DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION

ENGINEERING

OBSERVATION NOTE BOOK

14EC2024- MICROWAVE AND OPTICAL COMMUNICATION

LABORATORY

CREDIT: 0:0:2

NAME

REG NO
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page No.
S.No.
Title of the experiment
MICROWAVE EXPERIMENTS

1 Study of Microwave Components 01

2 Mode Characteristics of Reflex Klystron Oscillator 10

Impedance Measurement by Slotted Line Method

3 13
and Frequency Measurement

4 Characteristics of Directional Coupler 19

5 Study of Power Distribution in Magic Tee 23

6 Characteristics of Gunn Diode Oscillator 25

OPTICAL COMMUNICATION EXPERIMENTS

7 D.C Characteristics of LED and PIN Photo Diode 30

System Bandwidth Determination by Intensity

8 36
Modulation

9 Time Division Multiplexing 39

Optical Transmission using analog link and digital

10 42
link

11 PI Characteristics of LASER Diode 51

Study of losses and numerical aperature in optical

12 54
fiber
Course Objective
• To analyze the characteristics of different microwave and optical devices.
• To analyze the performance of various microwave and optical links.
Course Outcome
• The students analyze the characteristics of different microwave and optical
devices.
• The students analyze the performance of various microwave and optical links.
 TITLE OF THE EXPERIMENTS MARKS SIGNATURE
S.No.
Title of the experiment
MICROWAVE EXPERIMENTS

1 Study of Microwave Components

Mode Characteristics of Reflex Klystron

2
Oscillator
Impedance Measurement by Slotted Line
3
Method and Frequency Measurement

4 Characteristics of Directional Coupler

5 Study of Power Distribution in Magic Tee

6 Characteristics of Gunn Diode Oscillator

OPTICAL COMMUNICATION EXPERIMENTS

D.C Characteristics of LED and PIN Photo

7
Diode
System Bandwidth Determination by Intensity
8
Modulation

9 Time Division Multiplexing

Optical Transmission using analog link and

10
digital link

11 PI Characteristics of LASER Diode

Study of losses and numerical aperature in

12
optical fiber

1
Ex. No. STUDY OF MICROWAVE COMPONENTS

Aim:
To study the microwave components in detail.

RECTANGULAR WAVE GUIDE

Waveguides are manufactured to the highest mechanical and electrical standards and
mechanical tolerances. L and S band wave guides are fabricated by precision brazing of brass-
plates and all other wave guides are in extrusion quality. W.G. sections of specified length can be
supplied with flanges, painted outside and silver or gold plated in side.

SPECIFICATIONS
X Band
Frequency : 8.2 - 12.4 GHZ
Width : 2.286cm Height : 1.1016cm Width : 2.54 cm
Height : 1.27cm ± Tol. (µm) : 7.6 Material : Brass/Copper.

FIXED ATTENUATORS
Fixed Attenuators are meant for inserting a known attenuation in a wave guide system.
These consists of a lossy vane inserted in a section of wave guide, flanged on both ends. These
are useful for isolation of wave guide circuits,
padding and extending the range of measuring
equipments. Fixed Attenuators are
available for 3,6 or 10 dB attenuation values,
but any attenuation valve between 0 and
30dB can be provided.

2
TUNABLE PROBE
Tunable probe is designed for use with model 6051 slotted sections. These are meant for
exploring the energy of the EF in a suitably fabricated section of wave guide. The depth of
penetration into a wave guide - section is adjustable by the knob of the probe. The tip pick up the
RF power from the line and this power is rectified by crystal detector, which is then fed to the
VSWR meter or indicating instrument.

WAVE GUIDE DETECTOR MOUNT (TUNABLE)

Tunable Detector Mount is simple and easy to use instrument for detecting microwave
power through a suitable detector. It consists of a detector crystal mounted in a section of a Wave
guide and shorting plunger for matching purpose. The output from the crystal may be fed to an
indicating instrument. In K and R bands detector mounts the plunger is driven by a micrometer.

SPECIFICATIONS:
Freq. Range (Ghz) : 8.2 - 12.4
O/P Connector : BNC (F)
Wave guide type (WR-) : 90
Flange Type (UG/U) : 39

3
Detector : IN23

KLYSTRON MOUNT
Klystron mounts are meant for mounting corresponding Klystrons such as 2K25, 723A/B,
726A or RK - 5976 etc. These consists of a section of wave guide flanged on one end and
terminated with a movable short on the other end. An octal base with cable is provided for
Klystron.

SPECIFICATIONS:
Freq. Range (GHz) 8.2 - 12.4/
WG Type (WR-) : 90
Flange Type (UG-/U): 39

CIRCULATORS
T and Y types of three port circulators respectively. These are precisely machined and
assembled to get the desired specifications. Circulators are matched three port devices and these
are meant for allowing Microwave energy to flow in clockwise direction with negligible loss but
almost no transmission in the anti-clockwise direction.

Frequency Range (Ghz) : 8.6 - 10.6 or 10.2 - 12.2

Min. Isolation (dB) : 20
Max. Insertion Loss (dB) : 0.4
Max. VSWR : 1.20

4
SLIDE SCREW TUNERS
Silde screw tuners are used for matching purposes by changing the penetration and
position of a screw in the slot provided in the centre of the wave guide. These consists of a section
of wave guide flanged on both ends and a thin slot is provided in the broad wall of the Wave
guide. A carriage carrying the screw, is provided over the slot. A VSWR upto 20 can be tuned to
a value less than 1.02 at certain frequency.

SPECIFICATIONS:
Freq. Range (Ghz) : 8.2 - 12.4
WG Type (WR-) : 90
Flange type (UG/U) : 39

5
MULTIHOLE DIRECTIONAL COUPLERS
Multihole directional couplers are useful for sampling a part of Microwave energy for
monitoring purposes and for measuring reflections and impedance. These consists of a section of
Wave guide with addition of a second parallel section of wave guide thus making it a four-port
network. However, the fourth port is terminated with a matched load. These two parallel sections
are coupled to each other through many holes, almost to give uniform coupling; minimum
frequency sensitivity and high directivity. These are available in 3,6,10,20 and 40dB coupling.

