CHAPTIiRl
Special Features of Tropical Meteorology
Contents
1.1 History of Meteorology and Monsoon Studies
(Pages 1-2 to 1-16)
Ancient History; Meteorology after 1600 AD.;
some notable meteorological characteristics of
the tropics; Rossby waves on synoptic charts; the
first numerical experiment on electronic
computer; satellites enter the scene; joint impact
of computers and satellites; numerical analysis;
parameterization of physical processes;
dynamical instability; trapped waves;
atmospheric tides; pressure-wind adjustment;
special data collection expedition; weather
modifications; laboratory simulation of
atmospheric processes; atmospheric pollution;
energy; weather consciousness in society.
1.2 Special features of tropics; Monsoons
(Pages 1-16 to 1-37)
Tropical region; quasi-geostrophic
approximation; temperature gradients;
seasonality of weather; diurnal cycle;
1.2.1 Definition of tropical monsoon and tropical
monsoon region
1. Introduction, definition of monsoon
2. Traditional definition of tropical monsoon
region; new definition
3. SWAMP-1990
4. Characteristics of monsoon climate
5. Complexity in the understanding of monsoon
6. Histograms of monthly rainfall in north,
central, and south America
Rainfall pattern in India-Sri Lanka monsoon
region; rainfall pattern in south and central
America; rainfall in south and central America,
north of the equator; VAMOS;
1.3 Special analysis for tropics
(Pages 1-37 to 1-49)
Object of the analysis; 24-hour change charts in
other elements; additional levels for
constant-pressure analysis; streamline analysis;
asymptotes; some additional suggestions about
wind analysis in the tropics; isotach analysis;
wind analysis in frontal zones;
1.4 Scale analysis Cor tropics (Pages 1-49 to 1-66)
Introduction; synoptic-scale migratory waves;
magnitudes of vertical velocity and diabatic
heating; planetary-scale quasi-stationary
seasonal motions; magnitudes of vertical
velocity and diabatic heating; synoptic-scale
waves, planetary~scale waves; quasi-balance
model of Stevens et aI., 1990; summary;
1.5 Pressure~wind adjustment
(Pages 1-66 to 1-84)
Definition of the problem; practical importance
of the adjustment problem; outline of theoretical
treatment; Obukhov's linearized theory;
Obukhov's non-linear theory; simplified
concept of linearized theory of adjustment;
theoretical problem of adjustment and its
practical importance; Obukhov's (1949)
linearized theory; Obukhov's (1949) non-linear
theory; Temperton' s (1973) simplified treatment
of linearized theory;
1.6 Atmospheric tides
(Pages 1-84 to 1-97)
Historical background;
1. Pressure observations at the surface;
2. Observations at higher level;
3. Seasonal variation of Pt and P2'
4. Outline of Chapman-Lindzen theory;
5. Laplace's tidal equation
6. Vertical structure equation
7. Boundary conditions
M. Solutions dependent on forcing functions
9. Semi-diurnal and diurnal tides
Comparison between Chapman-Lindzen theory
and observations; remedy suggested for
Chapman-Lindzen (1970) theory;
1.7 Diurnal variation of precipitation
(Pages 1-97 to 1-110)
1.7.1 Diurnal (24 hour) cycle of precipitation over
tropical land stations;
Synoptic-scale systems; Meso-scale systems;
interaction between meso~scale and large-scale
systems;
1.7.2 Diurnal (24 hour) cycle of precipitation and
cloudiness over the oceans
1.7.3 Semi-Diurnal (12-hour) cycle of precipitation
and cloudiness over land and oceans;
1.7.4 Summary of diurnal variation of precipitation in
the tropics.
1.8 Summary
(Pages 1-110 to 1-114)
 1-2 1.1 History of Meteorology and Monsoon Studies
1.1 History of Meteorology and Monsoon Studies
Ancient History
Weather has affected man in most of his
activities. In every part of the world, the weather
patterns have determined the traditional patterns
of food, clothing, housing, agriculture, social
festivals, etc. The results of some of the worst
wars in the world have been significantly affected
by the weather (Neumann, 1975).
The D-day operations during World War II
definitely influenced the course of the war.
Naturally, man has always liked to know how the
weather will change in course of a few hours, a
few days, a few months and a few years ahead.
More recently, questions are even being asked:
"Is the whole pattern of climate on the earth
changing? Is man's activity responsible for the
anomalies of weather which we are witnessing?
Can we do something about it?"
Even in the absence of recorded history,
we can safely state that ever since man started
walking on this earth, he has always attempted
to understand and to forecast the weather of
tomorrow. In ancient literature, we have the
evidence that at least 5,000 years B.C., the Rig
Veda of India contains several references to
the seasons of northwest India including the
arri val and withdrawal of the monsoon. In the
Yajurveda of India, there are references to
different types of rainfall.The great scholar
Panini of 5th century B.C., refers to the
measurement of rainfall and assigns a unit for
the same. In the 4th century B.C. Kautilya of
India wrote his famous treatise on
socio-economics, the "Arthashastra", in which
he stresses the economic importance of the
measurement of rainfall and prescribes units
and methods of measurement of rainfall. He
also indicates the amount of rainfall suitable for
various crops in different parts of the country.
In "Manu-Smriti" dating 2nd century A.D., it is
stated that "the sun generates rain" (Adityat
Jayate Vrishti). This has bcen adopted as the
inscription in the official crest of the India
Meteorological Department. The monsoon
clouds were poetically described in the 3rd
century A.D. in Sanskrit classic "Meghdoot" by
the great poet Kalidas who hails the monsoon
cloud as messenger of love. In this work, the first
day of the month of Asadha (middle of June) was
given as the date of onset of monsoon over
central India, which nearly coincides with the
current normal date of onset of monsoon over
central India as given in the publications of India
Meteorological Department. In the 6th century
A.D., the erudite scholar Varahmihira compiled
"BrihatSamhita". In this compilation, he not only
describes a raingauge and the wind vane but also
gives detailed instructions for correct
observations. He was also perhaps the first
scholar to describe changes in seasons and
associated rainfall with the changes in the
behaviour of animals, birds and insects.
The monsoon winds were utilized by the
commercial sailors of ancient India, China,
Arabia and Egypt for steering their ships on high
seas.
Recorded history gives evidence of how
even the knowledge of local land-sea breeze
saved Greece from a disastrous defeat at the
hands of the invading Persian Navy of King
Xerxes in 480 B.C. (Neumann. 1975).
Thentistocles, the Greek naval commander so
directed the hour of beginning of the naval
combat and so arranged the course of the fighting
that the heavy and clumsy Persian warships
found themselves in the narrow straits of
Salamis, off Athens, at a time of the day when
Athens sea breeze made the waters choppy and
the large unwieldy Persian vessels found it
difficult to maneuvre in the narrow straits. As
already planned, Themistocles ordered the
nimble and easily maneuvrable Greek ships to
attack the unwieldy Persian vessels just at this
time and the Greek navy succeeded in
annihilating the Persian armada and rescuing
Greece from a possible destruction.
Towards the middle of the fourth century
B.C., Aristotle wrote the book "Meteorologica".
This book, followed by the work of his pupil and
successor Theophratus, showed the systematic
scientific study of the atmosphere and the
weather. They summarized all that was known
about weather and winds at that time . This
suminary remained the reference work for nearly
two thousand years. The Arabs brought the
contents of "Meteorologica" to the knowledge of
medieval Europe. Dante's treatment of weather
 1.1 History of Meteorology and Monsoon Studies
in La Divina Comedia was based on those
writings of Aristotle and Theophratus.
In the early fourteenth century, William
Merle, Rector of Driby in England, kept daily
records of local weather for about seven years.
With the Renaissance in Europe and the
adventurous voyages of Columbus and others,
the need for systematic meteorological
information was keenly felt.
Meteorology after 1600 A.D.
The air thermometer was invented in
1600, probably by Galileo. His pupil Castelli
standardized a raingauge in 1639. Another of his
pupils, Torricelli, invented the barometer in
1644. At about this time, different forms of
hygrometer and anemometer also appeared.
In 1653, Ferdinand II of Tuscany arranged
to establish a network of seven meteorological
stations in northern Italy and four more stations
outside Italy.
Instrumentation, observation and
experimentation in the laboratories and in the free
atmosphere led to the deeper understanding and
discovery of the physical laws of nature operating
in the atmosphere.
In 1659, Robert Boyle enunciated his
famous pressure law pV =constant when
temperature is kept constant. Then came Charles'
Law relating volume and temperature of gas at
constant pressure. Combination of Boyle's Law
and Charles' Law gave the now well-known
equation of state p a = RT.
Halley (1686) presented a detailed and
methodical account of the trade winds as
observed in the tropical oceanic regions and also
sought a common law governing these air
motions. He rejected an earlier notion that due to
its lightness, the air simply could not keep up
with the earth's surface in its daily rotation. He
attributed the northeasterly and the southeasterly
directions of the trade winds to the tendency of
the air to converge from north and south and rise
up near the most strongly heated regions i.e. at
the equator. Foneasons which are not clear, he
further assumed that the cumulative effect of the
afternoon tendency of the air to move towards the
warmer west would outweigh the morning
tendency of the air to move towards the east and
hence a general component of trade winds from
east to west.
1-3
Hadley (1735) accepted the idea of Halley
(1686) that solar heating maximum at the
equator would lead to horizontal convergence of
Northerlies and Southerlies and vertical upward
motion near the equator but he rejected Halley's
idea that motion towards warmer region would
lead to a net motion also from east to west. He
suggested that the absolute velocity of the earth's
surface from west towards east is highest at the
equator. Hence an air parcel moving towards the
equator, either from north or from south and
attempting to conserve its original absolute
velocity from west to east would lag behind an
observer sitting at the equator. Hence to
observers fixed on the earth, air moving
meridionally towards the equator would also
appear to be moving zonally from east to west;
hence the occurrence of northeasterly and
southeasterly trades in the tropics. Quantitative
calculations showed that if there were no other
I retarding forces operating, an air parcel starting
from 200 N would attain an easterly component
of 67 ms-I which was too high compared to the
observations which showed wind speeds only of
the order of 10 meters per second. Hadley
attributed this lower zonal velocity to the
operation of frictional forces. Hadley also rightly
concluded that air converging horizontally
towards the equator in the lower layers would rise
up, then would be diverging and moving away
from the equator in the upper layers. He
postulated something like a closed meridional
cell with upward motion near the equator and
downward motion in the higher latitudes. It may
be mentioned here that Hadley was not correct in
assuming conservation of absolute velocity for.an
individual air parcel; it should have been
conservation of absolute angular momentum
around the polar axis.
The Meteorological Society of Mannheim
started in 1780 and established a network of 39
weather observing stations (14 in Germany, 4 in
U.S.A. and the rest in other countries), all
equipped with comparable and calibrated
instruments like barometer, hygrometer,
raingauge and wind vane and also standard
instructions for their use.
Lavoisier in 1783 and Dalton in 1800
published their findings concerning the nature
and composition of air. The genius Lavoisier,
 1-4 1.1 History of Meteorology and Monsoon Studies

who coined the word oxygen, fell victim to the maintaining weather log books.
French Revolution. The day after his execution, On 14th August 1872, in Leipzig, there
his mathematician friend, Lagrange observed; "It was a meeting of a number of leading
required but a moment to sever that head. Perhaps meteorologists. They arrived at an agreement on
a century will not suffice to produce another like standardised methods of observation, uniform set
it" . of weather symbols and methods of chart
The first systematic attempt at preparing a analysis. They prepared the ground for holding
weather map appears to have been made by the First International Meteorological Congress
H.W.Brandes, in Leipzig, in 1820, using the in Vienna next year from 2nd to 16th September,
meteorological data assembled by the 1873.
Meteorological Society of Mannheim in 1783. 32 representatives of 20 governments who
Later, he prepared weather maps showing some met in Vienna set up a Permanent Committee to
of the storms which affected Europe in 1820 and stimulate and organize voluntary international
1821. Almost at the same time, W.C.Redfield of co-operation and uniformity in observations and
New York prepared the first series of charts analysis. Buys Ballot was the first President of
showing the rotatory and translatory motions of this Committee. In a slightly modified form, the
the American hurricanes. permanent Committee continues till today with
Within the next twenty years, J. P. Espy of the name ofWMO'S Executive Committee. The
Philadelphia and Piddington and Reid of England Congress also proposed the formation of an
were able to establish the existence of International Fund for the establishment of
characteristic patterns of pressure, wind and Meteorological Observatorie's "on islands and at
weather associated with cyclones and distant points of the Earth's surface".
anticyclones. They also formulated empirical In September 1874, a decision was taken
rules for their development, movement and that there should be the publication of
decay. But all these interesting findings were synchronous observations from 1st January 1875
based on observations collected long after the by various national meteorological departments.
occurrence of the event, far too late for This was about the time when national
forecasting. meteorological departments were organized in
A silent revolution took place in the field several countries. A number of them, including
of communications when Samuel Morse India and U.S.A., celebrated their centenaries
invented the electric telegraph and in sheer around 1975.
delight transmitted between Washington and The International Meteorological
Baltimore his famous message (1843); "WHAT Congress actively participated in the
HATH GOD WROUGHT !" observational and analysis programme of the
The first weather maps based on First International Polar Year (1882-1883).
telegraphic transmission of meteorological data Towards the end of the nineteenth century,
were publicly displayed in Washington, D.C. in the noted dynamic meteorologist, V. Bjerknes,
1850 and in France in 1855. This display aroused enunciated his famous circulation theorem;
public interest and also a demand for weather
forecasting. de = _" adp
dt 'Y ,
Necessity was felt for the formation of an
international cooperative organization. The First clearly distinguishing between the barotropic
International Meteorological Conference took fluid of the then classical hydrodynamics and the
place in Brussels in August,1853, the countries baroclinic fluid like the atmosphere.
being represented mostly by naval officers who Also, towards the close of the nineteenth
realized the importance of meteorology in their century and in the beginning of the twentieth
maritime operations of commercial or military century, the network of surface observatories
nature. The conference emphasized the increased all over the globe, a few pilot balloon
importance of international co-operation, observatories were started and even a few
standardisation of observations and uniformity in meteorograph measurements were initiated.
 1.1 History of Meteorology and Monsoon Studies
Balloons filled with hydrogen would rise up due
to buoyancy and be drifted horizontally by winds
of varying speed and direction. Their visual
tracking by telescopes would give a measure of
horizontal winds at various levels. The sensitive
barographs and thermographs attached to some
of these balloons would trace curves of pressure
and temperatures. Ultimately, these balloons
would burst up in the atmosphere and descend
down, along with their "precious payload" over
cities, forests, rivers, valleys and oceans. These
carried a request written in local language, to
return the same to the head office of the national
meteorological department at government cost
plus a token prize to the person who returns the
instrument. The curves traced by the barographs
and the thermographs would then be deciphered.
An important finding was that the temperature of
the air does not continuously decrease as we go
up. Above what is known as the tropopause, the
temperature does not decrease as we go up but it
increases up to a certain height. Incidentally, it
has been subsequently established that the
coolest temperatures in the whole atmosphere
occur not near the poles but near the equator at
the tropopause level, nearly 17 km above the
sea-level.
Meteorological observations and
messages became "secret" possessions of each
nation during the First World War (1914-1918).
Observations increased during the war period but
were not internationally exchanged during the
period. Even inside each country, these were
transmitted in heavily guarded secret
meteorological codes.
The experiences gained during the war
from the improved network of observations led
to the formulation of simple models of weather
sequence in relation to the extra-tropical low
pressure systems seen moving on the daily
weather charts. Concepts of air masses which had
been introduced in the middle of the nineteenth
century became clearly defined; frontal model of
Solberg and J. Bjerknes (the illustrious son of the
illustrious father V. Bjerknes) became popular
with the operational forecasters although the
dynamical theory for its formation and
movement was clearly in need of improvement.
In the 1920s, pilot balloon observations
with visual telescopes (theodolites) were started
1-5
on a routine basis in several countries.
It is worthwhile to mention here the name
of Sir Napier Shaw who embarked on the
ambitious task of completing a comprehensive
"Manual of Meteorology". This was eventually
published in four vol urnes over the years
1926-31, including a complete rewrite of volume
4 that had first been published in 1919. He
followed this "heavyweight" publication with a
somewhat lighter-weight popular text, "The
Drama of Weather" (Shaw, 1933) which was
published in 1933, when Shaw was 79, and went
into a second edition six years later. Napier Shaw
enjoyed weather and shared his enjoyment with
others.
In the thirties, the occasional pressure and
temperature observations in the free atmosphere
with meteorographs gradually gave place to
routine measurements with radiosonde
instruments which telemetred the observations
while the balloon was rising with its instrumented
package.
Norwegian school from which had come
V. Bjerknes, J. Bjerknes, Solberg and other
meteorologists continued to lead in the field of
theoretical meteorology. In 1939, C.G.Rossby
came up with a simple and elegant model of
large-scale atmospheric waves, now-a-days
called Rossby Waves. Also see section 5.1.
The Second World War which started in
1939 again brought about a black-out in the
international exchange of meteorological
observations but gave a great impetus to the
expansion of meteorological observations and
services within each country. The upper air
observations of wind, pressure and temperature
were indispensable for planning of air force
operations of bombing and transporting military
cargo. Whenever there have been national and
international disasters like wars, floods, famines,
the Governments of the affected countries have
generally realized that more investments in
meteorological activities are worth the money put
m.
Some Notable Meteorological Characteristics
of the Tropics :
As stated earlier, a number of
meteorological departments had started
functioning around 1875, some of these being in
the tropical region. The chief forecasters in these
 1-6 1.1 History of Meteorology and Monsoon Studies
tropical meteorological services usually came
from extra-tropical regions with their experience
of frontal systems of analysis and forecasting.
They saw fronts everywhere, even at the centres
of tropical cyclones. It was after the Second
World War, in the late forties and early fifties of
20th century, thatthe extension of frontal systems
deep into the tropics on a routine basis was
seriously questioned and nearly given up.
Nevertheless, uplo the time of World War II,
significant differences were recognized in the
structure and behaviour of tropical weather
systems as compared to extra-tropical weather
systems and special techniques were devised to
handle the same. Some of these differences are
sketched below:
a) 24·hoor Pressure Tendency:
Soon after the introduction of barometer in
tropical latitudes, it was realized that daily
pressure variations in tropical regions were quite
different from those in extra-tropical regions. In
the extra-tropical regions, the barometric
variations were essentially caused by the
successive passages of extra-tropical cyclones,
their period being of the order of 5 days and
amplitude being of the orderof25 millibars(hPa).
With kitchen barometers, one could almost
forecast the pattern of local weather that was
coming. On the other hand, in the tropics, there
was a very regular double pressure wave pattern
being observed every day, showing very little
variation from one day to another. This pressure
wave seemed to have little or no relationship with
the local weather. What seemed to be of some use
for weather forecasting was the small residual
pressure variation which was obtained after
eliminating the relatively large regular daily
double pressure wave in the tropical region. In
practice, this was obtained by getting 24-hour
pressure tendency at each tropical statiun and
plotting 24-hour pressure tendency charts for
tropical region.
b) Departure-from-nonnal charts :
It was also found that unlike extra-tropical
regions, the seasonal quasi-stationary pressure
patterns and flow patterns dominated the daily
synoptic charts. These caused typical seasonal
weather patterns of dry seasons, wet seasons and
transitional seasons. People of the region were
familiar with seasonal weather. What the clients
of meteorological services in these regions
wanted were the departures of rainfall and other
weather elements from the 'seasonal', 'normal'
or 'long-term-average' conditions. The necessity
of preparation of anomaly or 'departure-from
-normal' charts was immediately felt.
At first, normal charts were prepared for
each calendar month. Subsequently, the period
was reduced to 5-day unit (pentad) in respect of
some of the elements like rainfall and surface
pressure. Such charts were found very useful for
separating the dominant seasonal quasi-
stationary waves from the relatively feeble
migratory waves, the latter being associated with
deviations from the seasonal weather.
c) Tropical Cyclones:
These were differnt from the extra-tropical
cyclones, being less frequent, smaller in
horizontal extent and with comparatively shorter
span of life but much more intense and much
more devastating than the extra-tropical
cyclones. The visit of a tropical cyclone was a
disaster, some times taking as many as 200,000
human lives in one sweep. A vigilant warning
system was devised, as much as could be
achieved through the technology of those times
and the administrative capabilities of the
respective regions. Climatology of these tropical
systems in terms of their tracks was compiled for
different regions and different seasons. Surface
features of these systems were well known.
d) Easterly Waves :
It was known that while the
middle-latitude stations were visited by
migratory waves coming from the west, the
tropical stations were visited by migratory waves
coming from the east. It was also appreciated that
unlike the westerly waves of the middle latitudes,
the easterly waves of the tropical latitudes were
weak compared to the seasonal quasi-stationary
waves of the region and as such had to be
identified through charts giving elements like
24-hour pressure tendency, departure of surface
pressure from normal, fluctuations in rainfall and
cloudiness and through minor but significant
changes in winds of the lower troposphere.
The end of Second World War was the
beginning of significant developments in the
field of meteorology in general and tropical
meteorology in particular.
 1.1 History of Meteorology and Monsoon Studies
Rossby Waves on Synoptic Charts :
Rossby and collaborators (1939) were the
first to have identified that the wave patterns seen
on the routine synoptic weather charts belonged
to a particular class of waves. This class of waves
had been known earlier in classical
hydrodynamics as Hough's oscillations of the
Second Class in a barotropic fluid but it had not
been appreciated until Rossby pointed out that
the daily weather charts showed their existence
in the atmosphere and that these waves were the
most important ones for meteorological
forecasters. Reference is invited to section 5.1 in
Chapter 5. Chart analysis helped Rossby to score
over others. He also emphasized the importance
of vorticity (relative vorticity and coriolis
parameter) in the dynamics of large-scale
atmospheric motions. His treatment of the
dynamics of this type of waves was simple,
straight-forward and easy in application.
Rossby's (1939) paper created a new line of
thinking. A very simple form of vorticity
equation seemed to explain the movement of
migratory cyclonic storms and quasi-stationary
planetary-scale waves seen on the daily charts
and also on the time-averaged charts of the
middle latitudes. Circulation theorem and
vorticity equation are intimately related to the
gradient wind equation and the transport capacity
of curved isobaric channels. In the very first issue
of the Journal of meteorology (1944), Bjerknes
and Holmboe attempted to explain the structure
and development of extra-tropical cyclones on
the basis of vorticity equation and transport
capacity of curved isobaric channels. In the text
book "Dynamic Meteorology" by Holmboe,
Forsythe and Gustin (1945), one finds
systematic exposition of this idea in chapter 10.
This line of thinking was substantially different
from the frontal theory of extra-tropical cyclones
which was in the field before the Second World
War. The development of the extra-tropical
cyclones was explained in terms of phase
difference between the pressure wave and the
temperature wave.
With the advent of Numerical Weather
Prediction, synoptic meteorology has been confined
to back benches. As such, synoptic meteorologists
are an endangered species of meteorologists. It
needs to be stated that without familiar contact with
1-7
daily synoptic charts, the theoretical meteorologists
including numerical modelers are likely to miss the
simple and correct interpretation of some of the
theoretical or computer results. It is advisable to
have a good combination of synoptic meteorology,
dynamic meteorology and numerical modeling.
Before Rossby (1939) discovered and got the world
renown and credit for identifying Rossby waves on
the daily synoptic charts, he had fortunately got a
sound background in dynamic meteorology and
also experience of chart analysis, and organizing
and teaching operational synoptic meteorology
(Persson and Phillips, 2001 : "C.G. Rossby's
Experience and Interest in Weather Forecasting."
Bull. Amer. Met. Soc., 82., 2022-2026). A
well-advanced theoretical treatment of what are
now known as Rossby waves, had been given by
Hough (1897, 1898), Lamb (1932) and even a
couple of years earlier by Haurwitz (1937), but they
did not know the presence of these waves in the
atmosphere, and seen on daily weather charts.
Rossby won the credit.
After the Second World War:
In 1947, there appeared two notable
papers, one by Charney (Journal of
Meteorology, 1947) and the other by Sutcliffe
(QJRMS, 1947), both being landmarks in the
theory of development of extra-tropical cyclones.
Both papers emphasized the importance of the
vorticity equation and the associated divergence
and vertical motion in different sectors of the
extra-tropical wave pattern. Charney's treatment
was more general and it followed earlier classical
method of analysis of hydrodynamic instability,
now applied to synoptic-scale systems of the
atmosphere.
The pre-war idea of narrow frontal zones
of the extra-tropical latitudes being the cause of
formation and development of extra-tropical
cyclones was replaced firmly by the new idea that
the large-scale broad and extensive westerlies of
extra-tropical latitudes were baroclinically
unstable; this baroclinic instability gave rise to
intensification of an initially weak wave
perturbation. Deepening of the wave brought in
juxtaposition, cold air masses from the polar
regions and warm air masses from the sub-tropics
and caused the fronts. Thus, the fronts were not
the cause of extra-tropical cyclones but the resuIt
 1-8 1.1 History of Meteorology and Monsoon Studies
of the deepening of the waves. The work of
Rossby. Charney and Sutcliffe opened a gateway
towards modern thinking and action on
numerical weather prediction. It is relevant here
to refer to the work of L. F. Richardson who made
the first effort, under very strange circumstances,
to make a weather prediction, by numerical
method.
Vision of L. F. Richardson:
In the introduction to his famous book
"Weather Prediction by Numerical Process",
Richardson wrote on October 10, 1921: "The
investigation grew out of a study of finite
differences and first took shape in 1911 as the
fantasy ... Serious attention to the problem was
begun in 1913...The arithmetical reduction of the
balloon and other observations, was done with
much help from my wife. In May 1916, the
manuscript was communicated by Sir Napier
Shaw to the Royal Society. The manuscript was
revised and the detailed example of Chapter IX
was worked out in France in the intervals of
transporting wounded in 1916-1918. During the
battle of Champagne in April 1917 the working
copy was sent to the rear, where it became lost,
to be re-discovered some months later under a
heap of coal... The whole work has been
thoroughly revised in 1920, 1921".
He worked out pressure change for 6-hour
period 0400-1000 GMT on 20th May, 1910 over
central Germany. He obtained a rise of 145
mb (hPa) in 6 hours, whereas in fact there was
practically no change. Assuming that a computer
might work about ten times as fast as he had
done, he estimated that it would need 64000
computers to complete the calculation of the new
distribution for the whole globe just before the
time to which it referred. He remarked:
"Perhaps some day in the dim future it
will be possible to advance the computations
faster than the weather advances and at a cost less
than the saving to mankind due to the information
gained. BUT THAT IS A DREAM".
In 1961, Prof. Charney, in acknowledging
the award to him, by the Royal Meteorological
Society, of the Symons Gold Medal (its highest
honour), remarked:
"...to the extent that my work in weather
prediction has been of value, it has been a
vindication of the vision of my distinguished
predecessor, L. F. Richardson".
At this stage, we can disregard the error in
Richardson's forecast. The cause of the error was
more or less correctly diagnosed by Richardson
himself. Such a result was due to the method used
by Richardson for computing pressure changes
from the reported pilot balloon observations in
the lower atmosphere. But a beginning had been
made. A person of great vision had gazed into
the future. It was the dream of a great man.
Richardson himself called it a dream. In a relaxed
mood after hard work, he wrote :
"After so much hard reasoning, may one
play with a fantasy? Imagine a large hall like a
theatre, except that the circles and galleries go
right round through the space usually occupied
by the stage. The walls of this chamber are
painted to form a map of the globe. The ceiling
represents the north polar regions, England is in
the gallery, the tropics in the upper circle,
Australia on the dress circle and the Antarctic in
the pit. A myriad computers are at work upon the
weather of the part of the map where each sits,
but each computer attends only to one equation
or part of an equation. The work of each region
is coordinated by an official of higher rank.
Numerous little "night signs" display the
instantaneous values so that neighbouring
computers can read them. Each number is thus
displayed in three adjacent zones so as to
maintain communication to the North and South
on the map. From the floor of the pit a tall pillar
rises to half the height of the hall. It carries a
large pulpit on its top. In this sits the man in
charge of the whole theatre; he is surrounded by
several assistants and messengers. One of his
duties is to maintain a uniform speed of progress
in all parts of the globe. In this respect he is like
the conductor of an orchestra in which the
instruments are slide- rules and calculating
machines. But instead of waving a baton he turns
a beam of rosy light upon any region that is
running ahead of the rest, and a beam of blue light
upon those who are behindhand. Four senior
clerks in the central pulpit are collecting the
future weather as fast as it is being computed, and
despatching it by pneumatic carrier to a quiet
room. There it will be coded and telegraphed to
the radio transmitting station".
When we look at a computer console of
1970s and 1980s in the midst of a series of
 1.1 History of Meteorology and Monsoon Studies
machines and magnetic tapes making whispering
sounds around, one feels surrounded by
Richardson's "assistants and messengers"
assiduously performing their duties to maintain a
uniform speed of progress in all parts of the
world. Advanced Parallel Computing Systems of
1990s, though more silent, also give similar
signals.
The First Numerical Experiment on Electronic
Computer:
After Richardson's first numerical
computation experiment by hand, extending over
a period of a few years, the next experiment on
record was a barotropic forecast made by
Charney and his collaborators in March, 1950 on
the first major electronic computer ENIAC. A
beautiful account of this experiment is given by
Platzman(l979) in his V. P. STARR Memorial
Lecture at M.LT. in October, 1978 and published
in April, 1979 issue of the Bulletin of the
American Meteorological Society.
About 20 important figures in the field of
Meteorology including Rossby, Starr, Von
Neumann, Wexler, Haurwitz, Namias and
Charney met on Aug. 29 and 30, 1946 at the
Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New
Jersey and formulated a project with the objective
of investigating "the theory of Dynamic
Meteorology in orct"er to make it accessible to
high-speed, electronic, digital, automatic,
computing". The Minutes of the Meeting refer to
"some rather abstract problems suggested by Dr.
Charney". This meeting was a sequel to Von
Neumann's proposal, given a few months earlier,
to create a Meteorological group within
Electronic Computer Project for re-assessment of
the Meteorological theory so as to make weather
forecasting possible with the help of Electronic
Computer.
On the first Sunday of March, 1950, a
band of 5 meteorologists (Charney, Fjortoft,
Freeman, Smagorinsky and Platzman) started a
scientific experiment in Meteorology, combined
with vision and hope. The work started at 12 p.m.
Sunday, March 5, 1950. It continued round the
clock, 24 hours a day, for 33 days and nights, with
only brief interruptions. Charney had maintained
somewhat detailed log book recording, day by
day, the stages of progress and regress in the
ENIAC operations, interspersed with occasional
1-9
expressions of gaiety and anguish.
Rossby was feeling somewhat excited
about the future possibilities which were being
opened up by the new developments in
dynamical Meteorology and Electronic
Computing. In a letter dated 8th May, 1949, to
Platzman, he wrote:
"It seems to me that we now must go on...
to a systematic test and extension of Charney's
method so as to get rid of the horrible subjectivity
which still characterises all, or almost all forecast
efforts...
"I must confess that I have an extremely
strong feeling that we are standing at the
threshold of a new era in Applied Meteorology
and that we must push this line to the point where
it can be put in general operation..."
Rossby himself visited the ENIAC
complex while the experiment was progressing
and saw for himself the progress as well as the
anguish of the experimenting. Sometimes, they
felt delighted at the progress of computation and
their success in taking good decisions to correct
errors of computer coding; sometimes they felt
distressed to see the errors of computation
growing near some region of the boundary and
the handicaps of a new computing machine.
Finally, they felt happy and delighted to see a
surprisingly good 24-hour forecast from the map
of 31 st January, 1949. The barotropic model
experiment had been successful. A new ground
had been covered. With hope and confidence,
they could look upward to scale the higher
heights inviting them ahead.
Climatology undergoes changes in Scope and
Content:
The subject of climatology underwent a
major qualitative change. Until late forties,
climatology consisted mainly of collection of
data and their organization in terms of averages,
with a little emphasis on standard deviations.
Phillips' (1956) experiment of General
Circulation was a turning point in the study of
climate; now we could simulate some features of
the climate of the earth itself. Subsequent General
Circulation Experiments of the 1960s and 1970s
greatly increased the degree of success in climate
simulation. Even seasonal cycles could be
simulated, along with broad features of the
well-known summer monsoon of the southeast
 1-10 1.1 History of Meteorology and Monsoon Studies
Asia. At the same time, it became apparent, what
had been earlier conjectured, that ocean was
exerting a continuous, persistent, significant
influence on weather over periods more than a
few weeks. It was considered not only desirable
but almost essential to incorporate
ocean-atmosphere interactions in the G. C.
Models. This meant not only greater demand on
the memory and speed of the computers but also
familiarity with the science of oceanography.
Meteorologists who are experts in the science of
the atmosphere are generally much less familiar
with the science of the oceans. Although
oceanography is being introduced in the curricula
of many universities along with courses in
atmospheric science, yet the familiarity of
meteorologists with oceanography is much less
than is required for management of oceans in the
G. C. models. Rudiments of oceanography are
getting introduced into G. C. models.
Ocean-atmosphere coupling in G.C. models is
helping in the simulation of climate several
thousand years before present, as also the likely
changes in climate several thousand years hence.
CO2 increase has set the ground for
speculations, somewhat backed by G. C. model
simulations about the climate changes likely to
take place in the coming century. In dealing with
climate of the past several millenia and future
millenia, particularly after the general support of
astronomical theory of climatic changes has
suddenly underlined the necessity of associating
scientists of other disciplines like atomic physics,
geology, biology and chemistry with the SUbject
of climatology.
Detailed analysis of climatic parameters
brought a substantial change in the theory of
mixing processes in the atmosphere. Turbulence
in non-rotating fluids is yielding place to
geostrophic turbulence in rotating fluids. The
classical concept of cascading of energy into
smaller and smaller scales of motion has certainly
given place to energy going not only to smaller
and smaller scales (positive viscosity) but also at
the same time going into larger and larger scales
of motion (negative viscosity). This development
has all the potentialities of influencing human
thought and action. The concept of late
nineteenth century that we are progressively
going into a state of increasing random motions,
what is often referred to as a state of "disorder"
is yielding place to the concept of orderliness in
the apparent disorder in the universe, tendency
towards organization into meaningful and
aesthetical1y beautiful patterns, as if there is
beauty and its appreciation at the back of the
universe. When this concept gets wider
acceptance, as it is destined to, perhaps after a
rude shock from the philosophy of disorder,
meteorology would have made a major
contribution in influencing not only man's
external environment but also his internal make
up. Negative viscosity is going to have a very
positive influence on human history.
Climate is recognized as an important
element of environment. Climate impact studies
have been adopted by UNEP as part of its
important programmes. Sahel disaster of early
1970s, worldwide weather anomaly of 1972, fear
of early 1970s that the earth might slip into an ice
age, necessity of tuning agricultural operations to
meet the food requirements of growing
population in the world, the rise of oil prices
forcing the world to look for alternate sources of
energy (rain, sunshine and wind) have all raised
the status of climatology. Climate is not only to
be suffered or tolerated but can be used and
should be used as a resource to be pressed into
the service of mankind. Just as water should not
be al10wed simply to caUSe flood and to flow into
the oceans but it has to be stored and used for
irrigation and energy; similarly, strong winds are
to be harnessed for smal1-scale industry. Above
all, the energy received from the sun is to be used
for production of usable energy. The deserts of
the world may one day become the greatest
power-generating places of the world, converting
the day-time scorching sunshine into life- saving
energy.
Satellites Enter the Scene:
When the first Sputnik went up in space in
1957, it was a thrill for many, challenge for some
but the beginning of a new stage for human
thought and action. Taking of cloud pictures was
the immediate obvious application of this costly
programme. For more than a hundred years,
meteorologists had seen rough pictures of
cloudiness on the daily synoptic weather charts.
Now one could view a substantial part of the
earth, with one look, and also the clouds
 1.1 History of Meteorology and Monsoon Studies
organized in various patterns-beautiful,
enchanting, challenging.
With polar-orbiting satellites we could get
pictures of cloud around the whole earth at
different times. Their path was made
sun-synchronous sO that at every point on the
earth we could get at least two observations at
about the same local time every day. In the
beginning when only visible range TV cameras
were available on the satellite, cloud pictures
could be taken only during the day light portion
of the earth. Within a couple of years, infra-red
cameras were mounted on the orbiting satellites,
infra-red photographs were compared and
calibrated with the visible-range photographs,
colour scheme suitably adjusted so that infra-red
picture could be read as conveniently as
visible-range picture. Now cloud pictures could
be obtained in the infra-red range over the dark
night portion of the earth as conveniently as in
the visible range over the daylight portion of the
earth. Multiple-channel sensing was soon
introduced. Using the differences in transparency
of the atmosphere in different wave-lengths due
to -different absorption properties of the
atmospheric constituents, it became possible to
measure parameters of the atmosphere which one
hardly thought possible to measure, a few years
back. One can now measure, with reasonable
confidence, vertical distribution of temperature,
ozone, sea-surface temperature, total water
vapour content in a vertical column, growth rate
of clouds, horizontal speed of clouds, etc.
Experiments are nearly successful to infer the
rate of precipitation from the clouds, soil
moisture content of the earth surface, roughness
of the sea-surface and hence the strength of the
surface winds over the ocean, vertical
distribution of the aerosols, etc. The
polar-orbiting satellites have been joined by
geostationary satellites. Standing at a height of
about 36000 km above the earth surface, the
satellites look at nearly half the surface of the
earth round the clock, all days of the year, in
various channels. Five geostationary satellites
placed around the equator and two orbiting
satellites together can watch the full earth day and
night, with reasonable accuracy. In less than five
decades, their achievements have been
remarkable. One can hardly imagine the limit of
1-11
the achievements of the satellites during the
decades to come.
Joint Impact of Computers and Satellites:
We are living in the age of fast computers
and of satellites. We have seen these two
developments from their beginnings. It is thrilling
to see the transition in the field of Meteorology
from pre-1945 stage to the present one. Before the
Second World War, one could hardly imagine that
Meteorology was going to see such vast and rapid
progress. The numerical modelling, made possible
by computer facility, has inspired many young
meteorologists to seek methods of exact
mathematical understanding and forecasting
variations in meteorological systems. For this, there
was a need for global observing system, to cover
vast areas of the oceans, the deserts, forests,
mountains and land areas where it was difficult to
organize regular meteorological observations.
Satellites came on the scene in time to assure the
meteorologists that there shall be no dearth of
observations.
Numerical Analysis:
The numerical work on the computers was
not as easy and simple as it was first thought to be.
The problems of errors due to replacement of
differential coefficients by finite differences,
although somewhat known earlier, were better
appreciated after seeing the results of fast repeated
numerical computations on the digital computers.
Meteorologists soon became familiar with earlier
developments of methods of numerical analysis and
themselves contributed to the methods of numerical
analysis by devising numerical schemes which
could conserve some of the main integral properties
of differential equations and differential
coefficients.
4·dimensional Data Analysis :
Quick reception, vastness of data coverage
and continuous (asynoptic) observations by
satellites underlined the necessity of designing
techniques for objective analysis of synoptic as
well as asynoptic data. If untouched, the
asynoptic data create something like shock waves
in the computer prediction model. This problem
of4-dimensional analysis (3-dimensions of space
and the additional fourth dimension of time) has
been more or less successfully tackled by the
meteorologists.
 1-12 1.1 History of Meteorology and Monsoon Studies
Parameterization of Physical Processes:
Digital computers, however big and fast,
have to use a grid system in space. In the real
atmosphere, there will always be subgrid physical
processes which are too small in spatial extent to
be directly caught by the computer model
grid-system. These sub-grid scale processes have
either to be ignored or incorporated through some
approximate artifice. This latter method of
incorporating sub-grid scale physical processes in
an approximate way in terms of parameters
available on the grid scale is called
parameterization of physical process. It has three
major areas; parameterization of radiation, cloud
condensation and boundary layer processes. Quite
a bit of success has been achieved in
parameterizations but a good deal more still
remains to be done.
Dynamical Instability:
Atmospheric systems grow and decay.
Scientific understanding of the process requires
analysis of dynamical instability, the dynamical
process which leads to the growth of small
perturbations into major meteorological systems.
Great advances had been made during the 19th
century through linearized theory of instability of
simple physical systems. The problem of
atmospheric systems posed problems of the
following types:
a) Rotation of the earth
b) Continuous variation of density of the
atmosphere in space and time
c) Sphericity of the earth and
d) Complicated physical processes.
Remarkable progress has been achieved in
developing theories of barotropic instabilities,
baroclinic instabilities, inertial instability,
Conditional Instability of Second Kind (CISK),
shear instabilities of Kelvin-Helmholtz type for
small-scale motions, etc. Originally starting with
linear analysis, advances have since been made
in development of non-linear theory of finite-
amplitude perturbations. Borrowing from other
physical sciences, meteorologists have recently
made a good start in interpreting the results of
earlier studies on instabilities in terms of
over-reflection. Meteorologists have also started
developing concepts of pulse asymptotics to
explain the observed preferential areas of
cyclogenesis.
In this stability analysis, meteorologists
have generally adopted analytical techniques.
When the problem becomes too difficult to be
tackled analytically, computer facility has been
pressed into service to perfonn time integration
and see the growth of perturbations in time.
Trapped Waves:
In 1940s, attention was given to zonal
propagation of Rossby-type waves. This
continued during 1950s with some attention to
the influence of orography in generating waves
which had also substantial component of
movement in the vertical. In the early and middle
1960s, attention was given to trapping of wave
energy in the vertical and also in the meridional
directions. It was also realized that gravitational
waves set up by orography and differential
heating of the earth-surface contributed towards
the large-scale energetics of the atmosphere. The
concepts of Kelvin waves and mixed
Rossby-gravity waves trapped in the near-
equatorial region were developed.
An important discovery was made in 1960
- the discovery of QBO in the lower tropical
stratosphere. Within a few years, considerable
work was done on observations in the
troposphere and stratosphere to detect the vertical
and horizontal extent of QBO. Spectral analysis
technique for meteorological time series came
handy. Surprisingly, QBO was detected almost in
every meteorological element, practically
throughout the globe, in the troposphere as well
as in the stratosphere, although the QBO found in
the winds of the lower tropical stratosphere
remained the dominant signal of the
phenomenon. The theory of trapped waves also
came handy to explain the large-scale features of
QBO in the tropical atmosphere. During late
1960s, a quantitative theory of QBO was offered
along with numerical simulation of QBO in the
tropical stratosphere. Ever since that time,
vertical and meridional trapping of Rossby wave
energy has been regarded as an important
phenomenon in the atmosphere. The theory of
waves has become an important subject by itself
in atmospheric sciences.
Atmospheric Tides:
Ever since the first barometric
observations were taken in the tropics, the
semi-diurnal pressure wave has fascinated many
 1.1 History of Meteorology and Monsoon Stodies
scientists in meteorology and other allied
subjects. Of all the atmospheric phenomena, the
semi-diurnal pressure wave is perhaps the most
regular, precise and steady phenomenon.
Sensitive barometers have been able to detect it
even within the field of a tropical hurricane! It
stands majestically in all tropical barograms.
Some of the best mathematicians and
hydrodynamicians which the world has known
during the last more than hundred years, have
tackled this problem. Still there are doubts
whether the problem can be taken as solved.
Seeing the extreme regularity and similarity of
this phenomenon to that of the ocean tides, the
scientists called this as a phenomenon of
atmospheric tides. Tht! theory of ocean tides was
applied to atmospheric tides and a search began
for an equivalent depth of the atmosphere for
which the period of oscillation would be 12
hours. Kelvin (1882), hypothesised that if the
atmosphere has a free period of oscillation very
close to 12 hours, then the sun-generated
semi-diurnal gravitational tide in the atmosphere
would get enhanced about 70-fold by resonance
and we would have then resolved the problem of
semi-diurnal pressure wave in the atmosphere.
Research began to see if we could find an
equivalent depth of 7.84 km for the atmosphere.
In 1885, the Krakatao eruption caused an
atmospheric wave which was so powerful that it
could travel on the earth-sphere right upto the
antipode and come back to Krakatao and travel
back. Computations for this wave suggested that
the atmosphere has also another equivalent depth
of lOA km. It is interesting to read the research
papers of outstanding mathematicians like
Margules, Jeffreys, Bartels and Taylor, arguing
with one another about the correct value of
equivalent depth of the atmosphere. In 1936,
Taylor said that there is a double infinity of
equivalent depth values for the atmosphere, one
pair for each vertical profile of temperature of the
atmosphere. In 1937, Pekeris came out with a
brilliant calculation to show tl'at for the vertical
profile of temperature known at that time, there
were two equivalent depths 7.84 and lOA km!
This appeared to solve all the problems of the
semi-diurnal pressure wave and to confirm
Kel vin' s hypothesis of 1882. Till late I940s,
Taylor- Pekeris theory of resonance was
1-13
accepted as a satisfactory theory for the observed
semi-diurnal pressure wave. Post-war
observations with new techniques of atmospheric
sensing and re-calculation of equivalent depths
with different plausible vertical profiles of
temperature aroused serious doubts about the
validity of Taylor-Pekeris resonance theory.
The theory of trapped waves along with
availability of computers made it relatively easy
to show that an alternate to resonance theory was
possible. Chapman-Lindzen theory soon
established itself in late 1960s and early 1970s.
This theory lays emphasis on thermal heating of
the atmosphere through great depths, treating
sun's gravitational tide and the resonance
altogether unimportant. Here is a great contrast.
The Taylor-Pekeris theory which was held in
very high esteem at one time has been totally
rejected about three decades later. It is not
altogether impossible that Chapman-Lindzen
theory would also receive severe jolts in time to
come.
Pressure-Wind Adjustment:
After the war, interest in the tropics
increased. At first, it was thought that
quasi-geostrophic approximation would have no
place in the tropics. But closer studies revealed
that about 5 degrees of latitude away from the
equator and beyond, quasi-geostrophic
approximation was not too bad; it was of great
help in drawing the isobars on sea-level charts
and the height contours on constant pressure
charts at higher levels. There is some adjustment
between the pressure field and the wind field on
synoptic and planetary scales in the tropics
outside 5 degrees from the equator, so that
stream-lines and pressure contour lines run
nearly parallel to one another although not as
much as in the middle latitudes. Fundamental
question of pressure-wind adjustment was
examined for all latitudes. Rossby's pioneer work
done in late I930s was extended considerably by
Obukhov in late 1940s, which showed that in the
long run outside the near- equatorial region,
pressure and wind fields, tend to remain in
geostrophic balance. Initially, if the fields, on
synoptic and larger scales, are unbalanced
geostrophically, then either the pressure field
adjusts itself to the given wind field, or the wind
field adjusts itself to the given pressure field or
 1-14 1.1 History of Meteorology and Monsoon Studies
both undergo considerable adjustments to get
into geostrophic balance. In the extra-tropical
latitudes, it is more likely that winds will adjust
themselves to get into geostrophic balance with a
given pressure field while the reverse is the case
in the tropical latitudes. This conclusion has
greatly influenced the methods of meteorological
analysis in the tropics as distinguished from those
in the extra-tropics. Wind field has to be analysed
and that too with great care in the tropics. This
theory of pressure-wind adjustment has also
found applications in 4-dimensional analysis of
meteorological data.
Special Data Collection Expeditions:
After the second world war, for
development and validation of quantitative
models of atmospheric processes which are
considered important for weather phenomena on
different scales of space and time, a number of
national and international ventures have been
undertaken to collect special data over many
parts of the world. Some of the important projects
in this respect have been the Thunderstorm
Project, BOMEX, HOE, GATE, FGGE, TOGA.
AMEX, TAMEX, FIRE and INDOEX. These
experiments, particularly since 1980s, have
highlighted the importance of oceans and other
water-surfaces. It has also been appreciated that
climate variability should be tackled at
international level with dynamical models. These
ventures have provided valuable data which have
contributed appreciably towards the development
of Meteorology in general and Tropical
Meteorology in particular. Additionally, these
experiments have offered an occasion for
arranging close co-operation between the
different Governments in collection,
communication, analysis and archiving of the
data and finally in their utilisation to improve the
quality and to extend the period of weather
forecasts. Some tele-connections have been
discovered and more are being discovered to
show that weather over a region is connected with
weather over other regions separated from one
another by several thousand kilometers in space
and by several months and even years and
decades in time. This discovery has clearly
indicated the possibility of forecasting of major
anomalies in weather a few months and years in
advance, by use of statistical correlations. When
we have a full set of global data of the atmosphere
and of the ocean surface, then with the help of
modern computers, it would be possible to
understand the physical processes underlying the
statistical correlations, and tele-connections.
Weather Modification:
In the late 1940s, it became clear that by
artificial seeding of clouds, it is possible to
accelerate the growth of clouds and induce them
to give rain locally. This generated commercial
interest in rain-making, with aggressive
salesmanship. Several private agencies started
making money through rain-making. Difference
arose between the scientists and the commercial
interests. Scientists asserted that time was not yet
ripe for commercial operations in rain-making
but the commercial interests felt that they could
use the new technology of rain-making for the
benefit of those that were in need of rain water.
The commercial operations provided an
opportunity to realise that for sound advancement
of the subject, even for subsequent commercial
operations, it was essential to have beller
understanding of the physical cloud processes
operating in the atmosphere. This had a negative
contribution also. The whole subject of
rain-making got into disrepute. Legal
complications also arose due to legal claims from
those who thought that by artificial seeding of
clouds on the up-stream side, somebody had
deprived them of their normal share of rain
which would have come to them by natural
growth and downstream movement of the clOUds.
The same technique of cloud-seeding has
also been applied by non-commercial
government agencies in SOffie countries for
hail-suppression and for fog- dispersal over busy
air-fields.
This artificial seeding of the clouds also
helped in realising that in addition to the cold
process of rain-drop growth, the atmosphere also
showed evidence that considerable precipitation
developed in the tropics inside clouds which did
not reach the freezing level at all. This was a new
scientific discovery, particularly for rain in
tropical latitudes. Efforts have subsequently been
made to study the possibilities of rain-fall
enhancement by a different type of seeding of
warm clouds in the tropics.
In the search for physical processes, which
 1.1 History of Meteorology and Monsoon Studies
control the growth and precipitation of rain drops,
attention has also been given to the role of
aerosols in the atmosphere on one hand and of
atmospheric electricity on the other. The subject
of aerosols has advanced considerably during the
last three decades. The subject of atmospheric
electricity has also progressed but at much slower
pace due to inherent difficulties in measurement
of electrical parameters in the atmosphere under
natural conditions on a scale small enough to
reveal the conditions under which rain-drops
develop different electrical characteristics.
Realizing the importance of cloud
electrification, the American Meteorological
Society devoted the whole August 1994 Issue of
Monthly Weather Review (Vol. 122, No.8) to the
subject of Thunderstorm Electrification and
Lightning. Questions are being asked:
a) Can there be sufficiently large rain drops
forming below the freezing level ("Warm
Rain" Problem)?
b) Why do we get copious monsoon rainfall in
the tropics on several occasions, without
conventional lightening and thunder?
These questions will be touched upon in
Chapter 4 on Physics and Dynamics of Monsoon
and in Chapter 10 under Thunderstorm.
Laboratory Simulation of Atmospheric
Processes:
The science of meteorology has registered
progress also in the field of laboratory
simulations of atmospheric processes ranging in
dimensions from the diameter of a growing
rain-drop (of the order of a fraction of a
millimeter) to the size of planetary scale motions
of Rossby waves. Fultz- Hide experiments
constitute an important land-mark in the history
of laboratory simulations of Rossby waves.
Between the scales of the rain-drops and Rossby
waves, we have recently seen production of
tornado-type vortices in the laboratory. All these
models help the Meteorologists to develop better
understanding of the atmospheric processes.
Attempts are simultaneously made to produce
numerical simulations of the results obtained in
the laboratory.
Another advantage of laboratory
experiments is to generate and study phenomena
which are seen on very few occasions in the
atmosphere, and when seen in the real
1-15
atmosphere they last for such a short period that
it is not possible to organise adequate
observations for understanding the phenomena.
For instance, the subsidence in the centre of
severe tornadoes has been occasionally recorded
in the atmosphere but its understanding has come
mainly through laboratory experiments.
Atmospheric Pollution:
After a century of rapid industrialisation,
it has been realised that atmospheric pollution
caused by industrial waste products in the
atmosphere constitutes a hazard for human
health, a cause of inadvertent change in earth's
climate and the cause of soil degradation on the
downwind side.
Anew awareness has developed in society
that industrial units must observe the rules of
maintaining pollution-free atmosphere. Old
archaeological monuments must also be saved
from the attack of avoidable pollution in the
atmosphere.
Energy:
Industries first used charcoal on a
large-scale as a source of energy. Soon, oil came
handy. Subsequently, oil became costly. Search
began for utilisation of perennial sources of
energy like rain, wind and sun-shine. These are
meteorological parameters. As such, the search
for alternative energy sources has emphasised the
importance of meteorology for the well- being
and development of human society.
Weather Consciousness in Society:
Every country having television network
is displaying, on a regular basis, meteorological
charts and satellite pictures of clouds to explain
the weather situation around the region of interest
for the viewers. People are getting interested to
understand the cause of day-to-day changes in the
weather.
Meteorology is finding its applications in
many fields of activities of man over land. sea, in
air and even in space. Governments are interested
in long-range weather forecasting and in past
climatological records for building airports,
industrial complexes, multipurpose dams.
food-storage warehouses, tourism, off-shore oil
drilling and for increasing food production.
Meteorology has influenced not only the daily
life of a citizen, but also has proved crucial at
critical stages of history-making war-operations.
D-day operations in the Second world War
proved to be an important event in the history of
 1-16 1.2 Special Features of-Tropics; MOllIiOOns
the world. These D-day operations depended on
the meteorological forecasts. Individuals,
Govemments and United Nations Agencies are
getting more and more interested in meteorology.
1.2 Special Features of Tropics; Monsoons
Tropical Region :
From geometrical considerations, the
latitude of 23 1;2 oN is called tropic of Cancer and
the latitude of 23 1;2°S is called tropic of
Capricorn. The region between these two
latitudes on the two sides of the geometrical
equator is called the tropical region.
However, the weather systems of the two
hemispheres are not geometrically fixed like the
geometrical latitudes. These move with the sun.
During the northern(southern) summer season,
the weather systems of both the hemispheres shift
towards the north (south). The centre of the
weather systems of the two hemispheres is to the
north of the equator during the northern summer
and to the south of the equator during the
southern summer. This centre of the weather
systems is called the meteorological equator. In
the lower troposphere, Inter-tropical
Convergence Zone (ITCZ) is often referred to as
meteorological equator.
In several respects, meteorological
systems of the tropical region are different from
those of the extra-tropical region. In this respect,
we can speak of tropical meteorology as a distinct
subject. The differences between tropical and
extra-tropical systems are indicated below.
Quasi-geostrophic Approximation:
In the equation of motion
dV
dt+ f kx V=- \'<1> 1.2(1)
the acceleration term d V/dt is generally an order
of magnitude smaller than f kx V in the
extra-tropical regions; the two terms are
comparable in magnitude in the tropical regions.
In other words,
Rossby Number Ro - 0.1 in extra - tropics
- I. 0 in tropics
where
Ro = Id V / dt I/ I fk xV I
The consequence is that quasi-geostrophic
approximation is generally valid in the
extra-tropical regions for synoptic-scale systems
while it has serious limitations in the tropics. In
these lower latitudes, one has to use primitive
equation (P.E.) models. Experiments are in
progress to test whether non-linear and linear
balance models have reasonable validity in the
tropics.
Theory of geostrophic adjustment (Monin
andObukhov, 1959; Washington, 1964) suggests
that in the extra-tropical region, wind field
adjusts itself to pressure field leading to
quasi-geostrophic balance. The period of
adjustment is relatively small.
In the tropical region, the pressure field
adjusts itself to the wind field leading to ultimate
quasi-geostrophic balance; also the period of
adjustment is large.
Due to these differences in the periods of
adjustments, the 4-dimensional assimilation of
data is not difficult in extra-tropical latitudes.
Such assimilation is creating serious problems in
tropical regions and hence there are more
difficulties in NWP work in the tropics.
Due to quasi-geostrophic balance in the
extra-tropics, one can work with
quasi-geostrophic models in which one can start
with pressure field and infer the wind field.
Pressure-contour analysis by itself without wind
analysis is adequate On many occasions. In
tropical regions, on the other hand, the wind
analysis (stream-line-isotach analysis) and the
pressure analysis are both essential.
Temperature Gradients:
Meridional temperature gradients are very
strong 'in extra-tropical regions compared to
those in tropical regions. Meridional motions in
extra-tropics bring, in juxta-position, air-masses
with substantial temperature differences along
one and the same latitude circle. As a result, we
get highly baroclinic frontal surfaces. A
temperature difference of 10 K within a distance
of 100 km in middle latitudes is common. In
tropical regions, such temperature contrasts are
uncommon; temperature gradients are weak.
Consequently, middle-latitude frontal concepts
based on large temperature contrasts are not quite
useful for forecasting in the tropical regions. Here
relative humidity contrasts and wind
 1.2 Special Features oQlIBpics; Monsoons
discontinuities are of primary importance for
forecasting purposes. Air-mass contrasts are
more through humidity than through dry bulb
temperatures in the tropics.
For the same reason, surface temperature
changes during 24 hours are very small ( -1 K) in
the tropics but are substantial (-5K) in the
extra-tropics.
Temperatures determine the density and
hence the surface pressures. In extra-tropical
regions, pressure gradients are steep and 24-hour
pressure changes are of the order of 10mb (hPa).
In the tropical regions, pressure gradients are
weak and the 24-hour pressure changes are of the
order of 1 mb (hPa) only.
Surface temperature changes of the order
of 5K may occur locally in the tropics in
association with thunder Showers on hot summer
days. But this cooling also is confined to shallow
layer below the cloud base; hence the pressure
change associated with such cooling is also of the
order of 1mb (hPa) only.
Seasonality of Weather :
In extra-tropical regions, cyclones with
their attendant cycle of weather, affect a station
almost throughout the year. Rarely does one get
a long spell of dry weather and cloud-free skies,
say for a period of two to three weeks at a stretch.
In the tropics, there are dry seasons and wet
seasons. For several days in the wet season, one
may not see the sun and for several days in the
dry season one may not see a speck of cloud. The
wet and dry seasons come with almost clockwork
regularity.
Again, each season, in the tropical regions,
has its well marked diurnal cycle of weather. One
may not feel surprised to find that for three or four
days in succession, a rain shower starts at 3 p.m.
local time every day with a margin of ± 5 minutes!
This seasonality of weather with its own
daily cycle makes "persistence" principle very use-
ful in 24-hour forecasting in the tropics.
Changes in weather of a tropical region from
one day to another are brought about by changes in
the intensity and the position of three types of sys-
tems:
i) Migratory synoptic scale disturbances of
extra-tropical regions on the borders of tropical
regions;
1-17
ii) Migratory synoptic scale disturbances of
the tropical regions; and
iii) Quasi-stationary seasonal lows, highs,
troughs and ridges.
The extra-tropical migratory synoptic scale
disturbances are of sufficient intensity and can be
followed easily on the daily synoptic charts. Their
movement produces oscillations in the position. and
intensity of the quasi- stationary seasonal lows and
highs, troughs and ridges, extending from sub-tropi-
cal latitudes into the tropics. These extra-tropical
systems also induce formation of 'cold' lows in the
adjoining tropical latitudes at particularly
favourable spots and these lows move along their
climatological tracks along with their characteristic
sequence of weather.
The migratory synoptic weather systems of
the tropics are generally weak. As they move, they
get mixed up with the quasi-stationary seasonal lows
and highs which are comparatively stronger than the
migratory ones. The horizontal and vertical scales
of seasonal systems are much larger than those of
the migratory ones. The seasonal lows and highs
also undergo oscillations in their position and inten-
sity, with periods which are much larger than the
periods ofthe migratory systems. In the interactions
with seasonal quasi-stationary systems, the feeble
migratory systems undergo considerable changes in
intensity, shape, structure and speed of movement
to such an extent that quite often, it is difficult to
detect their movement or eVen their presence in a
region which is experiencing sudden changes in the
daily cycle of seasonal weather. Quite often, two
synoptic charts of isobars and winds look very much
alike and still the weather is very different. Undoub-
tedly, there are differences but these are so small that
they elude an analyst's eye.
Ta separate the perturbation from the
sea"sonal pattern, it is useful to subtract the seasonal
'normal' values from the total values and prepare
'anomaly' charts. 24-hour change charts are also
very useful in this context.
The 24-hour changes and anomalies are
again a mixture of the changes and anomalies as-
sociated with migratory and quasi-stationary sys-
tems. The horizontal and vertical scales as well as
the time-periods and phases of the two systems are
 1-18 1.2 Special Features of Tropics; Monsoons
quite different. As a logical step to synoptic system
of weather forecasting, we should split up the ob-
served 24-hourchanges and anomalies into different
scales and identify their respective periods. phases
and phase velocities. We should then forecast the
position and intensity of each system, taking into
account their mutual interactions.
Unfortunately, due to lack of adequate
observational material and suitable analysis, this
logical step has not yet been evolved to a regular
operational level. This step has been substituted
by 'experience' of a synoptician over limited
regions. By experience, a synoptician comes to
frame a set of thumb rules so that by a look at his
charts, he can forecast the weather over a
particular region for which he has acquired
experience and skill. Differences in the skill
scores of individual forecasters arise from their
inability to separate the migratory from the
quasi-stationary systems and to forecast their
respective changes and mutual interactions.
The success of numerical weather
prediction models in extra-tropical regions is
largely due to the large intensity of migratory
systems which dominate the weather. Errors
inherent in numerical model of forecasting are
then small compared to the changes which the
model predicts. In the tropical region, these
model errors have to be extremely small in
absolute magnitude in order to be smaller than the
magnitudes of the pressure and wind changes
which the model is going to predict. In other
words, the accuracy demanded from NWP
models is much higher in the tropical regions than
in the extra-tropical regions.
Diurnal Cycle:
As stated earlier, tropical regions have
fairly regular daily cycle of weather. This cycle
manifests itself in almost all meteorological
elements like pressure, temperature, wind,
relative humidity, cloud type and cloud amount. To
detect a real change in the position and intensity of
a tropical synoptic system, an analyst must examine
24-hour changes in the respective meteorological
elements. In particular, an analyst looks for 24-hour
pressure changes in the tropics and for 3-hour pres-
sure changes in the extra-tropics. As will be shown
in section 1.6, the daily pressure wave is dominant
in the tropical regions; here 3-hour pressure tenden-
cy associated with the daily cycle is much larger
than the 3-hour pressure tendency associated with
the movement or change in intensity of synoptic
system. This is unlike the case in extra- tropics.
This daily cycle is not confined only to
individual stations on a meso-scale. It is observed
in synoptic-scale and planetary-scale systems as
well. It looks as though the whole tropical
atmosphere responds actively to the daily solar
cycle. For instance, the daily wind cycle, the
so-called land-sea breeze, caused by the daily cycle
of temperature gradient due to land-sea contrast is
not confined to a few tens of kilometres near the
coast. The effect extends several hundred
kilometres deep inside the continents. The real
maritime air may not be able to reach stations
several hundred kilometres inland in this daily
cycle, but the pattern of flow certainly penetrates
that deep inland. Morning-to-afternoon changes in
wind vector at stations near the coast and stations
far inland exhibit a continuous pattern to confirm
that the so-called land-sea breeze near the coastal
boundary of a tropical continent is a manifestation
of a much larger circulation system. The intensity
and extent of such circulation is much less in the
extra-tropics.
Other differences between the tropical
and extra-tropical regions are shown below:
1.2.1 Definition of Tropical Monsoon and
Tropical Monsoon Region
1. Introduction:
Traditionally, monsoon has been restricted
to Southeast Asia, North Australia and tropical
Africa. Recent observations and analyses have
changed this traditional view; it is now
established that there is monsoon also in North,
Central and South America. In fact, monsoon
prevails over the entire global tropical region -
land area as well as ocean area.
Defmition of Monsoon:
Monsoon is defined as alternation of
relatively dry and wet seasons. This point is
highlighted with the help of histograms of
monthly rainfall over land stations including
island stations in mid-oceans. Obviously,
alternation of dry and wet seasons is linked to the
north-south oscillation of ITCZ. As such, the
region in which ITCZ oscillates helps in
delineating the boundaries of the Tropical
monsoon region.
 1.2 Special Features of Tropics; Monsoons
Extra-tropics
i) In general, extra-tropical atmosphere is
convectively stable.
ii) Amounts of rainfall in 24 hours are of the order
of! cm.
iii) Rainfall generally shows one maximum and one
minimum during the year.
iv) With respect to dry adiabatic process,
atmosphere is baroclinically unstable.
v) In dry adiabatic processes, different layers along
the vertical in the troposphere are strongly coupled.
vi) Atmosphere loses westerly momentum due to
friction at earth-air interface in middle latitudes. It
receives momentum from tropical regions.
vii) Through combined effect of radiative processes
and heat exchanges at earth-air interface,
extra-tropical regions would cool continuously. The
balance of heat is maintained through import of heat
from the tropical regions.
viii) For meridional transports of heat and
momentum, quasi-horizontal eddies are more
effective than the mean meridional circulation
(Ferrel Cell).
ix) Mean meridional circulation (Ferrel Cell) is
indirect.
x) Extra-tropical cyclones are cold-core systems in
the troposphere. Their horizontal extent is large but
their intensity is much less than that of tropical
cyclones. The extra-tropical cyclones do not have an
eye, generally.
xi) Extra-tropical regions are affected mostly by
extra-tropical westerly waves and hardly by tropical
easterly waves.
xii) Above the tropo-pause, there is a deep
isothermal layer in the lower stratosphere.
xiii) There is no pronounced Quasi-Biennial
Oscillation (QBO) in the stratospheric winds.
xiv) Relative vorticity < coriolis parameter!
ITCZ is itself a region of wind
discontinuity. Hence, change of wind direction
with change of dry and wet seasons gets implied
automatically whether alternation of wind
direction is explicitly mentioned or not in the
definition of the monsoon.
Through international discussions and
studies, this type of definition of "Monsoon" is
now universally accepted (Trenberth et aI., J.
1-19
Tropics
i) In general, tropical atmosphere is convectively
unstable in the lower and middle troposphere.
ii) 24-hour rainfall amounts are larger, of the order
of3 cm.
iii) Rainfall generally shows two maxima and two
minima during the year, particularly within 5-10
degrees from the Equator.
iv) With respect to dry adiabatic process,
atroosphere is baroclinically stable. Condensation is
essential for dynamic instability on synoptic-scale.
v) In dry adiabatic processes, different layers along
the vertical in the troposphere are weakly coupled.
Strong vertical coupling comes through moist
processes.
vi) Atmosphere gains westerly momentum due to
friction at earth-air interface in the region ofeasterly
trades. It exports momentum to extra-tropical
regions.
vii) Through combined effect of radiative
processes and heat exchanges at earth-air interface,
tropical regions would be warming up continuously.
The balance of heat is maintained through export of
heat to the extra-tropical regions.
viii) For meridional transports of heat and
momentum, mean meridional circulation(Hadley
Cell) is at least as effective as the quasi-horizontal
eddies.
ix) Mean meridional circulation (Hadley Cell) is
direct.
x) Tropical cyclones are warm-core systems. Their
horizontal extent is smaller but their intensity is
much larger than that of extra-tropical cyclones.
xi) Quite often, the tropical cyclones have an eye.
Tropical regions are affected by both the westerly
and the easterly waves, though more by tropical
easterly waves.
xii) Above the tropopause, the temperature sharply
rises with height. There is a typical tropical
tropopause.
xiii) There is a very pronounced QBO in the
stratospheric winds.
xiv) Relative vorticity - coriolis parameter!
Clim., Nov.2000, pp. 3969-3993).
2. Traditional Definition of Tropical Monsoon
Region; New Definition:
Defirtition of Tropical Monsoon Region
given by Ramage (1971) had been traditionally
accepted, confining the Tropical monsoon to the
area between latitudes 25°S and 35~ and
longitudes 300W and 1700 E, shown in Fig 1.2( I).
Ramage stated as follows :
 1-20 1.2 Special Features of Tropics; Monsoons

