concern because of the
toxicity and refractory character of the aromatic components in the absence of oxygen. PAHs,
which make up about 5% by volume, are a widespread class of environmental chemical
contaminants of anthropogenic or natural origin (Block et al., 1991). The inadvertent discharges
of petroleum hydrocarbons into the environment often pose threats to human health, safety and
the environment, and have significant socio–economic consequences. Evidence of acute and
chronic toxicity demonstrates the potential toxic and negative impacts of petroleum–derived
wastes on the tropical environment.
It is known that various types of crude oil can exert acute or chronic toxicity or both on soil
properties and plants. The presence of high concentrations of petroleum hydrocarbon in soil may
cause oxygen deprivation and subsequent death of soil fauna due to asphyxiation. Plants
germinate, develop and grow in soil medium where water, air and nutrient resources supply
plants for healthy growth for productive and profitable agriculture. Frequent crude-oil spillage on
agricultural soils, and the consequent fouling effect on all forms of life, renders the soil
(especially the biologically active surface layer) toxic and unproductive. The oil reduces the
soil’s fertility such that most of the essential nutrients are no longer available for plant and crop
utilization (Abii and Nwosu, 2009). The enormity of toxicity by oil spillage on crop performance
is exemplified in mangrove vegetation, which has been dying off in recent times (Henry and
Heinke, 2005). Spilled crude-oil which is denser than water reduces and restricts permeability;
organic hydrocarbons which fill the soil pores expel water and air, thus depriving the plant roots
the much needed water and air (Brian, 1977). Soil properties involved in soil-plant-water

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relationship are degradable and include texture, infiltration, hydraulic conductivity, moisture
content, pH and density, which affect root and leaf development and plant growth and yield
(Michael and Ojha, 2006). Several studies have been done on the effects of oil spillage but none
has pointed out the difference in the soil properties under the influence of oil spill between
mangrove and rainforest. Against this backdrop, this research will investigate the effects of oil
spill on the soil properties and plants’ composition and diversity in the mangrove and rainforest
in the Niger Delta, Nigeria.

AIM AND OBJECTIVES

The aim of this study is to investigate the oil spillage on soil properties and plants’ composition
and diversity in the mangrove and rainforest in the Niger Delta of Nigeria. The following
objectives are set to achieve the aim.
To determine the concentrations in the physio-chemical properties of polluted soil and non
polluted soil in the rainforest and mangrove.
To determine the plant composition in the polluted and non-polluted sites in the rainforest and
mangrove
To determine the diameter at breast height (dbh), canopy diameter, tree height and basal area of
trees greater than or equals to 10cm in dbh in both polluted site and non polluted site in the
mangrove and rainforest.
To determine the variation in the physical and chemical properties between polluted soil and
non-polluted soil in the mangrove and rainforest
To compute the plants diversity in the polluted site and non polluted site of the mangrove and
rainforest
To determine the concentration of heavy metals uptake in the biomass (Stem, Roots, Leaves and
Bark) of common economic trees found in the mangrove and rainforest
To determine the relationship between soil properties and plants biomass heavy metals uptake in
the mangrove and rainforest

METHODOLOGY
Study area
The study area is the mangrove and rainforest ecological zones in Bayelsa State. Bayelsa State is
one of the states in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. Niger Delta is situated at the apex of the
Gulf of Guinea on the west coast of Africa and on the Nigeria’s South–South geopolitical zone.
The Niger Delta, which is home to some 31 million people, occupies a total area of about 75,000
km2 and makes up 7.5% of Nigeria's land mass. The Niger Delta region consists of 9 oil–
producing states (Abia, Akwa Ibom, Bayelsa, Cross River, Delta, Edo, Ondo, Imo and Rivers)
and 185 local government areas. This region cuts across over 800 oil–producing communities
with an extensive network of over 900 producing oil wells and several petroleum production–
related facilities. The ecological zones in the Niger Delta region can be broadly group into
tropical rainforest in the northern part of the Delta and mangrove forest in the warm coastlines of
Nigeria. Mangrove forests and swamps, which are characterized by regular salt–water
inundation, lie at the centre of a complex and sensitive ecosystem which is vital to the local
economy and accommodates important flora and fauna. According to Curtis (2007), a large
portion of the world’s oil and gas reserves are in tertiary terrigenous fill on passive continental
margins and the most significant hydrocarbon deposits of this type could be found in the U.S.
Gulf of Mexico, Canadian Beaufort-Mackenzie Delta and Nigeria’s Niger Delta..
Data Acquisition for Tree Composition and Tree Growth Characteristics