SPECIFICATIONS:
Frequency Range (Ghz) : 8.2 - 12.4
Coupling (dB) : 3,10,20,40
Directivity (dB) : 35
Wave guide type (WR-) : 90
Flange type (UG/U) : 39

E PLANE TEE
E - plane tee are series type T - junction and consists of three section of wave guide joined
together in order to divide or compare power levels. The signal entering the first port of this T -
junction will be equally dividing at second and third ports of the same magnitude but in opposite
phase.

SPECIFICATIONS:
Frequency Range (Ghz) : 8.2 - 12.4
WG Type (WR-) : 90
Flange Type (UG/U) : 39

6
H - PLANE TEE
H - Plane Tee are shunt type T - junction for use in conjunction with VSWR meters,
frequency - meters and other detector devices. Like in E-plane tee, the signal fed through first
port of H - plane Tee will be equally divided in magnitude at second and third ports but in same
phase.

SPECIFICATIONS:
Frequency Range (GHz) : 8.2 - 12.4
WG Type (WR-) : 90
Flange Type (UG-/U) : 39

MAGIC TEE
E - H Tee consists of a section of wave guide in both series and shunt wave guide arms,
mounted at the exact midpoint of main arm. Both ends of the section of wave guide and both
arms are flanged on their ends. These Tees are employed in balanced mixers, AFC circuits and
impedance measurement circuits etc. This becomes a four terminal device where one terminal is
isolated from the input terminal.

7
SPECIFICATIONS:
Frequency Range (Ghz) : 8.2 - 12.4
WG Type (WR-) : 90
Flange Type (UR-/U) : 39

MOVABLE SHORT
Movable shorts consists of a section of waveguide, flanged on one end and terminated
with a movable shorting plunger on the other end. By means of this non contacting type plunger,
a reflection co-efficient of almost unity may be obtained.

SPECIFICATIONS:
Frequency Range (GHz) : 8.2 - 12.4
WG Type (WR-) : 90
Flange Type (UG-/U) : 39

MATCHED TERMINATION
Low power and non-reflective type of terminations. It consists of a small and highly
dissIpative taper flap mounted inside the centre of a section of wave guide. Matched

8
Terminations are useful for USWR measurement of various waveguide components. These are
also employed as dummy and as a precise reference loads with Tee junctions, directional couplers
and other similar dividing devices.

SPECIFICATIONS:
Freq. Range (Ghz) : 8.2 - 12.4
Max VSWR : 1.04 AV
Power : 2W
WG Type (WR-) 90
Flange Type (UG-/U) : 39

PYRAMIDAL WAVEGUIDE HORN ANTENNA

Pyramidal Waveguide Horn antenna consists of waveguide joined to pyramidal section
fabricated from brass sheet. The pyramidal section shapes the energy to concentrate in a specified
beam. Wave guide horns are used as feed horns as radiators for reflectors and lenses and as a
pickup antenna for receiving microwave power.

SPECIFICATIONS:
Frequency Range (Ghz) : 8.2 - 12.4
Max VSWR : 1.20
WG Type (WR-) : 90
Flange Type (UG-/U) : 39

GUNN OSCILLATORS
Gunn Oscillators are solid state microwave energy generators. These consists of
waveguide cavity flanged on one end and micrometer driven plunger fitted on the other end. A

9
gunn-diode is mounted inside the Wave guide with BNC (F) connector for DC bias. Each Gunn
osciallator is supplied with calibration certificate giving frequency vs micrometer reading.
SPECIFICATIONS:
Freq : 8.2 - 12.4 Ghz
Min output power : 10 MW
WG Type (WR-) : 90
Flange Type (UG-/U) : 39

PIN MODULATORS
Pin modulators are designed to modulate the cw output of Gunn Oscillators. It is operated
by the square pulses derived from the UHF(F) connector of the Gunn power supply. These
consists of a pin diode mounted inside a section of Wave guide flanged on it’s both end. A fixed
attenuation vane is mounted inside at the input to protect the oscillator.

SPECIFICATIONS:
Frequency Range (Ghz) : 8.3 - 12.4
Max RF Power : 1W
WG Type (WR-) : 90
Flange Type (GHz) : 39

10
GUNN POWER SUPPLY
Gunn Power supply comprises of an regulated DC power supply and a square wave
generator, designed to operate Gunn-Oscillator model 2151 or 2152, and pin modulators model
451 respectively. The DC voltage is variable from 0 - 10V. The front panel meter monitors the
gunn voltage and the current drawn by the Gunn diode. The square wave of generator is variable
from 0 - 10V. in amplitude and 900 - 1100 Hz in frequency. The power supply has been so
designed to protect Gunn diode from reverse voltage application over transient and low
frequency oscillations by the negative resistance of the Gunn-diode.

SPECIFICATIONS
Amplifier Type : High gain tuned at one frequency
Frequency : 1000 Hz ± 2%
Sensitivity : 0.1 microvolt at 200 for full scale
Band width : 25 - 30 cps
Range : 70dB min in 10 dB steps
Scale selector : Normal Expand
Gain control : ‘Coarse’ & ‘Fine’
Mains power : 230V, 50Hz

ISOLATORS
An isolator is a two-port device that transmits microwave or radio frequency power in
one direction only. It is used to shield equipment on its input side, from the effects of conditions
on its output side; for example, to prevent a microwave source being detuned by a mismatched
load.

SPECIFICATIONS:
Frequency Range (GHz) : 8.6 - 10.6 or 10.2 - 12.2
Min Isolation (dB) : 20
Max Insertion Loss (dB) : 0.4
Max VSWR : 1.20

Result :
Thus, all microwave components are studied in detail.

11
 EXPERIMENT: 02
MODE CHARACTERISTICS OF REFLEX KLYSTRON OSCILLATOR

Aim:
To study the Mode Characteristics of Reflex Klystron
Equipments:
o Klystron Power Supply,
o Reflex Klystron,
o Variable Attenuator,
o Frequency Meter,
o Slotted Section with Tuning Probe,
o Waveguide Detector,
o Isolator,
o CRO.
o Screws and Nuts,
o Screw Driver.
o Wave Guide Stands
o Power cords & BNC Probes
Theory:
Klystron is a microwave vacuum tube employing velocity modulation. These electrons
move towards the repeller (ie) the electrons leaving the cavity during the positive half cycle are
accelerated while those during negative half cycle are decelerated. The faster ones penetrate
further while slower ones penetrate lesser in the field of repeller voltage. But, faster electrons
leaving the cavity take longer time to return and hence catch up with slower ones. In the cavity
the electrons bunch and intact with the voltage between the cavity grids. It consists of an electron
gun producing a collimated electron beam. It bunches pass through grids at time the grid
potentials is such that electrons are decelerated they give by energy. The electrons are then
collected by positive cavity wall near cathode. To protect repeller from damage, repeller voltage
is applied before accelerating voltage.