"I define the monsoon area as This definition of tropical monsoon is

encompassing regions with January and July
surface circulations in which;
1. The prevailing wind direction shifts by at
ieast 120° between January and July.
2. The average frequency of prevailing wind
directions in January and July exceeds 40 %.
3. The mean resultant winds in at least one of
the months exceed 3 ms- 1 and
4. Fewer than one cyclone-anticyclone
alternation occurs every two years in either month
in a 5° latitude-longitude rectangle.
The only region satisfying all parts of my
monsoon definition boundary and squaring off, I
can enclose the monsoons between 35°N and
25°S and between 300 W and l70oE."
This has also been the traditional concept
of restricting Tropical monsoon to Southeast
Asia, North Australia and Tropical Africa.
Following this traditional concept, World
Meteorological Organization (WMO) and
International Council of Scientific Unions
(ICSU) also planned the International Monsoon
Experiment-1979 (MONEX), considering this as
a monsoon region.
presently not satisfactory. Looking at
i) Global Nature of annual pressure and
wind oscillations, and
ii) Global Nature of ITCZ Oscillation to
which monsoon is linked in Afro-Asian region,
Asnani (January 1993, Tropical Meteorology,
Vol. 1, Page 270) gave revised definition of
monsoon region as follows:
"It is that region which lies between the
lat,itude 5°N of the northern- most (July) surface
position of ITCZ, and the latitude 50 S of the
southernmost (January) surface position oflTCZ,
on climatological basis. As such, it runs round the
whole earth in the tropics."
Monsoon is also linked to Sub - tropical
Trough Lines which meet ITCZ and separate
quasi - stationary sub - tropical Anticyclones. It
is these Sub-tropical Trough Lines, which bring
summer monsoon to Southeast China and also to
Southwest USA. This subject is further
elaborated in Chapters 2 (Sub-tropical
Anticyclones), 12 (Monsoon of China) and 15
(Monsoon of North, Central and South America).
The equatorward extension of these

5
•, 20°

: L I I I , ,'. ! , I I I ' ! ! I ,

160" 140" 120" 100" 80" 60" 40° 2c:f'WCf'E 20" 40" 60" 80" lOCI" 12<1' 14Cf' 160" 180"
I I -l--'- I , I <t, I ~ ,~::
FIG. 1.2( 1) : Final delineation of the monsoon region. Hatched areas are "monsoonal" according to Khromov (1957).
Heavy line marks northern limit of the region within the northern hemisphere with low frequencies of surface
cyclone-anticyclone alternations in summer and winter (Klein, 1957). Rectangle encloses the monspon region.
Adapted from Ramage, 1971.
 1.2 Special Features of Tropics; Monsoons 1-21

Sub-tropical Trough Lines, their meeting with
ITCZ and the onset of Summer monsoon near
ITCZ and near Sub-tropical Trough Lines have
been quite often mixed up in literature; even
ITCZ and Sub-tropical Trough Lines have been
mixed up. However, concepts will be clearer if
we keep ITCZ and sub-tropical Trough lines as
distinctly different entities. For example, it is
better to visualize that the Summer monsoon
advances in SE China, not due to ITCZ going
nurthward up to 400 N along SE coast of China,
but due to Sub-tropical Trough Line on the
western side of Western Pacific Anticyclone
pulling moist current northward along the SE
coast of China. Similarly, the Sub-tropical
Trough Line along SW USA pulls up the summer
monsoon current into SW USA.
It may be added that the Sub-tropical
Trough Line on the western side of Western
Pacific Anti-cyclone is strengthened and even
largely caused by the subtropical westerlies
descending down the eastern slopes of
Himalayan-Tibetan Highland to form a
Lee-Trough.
New Definition of Tropical Monsoon
Region.
As such, the delineation of monsoon
region would be as shown in Fig. 1.2(2).
Also, not to cut it too fine, we may say that
the monsoon prevails over the whole area of
global tropics and adjoining sUb-tropics.
3. SWAMP-1990
During late 1980s, meteorologists in
Mexico and USA were feeling that it would be
more logical to recognize existence of monsoon
in Mexico and southwest USA. A joint project
named SWAMP (Southwest Area Monsoon
Project) was organized, having weather
forecasters and scientists from USA and Mexico.
It was a Monsoon Project, recognizing the
existence of monsoon in Mexico and southwest
USA. Observational program of SWAMP-90
started on 7th July 1990.
Higgins et al. (1997) have done detailed
analysis of the monsoon in southwest USA
comprising Arizona, New Mexico and adjoining
States of USA. They have, inter alia, established

"" ". ,"'.

1_+ &
180'
i I
,I I

!,

50' I
.--------t • ---t~- .
I i
'0' L.E.4O' ._ Be'

FIG. 1.2(2) : Approximate delineation of monsoon region (Hatched) ITCZ and sub·tropical trough lines are shown
inside. (Source: Asnani. 1993).
 1-22 1.2 Special Features of Tropics; Monsoons
that the monsoon of southwest USA has several
of the characteristics similar to those of the
well-known classical summer monsoon of India
and neighborhood, like Onset of Monsoon, Spells
of Active and Break Monsoon Conditions and
finally the withdrawal of the Summer Monsoon.
They have established, on the basis of data from
1963 to 1994, that the normal onset date of
monsoon in southwest USA is 7 th July. It so
happened that the observational program of
SWAMP also started on 7th July 1990 and
continued for one month up to 7th August 1990.
During this period, detailed observations were
taken, using special Radiosonde/Rawin
observations, aircraft, radars, satellites, etc.
Preliminary Operations Report released in
October 1990 by SWAMP gives interesting
detailed account of daily weather and project
observations over this Monsoon Area:
i) The area under consideration is a
mountainous desert region having plenty of loose
sand, which is raised from the ground by the storm
gusts and squalls, particularly in the beginning of
the rainy season. The first thunderstorm is generally
a dust-stormlsand-storrn.
ii) The Rocky ground gets heated up as the
day advances, giving frequent thunderstorms in the
aftemoon/evening.
iii) The Gust/Squall front undercuts the
surrounding unstable air and generates a fresh line
of thunderstorms, which may continue late in the
night and even early next morning.
iv) Quite often, thunderstorms are of severe
intensity. There are also observations of rotating
super cells, sometimes giving hail, of the size of a
cricket ball and squall winds uprooting trees,
electric poles and homes.
v) Heavy thunderstorms also give very
dangerous downbursts. Life and property get
damaged by severe thunderstorms of the monsoon
season.
vi) There are occasional tornadoes.
vii) The heavy rains cause flash floods; a new
stream may suddenly appear where there was none
before.
viii) Meso-scale convective systems with
severe thunderstorms and lasting for several hours
are of frequent occurrence.
ix) There is "Monsoon Interphase" which is
favorable for development of thunderstorms. This
is some times called" Monsoon Front"
x) There are periods of monsoon "breaks"
in the course of the monsoon season.
4. Characteristics of Monsoon Climate
Monsoon climate is characterized by the
following features :
i) There is alternation of wet and dry seasons
at a place located in monsoon region.
ii) Along with change in wet or dry weather,
there is also a change in atmospheric circulation
pattem. This change is very often seen perceptibly
in the surface wind direction. However, this change
in surface wind direction should not be made a
criterion for defining the arrival or departure of
monsoon. When monsoon rains arrive or depart.
there may be change in surface wind speed, not
necessarily accompanied by change in surface wind
direction. Wetness or dryness of weather should be
given greater weightage than wind direction in
determining arrival or departure of monsoon.
In ancient days, mariners in the sea area
around India used to take advantage of favorable
direction of wind near the sea surface to steer
their boats and ships. In the Arabian Sea and the
Bay of Bengal, between summer and winter
seasons, the wind direction changes by more than
120°, going up to even 180°. Correspondingly,
there was a change in rainy or dry weather
conditions also. During summer monsoon
season, surface winds were nearly southwesterly;
during winter season, the surface winds were
nearly northeasterly. The northeasterly winds of
winter season brought rains over southeast coast
of the Indian Peninsula and over parts of
Malaysia and Indo-China. Hence, the summer
monsoon was called SW Monsoon while the
winter monsoon was called NE Monsoon.
Surface wind direction and rains got intertwined.
Due to this earlier history of terminology,
definition of Monsoon is given in terms of wind
direction by some authors, in terms of rain by
some other authors and in terms of both wind
direction and rain by others.
Now, that the relationship between flow
patterns, c1oud-and-rain patterns and ITCZ is
known on global basis, a rational way of defining
"monsoon" and "monsoon region" appears to be
as follows:
a) Essentially, monsoon is alternation of
 1.2 Special Features of Tropics; Monsoons
tJIJlY!
~\..o
~ "t'S;!
'Tel /Sss'\S\\\\SSSSSS \S\\,:sSS\~\\\SS \ \3
[0 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - EQUATOft
"el KS S S s s S " "I
\ ,;;;.
8~\"G
1GH
'"
""
( JANUARY)
AG. 1.2(3a) : Schematic picture of ITCZ and subtropical trough lines during January and July
SPCZ = South Pacific convergence zone SACZ = South Atlantic convergence zone
relatively dry and wet seasons.
b) Alternation of dry and wet seasons is linked
to the annual north-south oscillation of ITCZ.
Weather is relatively wet in the neighborhood of
ITCZ.
c) ITCZ itself is a zone of wind discontinuity.
Hence, with north-south oscillation of ITCZ, a
place near the ITCZ also experiences change of
wind direction.
d) ITCZ, which runs nearly east west is also
linked to sub-tropical trough lines at some places.
These sub-tropical trough lines separate adjacent
sub-tropical High-pressure cells. The High-pressure
cells lie roughly in east-west direction along
sub-tropical Ridgeline. The sub-tropical trough
lines run almost in north-south direction with slight
tilt towards east or west depending on the land
configuration.
These sub-tropical trough lines are
cyclogenetic airmass discontinuities, almost like
ITCZ. They shift north - south along with the
ITCZ and also shift east-west in response to the
position and intensity of sub-tropical High
pressure cells on their two sides. Fig. 1.2(3a)
schematically shows the association of
sub-tropical trough lines with ITCZ and
sub-tropical High-pressure cells in the northern
and the southern hemispheres.
The annual cycle of change in position and
intensity of these sub-tropical trough lines brings
alternation of wet and dry seasons in sub-tropical
regions also. Notable examples are :
i) Southeast China having wet season in summer
ii) Mexico and SW USA having wet season in
summer
1-23
IJYL~1
sf e ~ '-=
ITCZ tJULYI
£SSSS'(S\SSSSSSjITCZ IJANUARYl
\,;:.
S\~
,,
\
l>PCl
,
l JANUARY1
iii) SPCZ in southern Pacific
iv) SACZ in southern Atlantic
v)There is also NW-SE running convergence
zone (SIOCZ) in SW Indian Ocean during
Southern summer as seen in Fig 1.2 (3b) based
on satellite pictures presented in Climate
Diagnostics Bulletin (USA) January 2003; this
convergence zone becomes active in the rear of
migratory westerly extra-tropical cyclones. This
figure also shows SPCZ in southwest Pacific
Ocean and SACZ in southwest Atlantic Ocean.
There is also a weak convergence zone near West
Australia.
5. Complexity In the understanding of Monsoon
On the Polar side of sub-tropical
anti-cyclones, rains occur mostly in winter
season in association with migratory
synoptic-scale extra-tropical cyclones, while
summer seasons are relatively dry. The opposite
occurs on the equator-ward side of sub-tropical
anticyclones, where rains occur mostly in
summer season while winter seasons are
relatively dry. This is illustrated in Table 1.2(1)
for South America. Since there is alternation of
dry (summer) and wet (winter) seasons on the
polar side of the sub-tropical anti-cyclones, we
should accept that there is Monsoon on the polar
side of sub-tropical anti-cyclones also.
This is shown in Table (1.2(1» for land
0 o
area between latitudes 30 S & 4l S and
0
longitudes 70 W and 73°W. Alternation of wet
and dry seasons in this sub-tropical land area is
pretty clear; its rainy season is winter and its dry
season is summer.
 1-24 1.2 Special Featlll'ts'of Tropics; Monsoons

60N
50N
40N
30N
20N
10N
EO
105
2CS
JC'S
'lOS
C '80 900 o
L 50
._l .
100 200 300 400 500

FIG. 1.2(3b) Estimated rainfall (mm) for January 2003 using the special Sensor Microwave/Imager (SSMII)
precipi.a.ion Index (Ferraro 1997,1. Geophys. Res., 102, 16715-16736). Contour interval is 100 mm.
(Source: CLIMATE DIAGNOSTICS BUL\..ETIN (USA) JAN 2003).