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Tree composition will be collected both in the polluted and non-polluted sites of the mangrove
and rainforest by laying fifteen quadrats of 20m x 25m in each of the site whereby plants species
will be identified and enumerated. The plants identification will be done by a qualified
Taxonomist from the Department of Botany, Nnamdi Azikiwe University or Forestry
Department, Anambra State Ministry of Environment. Tree growth characteristics (biomass) will
be collected from trees that and these include total tree height, diameter at breast height, basal
area and crown diameter.
Tree Height
Tree height (m) will be measured with a Hagar altimeter
Diameter at breast height
Diameter at breast height (DBH) (cm) will be determined from tree girth (cm) or circumference
of each tree taken at the tree breast height (1.37m) above the ground. The tree girth will
measured with a calibrated tape rule. The formula used to determine the dbh is: C/π = d
Where,
C is the circumference or girth of the tree, π is Pie = 3.142; d is the diameter at breast height
Basal area
Basal area is the cross-sectional area of trees stem (trunk) at breast height. Basal area (m2) will be
estimated from a known relationship with diameter at breast height using the formula in Equ. 13
as used in Adekunle et al (2011). Tree caliper will be used to determine the basal area of
understorey plants. BA= πD2/4, Where, D= diameter at breast height (cm),
Crown diameter
The crown diameter of trees will be measured by projecting the edges of the crown to the ground
and measuring the length along one axis from edge to edge through the crown centre using
calibrated tape rule.
Species Diversity
The species diversity index (H') will be computed using Simpson’s index (Simpson, 1949). The
formula for computing Simpson’s diversity index (D) is:
s
¿(¿−1)
D= ∑
i=1 N (N −1)
Where, ni = the number of individuals of ith species, N = the total number of individuals.
The value of D ranges from 0 to 1. The value also ranges from 0 to 1 but the interpretation is the
higher the value, the higher the diversity and vice versa
Soil Sampling, Collection and Laboratory Analysis
Five soil samples will be randomly collected from each 20m x 25m laid in the polluted and non-
polluted site with soil auger at the depth of 0-15cm and 15-30cm. The soil samples in each depth
will be bulked together into a plastic container and a composite soil sample will be taken in each
quadrat from topsoil and subsoil. Thus, thirty soil samples will be collected under the polluted
site and the non polluted site (secondary forest). Composite soil samples will be collected into
well-labelled polythene bags and brought into the laboratory for various analyses. The soil
samples will be air-dried and carefully sieved with 2mm diameter mesh in order to separate the
soil from stones. Thereafter, the soil samples will be taken to the laboratory for analysis to
determine the concentration of the physical and chemical properties of soils under the selected
land use types. Soil particle size composition will be analyzed using the hydrometer method of
Bouyoucos (1926), bulk density and total porosity using core method and water holding capacity
as described in Dutta and Agrawwal (2002). Exchangeable bases which include Calcium (Ca),
Potassium (K), and Sodium (Na) will be determined by flame photometry, and Magnesium (Mg)
by atomic absorption spectrophotometer. Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) will be determined

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by the summation method and total Nitrogen (N) will be determined by Kjeldahl steam
distillation. Available Phosphorous (P) will be extracted with Bray and Kurtz solution (0.025M
HCL to 0.03MN H4F) using Murphy and Riley method (Ogbonna and Okeke, 2011). Soil pH
will be measured potentiometrically in 0.01M calcium chloride solution using 1:2 soil/water
solutions while organic carbon will be determined by Walkey and Black’s rapid titration method
(Walkey and Black, 1934). Extracts used for determining heavy metals (trace elements) will be
obtained by leaching soil samples using 0.1N EDTA. The concentrations of extractable trace
metals such as Cobalt (Co), Copper (Cu), Lead (Pb), Iron (Fe), Manganese (Mn) and Zinc (Zn)
in the solutions will be determined using atomic absorption spectrophotometer (AAS) (Nazli and
Hashim, 2010). Total hydrocarbon will also be determined.
Laboratory Analysis for heavy metals in the tree biomass
The bark, stem, root and leaves of selected trees will be taken to the laboratory for the
determination of heavy metals (Co, Cu, Pb, Fe, Mn and Zn) using atomic absorption
spectrophotometer (AAS).
Statistical Analysis
Descriptive statistics was used to describe the mean values of each soil property and the
vegetation parameters of trees (tree height, basal area, DBH, and crown diameter, species
composition, species diversity, species richness, species evenness). Formulated research
hypotheses will be tested with inferential statistics. The variations in the tree height, dbh, crown
diameter in the mangrove and rainforest will be determined using analysis of variance
(ANOVA). The significant variation between soil properties between species diversity and
composition between mangrove and rainforest will be determined by pairwise t-test. Also
pairwise t-test will be used to test the significant difference in the concentrations of soil
parameters between polluted and non-polluted sites in the mangrove and rainforest.
EXPECTED OUTCOMES
The physio-chemical properties of polluted soil and non polluted soil in the rainforest and
mangrove will be determined and compared.
The tree composition and diversity in the polluted and non-polluted sites in the rainforest and
mangrove will be determined
The diameter at breast height (dbh), canopy diameter, tree height and basal area of trees in both
polluted site and non polluted site in the mangrove and rainforest will be determined.
The concentration of heavy metals uptake in the biomass (Stem, Roots, Leaves and Bark) of
common economic trees found in the mangrove and rainforest will be determined.
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