Text Book Reference:

• Samuel Y Liao, Microwave Devices and Circuits, 2003, Chapter 9, Pg No. 391

12
Block Diagram:

KLYSTRON
POWER
SUPPLY

REFLEX VARIABLE FREQUENCY SLOTTED

KLYSTRON ISOLATOR ATTENUATOR METER SECTION
WITH PROBE

VSWR/CRO WAVEGUIDE
DETECTOR

Procedure:
1. Switch “ON” the Klystron Power Supply and ensure the following Initial setting’s:
o Modulation selector- AM
o Beam voltage -Minimum
o Repeller voltage –Maximum
o Modulation Control Knobs- Maximum
2. Switch “ON” the HT, Wait until the current reaches its maximum with respect to the Beam
Voltage. Ensure that the Beam Voltage should not exceed 270V.
3. If necessary vary the Repeller voltage so as to obtain maximum voltage from the detector.
4. Vary the Repeller voltage knob towards its minimum and different ‘MODE’s’ of the
klystron may be noted with the corresponding output voltage from the CRO or power
from the VSWR meter. For each Repeller voltage, the frequency meter is adjusted till a
‘FREQUENCY DIP’ occurs in the output voltage of the CRO (or) in the VSWR meter and
the frequency has to be noted in the Frequency Meter.
5. The readings are tabulated. The graph is plotted by taking the Repeller voltage on the X-
axis and the output voltage (or) output power in the Y-axis.
6. Another graph is drawn by taking the Repeller voltage on the X-axis and frequency on
the Y-axis.

13
Model Graph:

Repeller Voltage Vs Output Voltage & Repeller Voltage Vs Frequency Graph

Observation Table:

Mode Repeller voltage (V) Output Voltage (mV) Frequency (GHz)

Result:
The mode characteristics of the Reflex Klystron Oscillator is plotted and studied.

14
 EXPERIMENT: 03
A) IMPEDANCE MEASUREMENT BY SLOTTED LINE METHOD

Aim:
To measure the impedance using slotted section method

Equipments Required:
o Klystron Power Supply
o Reflex Klystron
o Slotted Section
o Waveguide Detector
o VSWR Meter
o Movable Short
o Horn
o CRO
o Screws and Nuts
o Screw Driver
o Wave Guide Stands
o Power cords & BNC Probes

Block Diagram:

VSWR meter /
Klystron power supply
CRO

Reflex Isolator Variable Frequency Slotted

Klystron LOAD
attenuator meter section
with probe

15
Procedure:
1. Keep the beam voltage minimum and the repeller voltage maximum, then the Klystron
power supply is switched ON. The beam voltage should be around 270-280V
2. The repeller voltage is checked. It is adjusted to obtain the maximum voltage from the
detector.
3. Measure the Frequency as fo.
4. Connect the load (horn) for which impedance has to be measured after the slotted section.
Measure Vmax and Vmin
5. Calculate VSWR using the formula.
6. Note the first & second minimum as d1,d2 using Horn as load.
7. Reset the slotted section ,connect the movable short and measure d3, again connect the
horn and measure d4.
8. Use the formula to calculate the impedance of the load.

Observation Table : Least Count of Slotted Section: 0.01cm

Distance ∆x = d3-d4 g=2d

Frequency ∆d = d2-d1
d1 d2 d3 d4 (in cm)
(fo)GHz
(in cm) (in cm) (in cm) (in cm)

Vmax = _____________ Vmin = _____________

16
Determination of Least Count of Slotted Section:

1 M.S.D. = 1 mm
10 V.S.D.= 9 M.S.D.
1 V.S.D.= 9/10 M.S.D. = 0.9 mm.
Vernier Constant, V.C.= 1 M.S.D.-1 V.S.D. = (1-0.9) mm = 0.1 mm = 0.01cm.

Calculation :
• Frequency fo (Ghz) :
• VSWR (using horn antenna) =𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥/𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛
• Constants Values
• Inner broad dimension of a rectangular waveguide a = 2.2cm
• Inner height (or) width of a rectangular waveguide b = 1cm
• To Calculate
d1, d2 , d3 and d4 = M.S.R + (V.S.R + L.C) in cm
Where M.S.R is the Main Scale Reading of Slotted Section (Position of ‘0’),
V.S.R is the Vernier Scale Reading of Slotted Section (Vernier division coinciding
with M.S.R division)
L.C. – Least Count of Slotted Section
• Distance : d1 (or) dmin1 (using horn antenna) =
: d2 (or) dmin2 (using horn antenna) =
After Resetting Slotted Section:
: d3 (or) dmin3 (using Movable Short)=
: d4 (or) dmin4 (using horn antenna) =

• ∆d = d2-d1
• ∆x = d3-d4
• g=2d
• o= C/f Where C= 3 x 108

∆𝑥
• x = 180 + ∆𝑑

• Calculate : ZO , ZL

17
 λg.π.b
• ZO = 377
λo.2.a
1−𝑗𝑉𝑆𝑊𝑅 .𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥
• ZL = 2𝑉𝑆𝑊𝑅−𝑗𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥

• ZL = : ZO - ZL

Result:
Hence the impedance for the given load is measured using slotted line method.

B)FREQUENCY MEASUREMENT

Aim:
To determine the frequency and guided wavelength inside a waveguide using slotted
section.