TABLE 1.2(1) : Normal monthly rainfall (rom) for some sub~tropical stations in South America

Cristo Chos- SanCarlos Puerto

Station Laserena Valparaiso antiago Concepcion
Redentor Malal Debarilache Montt

Latitude 30 S 32 S 33 S 33 S 37 S 37 S 41 S 41 S
Long. 71 W 70W 72W 71 W 73W 70W 7.W 73W
January Trace 8 2 2 17 9 37 90

Feb <1 9 2 3 21 10 12 139

March <• 8 4 4 52 12 28 139
April 3 22 18 14 85 13 51 18'
May 22 96 96 62 211 41 141 236
June 44 40 .28 84 250 54 89 257
July 30 56 88 76 238 32 '43 209
August 23 64 66 56 183 29 .04 198
Sept. 6 23 30 29 103 13 51 158
Oct. 4 19 '6 15 59 11 23 119

~~. <1 7 7 6 45 7 '6 131

Dec. Trace 7 2 5 29 6 22 125

Annual
133 359 459 356 1293 237 717 1982
Total

(Sources: (i) World Survey of Climatology, Vol. 12, "Climates of Central and South America" edited by Werner
Schwerdtfeger. (ii) WMO Climatological Normals (CLINO), for the period 1961-1990, WMO No. 847, 1996).
 1.2 Special Features of Tropics; Monsoons 1-25

lIEAN RAINFALL (11M) MEAN RAINFALL (lIM)

STATION NAME :COLOllBO STATION NAIIE :TlUVANDRUM
(ELEVATION :7M) (06 l6 N, 19l2E) (OS 29 N. 16 l1E)
400 40D
35j( r- 350 .--
.--- I- ~30 0
.---
0 .--- ~Z50 r- l-
=200 f-
~200 f- ~
.--- ~ 150
"
~ 150
.--- r- Il:
100 r-
100 I-
5j(
0
l
JFMAMJJASOND
50
0
.---
FM'AMJJASOND
MOPllll MONlll

MEAN RAINFALL (lIM) MEAN RAINFALL (11M)

STATION NAME :BANGALORE STATION NAIlE :HYDERABAD
(12l8 N, 1135 E) (1127 N, 18 28 E)
180 180
160
.---
160 '--1- c-
~14 0 .--- 14O I-
~ 120
;;'100 .--- .--- II2 0
::'100 r-
•
~80 ~8
;; 0
•Il: 6,( f-
f- ~-60
l-
40 .--- 40
20 f- 20 r l lL
oJ FMAMJJASOND OJ FMAMJJASOND
MOPllll MOPllll

FIG. 1.2(4a) : Distribution of mean monthly rainfall over Colombo, Trivendrum. Bangalore and Hyderabad
Source: (i) India Meteorological Department, (ii) WMO Normals
 1-26 1.2 Special Features of Tropics; Monsoons

MEAN RAIIiFALL (WI.!) MUll RAlIlFALL (11K)

ST!TIOIIIIAMl: BOlIBiY STATIOII IIAI.Il: IIAGPUR
(18 54I1,7H9E) (21 0911,79 01E)

-
III
lTI -
r-

f-
I:= -
r'-

f- i~~llO ~

III
100 ~
~ h-,. h
,r.~.'T~IO.D ,rl~I'J~IOiD
1I0NlIIS MONlRi

MUll R!IIlFALL (UM) I.IlAN R!IIlFALL (1.111)

STATION IIAME: DELHI ST!TIOII NAME: SAGAR
(28 3811, 77 l5l) (2351I1,7845l)
1.
110 -r'- ..-
110 r'-
III 0
;a'1I0
I--

:P
~ ..
I0
,...-.;.
.....
-

, ---n-
~
h~ ........ ~
,r.~."~IO.D
IIONlRi

FIG. 1.2 (4b): Distribution of mean monthly rainfall over Bomb.-.y. Nagpur, Delhi, and Sagar
Source: (i) India Meteorological Department, (ii) WMO Normals
 1.2 Special Features of Tropics; Monsoons 1-27

1l0" ,OU~
"". . ..,.. -,u" W" 0 ••
u

~~ ~ "0

,0- ., "'7 ~70 ,o

~

"- ~
0 .......... CPa ~'C;,. ~~OI9
"0
~.
0 •• 0"
.. J>
00' " ,
..• ~.
0
'0
"
"- 1"~oR ' .,
. at~oo.
t.
..,ao
-
0'
0'.
.oz~

v--:: - ...
40
O· 0
Io,a ' - ~M~
~
.. 0 ..
I~
~ ~"
,
I
r~;~
o,a
<Y' ."
(rf.
.,. •• ...
~ ... ••• Ir ..~
~
0 . .( ....

,
I
"
0 . ~. , ..
')
~
•
•
0 ..
Q31 oe rr :y-~

eo
2o

, oS~ oel~ ~705 Oze

,o
~'¥
''''' -
a 04<& ...... 0

i+~SI
0

.0'
~ . ~... .f- [j:'"
,a
•c
,.~ ;-'

.. .
>~ "
• .,
,~ "
"'"
.~ ~
"'" ~ . ~
." ~
'00"
."" <>- 70' 00' '0' «>- 30'

FIG. 1.2 (5a) : Percentage of nonnal annual rainfall, during southern summer months (Dec-Jan-Feb)
(Sources: (i) World Survey of Climatology, Vol. 12, "Climates of Central and South America" edited by Werner
Schwerdtfeger. (ii) WMO Climatological Nonnals (CLINO), for the period 1961-1990, WMO No. 847, 1996).
 1-28 1.2 Special Features of Tropics; Monsoons

". '0·

I
I"
30"
,:
! o
I

I
110" 00"
I
·~.J,o~"~--~.I"ooo- ----.-------"70b•.----c60b.----",..k----C4"'••--------J,""",!

FIG. 1.2 (5b) : Percentage of nonnal annual rainfall, during southern winter months (Jun~Jul~Aug)
(Sources: (i) World Survey of Climatology, Vol. 12, "Climates of Central and South America" edited by Werner
Schwerdtfeger. (ii) WMO Climatological Normals (CLINO), for the period 1961-1990, WMO No. 847, 1996).
 1.2 Special Features of Tropics; Monsoons
This example underlines some sort of
complexity in the understanding of "Monsoon"
viz. winter rains on the pole-ward side of some
sub-tropical areas with relatively dry weather in
summer season.
Detailed analysis of rainfall climatology
of sub-tropical regions will surely bring to light
more examples of this type. Pole-ward side of
sub-tropical Highs get more rain during the
passage of extra-tropical Westerly cyclone waves
during winter.
We shall leave this complexity at this
stage, simply stating that examples of this type
need special attention and have to be considered
in definition of Monsoon Region. This subject is
further discussed in section 2.2.10 (Rainfall over
the Oceans related to sub-tropical Highs.)
6, Histograms of Monthly rainfall in North,
Central and South America:
Our main effort is to establish that the
rainfall pattern in North, Central and South
America is of Monsoon type, exhibiting
alternation of wet and dry seasons, like in India
and Sri Lanka.
Rainfall pattern in India-Sri Lanka monsoon
region:
It is known that India and Sri Lanka are in
Monsoon Region. Fig.1.2 (4a, b) shows the
distribution of mean monthly rainfall at the
following stations in Sri Lanka and India,
arranged Latitude-wise, south-north:
I. Colombo 06° 56'N
2. Trivandrum OSo 29'N
3. Bangalore 12° 5S'N
4. Hyderabad 17° 27'N
5. Bombay ISO 54'N
6. Nagpur 21°09'N
7. Delhi 23° 3S'N
S. Sagar 23° 51'N
The rainfall distribution is clearly
associated with north-south movement of ITCZ.
Fig. 1.2 (2) shows January and July surface
positions of ITCZ. In other months, the position
of ITCZ is between these two more-or-Iess
extreme southern and northern positions of
lTCZ.
At Colombo, there are two maxima, one
around May associated with northward advance
of ITCZ, the second around October associated
with southward retreat of ITCZ.
1-29
Similar pattern is seen at Trivandrum.
However, first maximum at Trivandrum is in
June and the second in October. Also, June
maximum is stronger than October maximum.
At Bangalore, the first maximum is in
May associated with pre-monsoon peninsular
wind discontinuity and thundershowers; the
second maximum is around September,
associated with southward retreat of ITCZ.
Rainy season of Hyderabad, Bombay,
Nagpur, Delhi and Sagar is June-September.
At all these stations, rainfall is seasonal,
with several months having very little rain.
Understanding of this rainfall pattern is easy in
terms of north-south movement of ITCZ.
Rainfall pattern in South and Central America:
Main question is whether or not rainfall in
South and Central America also shows seasonal
pattern and association with north-south
movement of ITCZ as we see in India-Sri Lanka,
which are well known to be in Monsoon Region.
If rainfall pattern is similar in India-Sri
Lanka as in South and Central America, then, the
South and Central America are sure candidates
for inclusion in Monsoon Region.
Normal Annual Rainfall for South
America is shown in Chapter 15. Here Fig.
1.2(5a) shows the percentage of normal annual
rainfall in South America between lOoN and
400 S during the southern summer months
(December-January- February); Fig. 1.2 (5b)
shows the percentage of normal annual rainfall in
South America in the same region during the
southern winter months (June-July-August).
It is clearly seen that between Equator and
30oS, summer (December-January-February)
rainfall amounts are about 40% of the annual
rainfall; whereas in the same region, winter
(June-July-August) rainfall amounts are only abollt
10% of the annual rainfall. The seasonality of
rainfall is very clear. Hence, there -is Monsoon
climate in South America.
Table 1.2 (2), based on WMO (1996)
Climatological Normals (CLlNO), shows the list of
16 stations in South America, south of the Equator,
arranged latitude-wise north to south. For these 16
stations, histograms of mean monthly rainfall are
shown in Figures 1.2 (6 a, b, c, d). The purpose of
showing rainfall patterns for as many as 16 stations
 1-30 1.2 Special Features of Tropics; Monsoons

MEAN RAINFALL (MIi) MEAN RAINFALL (MIll)

STATION NAME: PUERTO BAQUERIZO STATION KAME: PICHIUNGUE (ECUADOR)
(ELEVATION: 6M) (00 54S, llHIW) (ELEVATION: 13M) (OilliS, '"8 :NW)
!lI JOO
III
- IlO ,.....-
1 10 r-
1EllO
1110
I-f-
~
E'0 ~lOO
~ ll0
~ ~~
r-
100
-
~ lO
10
-
J
. 110
100
JO I -
10 o II
o J IASONDJFMAM
J J A SON D J FM A M
MONTH
MONTH

MEAN RAINFALL(MM)
STATION NAME: GUAYAQUn.(E:UADOR) MEAN RAINFALL (MhI)
(ELEVATION: 6M)(rr.l12S, '"8 SlW) STA11ONNAME: BARRA DO CORDA
(ELEVATION: 81M) (051lS, 4516W)
ll0
,..... -
~ 100

~ 110 -- T
ll0

100 ,.....--
.

~ 100
- ~1l0
-
-
~ lO
h
J J ASONDJFMAM
,.-
- J: o
.rtf -
J J ASONDJ FMAM
MONTH MONTH

FIG. 1.2 (6a): (Sources: (i) World Survey of Climatology, Vol. 12, "Climates of Central and South America" edited
by Werner Schwerdtfeger. (ii) WMO Climatological Normals (CLINO), for the period 1961-1990, WMO No. 847,
1996).
 1.2 Special Features of Tropics; Monsoons 1-31

NEAIl'RAlKFAU./MMl ME.llI RAOO'AllIMMI

STATlCtiNAME:REMAIW STAnoN NANE ".PalTO NACKtiAL
(ElEVATICt( .411 M) (9 415, oQ Il4W)
(ElFIATJOIU"M) (10 ,," C CW)
In
~
,--~
f- ,...-

,--

f-
- f-

I--

IIH
, o N
IIOIlIIB
0 J .,. ,J o N
0011IIII
0 J . ,. -
1

MEAN RAOOAlLtMM'l
51! TICti NAm: FORMOSA

~Il-
,., (mATION :9IJM)(IS 32S,.(11ZW)

In
I--
-- .....Zi1

.-- ~:m
~
--
,--
i I., r-
IIll

rL .,
rl-
.... ,.
I
, o !if 0
.
.... " J o ,
r
o N .0 J

FIG. 1.2 (6b): (Sources: (i) World Survey of Climatology. Vol. 12. "Climates of Central and South America" edited
by Werner Schwerdtfeger. (ii) WMO Climatological Normals (CLlNO). for the period 1961-1990. WMO No. 847.
1996).
 1-32 1.2 Special Features of Tropics, Monsoon&.

MEAN RAINfALL (MM)

STATION NAME: LA PAZ MEAllRAINFALL (liM)
(ELEVATION: 3,632 M) (16ll>,6808Wj STATION NAME: ORURA
100 (ELEVATION: 3,7l:llIl) (17 58S, 6707\11)
90
- - 70

l~~
60
~60 f--- l50 r-

~40

H20
O
-f-
c-

f- !~ 10
r--
r-

10
o
JJASONDJFMAM
f---
o .rll
lASOND1FMAM
If-.-
MONTHS MONTHS

MEAN RAINfALL (14M)

STATION NAME: BELO HOmONTE MEAN RAINFALL (!lIM)
(ELEVATION 91514)(19 56S, 4356\11) STATION NAME :YACUIBA
350
(ELEVATION: 5801I}(22 Ol~ 6343\11)
f- 200
300 r-

_
180 f-

r
~
~
50
200
.-
f---
~ 160
~140
~120
........
-
J
~
~ f---
150 - 100
80 •

100 6lJ . r-
50
o
-r 1- - 40
20
-
JJASONDJFIlAM OJ JASOND1F14AM
MONTHS MONTHS

FIG. 1.2 (6c): (Sources: (i) World Survey of Climatology, Vol. 12, "Climates ofCeutraland 80uth America" edited
by Werner Schwerdtfeger. (ii) WMO Climatological Normals (CLINO), for the period 1961-1990, WMO No. 847,
1996).
 1.2 Special Features of Tropics; Monsoons 1·33

MEAN RAINFALLrMlI\
STATIONNAlIE : SALTA .Ml:AlI RAINFALL (!JM)
(ELEVATION: 1,226 11)(24 SIS, 65l9Vi) STATION NAME: T)JCUMAN
180
.- 200
,
(!LEVATION ......48l1.l) (26 48S 6512W)
100
f..- fIII .-'-
~1411 160
r-
1 120
~10 0
~

f..-
r 411
"",120
~

J~ 0 l00

48
.-'-
J
. 80'
60
~
e-
48
J e-
20

o) A o N D P \I
hA M
10 1--1
O
A o N D , r.t A M
1I01ITlll 1Il0liDll

MEAN RAINFAU. (MIl) MEA1l)WNFALL (1II.l)

STATION NAlIE :SANTLAGO DEL ESTERO STAnONI!AMl:CATAM~A
(ELEVATION: 199M) (2146S,6418W) (ELtvATION .541M)(2826S, 65 46W)
100
90
90 80 -
80 - 70
~
1
~OO
10
~
Iso ~

J: c--
f- !: ~
c--
f--

n-
30
20
20 i-- 18
10 I--, ~
r
"'-
o
o ) A sON D I !l A M IASOND , III A III
1ot0liDll IIt11!1l

FIG. 1.2 (6d) : (Sources: (i) World Survey of Climatology. Vol. 12, "Climates of Central and South America" edited
by Werner Schwerdtfeger. (ii) WMO Climatological Normals (CLINO), for the period 1961-1990, WMO No. 847,
1996).
 1-34 1.2 Special Features of Tropics; Monsoons

MEAN RAINFALL (MM)

MEAN RAINFALL (MM) STATION NAIiI :PEURTO AYACUCHO
STATION NAI.IE :ST. IGNATIUS (ELEVATION: 99MH05 41 N,61381'1)
(ELEVATlON9jMH0321N,5948W) 450
40IU - 40[
350 f- 350
-
~300 r-
1300 f-

J~:
L50
-
~200
~150
-
- -:-
100
100 f--'-
50 J -
50
0
r l
JFllAM JJAS
!h-
OND
OJFIIAMJJASOND
lIoms
lIoms

IiIAN RAIl!FALL (IIlM) MEAN RAINYALL(IIlM)

STATIONIWIE: FERNANDO STATION NAliE :BARCELONA
(ELEVATION .13M) (0153N,61261'1) (ELEVATION: 1M) (10 O1N, 64 41W)
350 140
):I[ ~ 120
- f- -
1 25
~:lJ[
[
1 100 -

- ~80
f-_
--- -
l:
~
~150
~Ioo r-
-
50
o .r
JFMAIIlJJASOND
iL
:lJ
h
°JFMAMJJASOND
-

MONTHS MONTHS

FIG. 1.2 (7a): (Sources: (i) World Survey of Climatology, Vol. 12, "Climates of Central and South America" edited
by Werner Schwerdtfeger. (ii) WMO Climatological Nonnals (CLINO), for the period 1961-1990, WMO No. 847,
1996).
 1.2 Special Features of Tropics; Monsoons 1-35

MEAN RAIHALL (!.III)

MEAN RAlNALL (MM) STATIOHNAME ,SAN SALVADOR
STATION NAIlE, MANAGUA (ELEVATION ·100 II) (lJ 4J H, 89121'/)
(I:LEVATION l6M) (12 Il8lf, 86111'/) JlIJ
JO 0 .-- ~
JO(
0 ~
I-
0 r-
r-

0
r-

0 JFIlAIlJJASOHD
rL l0

DIFMAMIIASOND
J h
1l0HTHS MONTHS

MEAN RAINALL (1111)

STATIOH NAill>. PASO REAL
IlEAH RAIHALL (Mil) (I:LI:VATlON· 41M) (ll JlN, 8J 20 I'/)
STATION HAM!: ,GUATI:MAL.I CITY 2l1J
r-
[l:LEVATIOH . I,JOOll) (15 J9 H, 9016 I'/) ..-
JO 0 r-
200
~ .-- l- I--
l-
0 I-
I-
.--
....-
l Ol-l--r
h-
lIJ

0
~
h I
JFIlAMJIASOHD o I ,• M A M I IASOND
MONTHS
MONTHS

Fl'G. 1.2 (7b): (Sources: (i) World Survey of Climatology, Vol. 12, "Climates of Central and South America" edited
b~ Werner Schwerotfeger. (ii) WMO Climatological Normals (CLINO), for the period 1961-1990, WMO No. 847,
1996).
 1-36 1.2 Special Features of Tropics; Mousoons

TABLE 1.2 (2): WMO (1996) Climatological Normals

1. Puerto Baquerizo 00° 54'S 9. LaPaz 16° 30'S

2. Pichilingue 01° 06'S 10. Orura 17° 58'S
3. Guayaquil 02° 12'S 11. Belo Horizonte 19° 56'S
4. Barra Do Corda 05° 30'S 12. Yacuiba 22° OI'S
5. Rernanso 09° 41'S 13. Salta 24° 51'S
6. Porto Nacional 10° 31'S 14. Tucuman 26° 48'S
7. Cuzco 13° 31'S 15. Santiago del Eastero 27° 46'S
8. Formosa 15° 32'S 16. Catamarca 28° 26'S

in South America, south of the Equator, is to monthly rainfall of the following stations in
emphasize the point that this region has South and Central America, north of the Equator,
Monsoon-type altemalion of wet and dry seasons; arranged latitude-wise, Equator to north. X-axis
as such, it must be recognized as part of tropical is again arranged with month January at the left
monsoon region. end, month of December at the right end, as in
Unlike in Figures 1.2 (4), the left end of Fig. 1.2(4) for India and Sri-Lanka.
X-axis in Figures 1.2 (6a, b, c, and d) is June, and In Table 1.2 (3), the stations are arranged
right end is May. This is to highlight that summer latitude-wise, latitude increasing downwards. In
season (December-March) is rainy season in Fig. 1.2 (7 a,b), the extreme left-hand month is
Central-South America. Rainfall pattern is closely January and the extreme right-hand month is
associated with the position and north-soulh December to highlight maximum rainfall during
the northern summer. (June-July-August).
movement of ncz.
Looking at rainfall histograms given in
Figures 1.2 (4,6, & 7), it will be appreciated that
Rainfall in South and Central America, north of
the overall pattern of rainfall in South America is
the Equator
similar to the pattern in India, in respect of the
In South America, south of the Equator,
following two aspects:
rainy season is local summer
i) There is alternation of wet and dry
(December-January- February). In the same
seasons, summer being the rainy season.
South America, north of the Equator, rainy
il) Rainfall is associated with the
season is (June-July-August) which is the local
summer there. As such, in both regions, north and north-south oscillation of ncz.
Since India and Sri Lanka are recognized
south of the Equator, rainy season is the local
to have monsoon rains, South America has to be
summer season. Both are having summer
recognized as having monsoon rains.
monsoon rains. This point is highlighted through
Note: These monthly rainfall histograms
Table 1.2 (3) and corresponding Figures 1.2 (7a,
b).
are prepared on the basis of rainfall data
published by WMO (CLINO), India
TABLE 1.2 (3) Meteorological Department and World Survey of
Climatology (Vol. 12, Climates of Central and
1. Ingatius 3° 21'N 59° 48'W South America), "Definition of Monsoon and
2. Puerto Ayacucho 5° 4l'N 67° 38'W Monsoon Region".
3. Fernando 7° 53'N 67° 26'W From the comparison with the classical
4. Barcelona 10° OTN 64° 41'W monsoon characteristics of climate over
5. Managua 12°08'N 86° ll'W southeast Asia, Zhou and Lau (1998, Journal of
6. San Salvador 13° 43'N 89° 12'W Climate, May 1998, pp. 1020- 1040) also came to
7. Guatemala City 15 0 29'N 90° 16'W the conclusion that a monsoon climate does exist
8. Paso Real 22° 35'N 83° 20'W over South America. According to them, the
summer monsoon circulation is a robust climate
feature of South America.
Fig. 1.2 (6) shows distribution of mean
 1.3 Special Analysis For Tropics
VAMOS (Variability of the American Monsoon
Systems)
The International Meteorological
Community has also recently accepted the
existence of Monsoon in North, Central and
South America (see Chapter 15). The
International Clivar programme has an important
component named VAMOS (Variability of the
American Monsoon Systems). The VAMOS
panel has called North American component of
VAMOS as NAME (North American Monsoon
Experiment). This is counter-part of MESA
(Monsoon Experiment in South America). (Ref:
"CLIVAR Exchanges", Dec 2000, pp. 1-3.) More
and more information is now appearing in
literature on American Monsoon, particularly on
Monsoon of North America (Saleeby & Cotton,
2004).
Summary:
1. Tradi tionally, Monsoon has been
restricted to Southeast Asia, North Australia and
tropical Africa. This concept must be revised on.
Monsoon prevails over the entire tropical region.
2. Traditional definition of monsoon
region is presented.
3. During late 1980s, there was a feeling
that the summer rains in Mexico and southwest
USA should also be classified as summer
monsoon rains. A major observational project
called Southwest Area Monsoon Project
(SWAMP - 1990) was mounted in North
America with co-operation between USA and
Mexico. It took extensive observations in
Mexico and southwest USA, for one month
beginning 7th July 1990. This clearly revealed
features of "monsoon rains" in Mexico and
Southwest USA.
4.Characteristics of monsoon climate
throughout tropical region are brought out :-
(a) There is alternation of wet and dry
seasons.
(b) Correspondingly, there are seasonal
changes in atmospheric circulation; in particular,
there is north-south oscillation of ITCZ.
(c) There are also changes in intensity and
position of sub-tropical trough lines separating
sub-tropical anticyclones, These changes are
associated with:
i) Monsoon in China.
1-37
ii) Monsoon in Mexico and Southwest
USA.
iii) SPCZ in southern Pacific
iv) SACZ in south Atlantic
5. It is pointed out that rainfall in extreme
southern sub-tropical region of South America
between 300 S and 41 Os shows characteristics of
monsoon rainfall in winter season, rather than in
summer season.
There are also monsoon-type "winter"
rains in some other sub-tropical areas, poleward
of sub-tropical Highs..
6. At present, it is universally accepted
that there is monsoon over India. But textbooks
have so far generally excluded the whole of
American continent from monsoon. To
emphasize that tropical and sub-tropical regions
are certainly in monsoon region, we have
presented monthly rainfall histograms for 8
stations between latitudes 6°N and 24°N in India
and Sri Lanka in Fig. 1.2(4), for 16 stations
between Equator and 29°S in South America in
Fig 1.2(6) and for 8 stations between 3"N and
23°N in South and Central America in Fig 1.2(7).
Histograms of South and Central America show
the same pattern of alternation of wet and dry
seasons as shown by stations in India and Sri
Lanka,
This alternation of wet and dry seasons is
in association with north-south movement of
ITCZ following the position of the sun relative to
the earth.
The monsoon prevails over the tropical
oceanic area also. Where ITCZ is, there
monsoon is.
1.3 Special Analysis For Tropics
Object of the Analysis:
The object of the analysis is
understanding of the atmosphere for the purpose
of forecasting. The periods of forecasting range
from a few minutes to as long a period as
possible, may be even a few years if that would
be possible. At present, the differences between
tropical and extra-tropical techniques of weather
forecasting are mainly in forecasting for the
periods of the order of a couple of days. In any
case, this is the class of weather forecasting in
which meteorological forecasting offices are
 1-38 1.3 Special Analysis For Tropics
mainly engaged in, at the moment. For this period
of forecasting, one depends essentially on the
synoptic charts which are prepared, as a routine,
in all meteorological forecasting offices.
Numerical Weather Prediction (NWP) models
which weoe in research mode in early 1990s are
now in operational mode in the tropics also.
We have already pointed out that in the
tropics, the weather is seasonal with a dominant
daily cycle, that chang~ in weather from one day
to another are brought about by the changes in
position and intensity of the migratory
extra-tropical and tropical disturbances and the
quasi-stationary tropical systems; that we need to
isolate the 24-hour pressure changes and
anomalies associated with the migratory and the
quasi-stationary systems; that the logical course
has not yet been evolved quantitatively to the
operational level.
In this section, we shall indicate a few
additional aids in tropical analysis and
forecasting.
24-hour change charts in other elements:
In addition to 24-hour pressure changes, it
is useful to prepare 24-hour change charts in
respect of :
i) Wind vectors at a few specified levels;
ii) Minimum temperature; and
iii) Maximum temperature.
Anomaly Charts:
Anomaly charts in respect of these
elements are also equally useful. These charts are
possible if we have 'Normal' charts based on
very long periods of observations at each station.
Hence we need observations over long periods.
How long should this period be ? It is generally
believed that the period should be atleast thirty
years long, the longer the better. Further,
different stations should have observations over
the same period of 30 years or more. It has been
discovered that the atmosphere has inter-annual
cycles of various periods ranging from two year~
to several thousand years. Hence all 'long'
periods are not statistically similar periods.
Within the periods of standardised
meteorological observations, we cannot cover
full periods of all cycles which are present in the
atmosphere. As next best, let all the stations cover
the same period of 30 years for calculation of
normals. Even this is not always easy to achieve
in the tropical regions.
Let us assume that we have 30-year data
for a number of stations. We can then prepare the
arithmetic averages and call them 'normals'. For
which calendar days of a calendar year should we
combine the observations? Shall we prepare
normals for each calendar day of the year, e.g.
1st January, 2nd January and so on? With our
present day knowledge of the subject, it is not
considered essential or even worthwhile tb
calculate daily normals. At present, two types of
normals are in use:
a) 5-day normals
b) monthly normals.
Five-day normals are in use more in the
tropics than in the extra-tropics. Five-day
periodicity was detected in the tropical weather
systems towards the end of nineteenth century
soon after regular and extensive surface
observations became available for the tropical
regions; hence the preference for 5-day normals.
One month appears to be too long a period
to be considered homogeneous. Monthly normals
have their utility if we wish to appreciate the
evolution 0'1" weather patterns which have the
period of about a year or so. Shorter period
normals and departures-from-normal are
necessary if we wish to study the evolution of
patterns which have the shorter periods of say a
few months or a few weeks. In such cases,
five-day normals would perhaps be useful but
such normals are not available except for a few
surface meteorological elements like rainfall,
maximum temperature and minimum
temperature.
Preparation of five-day normals for other
elements, particularly for upper air observations,
will pose additional problem of sufficiency of the
number of observations. For one observation a
day, we have five observations for a particular
five-day period in each calendar year. For thirty
yetirs, we have 150 observations. Can we
consider this number as adequate for calculation
of normals? On the other hand, for the calculation
of monthly normals, we have 900 daily
observations over a period of thirty years.
A critical statistical analysis on this topic
is lacking at the moment. It is felt that we should
now have half-monthly upper air normals in the
tropical region in place of monthly normals. A
 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - -

1.3 Special Analysis For Tropics 1-39

month appears to be too long a period to be

considered homogeneous even for the study of
those phenomena which have the cycle period of
a year. Rainfall has two maxima and two minima 101

in near Equatorial region. Hence six-month

period comes to be important. Six points in a
wave period or wave-length do not give a
satisfactory representation of the wave
phenomenon. Twelve points give a fairly I I , .. II' •• 10 II II 14 liS I'
,-
(I

satisfactory representation. Thus, there is a strong

case for half-monthly normals.
'"
(p,l) Charts:
These are also called vertical time section '-.-.J: ........... ,-.kJ
, I.......... ---1 '-. J I ; V ,-<J"~
I iv-"
I . , ,
charts. Such charts are prepared, one for each
-~vY-~v'--i-"--:v,---!'-'-1v
I ' I) I :' • ' , I
station which takes upper air observations. 1 : : : ~ I '

~ <; ~
Pressure p is plotted on logarithmic scale as " "
TilT
14 III II II 10 •
",
• '7
T
• II .. ~ I . 0
y-axis. Time I is plotted as x-axis. It is useful and -,
convenient to plot time increasing in positive loJ
x-direction if the station is affected by ------------:1
meteorological synoptic systems moving from -, ---, ~ --..--, --.. . . . . . ---"\ -, --....-""'\ -;........ -........-'" I
-., -, -.,
east to west. This is applicable to most stations in
-,-..... .......... --.."""'"'1 ....... -"'"'--..-,--.. ........... --..-,--.. ........
the tropics. If , on the other hand, the station is
affected by synoptic systems from the west as in
sub-tropical region, then time I should increase in
II " 14 I' II II iO •
-, • 7' ., ~ .. I • I (I

negative x-direction. At each (p,l) point, the

plotting model is the same as for any upper air
chart. This system of plotting preserves the
trough-ridge appearance on (P, I )chart as on
constant pressure charts. This wind
representation is illustrated in Fig. 1.3(1) (a,b). At
the bottom of the chart, one can plot the weather
in surface weather plotting model.
In Fig.I.3( 1a), a station in northern
hemisphere is affected by an easterly wave. In
Fig 1.3(1b), the station is affected by a westerly
wave. In Fig' 1.3(1c), the data of Fig. 1.3(1a) are
plotted with time I increasing westwards. The
sequence of observations at the station for
different values of time I is exactly the same in
(a) as in (c). Only the direction of plotting is
different in (a) & (c). Alt=2,6,l0 and 14, troughs
in the easterlies are passing over the station. The
appearance of these troughs on the vertical time
section chart(a) is the same as on the
conventional synoptic charts at any level, like the
troughs in the easterlies. If we look at vertical
time section chart(c), the appearance at 1=2,6,10
and 14 is as if ridges of the easterly waves are
passing over the station at these times. It is
convenient to plot I increasing eastwards for
FIG. 1.3(1) :. Vertical-time section chart. Station in
northern hemisphere affected by :- is
a) Easterly wave ( time t increases eastwards) b)
Westerly wave (time t increases westwards) c) Easterly
wave ( time t increases westwards ).
(Source - Asnani t993)
detecting easterly waves.
The statements hold equally well for
stations in the southern hemisphere.
Slight variations in geopotential height of
constant pressure surfaces, wind direction, wind
speed, temperature and dew point occurring at a
station can be detected visually with comparative
ease. Vertical tilts of troughs and ridges at a
station are also visually recognisable in such
diagrams.
To facilitate the detections further, one
may find and subtract the average for a period.
When the mean average state of the atmospheric
condition is taken out, what remains is a
perturbation.
If the existence of a perturbation, its
vertical structure and association with a weather
 1-40 1.3 Special Analysis For Tropics

500 mb HEIGHT ANOMALY: 45S

FIG. 1.3(2) : Southern Hemisphere: Daily 500 hPa height anomalies for August 2000 averaged over the SO latitude
band centered on 45°S. Positive values are indicated by solid contours and hatching. Negative values are indicated by
dashed contours. Contour interval is 60 m. Anomalies are departures from the 1979-1995 base period daily means.
Source: Climate Diagnostic Bulletin, August 2000, NOAA-NeEP (USA).

sequence, is established at one station, it can be
traced back and forward at other stations in the
line for which similar (p,t) charts have been
prepared. Variations in the intensity and structure
of the system during its travel are also detected
through such analysis.
(xl) Charts of satellite cloud picture strips:
Perturbations generally move zonally. Fig.
1.3 (2) shows daily 500 mb (hPa) height
anomalies for August 2000 averaged over the 5°
latitude band centered at 45°S. X-axis gives
longitude around the whole latitude circle 45°S.
Y-axis gives time from 1st August to 31 st August
2000 starting from top and stopping at the
bottom. Positive values are indicated by solid
contours and hatching. Negative values are
indicated by dashed contours. Contour interval is
60 m. Anomalies are depattures from the 1979 -
1995 base period daily means. Source: - Clim.
Diag. Bull., August 2000, NOAA-NCEP-USA.
The movement of anomalies from west to
east is clearly seen.
Additional levels for Constant-pressure
Analysis:
In the tropical regions, pressure analysis
on the sea-level chart is very useful and essential.
Pressure is the one meteorological element which
is measured most accurately, hence pressure
changes are also measured accurately. Due to
lack of geostrophic balance in the tropics, the
importance of pressure analysis for sea-level
chart and of contour analysis for higher level
constant pressure charts in this region has
some-times been under-estimated. We would
emphasize that analysis of the pressure field is as
useful as analysis of the wind field in the tropics.
The two should go together. There is lack of
geostrophic balance in the tropical transient
 1.3 Special Analysis For Tropics 1-41

systems, but there is evidence of good balance the tropics have adopted, with good reason, pilot
between the pressure field and the wind field in balloon analysis at 0.3, 0.6, 0.9, 1.5,2.0,3.0, and
the seasonal quasi-permanent systems. Since the 4.0 km above MSL. Vortices clearly discernible
transients in the tropics are weak compared to the at 0.3, 0.6, and 0.9 km are sometimes not clearly
semi-permanent syste1J1s, there is an over-all discernible even at 1.5 km level but they are
substantial balance between the wind field and associated with considerable amounts of rainfall.
the pressure field in the tropics, even very close
to the equator. The balance is not always simple Streamline Analysis
geostrophic type but more of the type given by Properties of Horizontal Wind Field
non- linear balance equation: Horizontal wind V consists of two
component parts: V = V x + V w where
2J(v,u)-fs+ul3+V2<jl=0 1.3(1)
j)Divergent wind V x = V X.
where the wind comes from the stream function. ,I.e.u = aX ax
The non-linear term 2 J(v,u) in this truncated x ax ' vr. = ay
form of the divergence equation arises from
ii)Non-divergent wind V'" = k x Vljt,
V w. VV w in the Newtonian equation
oljt aljt
oV + V,VV + tJl 'oV" + f i.e. U w= - ay , v", = ax
T k x V + V<jl = 0 1.3(2)
vI up . X is called velocity potential and ljt is
It seems to take care of a good part of the called stream function. Vx has horizontal
balanced acceleration as in gradient wind velocity divergence as well as deformation but no
equation. vorticity. V'" has vorticity and deformation but
In constant pressure analysis over the no divergence.
tropical region, some concepts had been simply au av a2 X a2 X
borrowed from extra-tropical regions. This is V'V=V'Vx = ax + ay = ax 2 + ai
particularly so in the choice of standard isobaric
levels 1000, 850,700, and 500 mb (hPa) levels in av au 02 ljt aZ ljt
k,VxV = k,VxV", = a -a = --2 + -z-
the lower and middle troposphere. Recently a few x y ax ay
additional levels have been introduced so that we Deformation Component A:
presently have, as standard reported levels 1000,
au av lja X a ljtJ lja X a ljtJ
925,850,700,500,400,300,250,200, 150, and A '" ox - ay = oxl ax - ay - a{ay+-ax-
100 mb (hPa) levels; this is a welcome step. In
the extra-tropical regions, weather is dominated
by migratory extra-tropical cyclones. These are
1.3(3)
vertically deep systems, attaining their maximum
intensity near 300 mb (hPa) level. For these
systems, the vertical resolution in the lower and Deformation component B:
middle troposphere given earlier was adequate.
B'" av + ou =1.( iX+ a ljt)+ 1.(ax _aljt)
However, this was not adequate for the tropical
migratory systems. For production of
ox ay axl ay ax ilyl ax ay
synoptic-scale clouds and rainfall in the tropics, i ljt a2 ljt 2a2 X
-2- - + - - 1.3(4)
we need sufficient resolution of moisture and ax ai axay
horizontal velocity convergence in the lower r:--c:Dc:i::-vergellce, vorticity and deformation
troposphere. When this is provided, the rest will
take care of itself. Hence, we must analyze the eJA 2 + B 2 ) are physical properties of the flow
lower tropospheric layer in the tropics with field and as such are invariant with respect to
suffIcient details and accuracy. Also, several translation and rotation of horizontal axes of
migratory systems in the tropics are hardly reference.
discernible in the middle and the upper Objective of Horizontal Wind Analysis:
troposphere. Hence synoptic meteorologists in In the atmosphere, it is relatively easy to
 1-42 1.3 Special Analysis For Tropics
FIG. 1.3(3) Drawing of streamlines after isogon
analysis:-
Stage 1 : Draw isogon isopleths 360°,030°,060°,etc.
Stage 2 : Along an isogon, draw segments of streamlines
oriented in appropriate direction.
Stage 3 : Draw complete streamlines.
(Source: Palmer et al.,1955; Asnani, 1993).
measure horizontal wind but very difficult to
measure vertical wind. For meteorological
purposes, vertical component of wind, though
small, is all important since it produces the
weather. Objective of horizontal wind analysis,
called streamline analysis, is chiefly to infer the
vertical air motion. We look for areas of
horizontal velocity convergence and divergence
and infer vertical motion from the use of
continuity equation.
Streamline-isotach Analysis of the Horizontal
Wind Field:
The Analysis consists of drawing two sets
of lines:
i) Streamlines representing the
instantaneous direction of horizontal flow at a
level.
ii) Isolacks or isovels, i.e. the lines of
equal speed.
During the analysis, it is found that there
are points where the wind speed is zero. These
points are called singOlar points, in the
neighbourhooc\ of which winds are light.
Isogons:
Before drawing the streamlines, one may
like to make an analysis of directions of wind and
draw isopleths of wind direction; e.g. isopleth of
360 0 passes through all the points at which the wind
direction is 3600 • Such lines are called isogons. The
wind direction is treated as a scalar quantity and
isopleths are drawn by interpolation between obser-
vation points. Having filled a chart with isogons, one
draws small segments of streamlines in the direc-
tions indicated by isogons. Then one draws con-
tinuous streamlines (Fig. 1.3 (3».
At singular points, wind speed is zero and
isogons representing several directions converge
at this point. Singular points occur at :
i) Centres of vortices.
ii) Cols and
iii) points of direct inflow or outflow.
Isogons take specified shapes at singular
points of different types as shown in (Figs 1.3 (4)
to 1.3 (8» taken from Palmer et al. (1955). The
numbers on the isogons indicate directions in tens
of degrees. In all these figures, the isogons are
equally spaced straight lines, all converging at a
singular point. It is interesting to see how the
rotation of the isogons produces a variety of
streamline patterns in the neighbourhood of a
singular point; streamlines are shown by arrowed
curves.
In Fig. 1.3 (4), the isogon orientation is
such that each isogon coincides with the direction
from which the wind is coming; e.g. 360° isogon
coincides with the direction from north; 090°
isogon coincides with east, 180° isogon coincides
with south and so on. The streamline pattern
shown by arrowed straight lines represents direct
inflow.
The isogon pattern of Fig. 1.3 (4a) is
rotated through 45° in anticlockwise direction
and shown in Fig. 1.3 (4b). The streamline
pattern corresponds to direct inflow combined
with anticlockwise vortex flow.
Successive rotations through 45° in
anticlockwise direction are shown in Figures
1.3(4c), 1.3(4d), 1.3(5 a), 1.3(5b), 1.3(5c) and
1.3(5d).
It will be noticed from these figures that
through successive angular displacements, pure
inflow turns into combination of inflow and
anti clockwise vortex, pure vortex,
outflow+vortex, etc.
We now illustrate another configuration
(Fig. 1.3(6a» in which 360° isogon coincides
with the direction from north but other isogons
are oriented differently. Isogons of 030°,060°,
090 0 , etc. are encountered as one moves in
 1.3 Special Analysis For Tropics 1-43

~~
,.
~ 03
. t.
30'~I//oe OUTFLOW
"'~~',
:a7 __ •••
: '____
/ ~~
~ 09 06
INFLOW
_..- ~~1: ',~;:-.... (0)
(, ) 24:/1\~"2

.
21 I~ '15

" t.
~
0> O.
" IS \' _ - ... '0 OUTFLOW
" ":, ' ,
INFLOW
+ It ... ~
,
• I
,
33
+
CLOCKWISE
'0
H
~.,

" I " VORTEX

ANTICLOCKWISE
( b) o
.'
,. VORTEX
(b) " 00 0'
" "

(, ( It
01.'"
III

II
f,
'
I
:,'

'.'-::'" '" ' Zl

:50
'>..

" "
n
-'
' \
< •

24
15

II
ANT1CLOCKWlSE
VORTEX

( C)
"
CLOCKWISE
VORTEX

~
Oil

03
...
,:
"
- ",

':
"
21 OUTFLOW
+
24 ANTlCLOCKWISE
•• INFLOW
o.
36 '\ '- n VORTEX ., +
CLOCKWiSE
(d)
" '0
,. VORTEX
(0 I
.. It
o.