Equipments:
o Klystron Power Supply
o Reflex Klystron
o Isolator
o Variable Attenuator
o Frequency Meter
o Slotted Section with Probe
o Waveguide Detector
o Screws and Nuts
o Screw Driver
o Wave Guide Stands
o Power cords & BNC Probes

18
 Block Diagram

VSWR METER /
KLYSTRON CRO
POWER SUPPLY

VARIABLE FREQUENCY SLOTTED WAVEGUIDE

REFLEX ISOLATOR ATTENUATOR METER SECTION DETECTOR
KLYSTRON WITH PROBE

Procedure:
Necessary adjustments and connections are to made. Frequency measurements are done
first and the square wave is obtained on CRO. The first, second, minima etc are obtained.
The following precautions are taken before switching on Klystron power supply
i. Keep the meter knob in OFF position.
ii. Check the minimum bias in the klystron bias knob.
iii. The voltage applied to the Klystron supply should not exceed 270-280V.
1. Switch the Klystron supply once the bench is set.
2. Adjust the detector knob, the slotted line section and the tunable probe for
maximum output of a square wave.
3. Rotate the frequency meter scale till a dip occurs in the square wave. Note the
meter reading.
4. Now, detune the frequency knob away from the dip.
5. Turn the slotted section to one extreme and from that position adjust the slotted
line section for the minimum of the square wave. Note the readings of the scale in
the slotted section.

19
 6. Point out the minimum point by adjusting the slotted section.
7. Calculate the difference of these readings. This gives the value of half wavelength.
From this we can get the actual wavelength by multiplying by two.

Observation Table: Least Count of Slotted Section: 0.01cm

Distance g=2d g
Frequency d=d2-d1
d1 d2 (practical) (Theoretical)
(fo)GHz (in cm)
(in cm) (in cm) (in cm) (in cm)

Calculation:

To find the space wavelength (0):-

C=0f
0=C/f
To find guided wavelength (g): -
g=0/1-(0/2a)2

Result:
The frequency and the guided wavelength is found out using the slotted section.
a. Frequency =
b. Guided Wavelength =

20
 EXPERIMENT: 04
CHARACTERISTICS OF DIRECTIONAL COUPLER

Aim:
To study the operation of the given directional coupler.
Equipments:
o Klystron Power Supply,
o Reflex Klystron,
o Variable Attenuator,
o Slotted Section,
o Three Port Directional Coupler,
o Matched Terminations,
o Waveguide Detector,
o VSWR Meter,
o CRO,
o Screws and Nuts,
o Screw Driver.
o Wave Guide Stands
o Power cords & BNC Probes

Theory:
A directional coupler is a useful hybrid waveguide joint, which couples power in an
auxiliary waveguide arm in one direction. It is a four-port device but one of the ports is
terminated into a matched load.
Characteristics of a Directional Coupler:
An ideal directional coupler has the following characteristics.
• If power is fed into port (1) the power is coupled in ports (2) and (3) i.e., power flows in the
forward direction of the auxiliary arm port (3) but no power couples in port (4) i.e., in
backward direction similarly power fed in (2) couples into ports (1) and (4) and not in(3).

21
• All the four ports are matched, i.e. if three of them are terminated in matched loads, the fourth
is automatically terminated in a matched load.
• If power couples in reverse direction, power fed in (1) appears in ports (2) and (4) and nothing
in (3), then such type of coupler is known as backward directional coupler. The conclusion is
that in the auxiliary section the power is coupled in only one direction. We will measure
o Coupling Factor
o Insertion Loss
o Isolation Factor
o Directivity

Text Book Reference:

• Annapurna Das, Sisir K. Das, Microwave Engineering, Tata Mc Graw Hill, 2007,
Chapter6, Pg No. 191

Block Diagram:

KLYSTRON
POWER
SUPPLY

REFLEX VARIABLE FREQUENCY SLOTTED

KLYSTRON ISOLATOR ATTENUATOR METER SECTION
WITH PROBE

VSWR/CRO WAVEGUIDE DIRECTIONAL

DETECTOR COUPLER

22
Directional Coupler:

Procedure:
1. Switch “ON” the Klystron Power Supply and ensure the following Initial setting’s:
o Modulation selector- AM
o Beam voltage -Minimum
o Repeller voltage –Maximum
o Modulation Control Knobs- Maximum
2. Switch “ON” the HT, Wait until the current reaches its maximum with respect to the Beam
Voltage. Ensure that the Beam Voltage should not exceed 270v.If necessary vary the
Repeller voltage so as to obtain maximum voltage from the detector.
3. After obtaining a perfect Square wave in the CRO, the Initial Power has to be measured
using the VSWR meter without connecting the Directional Coupler.
4. Then, Mount the directional coupler to the microwave bench in the normal position and
the necessary ports has to be terminated and the readings must be obtained and noted
down from VSWR (in dB). Same has to be repeated for all other ports. Then reverse the
directional coupler and note the VSWR readings.
5. Using the formula calculate different factors of the directional coupler.

23
Observations:

Terminted Power (in

Parameter Input Port Output Port
Port dB)
X Without Directional Coupler

Y Port 1 Port 3 Port 2

Z Port 1 Port 2 Port 3

Yd Port 2 Port 3 Port 1

Calculations:
o Coupling Factor C=X-Y (dB)
o Insertion Loss IL =X-Z (dB)
o Isolation I=X-Yd (dB)
o Directivity D= I-C (dB)

Result:
Thus the characteristics of the given directional coupler are studied and the output is
obtained.
Coupling factor =
Insertion loss =
Isolation =
Directivity =

24
 PERIMENT: 05
STUDY OF POWER DISTRIBUTION IN MAGIC TEE
Aim:
To Study of Power Distribution in E/H Plane Tee, Magic Tee

Equipments:
o Klystron power supply
o Reflex klystron
o Slotted line section
o Crystal detector
o Variable attenuator
o Magic Tee
o E/H Plane Tee
o Matched Terminations
o CRO /VSWR
o Screws and Nuts
o Screw Driver
o Wave Guide Stands
o Power cords & BNC Probes
Block Diagram:

KLYSTRON REFLEX ISOLATOR VARIABLE FREQUENCY

POWER SUPPLY KLYSTRON ATTENUATOR METER

VSWR METER / WAVEGUIDE MAGIC TEE(OR) SLOTTED

CRO DETECTOR E/H –PLANE-TEE SECTION
WITH PROBE

25
Magic Tee:

Procedure:
1. Keep the beam voltage minimum and the voltage maximum, then the Klystron power
supply is switched ON. The beam voltage should be around 270-280
2. The Repeller voltage is checked. It is adjusted to obtain the maximum voltage from the
detector.
3. The power is initially fed to the horizontal section.
4. Output power is measured in either of the arms.
5. After taking the values, the magic tee is fixed on the vertical position and the readings are
taken in a similar way.