FIG. 1.3 (4): Streamline patterns produced by rotation of FIG. 1.3 (5) : Streamline patterns produced by rotation of
isogons in anticlockwise direction successively through isogons in anticlockwise direction successively through
45' (Palmer et aI., 1955; Asnani, 1993), 45°(Palmer et a1.. 1955; Asnani, 1993).

anticlockwise direction from 360' isogon, Now neighbouring streamlines, Also, asymptotes of
the streamline pattern represents a "col" system convergence (or divergence) mayor may not
with axis of dilation in east-west direction, represent lines of true horizontal velocity
On rotation of this isogon system in convergence (or divergence), Confluence of
anticlockwise direction, we again get "col" streamlines may suggest horizontal velocity
patterns with the same rotation of the axis of convergence but isotach pattern may suggest
dilation, This series of configurations is shown in divergence. Streamline pattern as well as isotach
Figures 1.3(6b) to (6h), The singular points in this pattern should be considered together and not one
series are also called "neutral" points or of the two in isolation,
"hyperbolic" points. In practice, due to limitations of map
Some other isogon patterns with singular scale, an asymptote is drawn as a line along
points and corresponding streamline patterns are which streamlines converge (or diverge), as
shown in Figures 1.3(7) and 1.3(8). These flow shown in Fig, 1.3(9). As such, asymptotes on a
patterns are less frequently e,ncoun1ered on streamline chart create an impression of real
meteorological charts, horizontal velocity convergence and divergence.
Asymptotes: Identifying regions of real horizontal velocity
Asymptotes are lines to which streamlines convergence and divergence is a real difficult
converge at infinity(asymptotes of convergence) part of the wind analysis. Regions of inflow and
or away from which streamlines diverge at outflow as also asymptotes of convergence and
infinity (asymptotes of divergence), Ideally divergence are only suggestive of convergence
speaking, asymptotes can never be touched by the and di vergence, Successful detection and
location of these regions is a good achievement
 1-44 1.3 Special Analysis For Tropics

33

06 30 12

(0 1 (e 1
12 24

33

12

03 21
( b1 (f)
06 24

12 15 33

27 09
30 24 12

(c 1 36 (g I
15
06 --9 12 24
27
30

03

15 12
(d 1 (h)
55 12

03 06

FIG. 1.3(6) : Streamline patterns for some typical orientations of isogons. (Palmer et al., 1955; Asnani, 1993).
 1.3 Special Analysis For Tropics 1-45

06 09 06
12 12
15 15
03

18 18 36

03 I~ I~ 03

06 12 12 06
09 09
12

12

I~

12

I~ 18 I~
\

12 ',,- \ ,,~X
.............\1"
.4"
I

...
I

..
__ ....c
12

09----- -~- ..-·09

......./1 ... _ .....
.... '" I II, -r,.

06/.AI' " "

I
I
I
H
I
'
06

03 36 03

03 06

06 I~

12 15
06 03

AG. 1.3(7) : Streamline patterns for some typical orientations of isogons (Palmer et aI., 1955; Asnani, 1993).
 1-46 1.3 Special Analysis For Tropics

09
--, ,,..... 18
18 \, \,
,
1\
\-
\
18
I
09 • ,,-/'"-.... 27
'" , \1/\
I
I

. / ./'\\
",.tIC - ...

I
, tI' ~
..c. .....~\ I"'"
I":)r. ...
¥..., ..
,/

",,
27 .;:.;:.~-<~
..... 27 36
I I

\ ,
\ \
I 36

' ... "'. . ....'/1

. . I~""-\ '_..J~J
\ \
/
\

,,, , I \

36 -- , 2~ . .~, +I ' 'h- 09

18
(a 1 (b 1

09 18
36
r
/
, ,. "
,. -,
,,
\
18 27 • 09

, • r ~

'"
27...----~~
\
........ ~,\
'II
"
38

;I
/
/ /t
\
,
..,", , , v-, -- - ...
18 - -- /
36 09 27

( C ) 09 (d) 18

FIG. 1.3(8) : Streamline patterns for some typical orientations of isogons (Palmer et al., 1955; Asnani, 1993)

in the analysis of wind charts because that is the
chief objective of wind analysis. However, in the
region where wind data are lacking, there is often
an element of uncertainty when one attempts to
show points of inflow and outflow and the
CONVERGENCE
(0 )
FIG. 1.3(9): Asymptotes of convergence and divergence.
(Source: Asnani, 1993).
asymptotes of convergence and divergence. In
such regions, an analyst is quite often guided by
an independent experience that there is generally
an inflow into the regions of cyclonic vortex
circulation and outflow from the regions of
anticyclonic vortex circulation. ITCZ is also
often shown as an asymptote of convergence.
Such drawing of streamlines in regions of sparse
DIVERGENCE data arises from preconceived ideas about
regions of convergence and divergence and the
drawing of streamlines to show this type of
convergence or divergence is no proof of the
existence of actual convergence or divergence in
those regions in the atmosphere.
Figs. 1.3(10) (a,a' ,.... ,m') taken from
( bl Godske et al. (1957) show combinations of
divergence, rotation and deformation in different
relative proportions. Cyclonic (anti-cyclonic)
rotation is designated as positive(negative)
rotation. The streamline field is designated as
elliptic, parabolic and hyperbolic when the
 1.3 Special Analysis For Tropics 1-47

'(@
c

"* @ !!J~ .~
'* ~r;; ~(iJ

~.~
d

.~-; 'f/I!; f{1/j

~
/<' ? / , --- "' ~ ~ II

'.
"---
0'

~ ~~
.~ '~

~ '* ~
m~~ m~~
I I'

'!J~
~h ""\ if;; ~0? ~r;

FIG. 1.3(10) : Types of zero point in linear vector fields. (Godske et al;, 1957; Asnani, 1993).

streamlines form systems of ellipses, parabolas leads to spiralling flow field(Fig.l.3(lO)g,g').

and hyperbolas respectively.
Fields of pure divergence, pure rotation
and pure deformation are shown in Figs.
I.3(lO)(a,a',b,b',c,c'). Fields with a simple line
of divergence and convergence are shown in Figs
I.3(lO)(d,d').
A combination of feeble deformation and
strong rotation leads to elli ptic flow field (Fig.
I.3(lO)j).
Combination of feeble deformation and
strong divergence leads to parabolic flow field
(Fig. 1.3(10) k,k'). A combination of strong
deformation and feeble divergence or
convergence leads to hyperbolic flow field with
equilateral hyperbolas (Fig. 1.3(10) 1,1').
A combination of strong deformation and
feeble rotation leads to hyperbolic flow field with
oblique hyperbolas (Fig. 1.3(10) m,m').
A combination of divergence and rotation
Figs. 1. 3(1 0)(e,e' ,f, f' ,h,h' ,i) ill us trate
more general flow fields with combinations of
di vergence, rotation and deformation.
Some Additional Suggestions about wind
Analysis in the Tropics:
Some analysts may, for good reasons,
prefer making wind analysis in a different way.
The following suggestions are offered for such
analysis:
i) With the help of available wind
observations and under the guidance of seasonal
normal wind charts, locate the following features
on a wind chart:
a) Trough lines
b) Ridge lines
c) Neutral 'col' points
d) Centres of cyclonic circulation
e) Centres of anticyclonic circulation.
ii) Trough lines often appear as regions of
 1-48 1.3 Special Analysis For Tropics
FIG. 1.3(11a) : Line of wind discontinuity (cyclonic in
northern hemisphere) (Asnani, 1993).
~--- - vortices maintain their identity sometimes for
FIG. 1.3(11 b) : Small cyclonic vortex in a trough region
(northern hemisphere) (Asnani, 1993).
FIG. 1.3(12) : Streamliness drawn directly from wind
observations without going through isogon analysis
(northern hemisphere) (Asnani, ·1993).
light winds. On the two sides of this line, there
are currents which approach the trough Hoe Prom
different directions. There is cyclonic curvature
between these two currents. One may reasonably
expect horizontal velocity convergence on both
sides in the neighbourhood of the trough line.
One may find it difficult to draw asymptote of
convergence in the classical sense in this region.
One need not draw such asymptote. One can
leave it as a line of cyclonic wind discontinuity
(Fig. 1.3(11 a)). What is said about trough lines is
also true for ridge lines, with suitable
modifications.
From one level to another level and from
one time of observation to another time of
observation, it is sometimes easier to follow the
displacement of trough and ridge lines drawn as
lines of wind discontinuity rather than as
asymptotes of convergence and divergence.
iii) Along a trough line, one will encounter
a number of small cyclonic vortices. Such
more than a day and may be associated with
heavy rain in their neighbourhood. An analyst
may like to show the identity of such a vortex by
a discontinuous streamline of small size (Fig.
l.3(1lb)).
Along a ridge line also, small anticyclonic
vortices are encountered but these are less
important from the point of view of weather.
iv) Drawing of isogons is a difficult
exercise, particularly in region of sparse data. An
analyst who can draw the isogons successfully
can as well draw the streamlines directly from
available wind observations [Fig. 1.3(12)].
Hence from practical point of view, it is
unnecessary to go through the exercise of first
drawing the isogons and then the streamlines.
Isotach Analysis:
Isotach patterns resemble those of other
meteorological scalar quantities like pressure and
temperature, with regions of maximum and
minimum values and 'col' shapes. The following
hints, derived from common sense and the
experience of synoptic meteorology, would
prove useful in drawing the isotach lines:
i) Speed is zero at a singular point. Speed
cannot be negative. Hence singular points appear as
minima in isotach drawings. Isotachs around a
singular point tend to take an elliptic shape.
 1.4 Scale Analysis for TropIcs 1-49

elongated in the direction of the streamline.

Isotachs on either side of the central streamline are
roughly parallel to the streamlines (Fig.1.3(13b)).
Wind Analysis in Frontal Zones:
,10 Fronts are rare in the tropics. At times,
,
•
,, -- however, an extra-tropical front may penetrate
into lower tropical latitudes. By that time, the
\, front has lost its sharpness and appears as a
,,
, frontal zone with width of Yz a degree to I degree
'10
of latitude. In this frontal zone, streamlines have

~
a sharp cyclonic curvature. As stated earlier,
10 .... ; .........- - - - .......... '0 wind speed tends to be a minimum in a region of
(a) sharp curvature. Hence, the frontal zone tends to
have a speed minimum within itself
[Fig.I.3(14)].

FIG. 1.3(13) : lsotach patterns

a) Isotach fonning a 4-point star around a col point. 5-knot
and IO-knot isotachs are drawn.
b) Isotach pattern in the vicinity of ajet stream. (Asnani.
1993)
ii) Isotach minima tend to be elongated
along the axes of contraction and elongation, in
the neighbourhood of a col point [Fig.1.3(13a)]. _ STREAMLINES
ISQTACHS
In such regions, the isotachs tend to take the mmm FRONTAL ZOME
shape of a four-pointed star.
iii) When singular points lie along a chain line,
an isotach of light wind surrounds the chain of FIG. 1.3(14) : Isotach analysis in frontal zone. (Asnani.
singular points. 1993).
iv) Isotach minima also occur at points which
are not singular, but the isotach values at such points 1.4 Scale Analysis for Tropies
are greater than zero.
v)ln regions of sharp curvature of Introduction
streamlines, speeds tend to be minimum. Charney (1948) introduced systematic use
vi) Speed maxima tend to occur where of scale analysis for synoptic- scale (L -1000 km)
streamlines are straight without much curvature. meteorological motions in the middle latitudes.
vii) Magnitude of speed maximum is greater in Use ofquasi-geostrophic approximation emerged
long major wind currents than in short detached as a logical step for such motions. NWP
currents. experiments with quasigeostrophic
viii) Within long major currents, as in a jet approximation in the early fifties showed the
stream, there may be two or more isotaeh maxima inadequacy of this model for planetary scale
along the central streamline. The isotachs are (L -10,000 km) motions (Wolff,1958). Through
 1-50 1.4 Scale Analysis for Tropics
scale analysis of planetary-scale waves in the
middle latitudes, Burger (1958) showed the
inadequacy of quasi- geostrophic prognostic
model for such waves since the vorticity equation
used as prognostic equation in such models really
lost its prognostic character and assumed a
diagnostic form. Burger also showed that on this
scale, a number of terms including twisting
terms, otherwise considered negligible, seemed
not to be negligible.
Adopting essentially the same technique
as before, Charney (1963) performed scale
analysis for synoptic-scale waves in the tropics
and concluded that in the absence of diabatic
processes like condensation, the vertical motion
in the tropical regions is an order of magnitude
smaller than that in the middle latitudes and
hence such tropical flows are quasi-barotropic
and quasi-nondivergent.
Murakami (1972a) showed, through scale
analysis and through numerical experimentation,
that Charney's (1963) conc lusions about
synoptic-scale tropical motions were valid even
for diabatic process like condensation, provided
that the diabatic heating rate Q/Cp was of the
order of 1°C/day.
The common assumptions in these
analyses are :
')f - .10-5s-I and" 11
1 p- 10- m-1 s-1 ,Ill .
tropical regions.
ii) Scale of motions is the same in x and y
directions.
iii) Non-linear interactions between
different scales of motion are un- important.
iv) A factor of 10 changes order of
magnitude.
{ assumes the values 10-6, 10-5 and
10-4s- roughly at latitudes 0.4, 4 and 45 degrees
respectively. Hence the tropical region is fairly
well-covered by f -1O-5 s- . Variation of ~ in
the tropics is much smaller, being 2.29 X
10- 11m-l s-l at the equator and 2.08 x
1O- 11 m- 1s- 1 at 25° latitude. It would be
appropriate to take ~- 2xI0- lI m- 1s-1 but a
factor of 2 is taken as 1 in this system of scale
analysis. Hence ~_1O-1Im-Is-l can be
considered to cover the tropical region
v tanep u tanep .
adequately. and enter mto the
a a
calculation of horizontal velocity divergence and
relative vorticity respectively. The values of
tanep are 0,1.4,2.8,4.2 and 5.7 in units of 1O-8m- 1
a
at latitudes 0,5,10,15 and 20° respectively. Since
we have adopted f _1O-5s- 1 for the tropical
region, we shall also adopt tanep - 10-8 m-I for
a
u tan
th IS reglOn. W·th
o •
1 U,V - 10 fiS,-I we get - - -<p,
a
v tanlfJ _ 10-7 s-1 which is 10-2 times the value
a
off
Taking the scale of motions to be the same
in x as well as y directions is not free from
objection when we deal with synoptic scale
motions. The objection is more serious when we
deal with planetary-scale motions where
characteristic length in x-direction is 107 metres
and wave-length 4 xl07metres, i.e. wave number
one at the equator. In our scale analysis that
follows, we have taken equality of scales in x,y
directions for synoptic-scale motions (L - IO~
but not for planetary-scale motions. For this latter
class of motions, we adopt characteristic
length in x-direction (Lx - 107 m) but
characteristic length in y-direction Lr 106m. Our
attempt to take Lx- L y - 107 m led to imbalance
of terms in vorticity and divergence equations
and we realised that the solution lies in adopting
more realistic different scales in x and y
directions.
In the tropical atmosphere, we have
quasi-stationary seasonal systems which oscillate
slowly, in intensity and in position, around their
seasonal patterns. In these systems, zonal
component of motion is large compared to the
meridional component of motion. We have
adopted characteristic u as 10 ms-1 and
characteristic v as I ms-1. Characteristic time ~
becomes - -
Lx S. 6
- 10 s - 10 days. For these
u v
systems, we take different phase velocities in x,y
directions as
Cx- I ms- 1
Cy - 0.1 ms- 1
For synoptic scale migratory systems, we
follow the classical pattern of scale analysis,
 1.4 Scale Analysis for Tropics 1-51

taking L - 106m, V - IOms- 1,C- 10ms- 1, definition of potential temperature, it can be

L 5 easily shown that
T - II - 10 s - 1 day.
§E _ 8a _ 8T _ Be _ L
Synoptic-scale Migratory Waves: 1.4(3)
PaT 8 Ro
Characteristic Parameters:
Characteristic length
6
L = 10 m- 'I4wave*length
Magnitudes of vertical velocity and diabatic
4
heating
Characteristic depth D= 10 m To estimate characteristic vertical velocity
Characteristic wind speed v= + 10 ms- 1 W, we use the thermodynamic equation
Characteristic phase C= 10 ms- 1
speed (;t + v.v )zn 8 + w :z(In 8) = i;r 1.4(4)
Characteristic time 't=1O\

(~+V'V)ln8_l:88
Characteristic Pressure p= tOOOmb
_ VF _ Ff 1.4(5)
Characteristic Coriolis f= 1O-5s- 1 iJt L 8 LR o
parameter
Characteristic Rossby
Parameter
J3 = 1O-llm-1s-1
waiiJ (In 8 ) - DWcr 1.4(6)

a We shall consider four values of QlCpT

Characteristic
stability
parameter cr= Daz (In 9) -0.1
with T- 250 K
Characteristic
Froude v"
F=- - 10- 3
i) -1L _ 0 1.1- = 0
Number gD CpT Cp

~(ln 9) E".
ii) ~
CpT
_ 10- 8s-1
2-
p
0.25°C/day
.dz D02
lO
Characteristic
Richardson
Number Rl= (~~)2 -[~)2 -fi- i1'i) Q_ 1O-7 s- 1
_
CpT
2--
p
2.5°C/day

8'
Magnitude of :

dV Adiabatic Case QlCp T = O.

d/+fkxV=-aVp 1.4(1)
In this case, the treatment is simple.

I~ 1- Rof v where Ro =Rossby Number i) Wcr - Ff

D
V
=
fL 1.4(7)
Ifk x vl- fV
laVpl- a'§E_ 8!l8p
L L P W - 10-7S- 1
") V • V - D
11 1.4(8)
For meteorologically important !"otions
on synoptic scale, coriolis acceleration and
pressure gradient acceleration are of the same 1.4(9)
order of magnitude. Therefore:

1.4(2)
V/ana cp ~ 1O-9s- 1
• Sphericity of earth does not
alter this estimate of V·V. Here Vx denotes
Making use of the quasi-static divergent component of wind. Similarly Vljf will
approximation, equation of state and the denote non-divergent component of wind.
 1-52 1.4 Scale Analysis for Tropics

iv) V=V",+V x . Since v- IOms- 1 and

Vx -0.1 ms- 1• it follows that
1.4(14)

V",- V-I O ms
-1
1.4(10) 2J (v2 ' U2)+U2 13- !~2 + V2<P1 ; 0 1.4(15)
v
v) Relative vorticity ~ - Z- 1O-S.-1 1.4(11)
It can be easily verified that 1.4(14) and
1.4(15) emerge from the truncated Newtonian
equation
Since V - IOms- 1 and Vx - 0.1 ms- 1• it follows
that
av,
iJ/+V,.VV,+!kxV,+V<PI;O 1.4(16)
u'" Ian <p _ 10-\-1 . Sphericity of the earth does The truncated vorticity equation is as for
a
not alter this estimate of ~ . barotropic non-divergent model; vertical
coupling is very weak (Charney. 1963). The
vi) We are now in a position to analyse the truncated divergence equation 1.4(15) is the
vorticity and divergence equations 1.4(12) and well-known non-linear Balance equation.
1.4(13) written in (x. y. p. I) system. If we are to achieve not only scale
a~2 a~2
consistency but also energetic consistency as
at + V2 · V ~2 + V3 'V ~2 +!O3 ap + V2 fl + v3 fl outlined by Lorenz (1960). we have to include in
the vorticity equation, also the terms of the type
aX:J } a1jl2 (2,3). V3 13 and! D J which are all of the order
+!DJ+~DJ+J ( !03'a;; V!OJ'V ap =0
1O- 12 s-2 Then the set of equations forms the
1.4(12)
complete non- linear Balance model:
aD, aD J 2 a~2
al' +V,.VDJ +V3·VDJ +!OJ ap +D3 at + V, . V~2 + v,fl + V3 . V~2 + ~2D3+

+ 2J(V2 , u,)+2J(V3' uJ)+2{v2' u3) + a~2 01jt,

!OJaf + V!OJ . V ap + v3fl +! DJ ; 0 1.4(17a)
av,
2 J(v" Uz) - !~2 + U2fl + u,fl + v!OJ' ap +
2J(V2'U2)+Uzfl-!~2+V2<P1;0 1.4(17b)
aV3 2 Diabatlc Case, Q/CpT - 1O-8s-1
V !OJ" ap + V <P, = 0 1.4(13)
Ff- 1O-8s- 1
Here our notation is
JL- Ff - Wa -1O-8s- 1
Vx" V3 • V"," V,. V·V=DJ • ~=~,. (OS !OJ • CpT D
1jI= 1jI2 ' x= )(;3 .
Hence W - D x 10-8 _10-3 m s-I 1.4(18)
Regarding pressure term, we have a
The case is identically the same as for
adiabatic case discussed above.
Dlabatic case, QlCpT _10-7 s-I :
The magnitudes of different terms in the i) Now in thermodynamic equation 1.4(4),
vorticity and divergence equations are shown in
Table 1.4 (I). balance will exist between the terms w :z (In e)
In Table 1.4(1), we have grouped together
terms which stand or fall together from and f:r . the third term being an order of
p
considerations of energetic consistency (Lorenz.
magnitude smaller. Therefore,
1960). It is easy to see that from considerations
of pure scale analysis. the largest terms of D-Q
W- -- 1.4(19)
vorticity and divergence equations give a CpT
 1.4 Scale AnalysIs for TropIcs 1·53

TABLE I.4( 1) : Magnitudes of individual teons in vorticity and divergence equations Synoptic scale migratory waves;
adiabatic case. (Asnani. 1993).

Vorticity Equation Divergence Equation

-2 Magnitude (8
-2 )
Term Magnitude ( s ) Term

a" 10-10
at
aD, 10- 12
at
V2' V" 10- 10

'2 ~ 10- 10

", ~ 10-12

V3' v D3 10- 14

D,
2 10- 14

2J(",,",) 10- 14

aD, 10- 14
""-
ap
aV3 10- 14
VO}J'--
ap
V,· V D3 10- 12

2J("2,"3) 10- 12
10-14
+.aa;')
2J("3, "2) 10-12

aV2 10- 12
V"'3'-
ap
V,·Vi;, 10- 12
I

~2D3 10-12

2J("',"') 10- 10
ai;, 10- 12
Wl dp

V'" . V a'll, 10- 12

.1 dP

v,~ 10- 12 U2~

10-10

1 D, 10- 12 10- 10
-I"
v 2., 10- 10
 I-54 1.4 Scale Analysis for Tropics

Reed and Recker's (1971) is perhaps the

.. "Y· V - -W
u) - 10-6-1
s 1.4(20) best available estimate of diabatic heating in
D tropical migratory synoptic-scale systems,
iii)Vx-L V· V -I ms- I 1.4(21) although their estimate was for West Pacific
region during northern summer only. They
Sphericity of the earth does not alter the above obtained a maximum diabatic heating of the order
estimate of V·V of 10°C/day around 400 mb (hPa) level,
decreasing to near zero value at the top and the
iv) Vw-V-lOms- 1 1.4(22) bottom ofthe troposphere (Fig. 1.4(1)). Averaged
v) ~_10-5 s-I throughout the depth of the troposphere, their
1.4(23)
value of Q/Cp is close to 2.SoC/day. Singh (197S)
vi) The magnitudes of different terms in got estimates of the same order of magnitude over
vorticity and divergence equations 1.4(12) and the Indian region during summer monsoon
1.4(13) are shown in Table 1.4(2). season.
Table 1.4(2) shows that in both the Diabatic case, QICpT - 10-6 s-1 :
vorticity and the divergence equations, the largest This is an extremely exaggerated rate of
terms still form the truncated equations 1.4( 14) diabatic heating, of the order of 2SoC/day. It may
and 1.4(IS) as in dry adiabatic case. This is the be obtained in a limited region of heavy
conclusion arrived at by Murakami (1972a) with precipitation. S em rain per day would release
a few minor differences, Murakami took about 3000 calories ofheat. The heat capacity of
Q - 1° C day-l against our Q - 2.SoC day-I. 1 sq.em. air column extending from 900 mb (hPa)
Cp Cp to 100 mb (hPa) is about 200 calories. This
Our analysis further strengthens and rather diabatic heating would correspond to ISoC/day.
extends the conclusion of Murakami that diabatic If this heat is distributed not between 900 mb
heating rate of 2 to SOC/day also is acceptable for (hPa) and 100 mb (hPa) but to the entire column
these truncated equations. having heat capacity of 2S0 calories, it would
correspond to diabatic heating of 12°C/day.
Hence Q/Cp- 2SoC/day corresponds to a rainfall
100 of about 10 em/day. Further, for a wave-length,
it rains over about half the length, with dry
15 weather over the other half. To give an average
rainfall of 10cm/day over the whole wave-length,
200 we need rainfall of 20 em/day over the raining
p
t mb
half wave-length.
For the sake of completeness, we shaIl
i!
(km I
300 1 carry out scale analysis for such system if it
existed.
400
500 i)W_ D ~-lO-lms-1 1.4(24)
(J CpT
600
700 ..11 ) "V
v' W - 10-5 s- 1
-- 1.4(2S)
BOO D
900 iii) Vx - LV· V - 10m s-I 1.4(26)
o l....L-'-...J..-~-'-...J..-.J-J~
o 5 10
Sphericity of the earth does not aIter the above
".K Iday estimate of V· V.
iv) Vw-V-lOms- 1 1.4(27)
FIG. 1.4 (1): Diabatic heating difference between trough
and ridge lines (after Reed and Recker, 1971; Asnani.
v)~- Vwl L-1O-5 s- 1 1.4(28)
1993).
 1.4 Scale Analysis for Tropics I-55

TABLE 1.4(2) ; Magnitudes of individual terms in vorticity and divergence equations. Synoptic scale migratory
waves; Q/CpT - 10-7s- 1 (Asnani,1993).

Vorticity Equation Divergence Equation

·2 -2
Term Magnitude (s ) Term Magnitude (s )

aI;, 10-10
at

aD, 1O- 11
at

V2' V 1;2 10- 10

"2~
10-10

u3 ~ 1O- 11

V3''\7 D3 10- 12

D; 10- 12
,
21('3, u3) 10- 12

aD, 10- 12
"'3-
ap

aV3 10- 12
VW3'-
ap

V2' VD3 1O- 11

21M,u3) 10- 11
10- 12
ap
J ( OJ), ax,)
21(v3, u2) 1O- 11

aV2
'\7003'- 1O- 11
ap

V3' VI;2 10- 11

1;2 D3 10-1l

21('1,u2) 10-10
a 1;2 1O- 11
(thap

'lWl'V aWl 1O- 11

ap

'3~ 1O- 11 U2~

10-10

/ D,
1O-1l
-/ r" 10-10

10-10
v2~,
 I-56 1.4 Scale Analysis for Tropics

TABLE 1.4(3) : Magnitudes of individual tenns in vorticity and divergence equations. Synoptic-scale migratory
waves; Qle.T _1O-6 s- 1 (Asnani, 1993),

Vorticity Equation Divergence Equation

-2 -2
Term Magnitude (s ) Term Magnitude (s )

aI;, 10-10
ar

aD3 10-10
ar

V2' V 1;2 10-10

10-10
"~
u3 ~ 10-10

V3' v D3 10-10

Dl 10-10

2/('3. u3) 10-10

aD, 10-10
0l3-
a.

aV3 10-10
VW3'-
ap

V2' V Dj 10-10

2J(V2. U3) IG- 1O

{Ol'. t:) 10-10
21(", • U2) 10-10

'VwJ' av: 10-10

ap

V,·VI;, 10-10

I;,D, 10-10

21(v2' u2) 10-10

al;2 10-10
0l3-
ap

0"'2
V0l3 . V a;; 10-10
~
"3~
10-10 U2~ 10- 10

/ D3 10-10 -/ I;, 10-10

 1.4 Scale Analysis for Tropics I-57

This estimate is unaltered by sphericity of

the earth. ... ) : .du
111 ---
dt
(C Lxu CLu }u-+v-+
x~+ u
L,L
u WU
y~
y
~
D
vi) The magnitudes of different terms in v

vorticity and divergence equations are shown in _ 10-6 + 10-6 + 10-5 + 10-5 + 10-3 W
Table 1.4(3).
It is seen that now all terms, without an - 10-5 provided that W:S 10-2 1.4(34)
exception, in vorticity and divergence equations
are of the order of 10- 10 s-2. This case needs full Iv - 10-5 1.4(35)
un- truncated form of the two equations, in other
words Primitive Equation (P.E.) model.

Planetary-Scale Quasi-stationary Seasonal

Motions
Characteristic Parameters
7
Characteristic length in x- Lx = 10 m 1.4(36)
1.4(29)
direction

Characteristic length in y- Ly = 106 m 1.4(37)

direction
10 ms- 1 iv) For meteorologically important motions,
Characteristic ronal wind speed u=

Characteristic meridional wind , = Ims- 1 Iv - a~

ax
- ~
ax
speed

Iu--a~--~
1
Characteristic zonal phase speed ex= 1 ms-
1.4(30) ay ay
Characteristic meridional phase Cv = 10-1 ms- 1
speed I i; - '12 <I> 1.4(38)
Characteristic time 10 8
6
- 10
~ P
days v) ax - pfv - gDfv
4
Cha.racteristic depth D= 10 m
Characteristic pressure I03 mb (hPa)
~--PIu-_Lfu
p= ay gD
10-55- 1
Characteristic Corialis parameter
f= f>p= ~&+ ~f>y
1Q-ll -l -1
ax ay
Characteristic Rossby parameter m s
~=
to-I _ PI (vL-uL) _ PI vL _ PI uL
Characteristic stability parameter 0= gD x y gD x gD Y

Characteristic Froude Number F= 10-3

f>p _L vL _ L UL _10- 3 1.4(39)
P gD x gD Y
'Characteristic Richardson Ri= 10'
Number vi) As stated above, it can be easily shown that

Magnitude of W- f>p _ f>a _ f>T _ as _ 10-3 1.4(40)

PaT e
. au ~ Magnitudes of vertical velocity and diabatic
I) at +u au au au
ax +vay+waz- -fv=-aax
1.4(3 I) heating:
We again look at the thermodynamic equation
av av av av an
- + u- + v- + w=- + fu = - a= 1.4(32)
at ax ay az ay
(~at + u ~ax + v ~)
ay
(In (I) + w ~ (In (I) = ~
az CpT
.. at
II)
a = - (Ca
., ax + Ca)
y ay 1.4(33)
 1.58 1.4 Scale Analysis for Tropics

;t (In 0) = - ( Cx a: + Cy ~ ) (In 0) Uz - U - IOms- 1

-1
1.4(49)

V2- v - 1ms 1.4(50)

_ Cx 80 + Cy 80 _ 10-7 80 _ 1O- lOs- 1 1.4(41)
Lx 0 Ly 0 0 • aV2 aU2 v2 U2
IV) 1;2=------~
ax ily Lx Ly
U ~ (In 0) _ !'.- 80 _ 10-9 S-1 1.4(42)
dX Lx 0 _1O-7_1O-5_1O-5s- 1 1.4(51)

vd- (In 0) - - 80- 10-9-1

v - s 1.4(43) v) Sphericity ofthe earth will be unimportant for
dy Ly 0
vorticity because U tan <p _ 10- \-1 11 is important
a
w ~ (In 0) - W ~ - 10-5 W 1.4(44) d'Ivergence . v tanp 10-3s-I - 0v· V . Th'IS
dZ D C
IOf smce ~
a
We shall consider four cases: suggests that in planetary-scale motions,
equatorward flow may be associated with horizontal
i)
~=o velocity divergence while poleward flow may be
CpT
associated with horizontal velocity convergence.
ii) L_10-9 -I
C T
p
s, f- p
0,025 °Clday vi) The magnitudes of various terms in
vorticity and divergence equations are shown in
iii)
-Q - 10-8s-1
CpT
f- p
0.25 °C/day
Table 1.4(4).
The following points are noteworthy:
a) The largest terms of the vorticity and the
iv) Q 10-\-1 lL_ 2 .5 0C/day divergence equations yield the truncated
CpT- Cp equations:
11 appears to us that f p
-2.5 °C/day is rather an 1.4(52)

exaggerated rate of diabatic heating on the scale

under consideration. It may hold for region u213 - fl,2 + V2<PI = 0 1.4(53)
surrounding ITCZ only. b) Eq.1.4(52) is the truncated form of the
Adiabatic case,c~ = 0
vorticity equation which has lost its prognostic
p character and has assumed a diagnostic form.
Individual fluid parcel conserves its absolute
i) W ~ - 1O-9 s- 1
D vorticity in a quasi-stationary, quasi-barotropic
W_IO-4 s-1 1.4(45) and quasi-nondivergent flow pattern.
c) Eq. 1.4(53) is the well-known Linear
") W 10-8S- 1
V . V -D- 1.4(46) Balance Equation, showing considerable
II
closeness to quasi-geostrophic balance between
pressure field and wind field.
dU, dV 3 -8 -1
i.e . -,,-- + -- - 10 s d) If we wish to achieve also energetic
Ox dy consistency of the type suggested by Lorenz
113 V, 8' (1960), then we shall have to add the terms
~+-'--IG- s-' v313 andfD, (-IO- 13s-'). But then, in the
Lx Ly
This relationship is satisfied by vorticity equation, we shall have also to
u,, - 10- 1 ms- 1 incorporate al"/at which has a larger
1.4(47)
-2 -1 magnitude (-IO,I's"). We can still keep out the
v3 - 10 ms 1.4(48) terms of the type (2,3) in vorticity equation even
"') u'-'=u2+u3'- 10 ms -I
1lI though these have the magnitudes of the order
-1 cf 10- 13 s-'.The set of equations consistent with
v == ')2 + V3 - Im:~
 1.4 Scale Analysis for Tropics I-59

TABLE 1.4(4): Magnitudes of individual tenns in vorticity and divergence equations. Planetary
Scale quasi -stationary waves; adiabatic case (Asnani, 1993).

Vorticity Equation Divergence Equation

-2 -2
Term Magnitude ( s ) Tenn Magnitude (s )
,
0" 10- 12
ot
003 10- 15
at
V1,'V' ~2 10- 11

,,~ 10- 11

u,~ 10- 12

V.:r VD 3 10- 16

10- 16
D;

2 J(v) , U3) 10- 16

I
I
oD,
(()3ap 10- 16

VW3' aV3 10- 16

op
V 1 ' VDl 10- 14

2J(V2,U3) 10- 14
( 'a;;
OX') 10- 15
1W3
2J(V l ,U2) 10- 14

oV2 10- 14
VW3 .~-
op
V,Vi;, 10- 13

i;,D, 10- 13

21(v" u,) 10- 12

0" 10- 13
! 003 op

01[12 10- 13
Vw).Va;;
1----"
v,~ 10- 13 u,~
10-10

[ D, 10- 13 -[ i;, 10-10

2 10-10
V (jl]
 1-60 1.4 Scale Analysis for Tropics

both scale analysis and energy analysis is then the shows that the terms which contain first power of
so-called Linear Balance Model. V, or its gradient have risen by one order of
magnitude in Table 1.4(5). Similarly, terms
aS
at2 + V,· Vs, + v,13 + v,13 + ID 3 = 0 1.4(54) containing second power of V 3 or its gradient
have risen by two orders of magnitude. Other
"213 - IS2 + v 2 <1>, = 0 1.4(55) terms have remained un-altered in magnitude
since V 2and s2are the same for Tables 1.4.(4) and
Diabatic Case, -fr.-
p
1O-9s-1 1.4(5).
In spite of this increase in the magnitude
;/ (In 8) + V . V (In 8) _ 1O-9 s- 1 of the terms containing V 3, D 3 and OJ" the largest
terms in vorticity and divergence equations are
W :z (In 8) - 10- W
5 the same as in adiabatic case and diabatic case
with QICpT - 1O-9s- 1
~-- -1O-9s- 1 Hence in all the three cases considered, viz
CpT QICpT-O, 10-9 S-I and 10-8 s-I ,the vorticity
.. W - 10-4 ms -I 1.4(56) equation assumes diagnostic form in which an
The case is identically the same as for individual parcel conserves its absolute vorticity
adiabatic case discussed above. in a quasi-stationary, quasi-barotropic and
Diabatic Case, cQi _10- 8s-1 quasi-nondivergent flow pattern. The truncated
p divergence equation becomes the Linear Balance
i) For the balance of terms in the thermodynamic Equation.
equation we need
Diabatic case, -fr -p
10-'s-1
w'!_JL i) As stated earlier, this condition probably
D CpT
exists in the region surrounding lTCZ. It is easy
.. W _ D --'L _ 1O-3ms-1 1.4(57)
to deduce from the thermodynamic equation that
cr CpT in this case
it) V.V- W _1O-7s- 1 1.4(58) w _ D --'L _ 1O-2 ms- 1 1.4(63)
D cr CpT
"3
~~-
L,
v,
Ly
10-7 S- 1
1.4(59) V.V- W _1O-6s-1
and 1.4(64)
D
-1 -1-1
u3 - lms ; vl - 10 ms 1.4(60) it) This magnitude of divergence could
... )
III 112 - U -
10 fiS -t ; v2 - V-
I ms-1 1.4(61) result from the combinations
-t
'" - 10 ms 1.4(65)
-1
v3 - 1 ms 1.4(66)

t .4(67)

We prefer combination 1.4(67). This

1.4(62)
v)Sphericity of the earth will be unimportant for
both vorticity and divergence.
vi)The magnitudes of various terms in vorticity
and divergence equations are shown in Table
1.4(5).
Comparison of Tables 1.4(4) and 1.4(5)
preference is based on qualitative experience of
the lTCZ region. It is known that it is essentially
the confluence of north-easterly and
south-easterly trades which cause the horizontal
velocity convergence in this region. Zonal
component is not strongly convergent. This
experience and reasoning are reflected in Eq.
 1.4 Scale Analysis for Tropics 1-61

TABLE 1.4(5) : Magnitudes of individual terms in vorticity and divergence equations. Planetary Scale quasi-stationary
waves; Q/epT _10- 85- 1 (Asnani, 1993).

~
Vorticity Equation Divergence Equation

Term
I Magnitude (s
-2
) Magnitude (5
-2
i
i TenTI )

i a"
01
10- 12
-
1
aD, 10- 14
al
V 2·'\7 1;1 10- 11
------~

10- 11
"~
UJ~ 10- 11

V3 - \7D3 10- 14
~

,2 10- 14
D
I
i 2 l(v.l' 113) 10- 14

aD, 10- 14
w} iJp'

v(OJ' a;
aV 3 10-- 14 I

V2 - \7 D3 10- 13
I

10- 13

1-
2J(vz,uJ)
( a~,)
J W3,ap
10- 13 --

2J(V3,UZ) 10- 13
- -

Vw,' i)V 2 10- 13

ap
v,-vi;, 10- 12

~D3 10- 12

2J(V2 'U 2) 10- 12

ai;, I 10-- 12
0)3 dp

'V'u:ry. V aW2 10- 12

ap
v,~ 10-12 u,~
10-10

f D, 10- 12 -f i;, 10-10

10-10
\72~,
 1-62 1.4 Scale Analysis for Tropics

TABLE 1.4(6) : Mag~itudes

of individual terms in vortIcity and divergence equations. Planetary Scale
quasi-stationary waves; Q I CpT - 10-7s- 1 (Asnani, 1993).

Vorticity Equation Divergence Equation

-2 -2
Term Magnitude ( s ) Term Magnitude (s )

a" 10- 12
at
aD, 10- 13
at
Vr'V ~2 10- 11

v,~ 10- 11

u,~ 10- 11

V3' V' D 3 10- 12

10- 12
D~
2J(V3,u3) 10- 13

aD,
w3 ap 10- 12

VW" aV 3 10- 12
ap
V2' 'i1 D3 10- 12

10- 13
+3, aa;') 10- 12
2 J ("1 , U3)

2J(V3,U2) 10- 13

10- 12
. aV
2
'VUh'
ap
v,m;, 10- 11

/;,D, 10- 11
10- 12
(OJ
a"op 10- 11 2J(V 2 ,U2)

VW3' v 0'V2 10- 11

ap
v,~ 10- 11 u,~
10-10

f D3 10- 11
-[ " 10-10

2 10-10
V lj)j

1.4(67). v) Sphericity of the earth is unimportant

iii) u2 - u - 10 ms- I 1.4(68) for both vorticity and divergence,
-1 vi) Magnitudes of various terms in
V2 - V - I ms 1.4(69) vorticity and divergence equations are shown in
. ) r":12 - 10-5s-I Table 1.4(6),
IV 1.4(70)
 1.4 Scale Analysis fo r Tropics 1-63

A feature which is not seen in other Tables magnitude of ~2 _10- 10 s-2 For planetllf)'- scale
presented here but is seen in this Table 1.4(6) is waves, this has the magnitude of 1O- 12s-2while
that in the divergence equation, (3,3) terms do not
~2 -1O- lOs-2 There is an amount of uncertainty
all have the same magnitude; 2 J Iv] u3 ) has
at this point which can be removed only by
magnitude 1O- 13 s-2, while all other terms in this
12 further analysis of tropical data. The uncertainty
group are having the magnitude 1O- s-2 Similar
arises from the following reasoning. We know
anomaly appears in the group constituting type
that this Jacobian can be written as
(2,3) terms also.
The largest terms in the divergence 2
2 J(V2, uz) = 1(A + 8 ~2) 1.4(74)2_
equation still yield the Linear Balance Equation.
However, in vorticity equation, now, there are
where A and B are the deformation components
several terms of the order 1O- ll s-2which make a
given by
group of the largest magnitude terms and hence
are all to be retained in the' first approximation av z au z
A~-+- 1.4(75)
itself. - ax ay
Discussion:
2 2
i) The scale analysis has shown that the (A + 8 ) and 1;;2are invariant with respect to
vorticity and divergence equations take the translation and rotation of axes, confirming that
following forms for various degrees of diabatic the Jacobian is a physically meaningful property
heating. of the flow as much as vorticity. Would we be
Synoptic-Scale Waves justified in writing
7
CQT :$ 10- s-I·I.e. Q
C : $25'C/d
. ay 2J(v2 ,uZ) - ~~2_ ~2 ? 1.4(76)
p p

a ~z The argument against relationship 1.4(76)

at + v, . V ~z + vz l3 = 0 1.4(71) could be that the Jacobian is a difference between
two positive quantities ( A2 + 8 2) and ~2 and
2
2 J (vz,uz) + uzl3 - f~2 + V <1>1 =0 hence may be smaller in magnitude than either of
these quantities. But then the question arises why
Planetary-Scale Waves
this should happen for planetary-scale waves and
8 not for synoptic-scale waves? In tropical
CQT :$ 10- s-I·I.e. Q
C : $0.25'C/daY meteorology, we are more familiar with
p p
magnitudes of vorticity and divergence and less
V, . V ~z + V z 13 = 0 1.4(72) familiar with the magnitude of deformation. We
2 need to have more observational analysis of
uzl3-f~z+V <1>1 =0
tropical data to settle this question. Until then, we
ii) In the evaluation of various terms would say that vorticity can exist without
occurring in the vorticity and divergence
deformation; we know the magnitude of ~2; we
equations, we have evaluated the magnitude of
are taking sums and differences to be of the same
2 J (vz,uz ) as follows:
order of magnitude; for synoptic-scale systems,
_i aV2 aU2 _ iJv z auz ) there is no reason to take 2 J(v2 ' u2) < ~2; we see
( ) ~ ax
2 ], Vz ' u2 - ay ay ax
no reason why 2 J (V2 ' u2) for planetary-scale
__ ,( 2 U2 _ Vz Uz 'I motions should not be of the same order of
- (Lx Ly Ly Lx) magnitude a3 ~2 Although in Tables 1.4(4) and
1.4(5), we have assigned the magnitude 1O- 12to
U2 v2 the term 2 J (v2 ' u2)' we are inclined to believe
--- 1.4(73)
LxLy that it is likely to be of the magnitude 10- 10 .
For synoptic-scale waves, this has the iii) Relationships 1.4(71) and 1.4(72)
cover both classes of tropical motions considered
 1-64 1.4 Scale Analysis for Tropics
here under various possible types of diabatic
heating. It is seen that there is a remarkable
balance between the horizontal wind field and the
pressure field, almost as good as in the
extra-tropics. This emphasises that in day-to-day
analysis of the tropical charts, pressure analysis
is as important as wind analysis. Of late, there has
been a tendency to say that due to breakdown of
geostrophic balance in the tropics, pressure
analysis is meaningless in the tropics. This
attitude is not justified.
iv) The tropical region under investigation
is represented by f ; 1O-5 s- 1 The values
f; 5 x 10-\-1 and f; 1/5 x 1O-5s- 1 cover the
region from latitude 20 0 to latitude
l°,f ; 10-6 s-1 occurs at 0.4 0 htitude. Condition
of inertial stability demands that the magnitude
of anticyclonic vorticity does not exceed I f I.
In a wave length, we have as much cyclonic
vorticity as anticyclonic vorticity. Hence any
valid scale analysis should ensure that
I ~ I ,;; If I. In our systems, both ~ and f arc of
the same order of magnitude 1O-5s- l . Hence our
scale analysis does not lead to violation of the
condition of inertial stability. However, this
analysis is not valid within about one degree of
latitude on either side of the equator.
v) Although, we have taken zonal wind
Ii - IOms -1 for both the seasonal and migratory
systems, it is well known that the zonal wind
associated with seasonal systems is larger than
that associated with the migratory systems. A
more reasonable estimate would be :
Seasonal systems u - 15 ms- 1 J .4(77)
Migratory systems u - 5 ms- I 1.4(78)
From the point of view of orders of
magnitude, this is not very important. However,
in practical chart analysis and forecasting in the
tropics, this is of paramount importance. A
tropical chart shows a mixture of dominating
seasonal quasi-stationary patterns and of
relati vely weak synoptic-scale migratory
patterns. If we apply prognostic vorticity
eqnation 1.4(71) to the total system in the tropics,
the stationary patterns which should not move in
a good forecasting system will also start moving
westwards due to 13- effect. This problem would
be similar to the one encountered in middle
latitudes during the fifties (Wolff, 1958; Burger,
1958).
vi) Experience of tropical meteorologists
has shown that "persistence + climatology" is a
fairly good tool in short-range forecasting
covering a period of about 24 hours. For extended
forecasting over 5 days or so, they look at the
tendency of seasonal systems which take a couple
of weeks to complete an oscillation. The
relationship between these seasonal and
migratory synoptic-scale systems in terms of
horizontal extent and period is somewhat similar
to the relationship which exists between
synoptic-scale systems and meso-scale (L -100
km) systems. Tropical meteorologists intuitively
use this with advantage. With better net-work of
observations and communications in the tropical
region, first an analysis system and then a
forecasting system can be evolved by which
seasonal waves are separated from the migratory
waves and the behaviour of each class of waves
studied as a group interacting one with the other.
Just as meso-scale systems are being
parameterized for developing forecasting
techniques for synoptic-scale systems, so also we
need to parameterize synoptic-scale systems to
develop forecasting techniques for
planetary-scale systems. Due to relatively weak
amplitudes of the migratory systems in the
tropics, this approach appears more promising in
the tropics than in the extra-tropics.
Quasi-balance model of Stevens et al. (1990)
Steven et a!. (1990, lAS, 1st October,
pages 2262-2273) have proposed a new
quasi-balance model which is, for all practical
purposes, hydrostatic P.E. model on a sphere,
consisting of the usual zonal momentum equation
in the x-direction, hydrostatic approximation in
the vertical, continuity equation and
thermodynamic energy equation; the difference
from the usual P.E. model is that in the usual
momentum equation in y-direction the term dv/dt
is put equal to zero, so that there is a gradient
wind type balance between the zonal wind and
the meridional pressure gradient force, i.e.
u2
-tanql+fu;--
. il<t>
a ail$
Through scale analysis, the authors
 1.4 Scale Analysis for Tropics
showed that this approximation of neglecting
meridional acceleration dv/dt in comparison with
the meridional pressure gra dlent · a<l> an d
aa<\>
coriolis acceleration fu in y-direction is valid so
lon oo as the time-scale of motion is longer than the
rotational time-scale 1If. For tropical phenomena,
they took the value of f at 10°, about 1 Rossby
radius away from the equator, so that the
rotational time-scale IIfis approximately 0.5 day.
It may be stated that it is meridional acceleration
which is dropped out from the equations but not
the meridional motion itself or meridional
advection. This is somewhat analogous to what
we do in vertical equation of motion, neglecting
dw/dt but not w.
The authors re-define kinetic energy by
neglecting the kinetic energy of meridional
motion; in other words, zonal velocity
component pre-dominates over the meridional
velocity component. Similarly, zonal component
of vorticity also vanishes and 3-dimensional
vorticity vector gets confined to meridional plane
only.
Restricting the model to this type of
tropical motions, the authors showed that their
quasi-balance model conserves energy, vorticity,
potential vorticity and potential temperature in
adiabatic case.
With this balanced dynamical system, the
authors could simulate slowly-evolving tropical
meteorological systems like equatorially trapped
Matsuno (1966) motions including Kelvin
waves; vertical advection of potential vorticity is
retained and fast-moving gravity waves are
eliminated.
It may be mentioned that the neglect of the
meridional acceleration dv/dt is also called
"long-wave approximation."
Summary Of Section 1.4
i)f -10 -5 s-l covers the tropical region
outside about one degree of latitude on either side
of the equator. This gives a good coverage of the
tropical region. Using this value of f, we have
performed scale analysis for two types of
meteorologically important flow patterns. One is
the conventional synoptic-scale migratory
pattern with L - 106 m and V, C - 10 ms. -I The
other is planetary scale seasonal pattern with
1-65
Lx -107 m, Ly -106m,Cx -Ims- l , Cy-O.lms- I ,
u-lO ms- t and v-I ms-1The analysis is
performed for a series of diabatic heating rates.
ii) It is seen that for synoptic-scale
systems, the vorticity and divergence equations
take the forms 1.4(14) and 1.4(15) respectively
not only for dry adiabatic process as found by
Charney (1963) but also for precipitation process
with Q/Cp -2.5° C/ day. This strengthens and
rather extends the conclusion of MurakamI
(1972a) who took Q/Cp - 1°C/day. It is shown
that larger magnitude of diabatic heating of the
order of 25°C/day will correspond to a rainfall
of about 20 cm/day over the raining half wave-
length. This would not represent a typical
synoptic-scale pattern in the tropics.
iii) For planetary-scale seasonal patterns,
we are led to truncated vorticity equation 1.4(52)
and truncated divergence equation 1.4(53). We
have reason to suspect that the term 2 J (v, ,u,)
should also be included on the L.B.S.of the
Balance Eq. 1.4(53), but this remains to be
confirmed by more analysis of tropical data. The
vorticity equation has lost its prognostic character
and assumed a diagnostic form. This set of
equations is shown to be valid not only for
adiabatic case but also for diabatic heating rates
upto Q/Cp - 0.25°C/day. Higher heating rates
Q/Cp - 2.5°C/day might be existing in the region
surrounding the ITez. Even for such a case of the
QlCp - 2.5°C/day, the divergence equation
continues to assume the form of the Balance
Equation, although vorticity equation now
includes many more diagnostic terms, but still
. ~
excluding the prognostIC term at .
iv) Our estimates give ~ - f - 1O-5s-1 for
all the systems while V . V - 10 --6 s-t for all the
realistic rates of diabatic heating..
v) This scale analysis suggests
remarkable balance between the wind field and
the pressure field in the tropics, almost as good
as in the extra-tropics. Pressure analysis has an
important place in the tropics along with wind
analysis. Pressure analysis in the tropical regions
should not be discounted on grounds that there is
no balance between the wind and pressure fields.
vi) Relationship between planetary-scale
seasonal systems and synoptic-scale migratory
 1-66 1.5 Pressure-Wind Adjusbnent
systems in terms of horizontal extent and period
is somewhat similar to the relationship which
exists between synoptic-scale systems and
meso-scale systems. For forecasting over the
period of a few weeks in the tropics, it may be a
good approach to deal with planetary-scale
waves and introduce influence of synoptic-scale
waves only in a parameterized form.
vii) Quasi balance model of stevens at
(1990) is also useful.
1.5 Pressure-Wind Adjustment
Definition of the Problem:
What is this Adjustment Problem?
Observations show the following features of the
atmosphere:
i) There are three types of wave motion in the
atmosphere:
a) Acoustic waves.
b) Gravitational waves.
c) Rotational (Rossby-type) waves.
Governing equation of motion in three
dimensions is
dV
dt +20 x V = -aVp+g+F 1.5(1)
In acoustic waves, the balance is
essentially between d V/ dt and - a Vp. In the
atmosphere, proportion of energy in these
acoustic waves is negligible. As such, for
meteorological purposes, these waves can
generally be ignored. Quasi-static (hydrostatic)
approximation filters out these waves except
Lamb waves. Upper air (radio-sonde)
observations in the atmosphere are based on this
quasi-static approximation. One of the
implications is that the motion is essentially
horizontal. Under quasi-static approximation, we
are left with gravitational waves and rotational
waves. The chief characteristic of these
gravitational waves is cross-isobaric flow while
the chief characteristic of the rotational waves is
that the flow is mainly along the isobars with
some sort of balance between pressure gradient
and coriolis force. In general, gravity waves
move faster than the rotational waves, their
characteristic speeds being:
External gravity waves - 300 ms· 1
Internal gravity waves - 50 ms· 1
Rotational (Rossby) waves -10 ms· 1 .
There are waves which lie near the border line of
gravity waves and rotational waves. They have
mixed features of both types of waves. Such
waves are called Mixed Rossby-Gravity waves or
gravity-inertial waves.
ii) By Helmholtz's theorem, horizontal
wind V can be split up into rotational and
irrotationalcomponents,
V = V",+ Vx 1.5(2)
Bulk of the atmosphere's kinetic energy
is found to be in V",. Energy in V", is at least one
order of magnitude more than in V x . V", is
essentially associated with rotational type of
waves. Atmosphere's kinetic energy is
essentially in rotational type of waves.
iii) As we said, motion in rotational waves
is essentially parallel to the isobars. There is
some sort of balance between the motion field
denoted by V \if and the mass field denoted by
pressure p or by the distribution of geopotential
<I> of the constant pressure surfaces for synoptic
and planetary scale motions with zonal wave
number S; 15. This balanced relationship can be
written in the form of the non-linear Balance
Equation 1.5(3a), Linear Balance Equation
1.5(3b) or geostrophic equation 1.5(3c):
2 {v 2'u,) + u,l3 - Ir,2 + V 2<1>1 = 0 1.5(3a)
2
u,l3 - I r,2 + V <1>1 = 0 1.5(3b)
1.5(3c)
iv) In this balanced relationship, available
potential energy also becomes approximately
proportional to the kinetic energy of V \if' The two
forms of energy together increase or decrease in
the same sense.
v) Along with V\if' there is always VxOn
the same horizontal scale as the rotational wave.
ThisVx is small in magnitude compared to V,,lor
synoptic and planetary scale motions. This
large-scale Vx induces large-scale vertical
motion which subsequently induces sub-synoptic
scale Vx and also strong vertical motions and
considerable cloudiness and rain.
vi) There are local and transient departures
from this balanced relationship at all times and at
 1.5 Pressure-Wind Adjustment 1-67

all places with varying intensities. Still. by and inside the computer, fresh observations of wind,
large, the balanced relationship holds in the pressure, temperature, etc, arrive in the
atmosphere. Each of the unbalanced perturbation meteorological office. We would like to make use
seems to die away in course of time. of these observations also in the forecasting
How is it that the atmosphere has come model as ·far as possible. In other words, we
to attoin this stable configuration of balLlnced would like to modify the fields of meteorological
state? This is the Adjustment Problem. It is a parameters inside the computer so as to make
basic question in the theory of large-scale them mOJe consistent with these recent
motions in the atmosphere. observations.
Practical Importance of the Adjustment If we do not 'massage' these recent
Problem: observations and put them as they are, in the
This adjustment Problem has assnmed computer, there will be severe disturbances in the
great practical importance during the last few model for two reasons. Firstly, there are
decades when advances have been made in the observational errors. Secondly, the observations
field of numerical weather prediction (NWP). are generally 'point' observations at a particular
The importance is two-fold: spot and as such include not only the component
a) Initialization: of large-scale motion for which the computer
For any NWP model, we have to have model is designed, but also include the
initial conditions, specifying either pressure field component of small-scale motion for which the
or wind field or both. For quasi-geostrophic computer model is not designed.
models, it was sufficient to specify only one of For smooth and 'healthy' assimilation by
the two fields. For practical rather than the computer, the observations at different places
theoretical reasons, initial pressure field was (3-dimensional distribution) and at different
being specified. With the coming in of P.E. times (4th dimension in space-time frame-work)
models, we need to specify both the pressure and should be treated consistently with the "Law of
the wind fields initially. If the observations were Adjustment" in the real atmosphere.
perfect and also plentiful, one would like to Outline of 'l'heoretical Treatment
specify both the pressure and the wind fields Rossby (1936, 1937, 1938) was the
initially as coming directly from observations. pioneer in the field of Adjustment theory. He
But we have neither perfect observations nor are considered homogeneous ocean of uniform depth
these plentiful. and of infinite lateral extent. He assumed that
P.E. models have been found to be quite some momentum impulse is imparted to the fluid
sensitive to the type of initial imbalance between strip. He then proceeded to analyse the steady-
wind and pressure fields. Experience has shown state condition achieved through adjustment
that if we are to have meaningful results from between wind and pressure fields in course of
P.E. model integrations with respect to time, the time. He obtained an exact solution of the non-
initial wind and pressure fields should be in some linear problem and showed that in this steady
sort of balanced state. It has been found advisable state condition, there came to be a
to have this balance not only between the geostrophically balanced current whose
pressure field and the 'II-component of wind field total (potential+kinetic) energy was less than the
as specified in Equations 1.5(3), but also to have kinetic energy of the initial state. He also showed
some x-component of wind initially itself. This the importance of the parameter clfo which has
subject is in a state of rapid development. subsequently been referred to as Rossby's
Considerable effort is being made to find out the Radius of Deformation. Here, c is the velocity
type of balance which we must have in the initial of the external gravity waves andfo is the coriolis
wind field and pressure field. It should have some parameter regarded as constant. Rossby did not
correspondence which exists in the real explicitly discuss the dispersal of the rest of the
atmospheric conditions. energy through propagating gravity-inertia
b) 4-Dimensional assimilation: waves into the ever-increasing portion of the
As the model integration is progressing ocean. Rather, he suggested that the whole
 1-68 1.5 Pressnre-Wind Adjustment

current system undergoes an inertial oscillation Obukhov's Linearized Theory:

about its final equilibrium position as adjustment
takes place.
Cahn (1945) solved the lillearised
one-dimensional initial-value problem and also
gave a qualitative picture of the non-linear
process of adjustment to the geostrophic
balanced state which had been found by Rossby
(1938). He put particular emphasis on the
transient part of the flow.
Obukhov (1949) studied the problem in two
dimensions, treating it with excellent mathematical
rigour and comprehension. It can easily be
regarded as a classical piece of work. The effect
of stratification was later studied by Kibei (1955,
1957, 1963), Fjelsted (1958), Monin (1958) and
Fischer (! 963). The effect of horizontal shear in the
basic flow was examined by Blumen and
Washington (1969), of non-linear terms by Blumen
(1967), of variation of coriolis paiameter by
Dobrischman (1964) and Geiseler and Dickinson
(1972), of transient momentum forcing by Veronis
(1956) and of transient mass forcing by Paegle
(1978). It is also appropriate to mention here the
excellent review papers of Phillips (1963) and
Blumen (1972). Temperton(l973) illustrated the
principle of adjustment through a simplified
treatment of linearised theory for a barotropic fluid
with constant f. Janjic and Wiin-Nielsen (1977)
studied the adjustment process for axis-symmetric
flow of a barotropic fluid in a rotating cylindrical
container. Paegle (1978) analysed the adjustment
process in a warm core disturbance forced by
diabatic heating of convective type. Schubert et
al.( 1980) studied the effect of diabatic heating and
vorticity forcing caused by convection in an
axis-symmetric vortex. Krishnamurti and
collaborators (see Chapter 7, Section 7.2) have
done important work on what is being called
"Physical Initialization" .
The initialization work done in various
We shall closely follow Obukhov's
(1949) line of reasoning.
i) What will happen if at a certain moment
of time, arbitrarily taken as the initial time t = 0,
within a region of limited horizontal extent, a
situation occurs in which the actual winds differ
considerably from those calculated
geostrophically, in middle latitudes?
It is expected, as found from actual
experience, that there will be some mutual
adjustment between the pressure field and the
wind field so that the two get to a balanced state.
But before the two get adjusted, there will be a
vigorous interplay between the pressure field and
the wind field. We shall assume quasi-static
conditions. Theory suggests that even vigorous
perturbations causing substantial departures from
quasi-static conditions on synoptic scale get
damped out to insignificant magnitudes in the
course of a few minutes. The governing
equations are :
av av av av I !p.
- + u- + vo:- + wo- + fu = - - 1.5(4)
at ax ay az pay
o=_I!P._ g 1.5(5)
p az
ap a a a
at + ax(Pu) + iJy(pv) + a/ p w) = 0 1.5(6)
For this study, we shall assume barotropic
condition connecting p and p by a unique
functional relationship. We shall also confine
ourselves to a linearized problem, disregarding
the non-linear terms, in the first instance.
ii) We shall introduce vertically averaged
field of velocity defined by .
{pudz ~
;;(x,y,r) = "~ = (g
p X,y,D,t
) J pudz
J" pdz
tI

NWP experiments should also be regarded as part

of similar effort to study the process of 1.5(7a)
pressure-wind adjustment. In our brief review here,
we shall first present Obukhov's (1949) linear and J pvdz
non-lineartheory, followed by Temperton's (1973) v(x,y,t) ="~
J pdz = p(x,y,o,t)
g J" pvdz
simplified treatment, to highlight the essentials of
the adjustment process. We shall then indicate the "
lines of current research. 1.5(7b)
 1.5 Pressure-Wind Adjustment 1-69

Let Po'" Standard pressure at sea level ( z = 0)

au _ IV = _ JL ap 1.5(15a)
" (x , y , t) " P (x , Y , 0 , t) - Po 1.5(8) at p" ax
~ (x,y,t )
_ p (x , y , 0
=
, t)
1.5(9) aV + IU = _ JL ap 1.5(15b)
P" at p" ay

" is the departure of the sea level pressure at I

p" a"
at = -
(au
ax + av)
ay 1.5(16)
point (x,y) from standard sea level pressure p" ;
I.t is very nearly unity.
Eq. 1.5(16) is the new form of continuity
U(x,y,t) = I.tu(x,y,t) equation 1.5(6).Equations 1.5(15) and 1.5(16)
form a complete system if the potential energy P
= is a given function of surface pressure. This
=JLJpudz 1.5(lOa)
Po (J functional relationship is implied in the
barotropy. Let this functional relationship'be
v (x , y , t) = I.t v (x , y , t)

=JL(pvdz 1.5(10b)
l!.. =
Po
(2..)
Po
ex 1.5(17)
Po ()
Potential energy of a vertical column of air of unit
If a = !C, ' then equation 1.5(17) defines
area cross-section is given by an adiabatic atmosphere.For barotropic
00 p(X,y,o,t)
atmosphere defined by 1.5(17), we have
P (x , y , t ) = JP dz = J z dp
P a (J1.Po ).2<'a..::.! 1.5(18)
" 0 Po = 2a - 1 H()
=
=J gzpdz 1.5(11) and
"
iii) On linearization, equations 1.5(4) become H = p"
- = 8 km 1.5( 19)
" gpo
p'Lt<. _ p/v = _ EE 1.5(12a)
at ax Since I-' =.£.. is not much different from
av
p - + p/u = -
an
= 1.5(12b)
Po
at ay unity, we can expand the right hand side of
I .5( 18) into a power series of the
Also, non-dimensional quantity
p-
au a
= - (p u) - u =
an " p (x , y , 0 , t ) - p"
at at at u = 1-'-1 =- =
Po Po
1.5(20)

= :t (pu) + u { ;x (pu ) + aay (pv) + aaz (pw) } Retaining only the linear terms in u in this
expansion, we get
= ata (pu) 1.5(13) P a
- = -2--1 H" +Hou 1.5(21 )
Po a-
.'. Eq. 1.5(12 a, b) can be written as
Our equations 1.5(15) and 1.5(16) now become
~ - p/v = _ EE 1.5(14a) au au
at ax at - IV = - g Ho ax 1.5(22a)
ainv'
"--"'--"L + pI u =
an
=
at -
ay 1.5(14b) av
-+IU=-gH-
au 1.5(22b)
at " ay
Integrating in the vertical from top to the bottom
of the atmosphere , we get
 1-70 I.S Pressure-Wind Adjustment

au
at
=_( auax +av)
ay
1.5(23) ata( v2)
X - fV 2\jt = - g H"V 2v 1.5(3Ib)

In a more general case when equation I .5( I7) is or v\aa7 +fX) = 0 1.5(32a)
replaced by an arbitrary equation of barotropy
P=F(p) 1.5(24) v\ aa~ - fl[l + g H" V ) = 0 1.5(32b)

where p is the surface pressure, then in equations These equations are satisfied if
1.5(22), H" is replaced by some "equivalent
depth" HI given by
a\jt
-+fx=O 1.5(33)
at
HI = dP)
~ 1.5(25) ax - f\jt + g H" v = 0
(dp P"P" at 1.5(34)

Equation of continuity 1.5(23) becomes

The velocity of external gravity waves is now
given approximately by av
-+V X
2
=0 1.5(35)
at
c = "g HI 1.5(26)
Multiplying 1.5(35) by f and combining it with
which is of the order of 300 ms- 1 1.5 (32a), we get
iv) Vorticity, Divergence and Continuity
Equations in terms of 1[1 , X , U :
We introduce stream-function 1[1 and
:t(V 2
1[1 - fv ) = 0 1.5(36)

velocity potential X. v) Potential Vorticity Equation:

It can be easily shown that 1.5(36) is the
u=_al[l+ax 1.5(27) linearized form of the potential vorticity equation
ay ax
~dt (
2
v=al[l+ax V 1[1 + [ ) = 0 1.5(37)
1.5(28) f!
ax ay
Then relative vorticity f! is defined by 1.5(9). This potential
vorticity equation can also be written as
Q = av _au = V 2 1[1 1.5(29)
ax ay 1.5(38)
Horizontal velocity divergence
Since f! = I, we also have
aU av 2 1.5(30) Inf! = In( I+v) ~ v
D=ax+ay=Vx
where V2 is the Laplacian operator. .. :r( V2 1[1 )-(f+ V2 1[1 )~~ = 0 1.5(39)
We shaIl now treat the functions 1[1 and X
In the linearized theory, we are justified in
as the fundamental representations of the velocity
field. We shall now re-write the system of
equations 1.5(22) and 1.5(23) in terms of 1[1 ,X
replacing the operator ~t by ;t and also regarding
instead of U. V, in the form of linearized vorticity V~ as negligible in comparison to f We,
and divergence equations for a barotropic model. therefore, get the linearized equation 1.5(36).
We get For the linearized system, the potential

:t (V2 \jt) +fV 2X = 0 1.5(31a)

vorticity Q is given by

1.5(40)
 1.5 Pressure-Wind Adjustment 1-71

and this is invariant with time.

vi) Obukhov's Definition of Wave Motion in a iM = c26.M 1.5(46)
CorioUs Force Field: at-
According to Obukhov (1949), "motions in the space ( x,y,r, ), where
of a fluid characterized by the condition that the
potential vorticity is zero will be called wave a2 a2 a2
6.=~+~+~ 1.5(47)
motions". In this context, the wave field at any ax2 ai ar,2
instant of time is completely determined by the It also satisfies the initial conditions
values of velocity potential X and its first
M (x, y, r" 0) = F (x, y) cos-
Ir,
derivative aa~ as shown below. c

Differentiate 1.5(34) with respect to time. aM

~a (x, y, r" 0) = G (x. y) cos-
Ir,
2
t c
a x_ a'41 + H au = 0 1.5(41)
.. a? I ot goat
Using the known analytical solution of the
a '41 au classical equation 1.5 (46) in M and assuming
For 'at' sub'
stltule from 1.5 (33); f or at' r, = O. we can write the solution for X as
substitute from 1.5 (35). Therefore, X(x,y.t)=
a2X
at- +1 2X - 2
g Ho V X =0
~I_.i ff F (x +p cos ll, y + P sin ll)
2ncat pS" ...[(ct)2_p 2

. a2x 2 2x-I 2X
I.e. - , = c V 1.5(42)
cos ( ? ..J(ct)2_ p2 )PdPdll
ar + ~I~ ff G (x + P cos II . y + P sin II )
where c = -J g H o . This is of hyperbolic type and 2nc pS," ..J(ct)2_p 2
describes the propagation of disturbances with
maximum velocity c. The solution of 1.5 (42)
is known if at an instant of time (t =0), X and
cos ( ? ..J(c t)2 - p
2
) pdp dll 1.5(48)

aX
at .
are given as f '
unctIons 0 f t he coord'mates x,y:
The region of integration on the R.H.S. of
1.5 (48) is a circle with centre at the point (x,y)
and radius ct.
X (x.y. 0) = F(x .y) 1.5(43) We assume that the initial values of
velocity potential X (=F(x,y») and
aX (x, y, 0) = G (x, y)
at 1.5(44) aa~( = G (x,y)) are different from zero only in a
When the X field is known as function of limited "region of initial disturbance". The
x, y and t ,the corresponding '41 and u fields of boundary of this region is a circle of radius R
the wave motion are known with the help of which is considered small compared to the length
equations 1.5 (33) through I.5 (35). scale given by

vii) Obukhov's Analytical Solution of 1,5(42): 1.5(49)

Let us define a new function
This L j appears as a fundamental linear
M (x • y , r, , t) = X( x • y , t ) cos Ir,
- 1.5(45) scale in the theory of quasi-horizontal motions on
c
rotating earth. This L I is called Rossby's (1938)
It can be verified that since X ( x,y,t ) radius of deformation. For different plausible
satisfies 1.5(42), then M (x, y, r"t ) satisfies the values of c, the values of L I are given in Table
conventional wave equation 1.5( 1).
 1-72 1.5 Pressure-Wind Adjustment

TABLE 1.5(1): Rossby's Radius of Deformation. Ll R ,

»-
(km), at different latitudes, for different values of c, the c'
velocity of gravitational waves. (Asnani, 1993).

I
Rossby's Radius of Deformation (km)

c(ms-1)---t 50 ms- l IOOms- 1 200ms- J 300ms

-,
LallDeo).1-

45' 485 km 970km 1940km 2910 km

3D' 686km 1372 km 2744km 4116km

IS' 1325 km 2650km 5300 km 7950 km

5' 3934 km 7868 km 15736 km
viii) Situation as time t ~ OQ :
We first look at the point (x,y) which is
situated outside the circle of initial disturbance.
Let r 1 and r 2 be the minimum and maximum
distances respectively of the point (x,y) from the
region of the initial disturbance: i.e.
2
r\ =r-R, r2=r+R, r="'./x +y2
After a small interval of time t < r1 / c, the region
of integration for the right hand side of 1.5(48) is
entirely outside the region of initial disturbance
and as such X = O. At this time, the wave has not
yet reached the point (x,y). The velocity c
appears as the velocity of propagation of the
wave front. After some more time when
'\ '2
- <t<- , the circle of radius ct with its centre
c c
at (x,y) intersects the region of initial disturbance.
Finally for sufficiently large values of t
region of initial disturbance is situated entirely
within the circle of radius ct having its centre at
(x,y). At this stage, for all practical purposes, the
region of integration for R.H.S. of 1.5(48)
coincides with the region of initial disturbance in
the sense that F=O=G at the remaining points. In
the language of the wave theory, the point (x,y) is
in the area of the "wave train", For a sufficiently
large value of time t, every point in the plane x,y
is in the region of the wave train.
On the basis of (1.5 (48», we can obtain a
very simple asymptotic representation of the
velocity potential X for the wave-train region
which is valid for sufficiently large values of
Here F is the average value of the initial velocity
23604 km potential within thc circle of initial disturbance of
radius R ; G is the corresponding value of ~ at
t =O.
We next look at the points which are
situated inside the circle of initial disturbance. A
more detailed analysis reveals that the asymptotic
formula (1.5(50)) is also applicable for such
points inside the circle of initial disturbance after
large interval of time t»!i . Under those
. c
circumstances, we can find X(o , 0, t) by putting
r = a in (1.5(50». Hence
R )R
~
X(o,o,t)~- R. t+-cosft -
2 -slnf
L} ct ct
G( R )R
+- -cosft -
2 etc
1.5 (51)
c R
where L, = f' t »-;::-.
/2,
c
the In the region of the wave train as t -> =, the
amplitude of the wave tends towards zero. This
decrease of wave amplitude at a fixed point in
space is associated with the dispersion of the
energy of the initial disturbance within the circle
of which the radius grows proportionately with t.
The maximum density of the energy is near the
wave front. Conclusion of this type also
demands that the region for propagation of wave
front is sufficiently large so that there is no
reflection of the wave from the boundaries.
It may also be remarked that in the
propagation of waves in a rotating field, the
change of amplitude with time in the train region
displays the characteristics of a damped
oscillation with characteristic frequency f In a
 1.5 Pressure-Wind Adjustment 1-73

non-rotating field, the decrease of amplitude

proceeds monotonically with progress of time.
ix) Stationary field and the wave field:
or [';'2 - ;~ J\if = Q (x, y) 1.5(59)

In the linearized theory presented where L 1 is defined by 1.5(49). Equation 1.5 (59)
above, we looked for solutions of two types for is elliptic type in variable \if with potential
the dynamical equations (1.5(33)) through vorticity of the initial field as the forcing
( 1.5(35)): function. Solution can be found by standard
a) Stationary solutions satisfying techniques. One of the techniques is first to solve
geostrophic relationship and having the whole of the homogeneous equation
the initial potential vorticity; for these motions,
X=O.
b) Wave motions characterised by zero
(,;,2_ ;~)\if=0 1.5(60)
potential vorticity; these motions contained both and then to express the general solution of 1.5
IJI and X components of wind. (59) in terms of the solution of 1.5 (60) and the
We shall noW show that any system of
solutions for equations 1.5(33) to 1.5(35) can forcing function Q (x,y). We look for symmetric
be presented in the form of two solution of 1.5(60) which depends only on the
components-the stationary fields and the wave radial distance r from the origin, has a
fields. For this purpose, let logarithmic singularity at the origin and is regular
1JI=\if+IJI' at infinity. For this purpose, 1.5(60) may be
written as
u:::;u+u' 1.5(52)
x=5:+x'
_ gHou
where IJI = ~- 1.5(53)
I or 1.5(61)
5:=0
r
,;,21J1' - Iu' = 0 1.5(54) where p -= -L 1.5(62)
1
Solution for the stationary field: The solution of 1.5(61) satisfying the condition
Let lJIo(x. y) , uJx, y) and Xo (x, y) of regularity at infinity is the cylindrical Bessel
represent the hydrodynamic field at a certain function Jo(p) of imaginary argument. The
moment of time t = O. From these initial data, asymptotic expansions for Jo(p) for very small
we can calculate the potential vorticity of the and very large values of pare
flow field: I
Jo(p) = - C1 + In 2 + In - for p« I 1.5(63)
P
1.5(55) with C1 = 0.5772 ...
This gives the potential vorticity which the Jo(p) = ...J1t I2p e-p for p»I 1.5(64)
stationary component will have
Fig 1.5(1) shows Jo(p). The dashed lines illustrate
1.5(56)
the asymptotic representations corresponding to
The stationary component also satisfies the 1.5 (63) and 1.5 (64).
gt'ostrophic condition The solution of 1.5 (60) is
U = ft
gH
1.5(57) 1.5(65)
o

It has a singularity of the source type and

 1-74 1.5 Pressure-Wind Adjustment

,
,,10 (P)
1.5(34) --? d ;' - f(iii + 'I-' ') + gH" (u + v')
a ~0
1.5 (57) --? - fiii + g H"U = 0

• 1.5(67)

1.5(68)
,
, , I
'I 1.5(54) --? V~' - fD'=O
It can be shown that '1-" and D' also satisfy the
differential equation which is completely
analogous to 1.5(42).
We have already solved 1.5(42) in (vii)
oL_---'_::::::::=~_~ __ and (viii) above and got the result that in a
o , 4
ax
sufficiently large area, X and -ar- --? 0 as
FIG. 1.5(1): Jo(p) versus p. The dashed lines illustrate the aX'
asymptotic representations corresponding to Eq. 1.5(63) t --? =. Hence X' , at --? 0 as t ...... =.
and Eg. 1.5(64). (From Obukhov, 1949; Asnani, 1993).
Since '1-" and D' are connected to x'
through 1.5 (67) and are mutually interconnected
decreases rapidly with increase of .!- ,We can through 1.5(54), it follows that both '1-" and D'
Lj
tend to zero as t 4 00.
call L j as the "radius of influence" of the x) Adjustment process between pressure and
potential vorticity. With the help of 1.5 (65), we wind fields :
can now write the solution of inhomogeneous We assume that at t = 0, the wind and
equation 1.5(59) as pressure fields are in mutually balanced state
W(x,y) ~ 2~ If Q (~'l1)J{ '1/ (X-i;):~(Y-ll)2 }~dll
-
through geostrophic relationship except in a
limited circular region with centre at the origin of
co-ordinates (x = a = y) and radius R. Thus,
outside this circle of initial disturbance, we have
1.5(66)
Since J0 (p) rapidly approaches zero as gHo
p ---7 00, we are assured of the convergence of '1-'0 = TDo
integral on the right hand side of 1.5(66) for very
'le mSI
. 'd e th'IS CITe
. Ie, 'V 0 o
general distribution of potential vorticity Q (x,y). W h1 *- gH
jD o .
We have thus found the solution iii, For the sake of simplicity, we further assume that
Using geostrophic condition 1.5 (57), we XO<x, y, 0 ) =0, i.e. initially, even in unbalanced
determine the stationary solution U. As stated region of disturbance, there is no x-component of
earlier, the stationary field has no x-component wind; the wind field is fully in the form of
x:
of wind; = O. Thus we know iii , U for the x: ' 'I-'-wind. Our problem is to determine X(x, y, t) ,
stationary field if we know the initial field '1-', X, '1-'( x, y, t) and D( x, y, t ) as t ...... =. From the
D. preceding discussion, we anticipate that the
Solution for the Wave Field: anomaly in the distribution of pressure and wind
We now proceed to determine the solution in the limited region will cause the formation of
of the wave field '1-" , X' , D'. The wave field has waves in the disturbed region; these will move
zero potential vorticity. Also, it contains the out at a velocity of external gravity waves. In
entire x-component of the wind, X' = X· We have course of time, the energy of this wave
 1.5 Pressure-Wind Adjusbnent
component of the wind field will be dispersed and
the field will approach the steady state condition
of X(x , y) = 0 with Iii (x , y) and U (x, y) getting
connected by geostrophic relationship. Arrival at
the final state is through a sequence of events in this
direction.
To determine the finally adjusted field
from initial conditions, it is really not necessary
to solve the Cauchy problem for the system of
equations 1.5(33) through 1.5(35). The basic
characteristic of the adjusted Iii - field can
straightaway be determined from the initial data
through 1.5(66). However, 1.5(66) involves
potential vorticity which is determined from
initial data through 1.5(56). Since the velocity of
external gravity waves is very high compared to
the velocity of the air particles, the process of
adjustment can be regarded as a "fast" process
characterised by the time scale
2R
(,=- 1.5(69)
c (hPa) ! The evolution of pressure at the centre as
If we take R = 500 km and c = 300 ms -I,
the "adjustment time" 2R is slightly less than one
c to four hours.
hour.
xi) An lIlustrative Example:
We shall nOW present an example
illustrating the theory presented above. At the
initial time t = 0, let the pressure be constant
throughout the field, i.e. U o = O. Let the velocity
field be represented by
-
x,,(x , y ,0 ) " 0
'Vo( x, y, 0 ) = A { 2 +[ ~r (~n e- r'12 R'
1.5(70)
where r 2 = x 2 + i ; let R = 500 km; let velocity
scale be 2: = IOms- J ; L I = 2200 km; latitude
-60 o N.
The corresponding "adjusted" wind field
is given by
W(X,Y)=A{ 2{~r}e-r2I2R2 1.5(71)
The corresponding " adjusted" pressure
field is given by
1-75
n(x, y) =/PoW (x, y) =B { 2 {~J 2 }e-r'! 2R'
1.5(72)
With the selected values of A and R, the
co-efficient B is about 23 mb (hPa).
Fig. 1.5(2) shows the initial and final
distributions of wind and pressure. Broken curve
shows the initial distribution of velocity.
Continuous curve close to it shows the finally
adjusted velocity field. It will be seen that the
velocity adjustment has been minor. Initial
pressure distribution Po is shown as a horizontal
line Po = 0; i.e. the pressure field was just flat
with no pressure gradient at all in the field. The
final pressure field is shown by the p curve
which is in geostrophic balance with the final
velocity field V. We see the tremendous
adjustment which has taken place in the pressure
field. The central pressure has changed by 23 mb
a function of time is shown in Fig. 1.5(3). It will
be seen that after one major oscillation, the
pressure reached a near steady state within three
In this illustration, the wind field changed
almost insignificantly while the pressure field
changed drastically. In other words, the pressure
field "adjusted" itself to the wind field. This is
characteristic of the situations where the
horizontal scale of the disturbance (- 500 km) is
small compared to L I (-2200 km), Rossby's
rlNITIAL WIND FIELD
.. FINAL WIND FIELD
5'0
N ITIAL PRESSURE '11
\---'l:c--1'---FINAL PRESSURE'
-I'~~~:ll.:':O~:~~~@;;:::.L
500 1000 1500 2000
r (km)
FIG. 1.5(2) : The "initial" and "adjusted" fields of wind
and pressure for the illustrative example (After Obukhov,
1949; Asnani, 1993).
 1-76 1.5 Pressure-Wind Adjustment