Observation Table: Input Power : _________ (in dB)

Output
Waveguide
Input Port Outut Port Terminated Port Power (in
Component
dB)
Port - 1 Port - 2 & Port - 4
Port - 3 Port - 2 Port - 1 & Port - 4
Port - 4 Port - 1 & Port - 2
Magic Tee
Port - 1 Port - 2 & Port - 3
Port - 4 Port - 2 Port - 1 & Port - 3
Port - 3 Port - 1 & Port - 2

Result:
The function of a Magic tee is studied and the observations are made.

26
 EXPERIMENT: 06
CHARACTERISTICS OF GUNN DIODE OSCILLATOR
Aim:
To determine the characteristics of a Gunn diode
Equipments:
o Gunn Power Supply,
o Gunn Oscillator,
o PIN Modulator,
o Frequency Meter,
o Variable Attenuator, CRO,
o Screws and Nuts, Screw Driver, Wave Guide Stands
o Power cords , BNC & TNC Probes
Theory:
Gunn diodes are negative resistance devices which are normally used as low power
oscillator at microwave frequencies in transmitter and also as local oscillator in receiver front
ends. J B Gunn (1963) discovered microwave oscillation in Gallium arsenide (GaAs), Indium
phosphide (InP) and cadmium telluride (CdTe).

27
These are semiconductors having a closely spaced energy valley in the conduction band as shown
in Fig. (a) for GaAs.
When a dc voltage is applied across the material, an electric field is established across it.
At low E-field in the material, most of the electrons will be located in the lower energy central
valley . At higher E-field, most of the electrons will be transferred in to the high-energy satellite
L and X valleys where the effective electron mass is larger and hence electron mobility is lower
than that in the low energy valley. Since the conductivity is directly proportional to the mobility,
the conductivity and hence the current decreases with an increase in E-field or voltage in an
intermediate range, beyond a threshold value Vth as shown in Fig. (b). This is called the transferred
electron effect and the device is also called ‘Transfer Electron Device (TED) or Gunn diode’. Thus
the material behaves as negative resistance device over a range of applied voltages and can be
used in microwave oscillators.
In a Gunn Oscillator, the Gunn Diode is placed in a resonant cavity. In this case the
oscillation frequency is determined by cavity dimension than by the diode itself. Although Gunn
Oscillator can be amplitude-modulated with the bias voltage, we have used separate PIN
modulator through PIN diode for square wave modulation.

Text Book Reference:

• Samuel Y Liao, Microwave Devices and Circuits, 2003, Chapter7, Pg No. 287

Block Diagram:

GUNN POWER
SUPPLY

GUNN PIN VARIABLE FREQUENCY

OSCILLATOR MODULATOR ISOLATOR ATTENUATOR METER

WAVEGUIDE
CRO DETECTOR

28
Procedure:
1. Connections are done as shown in the block diagram
2. The applied Gunn voltage and Gunn current values can be read from the same meter
on the power supply by means of a change over switch.
3. Some safety measures has to be ensured before switching on the supply. Then the bias
is varied from 0 to 9 V in steps of 1 V. The voltage supplied should not exceed 9V.
4. At each value of Gunn bias, the corresponding Gunn current is noted.
5. A graph is plotted with the voltage in the X axis and current in the Y-axis. From the
graph, the negative resistance of Gunn diode is determined, in the region where the
diode shows a negative differential resistance.
6. For each Gunn Bias voltage, the frequency meter is adjusted till a ‘FREQUENCY DIP’
occurs in the output voltage of the CRO (or) in the VSWR meter and the frequency has
to be noted in the Frequency Meter.
7. Draw the Gunn bias voltage Vs output voltage graph and also draw the Gunn biad
Voltage Vs Frequency graph

Model Graph:

29
Observation Table: 1 (VI Characteristics)

Gunn Bias Voltage (V) Gunn Bias Current (mA)`

30
Observation Table: 2

Gunn Bias Voltage (V) Frequency (GHz) Output Voltage (mV)

Result:
Thus the Gunn diode characteristics are obtained
Peak voltage =
Peak current =
Valley voltage =
Valley current =

31
 EXPERIMENT: 07
D.C. CHARACTERISTICS OF LED AND PIN PHOTO DIODE

Aim:
To study the VI characteristics of fiber optic LED and also to study the photo detector
response.

Equipments:-
• LED – PD Modules
• Optical Power Meter
• 180 Ω , 10 KΩ resistor
• Optical Fiber
• Power cables & DIN cables
• Digital Multimeter

Block diagram:

LED Module, 850nm PF

32
 Photo Detector Module

Procedure:
LED Module:
Connect the OFT power supply to the module using the DIN-DIN cable. Turn the multi-turn pot
to its minimum position and switch on the module.
1. Measure the voltage V1 across the resistor R1 and calculate the current through the LED If. For
850 nm PF, If = V1/180 and for 1300 nm PF. If = V1/150.
2. Now measure the voltage V LED across the LED and note down.
3. For 850 nm PF module; Remove the dummy adaptor cap from the power meter PD exposing
the larger area of the photo detector. Mount the bare fiber adaptor -plastic over the PD. Hold
the LED source very close to the photo detector window perpendicular to it to couple all the
optical power from the LED to the power meter. Now without changing any voltage or the
potentiometer, measure the optical power output P of the LED.
4. For 1300 nm GF-MM Module; Remove the dummy adaptor cap from the power meter
exposing a large area photo detector. Mount the ST adaptor for the meter over the PD.

33
 Carefully hold the LED source very close to the photo detector window perpendicular to it to
couple all the optical power from the LED to the power meter. Now without changing any
voltage of the potentiometer, measure the optical power output P of the LED. The output
power in mW is given as Po (µW) = 10P (dBm)/10
5. Turn the potentiometer in clockwise direction towards the maximum till you get a convenient
reading V1 and repeat the steps 1 to 3 and tabulate.
6. Repeat step 4 and note down several readings

Photo Detector at Reverse Bias:

Connect the OFT power supply to the module using the DIN-DIN cable. Set the bias switch to the
reverse bias configuration.
1. Put the 10 K Resistor across Vl.
2. Adjust the potentiometer and fix the bias voltage at 10V.
3. Connect the ST connector end of the patch cord supplied with the module to the power
source.
4. Set the power source in the CW mode and to give maximum output power.
5. Slightly unscrew the black colored cap of the PD to loosen it, without removing it from the
connector assembly.
6. Vary the optical power from -18dBm to -40dBm in steps of 5dBm.
7. Now fix the power launched as -20dBm.
8. Vary the bias voltage from 2V to 10 V by adjusting the potentiometer and measure Vl.