Radius of Deformation.
xii) Limitations of the theory: ~+~+~+~2"Lo 1.5(75)
dt dX dy dZ
We have presented the linearized theory
given by Obukhov (1949). As he clearly pointed We indicate vertical averaging with respect to
out, there are limitations of this theory. pressure as
Variation of coriolis parameter with latitude has
f adp
been ignored. The atmosphere treated is
barotropic. More than anything else the theory is
linear. The linear theory is not adequate to
_
a~
1'"
p=o
p
f "dp
g
p(x,y,o,t)
r0
a pdz 1.5(76)
illustrate the time rate of evolution of the p=o
potential vorticity field and the connected
velocity and pressure fields. The linear theory has When we do this vertical averaging for 1.5(73)
enabled us to establish the existence of two and 1.5(75), we get
distinctly different dynamical processes in the
atmosphere: ~+d(f!;
a) "Slow" process of "quasi-stationary" dt dX
motions treated as "stationary" motions in the
approximate linear theory; and ~ + d(f!UV) + d(f!;) +f f!u~-
- .s...dP
-
b) "Fast process of generation and movement
ll

dt dX dy p" dy
of gravity waves which take away energy from
1.5(77)
the region of imbalance.
Theoretical considerations suggest that the d flU d flv _ 0 1.5(78)
evolution of "slow" process even for a barotropic dX + dY -
atmosphere can be beller understood only when
we retain also the non-linear terms in the p(x,y,o,tl
h
were Jl= 1.5(79)
hydrodynamical equations along with the linear Po
terms. We shall now proceed to present
Let u'=u-u, v'=v-v 1.5(80)
Obukhov's (1949) non-linear theory for this
purpose. The advantage of the linear theory is
that it helps us to appreciate the essence of the
process without getting lost in the relatively more
complicated handling of the non-linear 1!.W
"If
equations. In the same paper, Obukhov (1949) 1·6
presented first the linear theory and then the 1·4
non-linear theory to achieve the purpose of
explaining the essence of the "adjustment" 1'.2
process.
1·0
Obukhov's non-linear theory:
The governing equations 1.5(4) through 0'8
1.5(6) can be written as
0·6
~ ~ ~ a(puw) f - ~
at + ax + ay + az p v - - ax 0·4

a(pv) a(puv) _a(pv ) a(pvw) fi __ ~

2 0·2
at + ax -t iJy + az +pu- iJy
1.5(73)
o 2 3 4

pg~-~
TIME (HOURS l
1.5(74)
az FIG. 1.5(3) : Evolution of pressure at the centre as a
function of time for the illustrative example (After
ObukhoY. 1949: Asnani, 1993).
 1.5 Pressure-Wind Adjustment 1-77

In this analysis, we shall assume the fluid

to be nearly barotropic and at all times in quasi iJ1t, J
iJ1t, iJ1t'] J.1iiu, iiV,]
at+R'1u,~+v'ihl + s2l~+ iiT] =0
- stJtic condition. Hence u' . v' are small
quantities and we can ignore the terms containing 1.5(85)
products of these quantities. With this Wo
approximation, the vertically averaged equations where Ro = f L is the Rossby parameter
1.5(77) and 1.5(78) become equivalent to those o

for the barotropic atmosphere. 1.5(86)

iiu iiu
-+u-+v--!v=-e -
iiu 2 iiu and 1.5(87)
iiI iix iiy iix
iiv iiv iiv 2 iiu since L, = elf by 1.5(49).
-+u~+v-+!u=-e - 1.5(81)
iiI ax iiy iiy Our choice of the length scale La and the velocity
scale Wo will be such as to render the
~\l + u au + v iiu +( iiu + iiV) = 0 1.5(82)
non-dimensional velocity and its partial
iiI iix iiy iix iJy
derivatives with respect to I; and 11 to be of the
P (x , Y ,0 , I ) .P...:.(x-,'YO-...:.'0 _,I...:.)_-...:.P:...::o order of unity. In practice, the scale length L o
w hereU= I n :::&-

Po Po depends on the network of stations on the

synoptic chart. Systems which are smaller than
e=VgH,
La are not identified on the synoptic charts and
H ~ -.L (iiPI are therefore excluded from the analysis. The
I - Po au)u = 0 corresponding velocity scale Wo can be taken as
an average of absolute vectorial difference of
The symbol bar "-" has been omitted to simplify wind velocities at two points at a distance L o
the notation.
apart.
We introduce the length scale L o , the time
scale! -I and velocity scale W o = Lof. 1.5(88)
The corresponding non-dimensional
co-ordinates are Observations in middle latitudes have shown that
for meteorological phenomena whose scale is not
less than 300 km, we have
Ro = 0.1 1.5(89)
For phenomena of larger scale, the value of R o is
still smaller. Such processes are also slower in
(=!I
time. It is appropriate to choose Ro as a
u(x ,y , I) = W 0 u, (1;,11 ,f) fundamental small parameter for studying such
v(x , y , 1 ) = W0 vI (I;, 11 ,f) slow and large-scale atmospheric phenomena.
2 According to Obukhov, the second
e
1t 1(1; ,11 ,f) = ! W.Lo u (x ,y ,I) non·dimensional parameter S defined by 1.5(87)
signifies the influence of the compressibility of
the fluid sheet in motion on the rotating earth. In
this analysis, we shall regard S to be a very small
quantity. It is easy to verify that
Wo
-=RoS
e
1.5(84)
1.5(90)
 1-78 1.5 Pressure-Wind Adjustment

iii) We express u,v in terms of stream

u = Ro S2"1 function 'If and velocity potential X.
Ifin the equations 1.5(84) and 1.5(85), we a~f aX .[ \V+l'k X
ignore the terms containing R a, then we get the U=--+-=-t
ay ax 1.5(97)
same system of linear equations which we
studied in the preceding paragraphs of this v=~+i1z=iklJl+ilX
ax ay
section. We then apply the earlier results of this
section. In particular, it is possible to separate Substituting in 1.5(94) to 1.5(96), we get
ou t a special class of "slow II process
corresponding to the finally adjusted pressure alJl
and wind fields. In his paper, Obukhov (1949)
-
at = -fX 1.5(98)

gives the outline for deriving pressure and wind

aX = fIJI _ <I> 1.5(99)
fields with the system of non-linear equations. at
Simplified Concept of Linearised Theory of
Adjustment: aat<I> = <I> (k2 + zZ) X 1.5(100)
We shall now present Temperton's (1973)
illustration of the linearised theory of adjustment. iv) To illustrate the process of adjustment
He extended Washington's (1964) illustration in which some energy goes out of the region of
from one to two dimensions. disturbance or imbalance, we introduce artificial
i) We take linearised form of damping term in Eq. 1.5(99) and then seek
shallow-water equations stationary balanced state having the potential
vorticity of the original system. For this purpose,
au = fv-~ 1.5 (91)
at ax we replace 1.5(99) by

iJx. = flJl- U (k 2 + [2) X 1.5(99a)

-fu-~
<I> -
av
at = ay 1.5 (92) at
where u is diffusion coefficient. We seek
a<l> = _ <I> (au + av) 1.5 (93) stationary solution of the system 1.5(98),
at ax ay 1.5(99a), 1.5(100). For such a solution
<I> is the geopotential of the free surface; <I>
a'lf., aX, a<l>,
is its mean value. Other symbols have the usual O=a;-= at= at
meanings. f is regarded as constant.
ii) Let the fields be represented by sums of where the subscript s signifies stationary value.
Fourier components, e.g. Also

U ( x,y,t ) = ~
L.J uk.l (t ) e Hx+ilv. , 0
X= 1.5(101)
k. J
1.5(102)
Due to linearity of the system 1.5(91-93), we can
consider a particular pair of wave numbers (k,l ). i.e. the pressure field and the rotational
For convenience of notation, we drop the component of wind are in geostrophic balance
subscripts from the Fourier co-efficients. and there is no irrotational component of wind in
this wind field.
.. ~;=fV-ik<l> 1.5(94) v) From equations 1.5(98) and 1.5(100),
we can get an invariant quantity n similar to
avat = -fu - il <I> 1.5(95) potential vorticity where
2 2
n= - <I> (k + [ ) 'If - f 1.5(103)
~=-<I>(iku+ilv)
<I>
1.5(96)
at an = 0
and 1.5(104)
where u,v and ep are now Fourier co-efficients. at
 1.5 Pressure-Wind Adjustment
vi) Let us consider initial fields of \jI , X and <I>
which are not in geostrophic balance and are
governed by the system of equations 1.5(98),
1.5(99a) and 1.5(100). Let the initial state be
denoted through sub-script i and the stationary
field through subscript s. So far as £I is
concerned, the whole of £I, will be contained in
£I,.
.• <I> (k 2 + p) IJI., + f<I>, = <I> (~+ p) IJI, + f<I>,
orl<l> (k 2 + p) + [21 \jI, = <I> (~+ p) \jI, + f<I>,
vii) We also construct an hypothetical
stream function \jI/ which would be in
geostrophic balance with the initial pressure field
i.e.
substituting 1.5(107) in 1.5(106), we get
2 The opposite happens if the characteristic
IJI + f \jI'
, <I>(k 2 + [ 2) ,
\JI.\. = 2
1+ f Rossby's radius of deformation.
<I>(k 2+ [2)
Let us consider two extreme cases in 1.5(108):
(a) [ 2 » <I> (k 2 + [2 )
Then \V s == \If /
i.e. the final \jI, is that which would be in
geostrophic balance with the initial pressure
field.
i.e. the wind field adjusts itself to be in
geostrophic balance with the initial pressure
field.
Then IJI, = \jI,
i.e. the pressure field adjusts itself to be in
geostrophic balance with the initial wind field.
For synoptic-scale disturbances,
characteristic horizontal length scale is of the
order of 1000 lan. If gravity wave speed in the
atmosphere be taken as lOOms- t, then the radius
1-79
of deformation would be about 1000 km at
latitude 45° N and about 8000 km at latitude 5°N.
Conditions are then favourable for pressure field
to adjust itself to be in near-geostrophic balance
with the given wind field near 5°N. For this
reason, accurate wind observations are more
important in the tropics than in the extra- tropics.
viii) Interpretation ofinequalities 1.5(109) and
1.5(110) :
We have already defined
1.5(105)
";<1>1[2 = L, 1.5(111)
where L, is Ross~1938) radius of
1.5(106) deformation. I /-..j~ + P represents the
characteristic length scale of the meteorological
system under consideration. The inequalities
1.5(109) and 1.5(110) illustrate the principle that
the pressure field adjusts itself to be in
geostrophic balance with the initial wind field if
1.5(107) the characteristic horizontal length scale of
unbalanced pressure-wind system is small
compared to Rossby's radius of deformation.
horizontal length scale of the unbalanced
1.5(108) pressure-wind system is large compared to
For external gravity waves
(c - 300 ms- I ) and for plausible internal gravity
wave solutions (c- 100 ms- I ), the values of
1.5(109) Rossby's radius of deformation, L" have been
given in Table 1.5(1). As is expected, the values
of L, increase very fast as we approach the
near-equatorial regions. The characteristic length
scale of the synoptic-scale disturbances is about
the same ( - 1000 km) in tropical as well as
extra-tropical refions. If gravity wave speed be
taken as 100 ms- , then the radius of deformation
would 'be about 1000 km at latitude 45°N and
about 8000 km at latitude 5°N. Inequality
1.5(110) 1.5(110) would tend to be satisfied near 5°N.
Broadly speaking, inequality 1.5( II 0) has greater
chance of being satisfied in tropical regions while
inequality 1.5(109) has such chance to be
satisfied 'in extra-tropical regions.
There would be variations in different
synoptic-scale systems in respect of the intensity
and horizontal extent of the ageostrophic
component of wind caused by diabatic heating
and orography at any instant of time. Also. in the
 1-80 1.5 Pressure-Wind Adjustment
mathematical analysis of the preceding sections,
a number of simplifying assumptions have been
made. Hence one cannot be very categorical in
one's assertions when the theory is applied to
actual atmospheric conditions. Nevertheless it is
very clear that conditions are more favourable
in the tropics than in the extra-tropics for the
pressure field to adjust itself to be in
near-geostrophic balance with a given wind
field. The reverse adjustment, wind field to
adjust itself to be in near-geostrophic balance
with a given pressure field, is more likely to
happen in extra-tropics than in the tropics.
The balance occurs with the rotational
component of wind. By and large, in
extra-tropical regions, the irrotational component
of wind is an order of magnitude smaller than the
rotational component. Hence the total wind is a
very good approximation for the 1IJ-wind. When
we approach the near-equatorial regions, the ratio
Iv,1 / Iv,,1 tends to be of the order of 0.3
rather than 0.1, particularly in the neighbourhood
of ITCZ and synoptic-scale precipitating
systems. As such, there can be appreciable
difference between the direction of the correctly
observed total wind and the direction of the 1IJ-
component of wind to which the pressure field
would adjust itself through the process
mentioned above.
While the accuracy of wind observations
is desirable both in the tropics as well as in the
extra-tropics, the need for such accuracy is
greater in the tropics than in the extra-tropics.
Here, in the tropics the changing wind field
contains within itself a relatively more permanent
component than the changing pressure field.
Later Research Work :
Janjic and Wiin-Nielsen (1977)
considered the adjustment problem in a limited
space, for the case of an homogeneous inviscid
fluid in a rotating cylindrical container, the rate
of angular rotation being 7.29 x 10-5 s-1 (i.e.
angular velocity of the earth sphere) and the
radius of the cylinder being 6366 km (radius of
earth sphere). They considered an infinitesimally
small initial disturbance of axis-symmetrical
type. They found that the ultimate motion
consisted of a time-independent component in
geostrophic balance and a time-dependent
component which was oscillatory and not
damped in time. This latter oscillation was due to
the reflection from the boundaries. The
gravity-inertia waves could not take away the
energy out of the region of the disturbance.
Paegle (1978) considered baroclinic fluid
with constant f He considered different values
of f corresponding to tropics and extra-tropics.
His initial disturbance was warm-cored, forced
by diabatic (condensation) heating Q. His
treatment was essentially linear although he also
gave non-linear treatment for limited situations.
His region was unbounded in the horizontal
extent. In the vertical, w = 0 at the top and the
bottom; hence external gravity waves were
eliminated. He considered impulsive convective
heating as well as diurnally oscillatory
convective heating with a maximum in the
middle troposphere. The main points which
emerged from his analysis are summarised
below:-
i) For adiabatic case, the solutions tend to
a non-divergent geostfophic balance from
initially unbalanced states as in a barotropic
model. For such motions, Rossby radius of
deformation (= c If) is an important parameter.
ii) For diabatic case also, the solutions
tend to a steady state but this steady state is not
non-divergent. There is steady state divergence
and cross-isobaric flow in this steady state. Even
after the divergence field has attained a steady
state, the fields of vorticity and potential
temperature continue to change, though slowly.
The solutions suggest that the divergence field
adjusts on a rather small time-scale associated
with the rapid dispersion of transient internal
gravity waves, while the rotational field adjusts
more slowly.
iii) Diabatic heating generates stronger
divergent outflow in the tropics than in the
mid-latitudes.
iv) The divergeIlt flow in disturbed
convective regions (radius - 400 km) adjusts on
a time-scale of a few hours, but the surrounding
divergence field outward to about 2000 km
adjusts on a time-scale of about one day.
v) Non-linear theory solutions are not
substantially different from linear theory
solutions in the few cases considered by Paegle.
 1.5 Pressure-Wind Adjustment
He confirmed this with linear as well as
non-linear theory, for a case analogous to heavy
precipitation at lOoN in a limited convective
region.
vi) Incidentally, noting that heavy
precipitation in ITCZ region could cause
sustained horizontal velocity divergence and
cross-isobaric flow of the order of I ms- 1 as far
away as 2000 km from the centre of heavy
precipitation, Paegle speculated that tropical
precipitation might be exerting significant
influence on midlatitude systems. This is relevant
in considering interactions between tropical and
middle latitudes. There have been suggestions
(Mak, 1969) that the energy of the easterly waves
in the tropics might be coming from the extra-
tropics through pulsations at the sub-tropical
ridge surfaces bounding the tropical region.
Paeg!e's (1978) results suggest that bursts of
precipitation in tropical regions might also be
influencing extra-tropical regions, particularly
the extra-tropical systems with periods of the
order of a few days.
Schubert et al. (1980) extended the work
of Paegle (1978) by considering the process of
adjustment in the case of a P.E. linearized
axis-symmetric tropical cyclone model. Diabatic
heating in the central region was from convective
condensation in a parameterized form. Jn
addition to the diabatic heating perturbation
provided by the convection, it was postulated that
this convection also provided vorticity
perturbation. It may be mentioned that
quantification of vorticity contribution by
convection has been a relatively recent
development resulting from diagnostic studies
(Reed and Johnson, 1974; Ruprecht and Gray,
1976; Hodur and Fein, 1977; Shapiro, 1978;
Stevens, 1979). These forcings in the form of
diabatic heating and vorticity were parameterized
and presented as smooth functions in both space
and time, rather than as sudden impulsive inputs
in the model; f was regarded as a constant. A
few different basic states were considered,
including one of rest, another of tangential flow
and also one of radial flow.
The results of Schubert et al. (1980) were
broadly complementary to those ofPaegle (1978)
although with more emphasis on analytical
solutions. As in earlier cases, the internal
1-81
gravity- inertia waves dispersed energy to great
distances, leaving behind a balanced flow.
For tropical depressions I cyclones which
usually have a horizontal scale small compared to
Rossby's deformation radius, the following
additional results emerge from the experiments
of Schubert et 31.(1980) in respect of partitioning
of the initial energy:
i) When the basic flow is initially at rest, the
cloud cluster forcing in the form of initial vorticity
perturbation is more efficient than the cloud cluster
forcing in the form of diabatic heating, so far as the
flow of initial energy giving the final balanced flow
is concerned. The energy of initial vorticity
forcings ends up mostly in enhancing geostrophic
flow. The energy of initial heating forcing ends up
mostly in internal gravity-inertia waves.
ii) When the basic flow is not at rest,
important modifications of these energy
partitions seem to occur.
iii) Since diabatic heating from cloud clusters
can generate significant gravity-inertia waves in a
tropical cyclone model, one has to be careful in
assigning boundary conditions for the model to
avoid unrealistic reflection from the boundaries.
The current trend of research is to
investigate this problem of geostrophic
adjustment in the tropics along the following
lines:
i) To investigate non-linear effects.
ii) To study baroclinic models with friction
and diabatic heating.
iii) To replace constant f assumption by
varyingfthrough l3-plane approximation.
iv) To study different length-scales and
time-scales of motion in the atmosphere ..
v) Inertia-gravity waves : Quite often in
literature (e.g., Fritts & Luo, 1992; Luo & Fritts.
1993), the gravity waves which radiate energy out
of the geostrophic adjustment region are all being
called "inertia-gravity" waves. This is causing
some confusion in terminology and also in
interpretation. To avoid this confusion, we would
recommend the following more general definition
of an inertia-gravity wave: It is an internal gravity
wave, which exists under the influence of both
gravitational buoyancy and coriolis forces.
Inertio-gravity waves have periods larger than pure
gravitational buoyancy waves (Brunt- Vaisala
oscillations) and smaller than pure inertial waves.
 1-82 1.5 Pressure-Wind Adjustment
For further work on Inertia-gravity waves, the
reader is referred to section 4.6 in Chapter 4.
These investigations are being undertaken
and utilized to solve the problem of initialization
and four-dimensional assimilation in the
primilive equation forecasting models for the
tropics.
SUMMARY of Section 1.5
Theoretical Problem of Adjustment and its
Practical Importance
Large-scale pressure-wind systems
observed in the atmosphere exhibit near-
geostrophic balance between the pressure field
and the wind field.
In the atmosphere, there are continuous
sources of perturbations causing ageostrophic
motions. These ageostrophic motions appear to
lose their ageostrophic character in a relatively
short period of time, leaving behind freshly
adjusted near-geostrophic atmospheric condition.
Theoretical problem is to understand the
mechanism of this adjustment of the pressure
field and the wind field in the atmosphere.
This problem is also of practical
importance in NWP work of P.E. models for
a) 3-dimensional initialization at time t = 0;
and
b) 4-dimensional assimilation of a-synoptic
observations, particularly coming from the
satellites.
The problem of Adjustment has not yet
been comprehensively solved. However,
published work gives clear qualitative indications
of the processes involved. Earliest theoretical
work seems to be due to Rossby (1938) followed
by Cahn (1945) and the classical work of
Obukhov (1949). This work was essentially for
middle latitudes and for barotropic fluid.
Coriolis parameter f was regarded as a
constant and large compared to relative vorticity.
Obukhov's (1949) analysis is briefly presented,
first his linearized theory and then his non-linear
theory.
This is followed by brief description of the
analyses made by Temperton (1973), Janjic and
Wiin-Nielsen (1977), Paegle (1978) and
Schubert et al.(1980).
Obukhov's (1949) Linearized Theory
Basic system of equations consists 'of two
equations of horizontal motion, hydrostatic
equation in the vertical and equation of
continuity. To approximate the atmospheric
conditions to those of a barotropic fluid, these
equations are averaged in the vertical and
equivalent depth H" of the atmosphere is
introduced.
Pressure field is represented by a function
u which is somewhat analogous to the departure
of constant pressure surface height from its
equilibrium height. The field of horizontal
motion is represented by a stream function 1\1 and
velocity potential X. Vorticity, Divergence and
Continuity equations are written in terms of
1\1 , X, u. Potential vorticity equation is easily
derived.
It is shown that in respect of time
variations, motions can be split up into two
components :
a) Stationary motions satisfying
geostrophic relationship and carrying the totality
of potential vorticity; and
b) gravity wave motions carrying zero
potential vorticity.
Gravity wave motion is given by the
equation:
a2 X = c 2V 2X- f2 x
-
a?
where c = Vg H o is the maximum velocity of the
external gravity waves.
This equation is transformed to a standard
form and its analytical solution is discussed under
the conditions that initial values of X and aX / at
are non-zero in limited region of initial
disturbance. The boundary of this disturbed
region is circle of radius R considered small
compared to the length scale L 1 = c / f = Vg Holf
This L 1 is known as Rossby's (1938) radius of
deformation. The values of L 1 are presented for
some plausible values of H" at latitudes
5°,15°,30° and 45°. It is also assumed that the
region of propagation of waves surrounding the
disturbedd region is sufficiently large, infinite for
all practical purposes, so that there is no
reflection of the waves from the boundaries.
The analytical solution reveals that the
wave energy moves ant from the region of initial
perturbation in the form of gravity waves and
after a sufficiently large value of time t »R/c.
 1.5 Pressure-Wind Adjustment
the amplitude of the waves tends to zero.
In addition to the propagating wave
component, the solution has a steady state
component which is in geostrophic balance.
Different choices of initial conditions
including initial perturbations will yield different
types of finally adjusted pressure-wind
configurations. Illustrative example presented in
the text is one in which initially, the pressure field
was flat with no pressure gradient at all;\II
motion was represented by
1 +(
III" (x ,y ,0) =A 2 :,f- (~) ~} e-"I2R'
where ,2 = x 2 + y2. Parameters were chosen so as
to give R = 500 km, 2 AIR = 10 ms· 1 , L,=2200
km at latitude 60° . The solution showed that
near-steady geostrophic conditions were reached
within 3 to 4 hours, the pressure at the centre had
changed by as much as 23 mb (hPa) and the wind
field had changed only slightly from the initial
one. In other words, the pressure field had
adjusted itself to the wind field in this particular
case when Rossby's radius of deformation was
large compared to the radius of perturbation.
The linear theory enabled us to understand
the process ofadjustment through two distinctly
different dynamical processes in the atmosphere:
a) "slow" process of "quasi-stationary"
motions treated as "stationary" geostrophic
motions;
b) "fast" process of generation and
movement of gravity waves taking away energy
from the region of imbalance.
Obukhov's (1949) non-linear theory
Essentially a similar process of adjustment
was suggested by the solution as in the case of
linear theory.
Temperton's (1973) simplified Treatment of
Linearized Theory:
It deals with barotropic fluid treating
coriolis parameter as a constant. The equations of
motion and of continuity are linearized. The
horizontal wind field is represented by stream
function \II and velocity potential X. Pressure
field is represented by geopotential <il of the free
surface. The linearized equations yield simple
relationships between \II , X , and <il and their
time variations.
To illustrate the process of adjustment in
1-83
which some gravitational wave energy goes out
of the region of imbalance, artificial damping is
introduced for velocity potential X.
Stationary solutions are sought in which
pressure field <il is in geostrophic balance with the
\II-wind field; divergent wind field X is
everywhere zero and potential vorticity of the
original field is all contained. in this stationary
geostrophically balanced \II-flow.
A relationship of the form
2
\II, =
\IIi +
I +
ct>
[
(i? + p) ,
_-L.._,--
[2
\II'
ct> (k 2 + p)
emerges, where the subscript s denotes the
stationary goestrophically balanced field, the
subscript i denotes the initial unbalanced field
and \II ' is an hypothetical stream function which
would be in geostrophic balance with the inital
pressure field <ili ; ct> is the mean geopotential of
the free surface and k ,I are the wave numbers in
x,y directions respectively.
Two extreme cases are considered:
a)f2» ct{i? + P) :In this case, \II, = \II;'.
The final \II, is that which would be in geostrophic
balance with the initial pressure field. The wind
field adjusts itself to be in geostrophic balance
with the initial pressure field.
b) f2«ct>( i?+12i : In this case,
\II, = \II;. The pressul-e field ailjusts itself to be in
geostrophic balance with the initial wind field.
These inequalities illustrate the general
principle that thepressure field adjusts itself to be
in geostrophic balance with the initial wind field
if the characteristic horizontal length scale of
unbalanced pressure-wind system is small
compared to Rossby's radius of deformation. The
opposite happens if the characteristic horizontal
length scale of the unbalanced pressure-wind
system is large compared to Rossby's radius of
deformation.
For synoptic-scale motions, conditions are
favourable for pressure field to adjust itself to be
in geostrophic balance with the initial wind field
in the tropics while the reverse holds for the
extra-tropics where wind field tends to adjust
itself to be in balance with the initial pressure
field. In both cases, the balance is achieved
 1-84 1.6 Atmospheric Tides
between the pressure field and the rotational
component of the wind.
Subsequent research work has suggested
that in the presence of realistic atmospheric
forcings like diabatic heating and orography, the
balanced wind is not entirely rotational and
non-divergent but it contains a small proportion
of irrotational and divergent component of wind
as well.
The trend of current research is to extend
the theory:
a) to include non-linear effects;
b) to include baroclinity, friction, diabatic
heating and orography;
c) to include variation of coriohs
parameter f ;
d) to study different length scales of
motion; and
e) to devise techniques useful for
initialization of synoptic data and for
4-dimensional assimilation of asynoptic data in
the forecasting models.
In the tropics, on synoptic scale, the
changing wind field contains within itself a
relatively larger permanent component than the
changing pressure field. For this reason, the need
for accurate wind observations is greater in the
tropics than in the extra-tropics.
1.6 Atmosphern: Titks
Historical Background
Torricelli invented the barometer in 1643.
Regular barometric observations were first taken
in the middle latitudes. Towards the end of
seventeenth century when barometric
observations were taken in the tropics, the
meteorologists saw something very exciting,
quite different from what they had seen in the
middle latitudes; that there is a very regular
24-hour oscillation of pressure in the tropics
which is generally more pronounced than other
oscillations of pressure except in case of
well-developed systems like tropical cyclones.
Even in case of tropical cyclones, the 24-hour
pressure wave is quite discernible.
During the eighteenth century, Newton's
theory of gravitation was successfully applied to
the oceans for explaining some features of the
oceanic tides. Laplace was able to treat
mathematically the problem of the oscillations of
an ocean of uniform depth on a rotating globe
under the action of gravitational tide-generating
forces. He also showed that the tidal oscillations
of an isothermal atmosphere undergoing
isothermal changes were analogous to the tidal
oscillations of an ocean of homogeneous
incompressible fluid having "equivalent depth".
This equivalent depth was the height of an
hypothetical atmosphere having the same
hydrostatic pressure at the bottom as the
isothermal atmosphere and a uniform density in
the vertical equal to the density of the isothermal
atmosphere at the bottom. If the real atmosphere
with surface pressure of 1000 mb(hPa) and
density of 1250 gm m- 3 could be approximated
to such an atmosphere, its equivalent depth would
be approximately 8.0 km.
Laplace himself felt that there was a
difficulty in deducing that the observed
atmospheric pressure wave was of gravitational
forcing. The difficulty was as shown below.
The observed 24-hour oscillation had the
harmonics pertaining to 24,12,8,6, .... hours. Out
of these, the 12-hour oscillation had the largest
amplitude and was very regular both in amplitude
and phase. Next in magnitude was the 24-hour
oscillation. The other sub-harmonics were
present but had very small amplitudes. The
causes of the 24-hour(diurnal) and the 12-hour
(semi-diurnal) pressure waves could be
two-fold: gravitational , and/or thermal. If the
cause was mainly gravitational, then the lunar
gravitational potential which was greater than the
solar gravitational potential in the ratio 11 :5,
should generate greater lunar tidal wave than the
solar tidal wave.Observations showed otherwise.
The pressure wave corresponding to the lunar day
was hardly perceptible while the pressure wave
corresponding to the solar day was so prominent
that no one could miss it on a barograph.
Laplace felt that the observed pressure
wave had thermal origin.
If the cause was mainly thermal, then the
24-hour wave should be more dominant than the
12-hour wave because the temperature has a
dominant 24-hour wave rather than the 12-hour
wave. But the dominant pressure wave is the
12-hour wave. Hence neither simple gravitational
forcing nor the simple thermal forcing could
 1.6 Atmospheric Tides
provide answer for the observed pressure wave.
While the cause of the phenomenon
remained mysterious, geophysicists made great
efforts to study the distribution of the pressure
wave with latitude and altitude. Those were the
days when clocks were not as common as they
are today. In old memoirs (e.g. Memoirs oflndia
Meteorological Department), one reads accounts
how observation time was synchronised at
various levels on the slopes of a mountain. One
person indicated to others with the help of mirrors
and lights that the time of barometric
observations had arrived. With great effort,
patience and skill, the observations were
collected and analysed to get three-dimensional
structure of the diurnal and semi-diurnal pressure
wave.
In 1882, Kelvin was able to quote a table
showing the Fourier components with periods of
24,12 and 8 hours for 30 different stations. He
clearly demonstrated the dominance of 12-hour
wave over other sub-harmonics. He suggested
that probably the atmosphere as a whole
oscillated like an ocean and that its period of free
oscillation was 12 hours ±3 minutes. In such a
case, the regularly recurring 12-hourly solar
gravitational tidal potential would enhance about
100-fold through resonance, the magnitude of the
natural oscillation of the atmosphere to give the
observed magnitude of the oscillation (see
Lamb, 1932, p. 560). Hence this hypothesis has
come to be called " resonance" hypothesis or
theory.
Extensive tabulations of the 24 -, 12- and
8-hourly components of the pressure wave were
published by Hann (1889). When the mean
annual 12-hourly component was examined in
greater detail, it was found that near the poles, the
maxima and minima did not occur at the same
local time as they did in tropical and middle
latitudes, but instead tended to occur at the same
Greenwich mean time, like a standing oscillation,
pressure rising at the poles and falling in the
lower latitudes at one and the same time and vice
versa. It was therefore suggested by Schmidt
(1890) that the total 12-hourly oscillation
consisted of two components-one travelling with
the sun having maximum amplitude at the
equator and nearly zero amplitude at the poles;
the other standing oscillation having maximum
1-85
amplitude at the poles and zero amplitude at the
latitudes of about 35°N and 35°S. Hough (1897,
1898) took up the task of solving Laplace's tidal
equation. Lamb (1910) worked on it further.
Lamb also showed that adiabatic atmosphere
undergoing adiabatic changes should have the
same "equivalent depth" as Laplace's isothermal
atmosphere undergoing isothermal changes. If
such an atmosphere is to have a resonant mode of
the form similar to the observed semi-diurnal
pressure wave, then the depth of the equivalent
ocean should be very close to 7.84 km.
The idea of treating the atmosphere as an
ocean of homogeneous incompressible fluid of
an "equivalent depth" was very fascinating and
the hydrodynamicians were looking for
observational and theoretical evidence of
"equivalent depths" of the real atmosphere.
The analysis of the aerial pressure wave
excited by the Krakatao eruption of 27 th August
1883 (analysed by the Krakatao Committee,
1888) showed that it moved with a speed of
319 ms- I . If it be assumed that it was a
quasi-static gravitational wave in the shallow
aerial ocean (velocity = .,jgH ), then the
equivalent depth H of the atmosphere was 10.4
km. The pressure wave caused by the impact of
the Great Siberian meteorite in 1908 also moved
with similar velocity (Whipple, 1930). Thus in the
beginning of the twentieth century, the
geophysicists were in search of two equivalent
depths, 7.84 km for semi- diurnal pressure wave
and 10.4 km for Krakatao wave while the
isothermal atmosphere undergoiug isothermal
changes and the adiabatic atmosphere
undergoing adiabatic changes gave equivalent
depth of 8.0 km for surface pressure of 1000
mb(hPa)and surface density of 1250 gm m- 3
There has been considerable speculation
and also controversy on this subject of
"equivalent depth" of the atmosphere. Jeffreys
(1926) came with the formula:
Equivalent Depth = f E. d Z (Jeffreys, 1926)
z=o Po
where P is the atmospheric pressure at level 2 and
Po is the pressure at z = O. Jeffreys's method of
deriving the analogy between the atmosphere
and the ocean had a discrepancy of dimensions
which was pointed out by Richardson during
 1-86 1.6 Atmospheric Tides

discussion of Jeffreys's paper and the remedy G

was suggested in a parallel problem by Bartels I
I
(1927) who also simultaneously suggested an 120 I
I
alternative formula: \
Y
Equivalent Depth 7L= ( ~JII dz (Bartels, I927)
~ 100
F
•
~~
\
\
E -... \ E
\
.......;,
1
.><:
Taylor (1936) suggested that for each
~ 80
~
F I',
vertical distribution of temperature, there were
two values of equivalent depth. Since the
::t:
(!)
60 ..DE
atmosphere can,theoretically speaking, have an UJ
infinite number of vertical distributions of ::t:
40
temperature, we can have a double infinity of
equivalent depths. He defended this infinity of 20
solutions against those given by Jeffreys (1926)
and Bartels (1927) by suggesting that these o L-.....L..Iil-....L..;::::o..JA'-=::--'
authors had replaced individual change term 150 250 350
a
d I dt by the local change term I ik To this
TEMPERATURE ( K)
charge by Taylor, Jeffreys (1936) replied that he
had, with justification done that in the equations FIG. 1.6(1) : The simplest type of atmosphere which has
of motion but not in the equation of continuity. a free period of type (2,2) with a period of 12 solar hours
Pekeris (1937) showed that amongst this infinite (Wilkes, 1949. Walterschei-d and Venkateswaran. 1979;
number of pairs of equivalent depths, there was Asnani, 1993).
one pair which corresponded to what was then this fact of observation with the tidal theory,
known to be a realistic distribution of Chapman (1924) had suggested that the excitation
temperature in the vertical. The distribution of was partly gravitational and partly thermal.
temperature was as shown in Fig. 1.6(1). The pair Chapman suggested that the thermal excitation
of values was 7.84 km and lOA km. would have its maxima considerably earlier than
The value of7.84 km fitted with Kelvin's mid-day and mid-night so that under the joint
(1882) hypothesis of resonance of semi-diurnal influence of gravitational and thermal excitations,
wave and the value of lOA km fitted with the the actual maxima occurred a couple of hours
pressure wave which travelled round the globe earlier than the mid-day and the mid-night.
immediately after the Krakatao eruption of 27 th However, this explanation also got into
August 1883 (Krakatao Committee, 1888) and difficulties. On the basis of this hypothesis, it
also with the wave generated by the Great would be expected that on clear days, the
Siberian meteorite in 1908 (Whipple,1930). semi-diurnal pressure wave should show its
This finding of Pekeris was a formidable maxima earlier than on cloudy days. But Spar's
support for Kelvin's hypothesis uf gravitational (1952) analysis of New York surface
tidal oscillation of 12-hour period being observations showed that on clear days, the
enhanced by resonance because the atmosphere maxima occurred about halfan hour later than on
had a natural period of oscillation very close to cloudy days. Haurwitz (195'+) realised this
12 hours. Thermal forcings were considered difficulty and advocated similar analysis at other
un-important. places to confirm or contradict what had been
Even after Taylor-Pekeris support for the found for New York observations.
resonance theory, there were doubts jf thermal
The next difficulty for resonance theory
effects were so unimportant. For example. arose from the values of equivalent depths
according to resonance theory, the tidal maxima themselves. How far were these values sensitive to
should occur at mid-day and mid-night but these the change in the vertical distribution of
actually occur two hours ahead of mid-day and temperature?
mid-night at least near the ground. To reconcile Instead of taking Pekeris's distribution of
 1.6 Atmospheric Tides
temperature in the vertical, Sen and White (1955)
took the vertical distribution of temperature as
given in NASA Atmosphere and found that the
resonant amplification of the gravitational tidal
wave would not be adequate to give the observed
magnitude of the semi- diurnal pressure wave and
that thermal excitations have to be invoked. Tbey
suggested that thermal excitations may be much
more important than the gravitational ones.
The equivalent depth of 10.4 km was based
mainly on Krakatao eruption wave speed of 319
ms -t. Subsequent waves created by nuclear bomb
explosions given below travelled with substantially
different speeds: e.g.
c-
Oate Place of Explosion
,r~;~I-November 1952
Marshall Islands
[I sl March 1954 Marshall Islands
: zi h March 1954 Marshall Islands
~_~91h April 1954 Marshall Islands
i 5 111 May 1954 Marshall Islands
122 m! November 1955 Russian Polar Region
These observatIOns suggested that If these
wave speeds were in any way connected with the
"equivalent depth" of the atmosphere, the latter
was not necessarily equal to 10.4 km.
Another difficulty was in respect of the
observed standing semi-diurnal pressure
oscillation of the polar latitudes. Haurwitz and
Moller(l955) pointed out that there was no term
in the solar tidal potential corresponding to this
pressure oscillation. Hence Gravitational tidal
theory cannot account for this oscillation in this
case. They suggested thermal forcing for this
wave enhanced by resonance.
A formidable difficulty was the
anticipated phase reversal' near 30 km level.
Taylor-Pekeris theory predicted that near 30 km
level, there must be a phase reversal in the
pressure wave (Fig.1.6 (2)) and hence also in
other meteorological elements. The observations
were not too many; still the available
observations did not support such a phase
reversal.
To summarise the relevance of equivalent
depths and position of theory of semi-diurnal
pressure wave, one can state the position in early
1960s (e.g. Haurwitz,1964) as follows:
1-87
i20
~I::
~ GO
,/
~ 40 _..:::.._./'
20
o
-I 0 1 2 :3 0 100" 200" 300"
LOG lo{lO"lpl/po I PHASE
FIG. 1.6(2) : The amplitude and phase of the pressure
variations plotted as a function of height. For oscillations
of type (2,2) the dotted and solid curves refer to periods
equal to the lunar and solar half days respectively
Speed
(Wilkes, 1949; Waiterscheid and Venkateswaran, 1979;
(ms' )
Asn.ni, 1993).
298
284 i) Taylor's (1936) suggestion of an infinite
287 number of pairs of "equivalent depths" and
304 Pekeris's (1937) finding of one pair(7.84 and
10.4 km) seemed to explain, at one stroke, the
310
resonant amplification of the gravitationally
374
excited semi-diurnal pressure wave as well as the
travel of Krakatao wave and the Siberian
meteorite wave. It was a formidable support for
Kelvin's hypothesis of resonance.
ii) There was no satisfactory explanation
coming forward to explain the occurrence of
surface wave a couple of hours before mid-day
and mid-night.
iii) There was no explanation of the
standing semi-diurnal pressure oscillation with a
maximum at the polar latitudes.
iv) The equivalent depth of 7.84 km
depended too much on the details of temperature
structure in the vertical. Latest observations did
not support such details of temperature structure
to be very realistic.
v) Waves generated by nuciear explosions
gave wave-speeds different from Krakatao wave.
vi) Taylor-Pekeris theory predicted a
phase reversal near 30 km level. Observations
were few but still the meagre observational
evidence did not support such a phase reversal.
vii) It was felt that thermal forcings should
also be considered in these tidal oscillations.
1. Pressure Observations at the surface :
The Observational position at the surface
is as follows:
 1-88 1.6 Atmospheric Tides

i) First and second harmonics, i.e. 24-hour

and 12-hour waves account for practically the
whole oscillation. Analyses of 8-hourly and
6-hourly waves are there in literature(Chapman
and Lindzen, 1970) but these are not considered
very important. Of the 24-hourly and 12-hourly 2
waves, the latter has attracted the greatest
attention on account of its comparatively larger
amplitude, greater regularity and somewhat
un-explained source of excitation.
ii) There are effects of land-sea contrast as
also of large-scale orography super-imposed on
zonally symmetric oscillation. Attempts have
been made to represent the zonally symmetric
oscillation in analytical form in terms of sin cp,
80
Legendre polynomials and Hough functions. .fJJ !f( •
iii) The global distribution of total f'2 i:" ~ '"'* tL 1'1 1/ 1\1.- I",
(symmetric+asymmetric) oscillation can be i:l' •
expressed in terms of amplitude and phase
60 t-~
o ,., ,r~
f<: ,
, ~ I, • ll- !J' ~ DI
,
~ "u'f
4 a
distributions or in terms of sine and cosine , DJ-2o
2 ofc\ '
component distributions. For example:
o "" L- IF ,
••
-
2. ~I
IT. , I;:; I:;.2S
•••
A cas S + B sinS = ,,)A2 + B 2 sin ( S + E) -
where E = tan-1A I B
2 0 -I.
40
' ~.-l!:O

•::.t:y j-..
- ,,WI
IV ,• .
riO,,
r\" 1"-
••.I
We can have the maps of A and B or the 60 .;,' I
10
maps of ,,)A 2 + B 2 and E 100 140 180 140 100 60 200 20 60