34
Tabulation:

LED Module:

Power Power
S.No V1(V) If (mA) VLED (V)
P (dBm) Po(µW)

PD Module:

Power
Power VL IR
S.No Po
P (dBm) (V) (mA)
(µW)

35
Model Graph:
LED Module:

36
PD Module:

Result:
The characteristics of the LED and the photo detector are obtained and the output is
verified.

37
 EXPERIMENT: 08
SYSTEM BANDWIDTH DETERMINATION USING INTENSITY MODULATION

Aim
To determine the system bandwidth by intensity modulation
Equipment
• OFT kit
• DSO
• Power Supply & Patch Chords
• 10 MHz Function Generator
Block Diagram

38
Procedure
1. Apply a 2 VP-P Sinusoidal signal [with zero bias d.c] using an function generator to I/O
port , connect the corresponding I/O port (BNC port) to P11 using patch cord
2. Keep the SW8 Switch in Analog mode.
3. Connect the optical cable between TX1 LED and RX1 PD
4. Adjust GAIN such that no clipping takes place.
5. Vary the frequency of the input signal from 100Hz to 10 MHz and measure the amplitude
of the received signal.
6. Plot the received signal amplitude as a function of frequency,
7. Note the frequency range for which the response is flat.
Vout
GAIN = 20 log 10
𝑉𝑖𝑛

39
Observation Table: Vin = ___________________(Volts)

Input Frequency (in MHz) Output Voltage (in V) Gain (in dB)

Model Graph:

Result
Thus the system bandwidth is determined by intensity modulation.

40
 EXPERIMENT: 09
TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING
Objective
To study the simultaneous transmission of several signals using synchronous time
division multiplexing.

Equipments
• OFT kit
• DSO
• Power Supply & Patch Chords
Block Diagram:

41
Procedure:
SET UP: The connections are made as shown in the block diagrams.
MARKER PROGRAMMING:
• During power ON ,both even and odd marker patterns at the marker generator and
marker reference blocks will be set automatically as follows:
Even marker:0000 0000
Odd marker: xxxx xx1x
Ensure that marker patterns are set to default settings.
Procedure to program marker program:
1. To program even marker, connect the program marker post P5 in the 8 bit data transmit block
to the marker program post P6.
2. Now, OFT is in marker programming mode,8 bits in marker generator block correspond to
switches SW0-SW7.toggle the switches to set required marker pattern.
3. To confirm the marker settings remove the cord from signal posts, OFT comes out of the
programming mode.
4. Connect the patch chords between VOICE-1, VOICE -2 Posts.
5. Connect the TX data post with any one of the i/o post.
6. Connect the corresponding BNC output of the i/o post to the DSO.
7. The Change in the DATA slot can be observed by varying the SW0 –SW7 switches. The same
variation can be visualized in the DSO. Now, note down the readings and plot the graph.
Tabulation:

Slot Output Voltage (in V) Time Period (in ms)

Marker

Voice -1

Voice -2

Data

Expansion Channel

42
Model Graph:

Result
Time Division Multiplexing is studied and the output is verified.

43
 EXPERIMENT:10
A) OPTICAL TRANSMISSION THROUGH ANALOG LINK

Aim:

The objective of this experiment is to study a 660nm /950 nm Fiber Optic Analog Link.

Equipments:

• Fiber link-A kit

• 20 MHz Dual Channel Oscilloscope
• 1 Meter Fiber cable
• Power Supply

Theory:
Fiber Optic Links can be used for transmission of digital as well as analog signals.
Basically a fiber optic link contains three main elements, a transmitter, an optical fiber and a
receiver. The transmitter module takes the input signal in electrical form and then transforms it
into optical energy containing the same information. The optical fiber is the medium ,which
carries this energy to the receiver .At the receiver, light is converted back into the electrical form
with the same pattern as originally fed to the transmitter.

TRANSMITTER:
Fiber Optic transmitters are typically composed of a buffer ,driver and optical
source. The buffer electronics provide both an electrical connection and isolation between the
transmitter and the electrical system supplying in data. The driver electronics provides
electrical power to the optical source in a fashion that duplicates the pattern of data being fed
to the transmitter .Finally the optical source (LED) converts the electrical current to light energy
with the same pattern. The LED SFH756V supplied with the kit operates inside the visible
light spectrum. Its optical output is centered at near visible wavelength of 660nm.The emission
spectrum is broad ,so a dark red glow can usually be seen when the LED is on. The LED

44
SFH450V supplied with the kit operates outside the visible light spectrum. Its optical output
is centered at near infrared wavelength of 950nm.

RECEIVER:
The function of the receiver is to convert the optical energy into electrical form,
which is then conditioned to reproduce the transmit ted electrical signal in its original form. The
detector SFH250V used in the kit has a diode type output. The parameters usually considered
in the case of detector are its responsively at peak wavelength and response time.SFH250V
has responsively of about 4microA per 10microW of incident optical energy at 950nm and it
has rise and fall time of 0.01micro sec.PIN photodiode is normally reverse biased. When optical
signal falls on the diode, reverse current starts to flow, thus diode acts as closed switch and in
the absence of light intensity, it acts as an open switch. Since PIN diode usually has low
responsivity,a trans impedance amplifier is used to convert this reverse current into voltage.
This voltage is then amplified with the help of another amplifier circuit. This voltage is the
duplication of the transmitted electrical signal.