2nl
iv) Diurnal wave is SI =Alcas 24
FIG. 1.6(3): 5J (P) Equilines. AJ (below) and 8J (above);
2n1 Unit 10- 2 mb (Chapman and Lindzen, 1970; Haurwitz,
· 24 were
+ B I szn ht·IS expresse dIII
' h ours 0 f
1965; Asnani, 1993).
local time. Fig. 1.6(3) gives the global circles. These arise from the combination of the
distribution of A, and B , (Haurwitz, 1965; equatorial travelling wave and the polar standing
Chapman & Lindzen,1970). The influence of wave.
land-ocean distribution on the distribution of S I The amplitude map of S2 is more regular
is obvious. Both A, and B , have relatively larger than the amplitude map of SJ' Distribution of
values over land masses than over oceans, land-ocean surface has less influence on S, than
showing that the 24-hourly oscillation is stronger on SJ.
over continents than over oceans. vi) AnalytU:al representation of diurnal
v) Semi-diurnal wave is pressure wave 8 J , Chapman and Lindzen(l970)
2nl . 21t1 have shown that the diurnal pressure wave can be
S, = A, cas 12 + B, SIn 12 well represented by the formula;
3
P, = 0.593 cos <P' sin (I + 12°) 1.6(1)
= "';2
A 2 +B,2.(21t1
SIn 12+E, )
where P, is expressed in millibars, 1 is local time
where 1 is ex ressed in hours of local time. The expressed in degrees when 360 0 represent 24
amplitude A~ + B~ and the phase E2 are shown hours. This gives amplitude of nearly 0.6
in Fig 1.6(4). mb(hPa) at the equator cp = O. The maximum
The phase map shows singular points in occurs when 1 + 12 0 = 900 , i.e. at 5 hrs 12 min.
the neighbourhood of Arctic and Antarctic a.m. and the minimum occurs at 5 hrs 12 min.
p.m.
 1.6 Atmospheric Tides 1-89

Greenwich mean time expressed in degrees, 3600

representing 24 hours. The amplitude is
maximum (0.085 mb (hPa)) at the poles,
decreasing to zero at the latitude sin 2q> = 1/3, i.e.
q> = 35° 26'. This is the nodal latitude in the
northern and the southern hemispheres. Pressure
change on the equatorial side has the opposite
sign of what it has on the polar side; when the
pressure rises on the equatorial side, it falls on the
polar side and vice versa. It may also be remarked
that this analytical representation fits the
observations pretty well in the polar latitudes but
not so well in the equatorial latitudes(Wilkes,
1949).
The Greenwich mean time expressed in
degrees in the above formula can be replaced in
terms of local time in degrees by using
Ie = t - A where A is the longitude of a station to
which the local time refers. Hence the
semi-diurnal polar pressure wave is

= 0.0425 (3 sin 2q> - I) sin (21 - 2)" + 118°)

(P2)polar
1.6(3b)
The maximum occurs 56 minutes or
approximately one hour before mid-day and mid-
night Greenwich mean time.
FIG. 1.6(4) : 5, (P) Equilines: Amplitude (A" unit 10- 2 2, The Observations at higher levels:
mb (hPa)) and phase (E ,) (Chapman and Lindzen, 1970; The great bulk of tidal analysis has been
Haurwitz, 1956; Asnani. 1993). made for surface data because these data are most
vii) Analytical representation of readily available. Amongst the surface
semi-diurnal pressure wave S2:- As stated meteorological parameters, pressure is measured
earlier, it consists of the travelling equatorial most accurately. Above the surface, pressure
wave and the standing polar wave. Haurwitz's measurement is not very accurate; wind
(1956) formula for the travelling equatorial wave measurement is relatively more dependable, but
IS the observations are not plentiful. To catch 12-
hourly wave in the free atmosphere, we should
3
(P'),quam,'al = 1.l6cos q> . sin (2 1+ 158°) 1.6(2) have at least 4 observations in 12 hours, if not
more. Such frequent observations are generally
where p, is expressed in millibars; I is the local not available. However, at some stations, at some
time expressed in degrees, 360° representing 24 levels, there have been observations which give
hours. The amplitude at the equator is 1.16 us some idea of the diurnal and semi-diurnal
mb(hPa), decreasing to zero at the poles. The waves at higher levels in the atmosphere. These
maxima occur when 2/+ 158°= 90°, 450°,810°... will be discussed later during comparison
i.e. at 9 hr. 44 min. a.m. and p.m. between theory and observations.
The standing polar wave can be expressed as 3, Seasonal variation of P J and p, :
2 Haurwitz and Cowley (1973) carried out
(p, ),,,'a, = 0.0425 (3sin <p - I) sin (2 IG+ 118°)
a fresh analysis of surface pressure oscillations
1.6(3a) 0
between 60"N and 60 S, using spherical
where P2 is expressed in mb (hPa); tG is harmonic analysis. They split a year into three
 1-90 1.6 Atmospheric Tides
seasons and got the values for different seasons
as shown below:
J :- May, June, July, August (Northern
Summer)
D :-November, December, January, February
(Northern Winter)
E : - March, April, September, October
(Equinoctial Season)
PI = 0.617 cos3 '1" sin (t + 10°) in}- season
3 + 0.040 Pz ('1') sill (2 Ie + 214°)
PI = 0.627 cos qJ' sill (t + 14°) in D-season
3
PI = 0.652 cos qJ' sill( t + t2°) in E- season
3
PI = 0.629 cos qJ . sill( t + t 2°) annual mean
(p 2 )t'ijlf{l/ori,li = 1.052 cos3 '"
't' . sill ( 2 t + 156°)
in J - season
(P2)eqllalorial = 1.170 cos3cp • sin ( 21 + 162°)
in D - season
(P2)eqllf//ori(l/ = 1.202 cos] <p . sin ( 2t + 160°)
in E - season
3
(P2)eql/a/oriai = 1.161 cos qJ . sin (21 + 159°)
annual mean
Due to insufficient number of
observations and also large interdiurnal
variations of surface pressure in the polar regions,
a clear and physically consistent picture of the
standing polar oscillation could not emerge from
the analysis of Haurwitz and Cowley(l973).
Their analysis, however, suggested a relatively
smaller amplitude of this oscillation at high
southerly latitudes than at high northerly
latitudes. This is consistent with the results of
Carpenter (1963) who, with limited data, found
the amplitude of the oscillation for Antarctic
stations to be about one half the value reported
for the Arctic.
Haurwitz and Moller(l955) analysed the
semidiurnal variations of the surface temperature
separately for the standing and for the migratory
temperature waves. Their results and arguments
were as follows:
i) Solar tidal potenlial has no term
corresponding to the ob~:erved standing
semi-diurnal pressure oscillation of the atmosphere.
Hence its cause must lie in some temperature
oscillation of the earth's atmosphere. This
oscillation would come from solar heating.
ii) Analysis of the world wide distribution of
s'.lrface air temperature does show a standing
oscillation of the following type:
~ ('I', Ie) = 0.024 sin (21e + 219°)
+ 0.076 PI ('1') sin (2 Ie + 194°)
+ 0.1l2P3 (qJ)sin(2I e -IO)
+ 0.104 P4 ('1') sill (2 t e + 56°)
where't" represents deviation of temperature
from the local mean, to represents Greenwich Mean
Time and P's represent Legendre polynomials
giving latitudinal variations. The first term on right
hand side gives standing oscillation whose
amplitude and phase are the same for the whole
globe. The coefficient of P 2 in the temperature
oscillation has the smallest value compared to other
coefficients giving latitudinal variations. The
standing pressure oscillation has also latitudinal
variation corresponding to P2' If the temperature
oscillation is the cause of the pressure oscillation,
then the question arises: "Why do we not have
pressure oscillations corresponding to P 3 and P4
which have larger coefficients than P2 ?"
iii) Haurwitz and Moller( t955) argued that
the P2 pressure oscillation caused by P2 temperature
oscillation must be considerably more magnified by
resonance than the other pressure oscillations
caused by corresponding temperature oscillations.
They advanced some arguments from resonance
theory to justify this conclusion. They even
suggested that this phenomenon of standing
semi-diurnal pressure oscillation was in further
support for the resonance theory.
Now that the resonance theory of
semi-diurnal pressure oscillation stands discarded,
we may say that the explanation for this pressure
oscillation is still not found. Chapmun-Lindzen
(1970) theory does not attempt to explain this
phenomenon.
4. Outline of Chapman-Lindzen Theory:
In substance, Chapman-Lindzen theory is
similar to Taylor( 1936) - Pekeris (1937) theory
 1.6 Atmospheric Tides 1-91

...J
<l -'
z I·B <:l
100 a: 24 z
::> 14 a::
0 ·18 :::>
'" 1·0 0
".,
~

12
80 to
,
0·6 :;:
E 06 w
~ (J)
3 0'2
-I
0
W 60 0·2
...J ...J
0 <l
:::> ·18 <:l
z ·032 z
l- I>:
::> ·14 a::
024
I-
...J
<:l
e '10
H2O ·016
:2
0
::E
".,
to
'06
·008 w
H2 O '" . ·02
(J)

0
·02
0 0·5 1·0 ',5
-80 -40 0 40 80
LATITUDE ( deg )

FIG. 1.6(5a) : Vertical Distribution of thermal excitation
due to water vapour (H20) & Ozone (03) (Lindzen. 1968;
Asnani, 1993).
except that Chapman and Lindzen (1970) have
considered thermal forcings to be all important
and gravitational forcings to be of no great
significance. According to these authors (1970),
thermal forcing arises out of radiation absorption
by water vapour and Ozone. For the forcings, one
has to specify the period, phase, amplitude,
vertical distribution and horizontal distribution.
In respect of the horizontal distribution, no
account is taken of land-sea contrasts or
orography. Hence the forcing is symmetrical
along a latitude circle. Therefore, for horizontal
distribution, it is enough to specify the
distribution with respect to latitude only.
Chapman and Lindzen specify different
forcings for the 24-hour and the 12-hour periods.
Vertical distribution of thermal forcing is
considered to be the same both for 24-hour and
l2-hour oscillations, although different for water
vapour and ozone [Fig. 1.6(5)]. Latitudinal
distribution is considered to be the same for
24-hour as well as 12-hour oscillation, although
FIG. 1.6(5b) : Latitudinal Distribution of thermal
excitation due to water vapour (H20) and Ozone (0:;)
(Lindzen, 1968; Asnani, 1993).
amplitudes and phases are different.
Other assumptions are:
i) Quasistatic approximation.
ii) The atmosphere is always in local
thermal equilibrium, i.e. it responds to heating via
a continuous sequence of equilibrium states; in
particular, Brunt- Vaisala oscillations are
excluded.
iii) Gas constant R is the same throughout the
atmosphere.
iv) Gravitational acceleration g is constant in
the horizontal and along the vertical.
v) The earth is taken as a sphere, without
ellipticity and without orography.
vi) Hydromagnetic forces are ignored.
vii) Dissipative processes such as molecular
viscosity, turbulent eddy viscosity, thermal
conductivity, ion drag and infra-red radiative
transfer are ignored.
viii) Tidal fields are considered as linearizable
perturbations on the basic state.
ix) In the linearized perturbation equations,
 1-92 1.6 Atmospheric Tides

the coefficients of different terms are regarded as

R
constants.
Under these broad assumptions, the __
Cj'P_ Q~' s 1.6(11 )
various steps of the theory are outlined below:- ygHh~'S
1. Basic State: i) Rest
ii) Temperature: Function of z only. where F is a second order differential operator
2. Perturbations: i) Infinitesimally small. given by:
ii) Gravitational tidal potential
P.
iii) Diabatic heating Q.
F '" c;sqJ i( c~sSin2qJ a~]
(j2

'l4Q2
3. Equations of motion are linearized and
written in the form: (j2
+ sin 2c.p
au _ fv = _ ~ ()Ji _ ap 1.6(4)
S 4Q 2
+--
,z
at Po ax ax (j
2
. 2 cr (;2 _ sin2<p co.lcp
--2 -sm <p 2Q 4Q 2
av +f u = _ ~ ()Ji _ ap 4Q
1.6(5)
at P" ay ay
Term containing P has been omitted from
()Ji _ , ap equation 1.6(11) as it is considered relatively
az - -g p - P" az 1.6(6)
small. Equation 1.6(10) is known as Laplace's
where P = Gravitational tidal potential. u and v (1799) Tidal Equation. h~'s is an eigen-value
are infinitesimal perturbations of horizontal known as equivalent depth. <I>~'s is an eigen
velocity on state of rest. Similarly we have
function known as Hough function. H is scale
linearized forms of:
height.
i) equation of continuity:
Equation 1.6(11) is known as Vertical
iJe.' + Jp" = - p V .V 1.6(7) Structure Equation. ¢~,s is a function of latitude
at az " 3
qJ only for given values of (j,S and n. L~" is a
ii) thermodynamic equation:
function of height z only for given values of
()Ji ap" _ t!fl. a,s and n.
at + W az - y g H dt + (y - I) P" Q 1.6(8) 5. Laplace's Tidal Equation:
This equation has been studied for well
iii) equation of state:
p' _ T' pi over a century. Most current methods are based
~ - -+~ 1.6(9) on the classical work of Hough(l897, 1898).
Po To Po Some of the workers in this field have been:
4. Perturbations have variations in Kelvin (1882), Margules (1890, 1892,
A,qJ,Z andt ofthetype: 1893), Love (1913), Lamb (1932),
i~A cI>O",s La,s i crt Flattery(l967), Lindzen (l967a) and Longuet -
/I e II
Higgins (1968).
By principle of separation of variables, we
The solutions have recently been
get the differential equation in <I>~'s and L~'s as investigated through use of electronic computers.
2 2 6. Vertical Structure Equation:
F(<1>a. ') = _ 40 Q <1> a. s 1.6(10) For reasonable values of H, i.e, vertical
1/ h eJ , S II
g " temperature distribution, this equation is
well-behaved and non-singular. For some simple
HJ2-L~'s
- + (dH dL~'s
--1 - -+ J ~dH
- +R}a
_. S' vertical distributions of H, this equation has been
dz 2 dz dz ha .s dz
"
C
p
" analysed by :
Pekeris(1937),
Siebert(l961),
 1.6 Atmospheric Tides
Butler & Small (1963) and
Lindzen(l967a).
7. Boundary Conditions:
For Laplace's Tidal Equation, the
boundary conditions are that the velocities at the
poles shall be finite.
For vertical structure Equation, the
boundary conditions are ;
i) w = 0 at z = 0
ii) At the top where z ~ = the kinetic
· Po-Y·Y.
energy deoslty -IS f'mIte.
.
2 pressure oscillation. However, even with this
S. Solutions dependent on Forcing
Functions:
With these boundary conditions, the solutions for
the unknown dependent variables u, v, w, p',
p', r depend on the Forcing Functions P and Q.
P ; Gravitational Tidal Potential
Q : Diabatic Heating Function
9. Semi-Diurnal and Diurnal Tides:
An infinite number of Hough modes is
possible. Meteorologists have been mainly
interested in diurnal and semi-diurnal oscillations
of the atmosphere; i.e.
=
s = I, Q ( diurnal)
s = 2, cr = 2Q ( semi-diurnal)
Comparison between Chapman-Lindzen
theory and Observations
Difficulties of Lindzen-Chapman Theory are:
i) A sound quantitative basis for the vertical
and horizontal distribution of thermal forcings
shown in figure 1.6(5) is to be provided.
ii) Explanation for the standing semi-diurnal
polar oscillation is yet to be provided.
iii) Phase-reversal of the semi-diurnal pressure
wave around 30 km level predicted by theory is not
supported by the available observations.
Strong Points of the Theory are:
i) The amplitudes of the observed surface
waves are explained pretty well.
ii) The theory does not depend crucially on
the vertical distribution of temperature and hence
on resonance.
Lindzen and Blake (1971) considered at
some length the discrepancy in phase of the
semi-diurnal wave near the surface. They showed
that dissipative effects and surface heating could
not account for the discrepancy. They also argued
that introduction of mean winds would not rectify
the discrepancy. Two remaining possibilities
1-93
were suggested: either an additional source of
forcing had been neglected or the phase of
forcing by Ozone heating had been
miscalculated.
Regarding the addtional source of forcing,
Lindzen and Blake (1971) noted that an
additional heating with maxima at 0300 and 1500
hrs LT (i.e. 3 hours later than maximum heating
due to insolation absorption by Ozone and water
vapour) would be of nearly optimal effectiveness
in properly altering the phase of the surface
choice of phase for the additional heating, that
heating would have io produce, by itself, a
semi-diurnal surface pressure oscillation of
amplitude as large as 0.4 mb (hPa). This seemed
intuitively excessive to them and hence they
favoured the second possibility, i.e. altering the
phase of Ozone heating. As reported by Lindzen
(1978), Blake (1972, personal communication to
Lindzen) carefully considered the alteration in
Ozone heating and found that the phase of the
surface pressure oscillation thus produced was
negligibly different from the earlier one given by
Chapman and Lindzen (1970). This brought
Lindzen (1978) back to re-consideration of the
first possibility, i.e. inclusion of an additional
source of heating. Lindzen and Hong(l974)
introduced mean zonal winds varying with
latitude and height in the basic zonal current.
They found that this produced the dominance of
(2,4) mode in place of the (2,2) mode at 100 km
and also caused the level of 1800 phase shift to
move above 30 km during summer at
extra-tropical and higher latitudes. Lindzen
(1978) appreciated that the explanation of
Lindzen and Hong (1974) in respect of the phase
reversal was still incomplete.
Hong and Lindzen (l976)developed a
three-dimensional model to study the
characteristics of the semi-diurnal tide in the
thermosphere. In this model, they included
viscosity, thermal conductivity and ion drag. The
sources of excitation were absorption of solar
radiation by water vapour and Ozone below the
mesopause and by 0, in the Schumann-Runge
continuum, and 0, 02' N 2 in the extreme
ultraviolet in the thermosphere. The basic state
was one of rest relative to the earth. Main
conclusions were as follows;
 1-94 1.6 Atmospheric Tides
i) Between 100 and 130 km, the semi-diurnal
tide is likely to be dominated by the (2,4) mode
excited from below the thermosphere.
ii) Above 120 km, the (2,4) mode decays
more rapidly than the (2,2) mode. Hence (2,2)
mode is likely to be the dominant mode above
130-200 km.
iii) The thermospheric tidal fields are expected
to be larger at sunspot minimum than at sunspot
maximum.
iv) Ion drag and viscosity cannot be ignored in
the thermosphere.
To remove the discrepancy in phase of the
semi-diurnal pressure wave near the earth's
surface, Lindzen(l978) suggested that the
additional source of heating lay in the release of
latent heat of a semi-diurnal oscillation in tropical
rainfall. He estimated that such an oscillation in
rainfall would have an amplitude - 0.12 em day-1
at the equator decreasing polewards and with
maxima occurring between 0230 and 0430, and
between 1430 and 1630 hrs LTCor a few minutes
later to take account of the lag between surface
precipitation and condensation). He further
showed that the presence of such an additional
forcing also eliminates the sharp phase reversal
near 30 km level and replaces it by a smooth
transition by - 1800 between 20 and 40 krn
levels.
Lindzen (1978) showed that this
semi-diurnal precipitation could not be released
simply by the horizontal velocity convergence of
tidalwinds. The magnitude of this convergence of
tidal horizontal winds and the consequent tidal
vertical velocity was an order of magnitude
smaller than the one required for precipitation of
an amplitude - 0.12 em day-t at the equator.
Further, the phases of tidal horizontal velocity
convergence and of vertical velocity were also
inconsistent with those required for the
precipitation. Only a possibility remained that the
tidal motions might act to trigger squall line
instabilities which might produce the required
precipitation. For this, a consistent model was
not presented.
Lindzen and Hong (1974) had been the
first to replace the basic state of rest by one of
zonal motion which varied with latitude and
height. They had used finite difference methods
to solve the resulting tidal equations. However,
they interpreted their numerical solution through
an analysis of its spectral components. This
enabled them to demonstrate the important role
played by the basic state zonal motion through
interaction with tidal motions of zero-motion
basic state. Walterscheid and Venkateswaran
(1979) adopted a completely spectral model to
treat the tidal perturbations in an atmosphere with
basic state of motion varying with latitude and
height. They called a model with basic state of
rest as classical model and one with basic state of
zonal motion as non-classical model. They
deri ved the non-classical vertical tidal equation in
spectral form which is a second order ordinary
differential equation with matrix coefficients.
This equation governs the vertical structure uf a
vector whose elements are the spectral
components of the perturbation geopotential. The
coefficient matrices possess both diagonal and
non-diagonal terms. Effects arising from the
assumption of mean zonal winds in the basic field
are responsible for generating the non-diagonal
terms which do not occur in the classical model
and also for differences in diagonal terms of the
classical and the non-classical cases. These
differences in the co-efficient matrices were
interpreted as modifications of the refractive
index of the medium and also as indirect forcings
in addition to the direct thermal forcings. The
authors performed the calculations for both the
classical and the non-classical models for
semi-diurnal oscillation, prescribing the basic
state zonal wind and the heating functions
appropriate for the solstitial seasons. Their basic
state zonal wind was taken from
Murgatroyd(I965, 1969) and their heating
functions were taken from Chapman and Lindzen
(1970) with a correction for the solstices given by
Lindzen and Hong(I974) and Hong and
Lindzen(l976). The main results of Walterscheid
and Venkateswaran( 1979) were essentially
similar to those of Lindzen and Hong(l974).
Minor differences in the results could be
attributed to differences in modelling such as
specifications of the basic state zonal flow and
upper boundary condition, treatment of
dissipative effects, etc. Since the treatment was in
spectral form, interpretation of various
component solutions was easier.
Walterscheid, De Vore and
 1.6 Atmospheric Tides 1-95

'2 12 ~

eo .><e
80 -PRESENT
--PRESENT Q6_~_ 02_ II
" ----EARLIER
6
Q .........
Q 2 , ....,
\ \
....
"
\ 70 E 10
---EARLIER
70 ILl
0

Ii:
9
8
04 \ \
\ \
I
\
,
\

,•
60 ..
~

0 0
0
0.
..... 9
e
60
::>
~
1=
"- 50
...
:>
Q 7 50 ::i
§
.
7
6 . .
06 Q4
\ \
\
~2 ....
~
0'"
6
5
Q3
\
\
\
40
<X
ILl
!i
2
5 \ \
\ \
\
I
I
30 .... "jt." 4 \
\
\
30
~
"" • \ \
,\ \ ,. .- I
I
" 3
\
20 0
X
" )(
°5 Q •• a:
""
3 \ \ 20 0
\ l- I
0: 2 Q7 3 \ ~

.
\
\ \ 10
Z O~2 \ \ \ 0- \
\ H2O
~

-.
0- I
\ <X
a H2O '0
0
\
0
-2
0 0 10
-5
10 10
-4 -3
10 10 I~
6 5 4 3 /0 2 .0'
10 '0 06
AMPL'TUDE ( ..2,-210)
.0 AMPLITUDE (m 2 s 2/s I

FIG. 1.6(6) Symmetric Hough components of the FIG. 1.6(7) : Anti-symmetric Hough components of the
semidiurnal heating rate due to ozone and water vapour semidiurnal heating rate due to ozone and water vapour
solar absorption for DJF. (Walterscheid et al.. 1980; solar absorption for DJF. (Walterscheid et aI., 1980;
Asnani, 1993). Asnani. 1993).
Venkateswaran (1980) adopted the same spectral theory and observations of semi-diurnal tide in
technique as by Walterscheid and Venkateswaran respect of:
(1979) but modified the heating rates for solar a) Wave lengths in the lower
absorption by both water vapour and Ozone as thermosphere (100-115 km) and
given chiefly by Forbes and Garrett (1978). The b) Wave lengths and amplitudes In the
differences in the new and earlier heating rates meteor region (80-100 km).
were considerable as can be seen from Figs. These improvements were attributed to
1.6(6) and 1.6(7). This study was for solstices improved heating rates.
(Dec-Jan-Feb and June-July-August). The phase reversal in (2,2) mode
The heating rates were first continued to show itself in the computations;
Fourier-analyzed with respect to time to give the only its level rose to near 35 km level. To correct
semi-diurnal component as a function of height this discrepancy, the authors thought that
and latitude and next Hough-analyzed to give the additional modification of the heating rates was
height-dependent Hough amplitudes of the required and that inclusion of condensational
semi-diurnal component of the heating for heating proposed by Lindzen (1978) may prove
Dec-Jan-Feb season. Figs. 1.6(6) and 1.6(7) show useful.
the symmetric and the anti-symmetric Walterscheid and De Vore( 1981) repeated
components respectively. The basic state the experiment of Walterscheid, De Vore and
conditions and the numerical procedures adopted Venkateswaran(l980), but now considering the
were much the same as in Walterscheid and conditions during equinoxes (March-April-May
Venkateswaran (1979) except for minor and Sept-Oct-Nov) in place of solstices. The
alterations in the assumed equatorial temperature phase reversal in (2,2) mode computations
profile and the treatment of the upper boundary persisted; only its level rose to near 40 km level.
condition. These alterations were found ·to yield Model results and observations for near solstices
relatively minor changes in the solutions. Their and near-equinoxes are presented in Tables
main result was an improved agreement between 1.6(1) and 1.6(2).
 1-96 1.6 Atmospheric Tides