Block Diagram

45
Procedure:

1. Slightly unsrew the cap of LED SFH 756V TX1(660 nm) from kit. Do not remove the cap
from the connector. Once the cap is loosened ,insert the fiber into the cap and assure that
the fiber is properly fixed. Now tight the cap by screwing it back. Keep INTENSITY pot
P3 at minimum position i.e fully anticlockwise.
2. Make the connection and Jumper setting as shown in FIG1.1.Connect the power supply
cables with proper polarity to kit.While connecting this,ensure that the power supply is
OFF.
3. Switch on the power supply.
4. Select the frequency range of function generator with the help of range Selection switch
SW!,frequency can be varied with pot P2.Adjust the voltage LEVEL of the sine wave with
pot P1 as per following setting FREQUENCY:1KHZ,LEVEL:2Vp-p.
5. Connect SINE post of the Function Generator section to Tx IN post of TRANSMITTER.
6. Connect OUT post of the analog Butter Section to TX IN post of TRANSMITTER.
7. Connect the other end of the fiber to detector SFH 250(RX 1) in kit very carefully as per
the instructions in step 1.
8. Check carefully the output signal of the Analog Buffer Section to TX IN post of
TRANSMITTER.
9. Observe the output signal of the Analog Out post on CRO by adjusting INTENSITY
(Optical Power Control)Pot P3 in kit and you should get the reproduction of the original
transmitted signal.
10. To measure the analog bandwidth of the link,connect the external signal generator with
2Vp-p sine wave to IN post of Analog Buffer Section and vary the frequency of the input
signal from 100Hz onwards.Measure the amplitude of the received signal for each
frequency reading.
11. Plot a graph of gain/Frequency.Measure the frequency range for which the response is
flat.
12. Repeat the procedure 1 to 11 for IR LED 450V(950 nm) TX2.

46
 NOTE:
Keep the connections as per the procedure.Now switch ON corresponding fault
switch button to ON position and observe the different effects of the output.
1. 1.Put switch 5 of SF2 in switch Fault section to ON position.This will connect resistor in
parallel to preset P14 ,duty cycle of the waveform will be changed at SINE post
2. 2.Put switch 1 of SF1 in swich fault section to ON position.This will disconnect capacitor
which is a bypass capacitor from inverting pin of U4 will result into a distorted output
at analog buffer OUT post.

Observation table:

Output Amplitude (in V) Time Period (in ms)

47
 Model Graph

Result:

The fiber optic analog link is studied and observed.

48
 B) OPTICAL TRANSMISSION THROUGH DIGITAL LINK.

Aim:
The objective of this experiment is to study an 660 & 950nm Fiber Optic Digital
Link. Here you will study how digital signal can be transmitted over Fiber Cable & reproduced
at the receiver end.

Equipments:

Fiber Link-A Kit with power supply.

Patch chords.
20MHz Dual Channel Oscilloscope.
1 Meter Fiber Cable

Theory:
In the Exp No.1 we have seen how analog signals can be transmitted & received
LED, Fiber & Detector can be configured by the digital applications to transmit binary data over
Fiber. Thus basic elements of the link remain same even for digital application.

TRANSMITTER:
LED, digital DC coupled transmitters are one of the most popular varieties due to
their ease of fabrication. We have used a standard TTL gate to drive a NPN transistor, which
modulates the LED SFH450V or SFH 756V source.

RECIEVER:
SFH-551V is a digital optodetector. It delivers a digital output, which can be
processed directly with little additional external circuitry. The integrated circuit inside the
SFH551V optodetector comprises the photodiode device, a transimpedance amplifier, a
comparator and a level shifter. The photodiode converts the detected light into a photocurrent.
With an aid of an integrated lens the light emanating from the plastic Fiber is almost entirely
focused on the surface of the diode. At the next stage the trans-impedance amplifier converts the
photocurrent into the voltage. In the comparator, the voltage is compared to the reference

49
voltage. In over to ensure good synchronism b/w the reference & the trans-impedance o/p
voltage, the former is derived from the second circuit of a similar kind, which incorporates a
“blind photodiode”. The comparator derives a level shifter with an open collector o/p stages.
Here a catch diode prevents the saturation of the o/p transistor, thus limiting the o/p voltage to
the supply voltage.

NOTE: KEEP ALL SWITCH FAULTS IN OFF POSITION.

Block Diagram

50
Procedure:

1. Make connection as shown in FIG.2.1. Connect the [power supply cables with proper
polarity to LINK-B kit. While connecting this ensure that the power supply is OFF.
2. Switch ON the power supply.
3. Feed TTL square wave signal of 1 MHz from the function generator to the IN post of
digital buffer.
4. Connect the o/p post of digital buffer to the post TX IN of the Transmitter.
5. Slightly unscrew the cap of SFH756V. Do not remove the cap from the connector. Once
the cap is loosened, insert the One Meter Fiber into the cap. Now the cap by screwing it
back.
6. Connect the other end of the fiber to detector SFH551V very carefully as per the
instruction in above step.
7. Observe the detected signal at the post TTL OUT on oscilloscope as shown in FIG.2.2.
8. To measure the digital bandwidth of the phototransistor vary the i/p signal frequency &
observe the detected signal at various frequencies.
9. Determine the frequency at which the detector stops recovering the signal. This
determines the max.bit rate on the digital link.
10. Keep switch SW9 towards TX2 position.
11. Keep jumper JP7 towards +5V position.
12. Repeat the same procedure above the second transmitter SFH450V by making the
following changes.
13. The digital bandwidth of SFH551 for TX1 SFH756 is 3 MHz & for SFH450 it is 1 MHz.

51
Model Graph

Observation Table:

Output Amplitude (in V) Time Period (in ms)

Result:

The fiber optic Digital link is studied and observed.

52
 EXPERIMENT: 11
PI CHARACTERISTICS OF LASER DIODE

Aim:

To plot the PI characteristics of LASER diode.

Equipment Required:

1. OFT Power supply

2. A digital multimeter
3. Benchmark 650 nm LD unit or 1550 nm LD unit
4. Benchmark LD driver module with its accessories
5. Benchmark Fiber Optic Power meter with ST adaptor
6. Mounting posts for 650 nm LD unit or SC-ST patch cord for 1550nm LD unit.

Circuit Diagram:

53
Procedure:
LD MODULE
1. Set the LD driver module as said in the setup procedure.
2. Measure the voltage V1 across the resistor R1 and calculate the current I ld through the LD
which is given as Ild = V1/R1.
3. Measure the voltage Vld across the LD.
4. Now without changing any voltage or the multi-turn pot position, measure the optical power
output P of the LD. Calculate the power in mW as P0 = 10^(P/10).
5. Increase the current through the LD by turning the multi-turn pot clockwise direction slightly
towards the maximum till you get a convenient reading of V1.

Tabulation:

LD MODULE

S.NO V 1 (V) Ild (mA) V LD (V) P (dBm) P0 (mW)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

54
Model Graph:

LD MODULE

P-I characteristic curve

V-I characteristic curve

Result:

Hence the PI characteristics of LASER diode were plotted. The readings were observed,
recorded and verified.

55
 EXPERIMENT: 12
A) STUDY OF LOSSES IN OPTICAL FIBER

Aim:
The objective of this experiment is to measure propagation loss & bending losses for two
different wavelengths in plastic Fiber provided with the kit.

Equipments:
• Link-B Kit with power supply
• Patch cords
• 20 MHz Dual Channel Oscilloscope
• 1MHz Function Generator
• 1 & 3-Meter Fiber Cable

Theory:
Optical Fibers are available in different variety of materials.These materials are usually
selected by taking into account their absorption characteristics for different wavelengths of
light.In case of Optical Fiber,since the signal is transmitted in the form of light,which is
completely different in nature as that of electrons, one has to consider the interaction of matter
the radiation to study the losses in fiber.

Losses are introduced in fiber due to various reasons. As light propogates from one end of Fiber
to another end part of it is reflected back or in some other directions from the impurity particles
present in the materials contributing to the loss of the signal at the other end of the fiber.In general
terms it is known as propagation loss.Plastic Fiber have higher loss of the order of 180 dB/Km.

Whenever the condition for angle of incidence of the incident lights is violated the losses are
introduced due to refration of light.This occurs when fiber is subjected to bending.Lower the
radius of curvature more is the loss.Other losses are due to coupling of Fiber at LED & photo
detedtor ends.

56
Block Diagram:

Procedure:

1) Connect the power cables with proper polarity to Link B kit.While connecting this,
ensure that the power supply is OFF.
2) Keep SW9 towards TX1 position for LED-1.
3) Keep jumpers & SW8 positions as shown in the figure.
4) Keep Intensity control pot P2 towards minimum position.
5) Switch ON the power supply
6) Feed about 2-Vpp sinousoidal signal of 1KHz from the function generator to the IN
post of Analog Buffer.
7) Connect the output post OUT of analog buffer to the post TX IN of Transitter.
8) Slightly unscrew the cap of LED.Do not remove the cap from the connector.Once the
cap is loosened, insert the 1 meter fiber into the cap. Now tighten the cap by screwing
it back.

57
 9) Connect the other end of the fibre to detector Receiver RX-2 (Photo Transistor
Detector) very carefully as per the instructions in the above step.
10) Observe the detected signal at post ANALOG OUT on oscilloscope.Adjust intensity
control pot P2 Optical Power control potentiometer so that you receive signal of 2Vpp
amplitude.
11) Measure the peak value of the received signal at ANALOG OUT terminal. Let this
value be V1.
12) Now replace 1 meter Fiber by 3 meter. Fiber between same LED and PD. Do not
disturb any settings. Again take the peak voltage reading and let it be V2.
13) If alpha is the attenuation constant then we have,
α = (10/L1-L2) log10(V2/V1)
Where,
L1=Fiber Length for V1
L2=Fiber Length for V2
14) Now switch off power supply.

Measurement Of Bending Losses:

1) Set up the analog link using 1-meter fiber as per procedure above.
2) Bend the Fiber in a loop.Measure the amplitude of the received signal.
3) Keep reducing the diameter of bend to about 2cm& take corresponding out voltage
readings.
4) Plot a graph of the received signal amplitude versus the loop diameter.
5) Repeat the procedure again for second transmitter.

58
Tabulation:
Propagation Loss:
Length of the Optical
fiber Output Amplitude (mA) Time Period (V)
( in m)

Bending Loss:
Length of the
Output Amplitude Radius of the bend
Optical fiber (in Time Period (V)
(mA) (in cm)
m)

Result:
Thus the propagation and bending loss is measured.

59
 B)STUDY OF NUMERICAL APERTURE OF OPTICAL FIBER.

Aim:
The objective of this experiment is to measure the numerical apereture of the plastic Fibre
provided with the kit using 660nm wavelength LED.

Equipments:
• Link-B kit with power supply.
• Patch cords.
• 1 meter fiber cable.
• Numerical aperture measurement jig.
• Steel Ruler.

Theory:
Numerical aperture refers to the maximum angle at the light incident on the fiber end is
totally internally reflected and is transmitted properly along the Fiber. The cone formed by the
rotations of this angle along the axis of the fiber is the cone of acceptance of the fiber. The light
ray should strike the fiber end within its cone of acceptance ; else it is refracted out the fiber core.

Consideraton in a Measurement:
1) It is very important that the source should be properly aligned with the cable & the
distance from the launched point & the cable be properly selected to ensure that the
maximum amount of optical power is transferred to the cable.
2) This experiment is best performed in a less illuminated room.

60
Block Diagram:

Procedure:
1) Make connections as follows: . Connect the power supply cables with proper polarity to
Link-B kit. While connecting this, ensure that the power supply is OFF.
2) From Function Generator generate a sine wave input with 1 KHz and 2Vpp and feed this
as input to the ANALOG BUFFER IN post.
3) From ANALOG BUFFER OUT post connect it to TX IN post.
4) Keep intensity control pot P2 towards minimum position an then vary it accordingly.
5) Keep Bias control pot P1 fully clockwise position.
6) Switc ON the power supply.

61
 7) Slightly unscrew the cap of LED -1. Do not remove the cap from the connector. Once the
cap is loosened, insert the 1 meter fiber into the cap. Now tighten the cap by screwing it
back.
8) Insert the other end of the fiber into the numerical aperture measurement jig. Adjust the
fiber such that its cut face is perpendicular to the axis of the fiber.
9) Keep the distance of about 5mm between the fiber tip and the screen. Gently tighten the
screw and thus fix the fiber in the place.
10) Increase the intencity pot P2 to get the bright red light circular path.
11) Now observe the illuminated circular path of light on the screen.
12) Measure exactly the distance d and also the vertical and horizontal diameters MR and PN
as indicated in the FIG
13) Mean radius is calculated using the formula
r = (MR+PN)/4
Where MR and PN is the Vertical and Horizontal Diameter of the illumination region.
14) Find the numerical aperture of the fiber using the formula
𝐫
NA= sinθ max =
√𝒅𝟐 − 𝒓𝟐

Where θ max is the maximum angle at which the light incident is properly
transmitted through the fiber.

Distance d (in cm) MR (in cm) PN (in cm)

Result:
Thus the numerical aperture of the given optical fiber is measured.

62