difficulties (e.g. Lindzen and Blake. 1971; Lindzen

TABLE 1.6(1): Amplitudes (mb)(hPa) and phases (local and Hong, 1974; Lindzen, Hong and Forbes, 1977;
hours of maximum) of the principal Hough components and Lindzen, 1978). In his later paper, Lindzen
of the semi-diurnal surface pressure oscillation calculated (1978) has suggested an additional source of semi-
by the various models for DJF and JJA.
diurnal heating namely latent heat released by con-
(From Walterscheid et aI., 1980; Asnani, 1993).
densation. This needs semi-diurnal precipitation
Earlierclassical Present non-classicll] wave with amplitude of about 0.12 em dai l at the
~J D1F llA D1F JJA equator decreasing polewards, with maxima be-
tween 0230 and 0430 hours and between 1430 and
i 1 Amp'·1 AmPI-! Amp!" Amp-
1630 hours Local Time. Lindzen claims that the
I 11 :
,
ilu~e
In
I Phase itudc '
Illb
Pha.~e
itudc
mb
Pha.~e
litude
mb
Phasl:
i
inclusion of such an additional source of latent heat
(hPa) (hPa) (hPa) {hPa)
1--. leads to a surface pressure oscillation at the equator
2 0.935 9.0 0.935 9.0 0.893 9.0 0.894 9.0
of amplitude 1.14 mb (hPa)with maxima at 0940 and
] 0.045 7.S 0.045 13.8 0.055 S.S 0.049 14.9
- 2140 LT. In the absence of such latent heat source.
lt~014 9.0
-
0.014 9.0 0.048
(l.OO2
9.7
12.1
0.051
0.003
9.7
17.2
the semi-diurnal pressure oscillation has an
amplitude of Ll8 mb(hPa) at the equator. with
6 oml 9.1 0.011 9.1 OJXl7 7.S 0.008 S.' maxima at 0900 and 2100 LT. The inclusion of this
Observations latent heat also replaces the earlier anticipated sharp
I
i DJF JJA phase-reversal near 30 km level by a gradual phase-
, ,
.-c----.-+----T
1I;~plit~~~mb i Amplitude mb
shift tbrough about a quarter period.
In! r (hPa) Phase
(hPa)
Phase
We do expect further improvements in
2 1.100 9.63 0.992 09.80 theory in course of time. The semi-diurnal
___~~_ 0.059 9.70 0.081 13.27 oscillation in the earth's atmosphere is the one
meteorological phenomenon which occurs with
_
4 0.166 9.33 0.151 09.63

~~~r ~L(~ 0.014 11,83

__-",,4"'.20"----+_---""=_+------''-''''''-------t almost clockwork precision, irrespective of local
L6 ~ r_~~~--.J __ .--'9C".2c"_...L_="'__
0.059 09.57
_'________"='___ .-J rain or sunshine, even in the field of a tropical
cyclone. The explanation for such a phenomenon
TABLE 1.6(2) : Amplitudes (mb)(hPa) aod phases (local should be equally firm and steady.
hours of maximum of the principal Hough components of Groves (1975) and Weisman and
the semi-diurnal surface pressure oscillation, calculated Olivero(1979) have attempted to test the theory
by the various models for MAM and SON. and computed against observations. In general, the observations
by Hauf\>,-'itz and Cowley (1973) for March, April, are not adequate for testing the theory with
September and October combined (from Walterscheid & reasonable confidence. Perhaps the best data set
De Yore 1981; Asnani~ 1993).
so far, which are by no means adequate, are the
ones corning from the Tropical Diurnal
L _EarlierClassical Present non-classical Observed
Experiment of 1974. It was designed tD study the
!
, I MAM SON MAM SON MASO
vertical and temporal structure of the 20-70 km
" A P A P A P A P A P region within the Western Hemisphere
2 .994 9.0 .994 9.0 1.018 9.0 .977 9.0 1.133 9.7 Meteorological Network. Soundings were made
] - - - - 0.D18 14.0 .014 7.3 0.065 12.3 every three hours round the clock on 19th and
4 .014 S.9 0.014 S.9 .066 9.5 .071 9.4 0.182 9.6 20th March 1974. The tropical stations which
5 - - - - .007 13.7 .002 7.4 0.013 13.5 participated in this experiment were:
6 .011 9.1 .011 9.1 .023 8.3 .025 S.3 0.072 9.5
Antigua 17.2°N 6 L8°W
A = Amplitude; P = Phase (British West Indies)
Ft. Sherman 9.3°N
Remedy suggested for Chapman·Lindzen (1970) 80.0OW (Panama Canal Zone)
Theory: Kourou 5.l oN 52.7°W
The difficulties of the theory pointed above (French Guiana)
have been appreciated. [n a series of papers, Lindzen Natal 5.9°S 32.2°W
has attempted to give solutions to overcome the (Brazil)
 1.7 Diurnal Variation of Precipitation
Ascension Island 8.0D S 14.4 OW
Weisman and Olivero (1979) calculated
vertical velocities for these five stations and
found that even these five stations formed into
two distinct groups. Group I consisted of Kourou,
Ft. Sherman and Ascension Island characterised
by a vertical wavelength of 15-20 kIn and an
evident downward phase progression of 10-50
krn/day. Group II consisting of Antigua and Natal
had a non- discernible vertical wavelength (> 20
km), mainly diurnal wave and little or no evident
vertical phase progression. At such levels and in
a relatively small area, one does not expect such
differences in behaviour. These authors
concluded that observations of Group I stations
did show some resemblance to some of the
results of Tidal Theory (Chapman and Lindzen,
1970) but additional data sets are required to
pronounce firm judgement.
We have seen the fate of Taylor-Pekeris
theory of semi-diurnal pressure wave. At one
time, particularly during 1940s, hardly anyone
dared to voice doubts about the validity of this
theory, even though it had the following 3
weaknesses;
i) It depended critically on the values of
equivalent depths calculated from the then
available vertical profile of temperature in the
atmosphere.
ii) It expected a phase-reversal of
semidiurnal pressure wave near 30 km level;
observations did not support the existence of this
phase-reversal.
iii) The existence of polar standing
semi-diurnal pressure wave was well established by
observations, but Taylor-Pekeris theory had no
satisfactory explanation for this pressure wave.
Presently, the idea of resonance has been
given up and Chapman-Lindzen theory has
completely replaced Taylor-Pekeris theory. We
have to remind ourselves that Chapman-Lindzen
theory also suffers from weaknesses (ii) and (iii)
mentioned above. namely phase-reversal and
polar standing wave.
As it always happens in science, we should
not rest satisfied until these 2 weak points are also
rectified. The effort in this direction might even
open the door to some new discovery in
geophysical science! Some speculation on this
point is given in Chapter 16, connecting
1-97
Atmospheric Tides, particularly semi-diurnal
pressure wave to Solar wind.
1.7 Diurnal Variatinn of Precipitatinn
We have already referred to relatively
larger diurnal variation of temperature over
tropical land region than over tropical ocean
region. In addition, over the land region, there are
many irregularities of terrain of various
horizontal and vertical dimensions. Each of these
irregularities of terrain causes its own local air
circulation, air generally tising up the sloping
surfaces during day and sinking down the sloping
surfaces during night. Under favourable
conditions, these local circulations can attain
considerable intensities. These diurnally varying
vertical circulations also contribute to the diurnal
variation of precipitation/cloudiness. Some of
these circulations of meso-scale dimensions will
be dealt with in Chapter 10. Here, we shall
concern ourselves with these meso-scale
circulations only to the extent that we consider
them contributing to the diurnal variation of
precipitation in the tropics.
Historically, the ideas about diurnal
variation of precipitation in the tropics, over land
and ocean, have been substantially influenced by
Hann's (1901) classification of the patterns of
diurnal variation of precipitation for the whole
globe, as given below:
a) Continental Climates:
Most precipitation falls in the form of
convective showers in the afternoon.
b) Maritime and Coastal Climates :
Most precipitation occurs at night or
during early morning.
c) Regional Peculiarities :
In addition to the broad classification by
continental and maritime climates as mentioned
above, there are pronounced seasonal variations
in some regions. For instance, over much of
western Europe, winter precipitation shows night
maximum while summer precipitation shows
afternoon maximum; in tropical monsoon season,
there is a tendency for morning maximum.
We shall deal with this topic under three
sub-headings: Diurnal (24 hours) cycle of
precipitation over tropical land stations, diurnal
(24 hours) cycle of precipitation and cloudiness
 1-98 1.7 Diurnal Variation of Precipitation
over the oceans and semi-diurnal (12 hours) cycle
of precipitation and cloudiness over land and
oceans.
1.7.1 Diurnal (24 hours) Cycle of PrecipiJation
over Tropical Land Stations:
It has been appreciated that in every
continent, there are regions which do not fall into
Hann's (1901) simple classifications (a) and (b)
above. There are far too many "regional
peculiarities" inland over the continents and
along the coasts so much so that classifications
(a) and (b) may almost look misleading; e.g.
Kincer (1916) showed that:
i) At many stations in the central and north
central United States, mOTe precipitation occurs
during the night than during the day; and
ii) coastal stations in southeast United
States show a well-marked afternoon maximum.
There have been further studies for USA
by Means (1944), Rasmusson (1971) and
Wallace (1975); for Europe by Hann and Suring
(1939); for Asian region by Ramage (1952,
China), Raman and Raghavan (1961,India) and
Prasad(l970, India); for West Africa by
Hamilton and Archbold (1945) and Jeandidier
and Rainteau (1957); for East Africa by
Thompson(1957), Tomsett(1975) and Asnani
and Kinuthia(l979); for Sudan and Ethiopia by
Pedgley(1969, 1971) and for Southern Africa by
Hastenrath (1970). These observational studies
show a wide variety of patterns of diurnal
variation of precipitation over the land stations
spread around the globe not falling in categories
(a) and (b) above.
In a survey of diurnal variation of
precipitation over' tropical land stations,
Atkinson(1971) came to the conclusion that
"contrary to popular opinion, many tropical land
stations do not show a rainfall maximum during
the afternoon period associated with maximum
surface heating; instead, many tropical
continental stations show rainfall maximum
during the night time hours". In later surveys of
tropical rainfall, Wallace (1975) and Gray and
Jacobson (1977) also emphasized the existence
of a large variety of patterns which do not fall into.
Hann's Classes(a) and (b) above.
Physical-cum-dynamical explanations have been
offered for such deviations, by different authors
(e.g. Gentry and'Moore, 1954; Franket aI., 1967;
Pielke, 1974; Wallace, 1975; Schwartz and
Bosart, 1979). These ideas and explanations are
briefly given below.
Diurnal variation of precipitation over
tropical land stations has two principal causes:
i) Reduction of Static Stability:
This occurs through afternoon heating
from below or through night-time radiative
cooling of cloud tops from above; similar
de-stabilization of the atmosphere and
consequent diurnal cycle of precipitation could
also take place if there be advection of warm air
in the lower layers and/or advection of cold air in
higher layers at preferred times of day or night.
The afternoon insolalion causes bubbling
up of the hot air which is in contact with the hot
ground. Some of the large hot bubbles end up as
large Cu or Cb clouds. Convective instability of
the tropical atmosphere helps in the fQrmation of
large Cu or Cb clouds.
At night time, the cloud tops cool more
than the cloud bottoms; static stability gets
reduced. This favours vertical over turning.
While this process and advective processes
mentioned above have been quoted as
contributing to diurnal cycle of precipitaion, it is
doubtful if their contribution is so significant as
to cause a precipitation maximum during night
time.
ii) Release of convective instability through
organised low level convergence:
This may be associated with one of the
following three factors:
Synoptic-scale systems.
Meso-scale systems.
Interaction between meso-scale and large-
scale systems.
SYNOPTIC-SCALE SYSTEMS
a) Migratory Synoptic-scale Systems:
We can assume that there is no particular
bias regarding the time of the day when such
systems move across a station, Le. their times of
movement are randomly distributed with respect
to the daily clock. As such, by themselves alone,
these ntigratory systems are unlikely to cause any
significant diurnal variation of precipitation over
a station, except in cases where these systems
have a tendency to change their own intensity
when passing over a region during a partiCUlar
time of the day or night.
 1.7 Diurnal Variation of Precipitation
b) Non-migratory Synoptic-scale Systems:
Tropical region is also characterised by
synoptic-scale quasi-stationary systems. The
time-invariant component of these systems wjll
not cause any diurnal variation of precipitation.
c) Diurnal oscillations in the migPlltory and
non-migratory synoptic-scale systems:
Quite often, there is interaction between the
insolation and the synoptic-scale systems. As a
result, both the migratory and the non-migratory
synoptic-scale systems frequently manifest diumal
oscillations in their position and intensity. For
example, over peninsular regions, the troughs of
low pressure get accentuated in the afternoon while
the ridges of high pressure get accentuated late in
the night. These will contribute to the diurnal
variation of flow and precipitation over large
regions like afternoon precipitation being favoured
in regions of seasonal troughs. This phenomenon is
markedly manifest in peninsular India during
pre-monsoon period (April-May) and near the
monsoon trough over north India during monsoon
period (June-August).
MESO-SCALE SYSTEMS
Due to orographic. influences over land
regions and due to orographic-cum-water surface
heating differentials near the coast lines of oceans
and lakes, there are intense meso-scale circulations
with marked diurnal variations in the tropical
regions. Precipitation is favoured in the areas of
upward motion within these meso-scale systems
and also in the adjacent areas where large CU/Cb
clouds would drift before dissipation.
Some of the examples of these meso-scale
systems with marked diurnal variation are land-sea
breezes, land-lake breezes and up-slope! down-
slope winds.
Stations located near the coast line and also
in regions of rugged terrain show corresponding
diurnal variations of precipitation.
Development of afternoon convection is
favoured over land regions near the coast line due
to land-sea and land-lake breezes. Similarly along
the slopes of the rugged terrain, convective activity
develops in the afternoon. The steering of the
convective clouds by the prevailing winds in the
troposphere will extend the phenomenon of diurnal
variation of precipitation downwind from the
region of their first development. PreCipitation
1-99
associated with such meso-scale systems can have
very marked diurnal variations.
INTERACTION BETWEEN MESO-SCALE
AND LARGE-SCALE SYSTEMS
This appears to be the most important
factor responsible for a wide variety of patterns
of diurnal variation of precipitation, not falling
into Hann's categories (a) and (b), over land and
adjoining sea areas. The "regional peculiarities"
mentioned in Hann's (1901) classification- and
there are far too many of such peculiarities-
appear to be due to this interaction. The
meso-scale wind circulations caused by
differential heating and cooling near rugged
terrain or near coast line separating land and
water surfaces may be regarded as time-varying
perturbations superimposed on the nearly
time-constant large-scale wind circulations.
There is interaction between these two distinct
wind circulations. A simple idealized case is
illustrated in Fig. 1.7(1). In this illustration, land
breeze at night and large-scale easterly trade.
winds blowing during day and night are in
opposite directions. In this case, near the coast
line, the resultant wind will continue to be
easterly at night but will be slower and
horizontally convergent in the neighbourhood of
the coast line. This horizontal velocity
LAND i SEA
1
I
·~----I··----
--·1--
-_.,-:..-
·.----11-----
~·----I ...·----
1
I
FIG. 1.7(1) : Idealized picture of interacting meso-scale
circulation (Land Breeze at night, shown by thin vectors)
and large-seale circulation (Easterly trade winds, shown
by thick vectors) (Source: Asnani, 1993).
 1-100 1.7 Diurnal Variation of Precipitation
convergence in the lower levels will cause
vertical upward motion favouring release of
convective instability in the neighbourhood of the
coast line. The opposite would happen during day
time when the sea breeze blowing from east
would augment and cause acceleration in the
large-scale easterly trade winds, horizontal
velocity divergence and subsidence of air in the
neighbourhood of the coast Jiae.. Such a situation
would lead to a minimum of precipitation in the
late afternoon and a maximum of precipitation
late in the night or early in the morning.
The above illustration is a simple idealized
picture presented to stress the role of interaction
between the meso-scale and the large-scale
circulations. In the real atmosphere, the
meso-scale and large-scale circulations have a
wide variety of patterns in direction and in
intensity, the meso-scale systems varying
relatively faster in time. Also, meso-scale
circulations arising from different orographic
features(e.g. land-sea contrast, sJoping terrain
and variation in frictional drag) may operate at
the same time and interact among themselves and
also with the large-scale wind flow, in different
ways. It can easily be appreciated that such
·interactions can cause a very wide variety of
patterns of diurnal variation of precipitation and
cloudiness. This variety of patterns is expected
particularly over rough terrain of the continents
and in the neighbourhood of coast lines
separating land surface from water surface of
oceans or lakes. How far does the coastal effect
extend inland and out into the sea? It is difficult
to answer this question quantitatively at present
but we can say that the influence of the coast line
penetrates deeper into the land and also into the
sea if:
a) Land mass has large areal extent and is
surrounded by large water mass;
b) Land mass has high mountain
elevation; and
c) Solar insolation is strong.
Some illustrations of such pronounced
interactions and corresponding patterns of
diurnal variation of precipitation are presented
below:
i) Florida Peninsula:
Burpee(l979) and Schwartz and Bosart
(1979) have pointed out that during northern
summer season, an east-west ridge line is often
oriented over Florida peninsula in USA, giving
large-scale westerly flow over the northern sector
of the east coast and easterly flow over the
southern sector of the east coast. During the
afternoon hours, the sea-breeze tends to come
from the east all along the east coast. Along the
northern sector of the east coast, the meso-scale
sea-breeze and the large-scale winds oppose each
other and tend to cause afternoon maximum in
precipitation; the reverse tends to happen along
the southern sector of the east coast. These
conclusions support the earlier analysis of Gentry
and Moore(l954) and of Frank et al.(l967) for
the same Florida peninsular areas leading to the
conclusion that early morning coastal showers
were more prevalent near the upwind coast and
afternoon deep convective activity was observed
near the downwind coast. Such behaviour has
also been numerically simulated by
Pielke(l974).
ii) Hawaii Island:
Leopold (1949) showed that diurnal
variation of precipitation at several locations in
Hawaii island could be qualitatively explained as
arising from the interaction between large-scale
trade winds and the local diurnal circulations in
the form of land-sea breezes.
iii) South Peninsula of India:
Along the west coast of India in general
and near Bombay in particular, during the
northern summer monsoon season
(June-September), there is maximum rainfall
activity during late night/early morning. The
large-scale winds are westerly. During late
night/early morning periods, there is retardation
of these winds due to opposing land breeze
augmented by downslope flow from the
mountains (Western Ghats). The horizontal
velocity convergence resulting from the
interaction between the large-scale westerlies on
one hand and meso-scale flow (land
breeze+downslope wind) on the other hand gives
the observed late night/early morning maximum
in precipitation.
Iv) East Africa (Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania):
This region has the following unique
features shown in Fig. 1.7(2) :
a) It is close to the equator, being located
between SON and 11oS. As such, insolation is
 1.7 Diurnal Variation of Precipitation 1·101

..
I
I
I'I-----If----\
'.""'.'If
...... "
r
--•• ,,
.• ,
,, •
-e.u.....
,,

"
,
•

"
.. • T.... t*.

, I
I I

,
" I

, ' i".,.
I'

II
,
11;;
~ •••

I...n'
L•• '
Io,om
..., l;teO m

n" I.oom
.... ., ilTOCm
I
,

LIII. nl' 3.g.0m

,
"L.:-_~:-_~-:-_..J..__L..:,...._~i£""u..-:-_.l.-:-_..l.._J-;:_-c.._-.J,r'I...c"'-"'_~.:J ;'
.z.. '0· .II· JI.I- •• - •• 40 41 41

FlG. 1.7(2): Physical features of East Africa (Asnani and Kinuthia, 1979; Asnani, 1993).
 1-102 1.7 Diurnal Variation of Precipitation

strong throughout the year. The interaction between the large-scale

b) Almost in the centre of this region is the
Lake Victoria (area - 60,000 km 2). It is the largest
lake in the tropical region. Equator passes right
across the lake. This lake gets late-night
thundershowers almost on all nights of the year.
c) Lake Victoria lies in a valley between two
mountain ranges running in nearly north-south
direction.
d) Indian Ocean washes the eastern coasts of
Kenya and Tanzania. The coast line is almost in
north-south direction. After a narrow coastal strip
about 100 km wide, the land rises steeply with Mt.
Kenya(5199 m) near the equator and Mt.
Kilimanjaro (5895 m) near 3°S.
These unique orographic features and
intense solar insolation provide a unique setting for
intense diurnal meso-scale circulations: land-sea
breezes on the east, upslope.downslope winds
towards east and west of the mountain ranges and
land-lake breezes on the shores of Lake Victoria.
Large-scale winds over the region are easterly
trades throughout the year, with a southerly
component during the northern summer and a
northerly component during the northern winter.
easterly trade winds and the intense meso-scale
circulations in many directions produce a variety of
patterns of diurnal variation of precipitation.
Hourly rainfall data of about 50 stations in this
region were examined by Asnani and Kinuthia
(1979) who identified ten zones on the basis of the
observed p-atterns of diurnal variation of
precipitation on yearly basis (Table 1.7(1)).
The authors attributed these patterns
mainly to interaction between large-scale easterly
trades and the meso-scale diurnal circulations
induced by land-sea breezes, land-lake breezes
and upslope-downslope winds. Schematic
diagram of diurnal meso-scale circulation in the
vertical(x,z) plane is shown in Fig. 1.7(3). The
diagram shows afternoon flow minus morning
flow.
Arrows at X,z grid network show the
direction and magnitude of the east-west
components of V 12 - V6 · VIZ represents
afternoon (1200 GMT) wind and V6 represents
morning (0600 GMT) wind. Shaded region
shows topography above sea level.
On the western slopes of the highlands,
there is a combined influence of lake breeze and

TABLE 1.7( 1) ; Patterns of diurnal variation of rainfall (annual) in East Africa

(Asnani and Kinuthia, 1979; Asnani, 1993).
NO. ZONES PERIOD
1. East coast Maximum Morning between 6 a.m. & noon
Minimum Evening between 6 p.m. & midnight

2. Eastern slopes of highlands of Kenya and Tanzania Maximum Between midnight & early morning
Minimum Around local noon
3. Highlands of Kenya and Tanzania Maximum Afternoon 3.00 to 6.00 p.m.
Minimum Morning 7.00 to 11.00 a.m.
4. Northeast coast of Lake Victoria Maximum Afternoon 3.00 to 6.00 p.m.
Minimum Morning 7.00 to 11.00 a.. m.

5. North and northwest coast of Lake Victoria 2 Maxima Early morning and early afternoon

6. West coast of Lake Victoria Maximum Morning 7.00 to 11.00 a.m.

Minimum Afternoon 3.00 to 6.00 p.m.
7. Southern coast of Lafe Victoria 2 Maximum Early morning and early afternoon

8. Lowlands of Uganda and Tanzania Maximum Afternoon 3.00 to 6.00 p.m.

Minimum Morning 7.00 to I LOO a.. m.

9. Highlands of Uganda and Northwestern Tanzania Maximum Afternoon 2.00 to 4.00 p.m.
Minimum Morning 7.00 to 4.00 a.m.

iD. Lowlands of Kenya Mixed

Patterns
 1.7 Diurnal Variation of Precipitation 1-103

....
minimum. Bukoba [Fig. 1.7(8)] on the west coast
~
~ 0 of Lake Victoria shows just the opposite, a
.. -;;"z .
C
~ Z
0 m
~
~ ;< maximum in the mid-morning and a minimum
~
~

::E
<;
> '"
0
late in evening_ Kisumu and Bukoba oscillations
0
•
Z
'" are just in opposite phases! Kampala [Fig. 1.7(9)]
~ which lies between Kisumu and Bukoba along
~

the coast of Lake Victoria shows two maxima and

0
~
two minima.
These observed patterns need to be

I
~
N quantitatively modelled but in the meanwhile,
I 0 these leave us in no doubt that it will be
N
Z mis-leading to try to classify them as continental
" or marine/coastal types. These arise mainly from
the interaction between large-scale and
0
meso-scale circulations.
~
1.7.2 Diurnal (24.hour) cycle of precipitation and
0 cloudiness over the oceans
0 There have been a number of
LAKE INDIAN
VICTORIA x_ OCEA.N investigations to see if there is any significant
SCALE OF WIND ARROW: -; = 5 knot diurnal (24-hour) cycle of precipitation and
FIG. 1.7(3) : Schematic Diagram of (Afternoon minus cloudiness over the oceans. In general,
morning) flow in the vertical (x,z) plane between Indian precipitation observation is more quantitative and
Ocean and Lake Victoria. Arrows show direction and more dependable than cloud observation.
magnitude of east -west component of (V12 - V6) at However, for precipitation observation, we need
centre of arrow. Shaded region shows topography above stationary observation platforms. Only stationary
sea level. (Scale of wind arrow as shown.). ships in the ocean, if any, could provide this
(Asnani and Kinuthia, 1979; Asnani, 1993). information. We have had practically no
the upslope wind. On the eastern slopes of these stationary ships on the open seas in the tropics for
highlands, there is combination of sea breeze and reasonably long periods of time to give
upslope flow. Sea-breeze circulation is shallower dependable estimates of the diurnal variation of
and weaker than lake-breeze circulation_ precipitation. Only recently, during GATE
A few typical patterns of diurnal variation experiment, we had some stationary ships,
of precipitation over east Africa are shown in though for a relatively short period, to give some
Figs. 1.7(4) to 1.7(9). In these figures, time is estimates.
shown in East African Standard Time (EAST) The earlier accepted concept has been that
which is 3 hours ahead of GMT. Y-axis shows due to solar heating of the tropical ground during
annual rainfall (mm), hour by hour. the day and the presence of convective instability
East coast stations [Fig. 1.7(4)] show a in the tropical atmosphere, there is maximum
marked minimum in the evening when the precipitation over land during afternoon/evening
easterly trades are augmented by the sea breeze. and minimum during the night Such preference
Eastern slopes of the highlands [Fig. 1.7(5)] show of time may not occur over the oceans. On the
a maximum late in the night when the easterly other hand, after Hann's (1901) classification. it
trades are opposed by the land breeze and the has been believed for a long time that tropical
down-slope flow. The highland stations [Fig. oceanic cloud and rain observations do exhibit
1.7(6)] show a well-marked peak in the maximum amounts and frequency during the
afternoon/evening. Figures 1.7(7), 1.7(8) and hours of darkness, compared to the hours of
1.7(9) show varying and interesting features daylight (Brier and Simpson, 1969).
around Lake Victoria. Kisumu [Fig. 1.7(7)] on Observationally, the existence of the
the north-eastern shore of Lake Victoria shows a diurnal cycle as stated above had generally been
late evening maximum and mid-morning accepted. However, subsequently, there have
1-104 1.7 Diurnal Variation of Precipitation

EAST COAST
ZANZIBAfl
OAA-ES-SAlAA"I
MQhlBASA
LAMU
MAl.1IHH

'60

~~.
'40

'20
E
E foa
,"
80 ~_~_-_c_--"_._"--'"lt"_w.:(:;,-: ~ ""'~'
60
....... -_.~--t".-.:;' I<" ······11..... «..~ ......"(,
...."' . " --"1'• ......,.•••••••••_••. .:a......." •• •• 'X"
40

20
.- . -- .....
00 L----L--,.,..
02 04 OG 06 \0 \4 ,. '6 20 22 24

TIME IN EAST {GMT +i\

E ASTERN SLOPES

NOSHI
200 OLOEANl
HAIROI!II
MAK1N[)U

"
"0
I.U,hlUNGU

"0
"0 .......
e .• ····
E 100 •.... .......
...•
'0 ......•. .•.... .•....

HIGMI...AHDS 0 .. 1.";"1'011

lfIT.LI
IUI:IUCHO
1lA1lY1I1l1
..AIIloIMl
U.lIDlltT
...... "'......
~

..---
MOLO
~ • ••Oll
UUATOIII
1r.IUIUICUI
.ltll

.0
•
•0

~Li:;.::·"-~··~_·~~~~~~~~-7.c----:::--·~··;:::~:::;
....•
02 ()4 oe 0$ 10 '2 ... 16 lit to 22 24
TIME IN EAST IGMT+3\

FIGS. 1.7(4),1.7(5),1.7(6): Annual diurnal variation of rainfall (Asnani and Kinuthia, 1979; Asnani, 1993).
 1.7 Diurnal Variation of Precipitation I-lOS

02 04 06 08 10 12 14 16 I. 20 22 24
TIME IN EAST (GMT +!l)

_ _ eUK08A

E
E
/
'"
'0

FIGS. 1.7(7), 1.7(8), 1.7(9) : Annual diurnal variation of rainfall (Asnani and Kinuthia. 1979; Asnani. 1993).
 1-106 1.7 Diurnal Variation of Precipitation

been a number of investigations on this point,
giving somewhat conflicting evidence, some in
favour of early morning maximum and others in
_favour of afternoon maximum rain/cloudiness
over the oceans. A brief review of these
investigations will be given here.
i) Gray and Jacobson (1977) made a fairly
extensive survey of literature and also analysis of
observations in respect of the diurnal variation of
deep cumulus convection over the tropical
oceans. Their conclusions have been as follows:
a) Tropical West Pacific Ocean:
Gray and Jacobson (1977) presented the
results of Ruprecht and Gray (1976) who studied
western Pacific tropical rainfall during morning
(0700-1200 LT) and evening (1900-2400 LT).
They distinguished between different intensities
of rainfall as shown in Table 1.7(2).
TABLE 1.7 (2) : Comparison of morning versus evening
occurrence of various rainfall intensities for Western
Pacific cloud clusters. (from Ruprecht and Gray. 1976;
Asnani, 1993).
Rain Intensity Percent of total precipitation
I
Yap, Guam and Ponape) showed distinct
morning and afternoon peaks throughout the
year. The four small-island stations (Johnston
Island, Majuro, Wake and Truck) showed a
maximum around sunrise and a minimum in the
evening. The inference was drawn that tropical
oceanic areas represented by small-island
stations have morning maximum; when the
orographic land effect, as in case of large-island
stations, becomes appreciable, another maximum
also manifests itself in the evening. Stratification
by intensities of hourly rainfall showed that these
patterns of diurnal variation of precipitation were
most marked for heavy intensities; the light rain
(,;; 0.25 em / hr ) curves were almost flat showing
negligible diurnal variation for both small as well
as large island stations.
b) Atlantic Ocean:
Gray and Jacobson (1977) quote the works
of Weickman et aI. (1977), Martin (1975) and
Smith and Vonder Haar (personal
communication) to suggest that during the GATE
period, there was some evidence of intense deep

,,
i .
I
recorded durin 5-hour neriods.
(0700-1200 LT) (1900-2400 LT)
convection showing preference for morning
hours over the east central north Atlantic region.
However, detailed analysis of rainfall in the
Cluster pptn. GATE region convinced Gray and Jacobson
>1.0cmh~1 -75 - 25 (1977) that the time of occurrence of maximum
O.25-1.0cmh-:-
1
-60 -40 rainfall in the GATE area was in the afternoon
and as such was to be considered as anomalous.
trace-D. I em h- I - 55 - 45
The prevalence of this afternoon heavy rainfall at
Total -70 -30
the GATE ships was attributed to west African
squall lines which travelled across the land region
All 13 years of ppln whether
associated with cluster Dotn. or not
and hence did not represent typical oceamc
phenomenon_
> 2.0 em h- J 70 30
c) Over-all Oceanic Conditions:
1.0-2.0 em h- 1 60 40
Considering' the evidence quoted above
0.5-1.0 em h- I 57 43 and other evidence given in their paper, Gray and
I
0.1-0.5 em h- 55 45 Jacobson (1977) concede that one still requires
trace-D. I em h- 1 50 50 many years of data from many stations to confirm
Total 57 43 the existence of large diurnal cycle (morning
maximum, evening minimum) in heavy
It is seen from these figures that heavier convection as a general oceanic phenomenon.
rainfall occurs more during morning than during However, in association with organized weather
evening. As the rainfall intensities become systems over the oceans, the cycle becomes more
smaller, the dominance of the morning maximum evident.
decreases. d) Cause of the diurnal cycle associated with
Gray and Jacobson (1977) also analysed organized weather systems:
hourly precipitation data for eight island stations Gray and Jacobson (1977) attributed this
in the western tropical Pacific for 13-year period diurnal cycle to radiative processes and
(1961-73). The four large-island stations (Koror, consequent differences in vertical circulation
 1.7 Diurnal Variation of Precipitation
patterns connecting the organized meso-scale
cloud region and the surrounding cloud-free
region. The temperature contrast between
relatively warm cloud region and the relatively
cool cloud-free region in the lower and middle
troposphere is more during night-time than
during day-time. Hence, the direct vertical
circulation with upward motion in the cloud
region gets enhanced in intensity during
night-time, compared to day-time.
The model needed to be supported by
quantitative estimates of horizontal velocity
divergence and vertical velocities at different
levels.
Some support of this type has since been
provided by Fingerhut (1978) who constructed a
numerical P.E. model of tropical cloud cluster
disturbance. He first succeeded in obtaining a
quasi-steady state disturbance. To this, he applied
a temporally varying radiation model based on
the work of Dopplick (1970), Starr (1976) and
Gray (1976). He obtained vertical velocities and
diurnal variation of precipitation giving a
maximum in the morning (- 0600 LT) and a
minimum in the evening (-1800 LT).
ii) As already pointed out (Gray and
Jacobson, 1977), the time of occurrence of
maximum rainfall in the GATE area was found
to be in the afternoon. This finding for the GATE
area during the GATE period has been further
confirmed by McGarry and Reed (1978) and
Holle et al. (1979).
iii) Murakami (1979) looked at the variations
in deep convective activity over the GATE AlB
area as obtained from the digital IR data of SMS-I
satellite during the GATE period. The variations
showed two well-marked periodicities:
a) 4-5 day mode associated with easterly
waves moving westwards across the west African
land mass, aild
b) Diurnal mode with maximum
convective activity in the late afternoon (-1800
hrs Local Time) and minimum in the morning
(-0600 hrs LT) over the GATE AlB area. This
oscillation was not confined to the vicinity of the
west African land mass but stretched far deep
westwards towards the middle Atlantic ocean
roughly along lOoN. Also, the amplitude of this
diurnal oscillation on the days of disturbed
weather associated with the 4-5 day mode was
1-107
about twice as large as on other days; while the
amplitude doubled on disturbed days, the phase
remained nearly in tact.
Co-existing with this zonal strip of late
afternoon maximum convective activity along
lOON, there is another zonal strip to the south,
over the Atlantic ocean, where the diurnal cycle
of convective activity is nearly in opposite phase
(afternoon minimum).
With reference to the axis of mean
maximum convective activity during the same
season, the afternoon maximum convective
activity tends to occur to the north of it, while the
morning maximum convective activity tends to
occur to the south of it. On the basis of this
observation, Murakami (1979) speculated that
the parallel of latitude along which convection is
enhanced may be oscillating diurnally, advancing
northward during the day and retreating south
ward at night.
This is a very interesting observation and
needs to be investigated in greater depth.
iv) Looking at these somewhat anomalous and
intriguing results for the GATE area during the
GATE period, Jordan (1980) examined the
Summaries of Synoptic Meteorological
Observations (SSMO) as prepared by the Naval
Weather Service (1976) for Atlantic ocean areas
extending about 500km from the West African
coast into the ocean and bordering on the GATE
area.. These summaries were based on more than
2,50,000 ship reports. He combined the
precipitation frequency data for two successive
standard observation times (0000 & 0300 GMT,
0600 & 0900 GMT, 1200 & 1500 GMT, 1800 &
2100 GMT). The local time (LT) over the entire
region considered by Jordan lags behind GMT by
half an hour to two hours. The combined 0600 and
0900 GMT observation was taken to represent early
morning period while combined (0000 + 0300)
GMT, (I 200+ 1500)GMT and (l800+2100)GMT
observations were taken to represent conditions in,
respectively, midnight, mid-day and
afternoon-evening.
Jordan (1980) came to a firm conclusion
that the analysis of this large set of ships'
observations showed an early morning maximum
in precipitation frequency throughout the year.
He realized that this finding for area close to the
GATE area was very different from the GATE
 1-108 1.7 Diurnal Variation of Precipitation
area observations during the GATE period.
v) Using the infra-red irradiance data
observed by GMS-l geostationary satellite,
Murakami (l983a) quantified deep convection
over and near Indonesia and north Australia
during northern winter (December 1978-January
1979) and northern summer (July-Aug 1979). He
used 10 latitude-longitude grid. He examined the
diurnal variation of deep convection over the land
and the ocean in this region. He found a distinct
contrast in the phase of the diurnal cycle between
the land and the adjacent open sea. The land
showed suppressed convective activity in the
morning hours with a minimum around 9 a.m.,
local time; the convective activity rapidly
enhanced in the afternoon, reaching a maximum
around 6 p.m., local time. In contrast, adjacent
ocean clearly showed enhancement of the
convective activity during morning hours and
suppressed convective activity in the afternoon
and early night.
vi) Xu and Randall (1995) analysed the role
of radiative processes in creating late night/early
morning maximum in precipitation/cloudiness
over open sea in association with cloud clusters.
They came to the conclusion that Gray-Jacobson
(1977) mechanism is of secondary importance in
creating late night/early morning maximum in
precipitation over the open sea. The primary
mechanism, according to these authors, is the
direct interaction between the radiation and the
cloud cluster. During day-time, the incoming
solar radiation is absorbed in the upper portions
of the cloud masses and causes warming there.
This relative warming of the upper portion of the
cloud causes day-time vertical stabilization of the
cloud mass. At night-time, infrared radiative
processes cause relative warming in the lower
portion of the cloud and relative cooling near its
top, thus destabilizing the cloud mass in the
vertical. This progressively builds up instability
inside the cloud mass during nighttime. Hence,
there is maximum instability and maximum
precipitation during late night/early morning
hours in the area of cloud cluster over ocean
areas.
vii) Looking at the whole mass of
observational material and arguments
summarized above, we arrive at the following
conclusions in respect of the diurnal (24-hour)
cycle of precipitation and cloudiness over the
oceans:
a) The influence of land extends upto a
few hundred kilometers into the ocean; the
greater the horizontal extent and height of the
land mass, the larger is the horizontal extent of
the ocean area which is influenced. Observed
diurnal variation of precipitation/cloudiness in
this influenced ocean area may not be
representative of conditions in the open seas far
away from the coastal areas.
b) Most of the observational material
analysed to date is not altogether free from the
influence of land masses mentioned above. Still,
the evidence suggests late night/early morning
maximum in precipitation/cloudiness over open
seas in association with cloud clusters.
Theoretical reason for late night/early
morning maximum in precipitation/cloudiness
appears to be a combination of mechanisms
proposed by Gray-Jacobson (1977) and
Xu-Randall (1995). Relative importance of the
two mechanisms is yet to be settled. In any case,
radiative processes play the main role in this
observed phenomenon.
When not associated with cloud clusters,
evidence for late night/early morning maximum
in precipitation/cloudiness is there but not yet
conclusive. Additional analysis of satellite and
ship observations is required to settle this
question.
1.7.3 Semi-diurnal (lZ-hour) cycle of
precipitation and cloudiness over land and oceans:
In addition to the diurnal (24-hour) cycle
of precipitation and cloudiness mentioned above,
semi-diurnal (l2-hour) cycle has also been
suggested as existing over the tropical region
(Malkus, 1964; Brier and Simpson, 1969;
Inchauspe, 1970; Wallace, 1975). A sort of
theoretical explanation for such a cycle has also
been advanced, linking it with the well-known
tidal pressure wave in the atmosphere (Malkus,
1964). Since the tidal pressure wave has both the
12- hourly and the 24-hourly components. the
corresponding precipitation wave is also
supposed to have both these components. The
relationship between pressure, horizontal wind
con, "rgence and cloudiness postulated by
Malkus (1964) is schematically illustrated in Fig
1.7(10). Horizontal wind convergence is
 1.7 Diurnal Variation of Precipitation 1-109

compared to days with small 5-6 hourly pressure

o 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 2022 24 LMT
changes.
PRESSURE WalIace (1975) examined the frequencies
- - - - 1000·0
of precipitation and thunderstorms over more
than 100 stations in the United States and
detected 12-hourly cycle over most of the
COf\lV---- DIV - - CONV~ southern parts of the country, the maximum
probability of precipitation occurring around 7
a.m. and 7 p.m. local time, supporting the
findings of Brier and Simpson (I969). He also
H
came across some cases in which the amplitude
of the 12-hourly cycle was even larger than that
of the 24-hourly cycle; however, such cases
LMT occurred in localized regions in which the
amplitude of the 24-hourly cycle was smalI. By
0700 1300 1900
and large, the 24-hourly cycle was dominant over
a a USA.
We should be aware of the difficulties
FIG. 1.7(10) : Schematic illustration of hypothesised
relations between daily tropical pressure wave,
which have existed in establishing the existence
convergence in tropical easterlies and cloudiness. Land of 12-hourly cycle in cloudiness and
H indicate low and high of surface pressure. precipitation. These difficulties falI in the
(Brier and Sirhpson. 1969; Malkus. 1964; Asnani. 1993). following three categories:
i) Nearly all observations have been made
supposed to cause both rising surface pressure as from land masses where the 24-hourly cycle and
well as upward vertical motion and cloudiness in other cycles have much larger amplitudes. It may
the lOwer troposphere. The horizontal wind be noted that even smalI island stations are not
convergence/ di vergence is expected to come free from this land effect.
from the zonal velocity variation of tropical ii) All clouds do not produce rain. There
easterlies (Stolov, 1955; Shibata, 1964). may be cycle in cloudiness but not in rain. These
Maximum cloudiness occurs when the rising cloud observations are generally visual,
pressure tendency and horizontal wind non-instrumental. Also clouds occur at different
convergence are maximum (7 a.m., 7 p.m.) while levels at one and the same time. Further, cloud
minimum cloudiness occurs when the falling observations are very difficult at night time.
pressure tendency and horizontal wind iii) Rainfall or cloudiness can take only
divergence are maximum (I a.m., I p.m.). Using positive values. If either of these parameters, say
the pressure and weather data of Batavia (now rainfall, were nearly zero during the night and
called Djakarta 6.80oS, 106.45°E), and Wake high during the day time with symmetry around
Island (l9.29°N, 166.65°E), Brier and Simpson a noon-time peak, the harmonic analysis of the
(1969) have produced some additional rainfall data would show not only 24-hour cycle
observational support for this hypothesis. At a but also 12-hour cycle with maxima around noon
tropical station like Djakarta, the surface pressure and around midnight. This creates ambiguity in
is practically always rising from 4 a.m. to 9 a.m. interpretation of 12-hour cycle, particularly in
and from 4 p.m. to 10 p.m. local time; it is always those cases where the amplitude of the 24-hour
falling from 9 a.m. to 4 p.m. and from 10 p.m. to cycle in precipitation is comparable to its mean
4 a.m. On the average, the hourly rainfall shows value over 24 hours. Due to this ambiguity,
maxima near dawn and sunset. Wake Island also Wallace (1975) took special care to base his
showed similar maxima near dawn and sunset. inference about the existence of 12-hour
Days with large 5-6 hourly pressure changes also precipitation cycle over USA mainly during the
showed correspondingly large cloudiness winter season when the 24-hour cycle is quite
changes during the same local time periods small.
 1-110 1.8 Summary
In spite of these difficulties of
observation and analysis, there is a strong
suggestion that semi-diurnal cyclicity does exist
in precipitation and cloudiness over the tropical
region, with maxima around 7 a.m. and 7 p.m.
loql time and that it is linked to the well-known
semi-diurnal pressure wave in the atmosphere.
1.7.4 Summary of Diurnal Variation of
Precipitation in the Tropics
This subject is presented under three
sub-headings:
i) Diurnal (24-hour) cycle ofprecipitation
over tropical land stations: Afternoon insolation
reduces the static stability of the tropical
atmosphere and tends to cause afternoon
maximum in precipitation. Nocturnal cooling
increases static stability and tends to cause night
minimum in precipitation. However, terrain
irregularities over the continents and near the
coasts cause intense diurnal meso-scale
circulations and also variations in the intensity
and positions of synoptic-scale circulations.
These meso-scale circulations, particularly the
intense meso-scale circulations interact with the
prevailing seasonal large-scale circulations and
cause organized low-level convergence and
consequent release of convective instability of
the tropical atmosphere. These interactions can
cause and do cause a wide variety of patterns of
diurnal variation of precipitation over land
stations including coastal stations. Half of the
coast line may get maximum precipitation in the
afternoon and the other half may get just a
minimum in precipitation in the afternoon.
Eastern slope of a mountain may get afternoon
maximum and the western slope may get
afternoon minimum and vice versa. Such land
effect may extend a few hundred kilometers
inland and also out in to the sea. In general, the
effect extends deeper if the land mass has large
areal extent and is surrounded by large water
mass, if the land mass has high mountain
elevations, and if the solar insolation is strong.
ii) Diurnal (24-hour) cycle of
precipitation/cloudiness over the oceans: There
are relatively few observations which represent
real open-ocean conditions. It is diffic\llt to
eliminate land effect from island stations. One
requires more observations to confirm the
existence of large diurnal cycle of
precipitation/cloudiness over the oceans in
general. However, there is evidence that in
association with organized weather systems and
cloud clusters, heavy convection over the oceans
has a maximum in the morning and a minimum
in the evening. This has been supported both by
observations and by theoretical modelling. The
cycle becomes obscure for light precipitation/
cloudiness over the open oceans.
iii) Semi-diurnal (12-hour) cycle of
precipitation and cloudiness over land and
oceans: There has been a real difficulty in
isolating this 12-hour cycle from the available
observations. Nevertheless, there is a strong
suggestion that semi-diurnal cyclicity does exist
in precipitation/cloudiness over the tropical
region, with maxima around 7 a.m. and 7 p.m.
and that it is linked to the semi-diurnal tidal wave
in the tropical atmosphere.
1.8 Summary
SPECIAL FEATURES OF TROPICAL
METEOROLOGY
1. History:
History of Meteorology has been traced
from early times in respect of observations of
winds, rain and clouds. The science of
Meteorology entered a second phase when
thermometer, barometer, anemometer and other
instruments carne to be used in the beginning of
17 th century. The first systematic attempt at
preparing a weather map appears to have been
made in 1820, using the data assembled in
1783.The first telegraphic communication
between two cities, Washington and Baltimore
took place in 1843. The first weather maps based
on telegraphic transmission of meteorological
data were publicly displayed in Washington D.C.
in 1850 and in France in 1855.
The foundation of World Meteorological
Organization can perhaps be traced to the first
International Meteorological Conference which
took place in Brussels in August, 1853. In
September. 1874, a decision was taken that there
should be the publication of synchronous
observations from 1st January. 1875 by various
national meteorological departments. Many
meteorological departments of the world were
organized around this time. The first international
 1.8 Summary 1-111

co-operation of joint observational and analysis Computers came on the scene. Interaction
programme took place in the form of the First between meteorology and computer science
International Polar Year 1882-83. helped in the growth of both sciences. Satellites
In the field of understanding of came in late 1950s and helped in the explosive
meteorology, Halley (1686) sought to give an growth and revolution in the field of
• explanation for the trade winds in terms of meteorology. Satellites have contributed towards
differential heating of the earth surface and its augmentation of observations over the whole
rotation. Hadley (1735) gave the idea of globe, day and night, through a great depth of the
meridional cell with upward motion near the atmosphere. Computers helped the young
equator and downward motion in the higher mathematician-meteorologists to prepare
latitudes. Towards the end of 19 th century, V. numerical models of weather systems ranging
Bjerknes enunciated his famous circulation from cloud cells to general circulation of the
theorem distinguishing between the dynamics of earth's atmosphere and also of atmospheres of
baroclinic atmosphere from that of the hitherto other planets, Recently, the effort has been to
conventional barotropic fluids. make computer forecasts of weather a couple of
weeks in advance. International co-operation has
A few pilot balloon observatories were
been established in the fields of training of
started and even a few meteorograph
meteorologists, organizing special expeditions
measurements were initiated towards the close of
for intensive observations over selected regions,
the 19 th century and in the first decade of the 20 th
round-the-clock exchange of observations,
century. During the First World War (1914 - forecasts and warnings and in the field of
1918), the importance of meteorological meteorogical research. Many universities have
observations for military purposes was realized. taken up education and research in the field of
As a result, the number of observatories atmospheric science. A number of fundamental
increased. Immediately after the war, frontal problems in atmospheric science have been
model of extra-tropical cyclones was formulated. enunciated and partially solved. A few of the
In the field of synoptic meteorology, this model problems are dynamical instability, interaction
has been in use in forecasting offices till to-day. between different scales of motion in the
In 1939, Rossby came up with the idea that atmosphere, geostrophic turbulence;
the extra-tropical cyclone waves seen on the daily parameterization of physical processes,
charts were a special type of waves basically pressure-wind adjustment, trapping of waves in
connected to the rotation of the earth, coriolis the atmosphere, atmospheric tides and weather
force and its variation with latitude. Second modification. Climatology has emerged not only
World War (1939 - 1945) highlighted the as a science of statistics related to past data but
importance of meteorology in land,naval and air also as the science of understanding the past
operations of the military forces. During the war, records of a few millions of years and making
meteorological services expanded in every projections into the future for a few thousand
country throughout the world, Tropical systems years. Special consciousness has grown to keep
came to be distinguished from extra-tropical the environment clean, in particular to reduce the
meteorological systems. Frontal concepts of the atmospheric pollution, to utilise meteorology in
middle latitudes did not seem to apply in the the fields of economic development of the world.
tropics, Also special methods of analysis Wind energy and solar energy are being tapped
appeared to be necessary for forecasting in the as inexhaustible sources of energy,
tropics. Technological development has helped in
Immediately after the Second World War, preparing laboratory models of several
meteorology witnessed a sort of revolution. atmospheric phenomena. Meteorologists have
Meteorological weather systems seen on daily also participated in modification of weather on
weather charts came to be recognized as Rossby scales of clouds, fog and even tropical cyclones.
waves. Young mathematicians took to 2. Special features of the tropics :
meteorology as a career. They sought Special features of the tropics which
quantitative methods of forecasting weather. distinguish tropical meteorology from
extra-tropical meteorology are non- validity of
1-112 108 Summary
simple geostrophic approximation,
non-applicability of frontal models, seasonality
of weather and dominance of diurnal cycle.
Monsoon
The traditional idea that monsoon is
confined to Southeast Asia, Africa and North
Australia has to be given up. Monsoon is there
throughout the tropical region of the Earth
including tropical oceans, southwest USA,
Cc' ,tral America and northern and central parts of
South America. In fact, monsoon is present
wherever ITCZ is present and moves north-south,
following the apparent movement of the Sun
through the year. Monsoon is mainly defined by
cycle of relatively wet and dry seasons. Of
course, this rain cycle is accompanied by and also
caused by the cycle in pressure and wind
circulations.
On the poleward sides of the tropics are
the sub-tropics characterized by quasi-stationary
sub-tropical anti-cyclones. Substantially
modified, in position and intensity, by the
underlying Earth surface, the sub-tropical
anti-cyclones are most manifest in the Southern
Hemisphere, with a dominant wave No.4. These
sub-tropical anti-cyclones are separated from
each other by sub-tropical Trough Lines, which
meet in the col regions.
These sub-tropical trough lines also swing
westward and eastward in association with
migratory extra-tropical cyclone waves.
Some of these sub-tropical trough lines, in
quasi-stationary positions, carry the moist warm
tropical air hom near ITCZ iri the tropics to the
sub-tropical regions and CTeale monsoon-like
cycle of relatively wet and dry seasons in the
proximity of the poleward side of the sub-tropical
anti-cyclones. Summer monsoon in northeast
China and in southwest USA are examples of this
type of Monsoon climate. The equatorward side
of sub-tropical anti-cyclones gets plenty of
summer monsoon rainfall; poleward side of the
sub-tropical anti-cyclones gets slightly more
rainfall during winter season than during summer
season.
30 Special analysis for the tropics:
Special charts need to be prepared in the
tropics in respect of 24-hour changes in pressure,
temperature and winds, as also anomaly
charts,(p. I) charts, (X,I) strips and (y,I) strips.
Also, we need wind analysis in addition to
pressure analysis and additional levels between
the present standard isobaric levels, specially in
the lower troposphere.some hints are provided
for wind analysis in the tropics.
40 Scale analysis for the tropics:
With f = 10- 5 s·l, Asnani (1993)
performed scale analysis for synoptic-scale
migratory waves and for planetary-scale
quasi-stationary waves, for a series of diabatic
heating rates. It is seen that for synoptic-scale
systems, the vorticity and divergence equations
take the forms
il~2
at + V,· V ~2 + v,13 = 0 1.4(14)
2 J (v2'''2) + "213- f~2 + v q"
2
=0 1.4(15)
respectively, not only for dry adiabatic processes
as found by Charney (1963) but also for
precipitation process with QICI' _2.5" C/day. This
extends the conclusion of Murakami (l972a)
who took QIC p - IOC/day.
For planetary-scale quasi-stationary
waves, we are led to the truncated vorticity and
divergence equations
V2 · V 1;,+V, 13=0 1.4(52)
2
"213-f~2+V q" =0 1.4(53)
for diabatic heating rates QIC"S, 0.25°C/day.
So Pressure-Wind Adjustment:
The work of Rossby (1936, 1937, 1938) is
mentioned, with particular reference to Rossby' s
radius of deformation. Obukhov's (1949) work is
presented in some detail. It is shown that in
respect of time variation, motions can be split up
into two components ;-
a) Stationary motions satisfying
geostrophic relationship and carrying the totality
of potential vorticity; and
b) GraVity wave motions carrying zero
potential vorticity.
For infinite horizontal extent of a
barotropic fluid, it is shown that the gravity wave
energy moves out from the region of initial
perturbation and that after SUfficiently long
period of time I »Rlc (where c is the maximum
velocity of external gravity waves), the amplitude
of the gravity wave tends to zero. For some
simple cases, it is shown that the pressure field
tends to adjust itself to be in geostrophic balance
with the initial wind field if the characteristic
 1.8 Summary
horizontal length scale of the unbalanced
pressure-wind system is small compared to
Rossby's radius of deformation. The opposite
happens if the characteristic horizontal length of
the unbalanced pressure-wind system is large
compared to Rossby's radius of deformation. It is
inferred that for synoptic-scale motions in the
tropics, conditions are favourable for pressure
field to adjust itself to be in geostrophic balance
with the initial wind field, while the opposite
tendency exists in extra-tropical latitudes. In both
cases, the balance is achieved between the
pressure field and the rotational component of the
wind field. Recent research work has suggested
that in the presence of realistic forcings like
diabatic heating and orography, the balanced
wind is not entirely rotational and non-divergent,
but it contains a small proportion of irrotational
and divergent component of wind as well. In the
tropics, on synoptic scale, the wind field contains
relatively larger permanent component than the
pressure field. For this reason, the need for
accurate wind observations is greater in the
tropics than in the extra-tropics.
6. Atmospheric tides:
Due to presence of atmospheric tides in
the atmosphere, pressure tendency has to be
analysed for 24-hour periods in the tropics as
against analysis of 3-hour pressure tendencies in
the extra-tropics. Near the sea level, the 24-hour
and the 12-hour pressure waves due to
atmospheric tides are given by
P, = 0.593 cos 3<p. sin(t + 12°) 1.6(1)
3 the atmosphere, Lamb (1910) showed that for
(P2 ),""""",,,, = 1.16 cos <p . sin (2t + 158°) 1.6(2)
(P 21,x>/nc = 0.0425(3sin 2<p- 1) . sin(2t- 2 A+ 118°)
1.6(3)
where P, represents 24-hour pressure
wave, P2 represents the 12-hour pressure wave. t
is local time in degrees and A. is the longitude.
The equatorial 12-hour wave is migratory while
the polar 12-hour wave is a standing wave. The
12-hour standing wave has received relatively
less attention. The 12-hour migratory wave with
surface amplitude about twice as large as the
amplitude of the 24-hour migratory wave has
received much attention in literature. Laplace
(1749-1827) showed that tidal oscillations of an
isothermal atmosphere undergoing isothermal
changes were analogous to the tidal oscillations
1-113
of an ocean of homogeneous incompressible
fluid having same "equivalent depth".
The cause of the 24-hour and the 12-hour
migratory pressure waves could be gravitational
andlor thermal. If the cause was mainly
gravitational. then the lunar tidal wave would
have an amplitude about twice as large as the
solar tidal wave. In the atmosphere, the lunar tidal
wave is found to be negligibly small compared to
the solar tidal waves. Hence simple gravitational
explanation had difficulties. If, on the other hand,
the cause was thermal, then the diurnal wave
should be stronger than the semidiurnal wave.
Observations showed otherwise. Hence there
were difficulties with thermal explanation also.
In 1882, Kelvin suggested that probably,
the atmosphere as a whole oscillated like an
ocean and that its period of free oscillation was
12-hours ± 3 minutes. In such a case, the
regularly recurring 12-hourly solar gravitational
tidal potential would enhance, about lOa-fold
through resonance, the magnitude of the natural
12-hr oscillation of the atmosphere, to give the
observed magnitUde of the oscillation. This
would account for the relative largeness of the
semi-diurnal pressure wave compared to the
diurnal pressure wave. It would also explain the
observed magnitude of the semi-diurnal pressure
wave in absolute terms. Much attention was not
paid to the diurnal pressure wave which was
considered to be caused by solar heating through
a great depth of the atmosphere. Nor was much
attention paid to the standing semi-diurnal polar
pressure wave. In a search for equivalent depth of
this resonance theory, the equivalent depth of the
atmosphere should be 7.84 km. Analysis of
pressure wave excited by the Krakatao eruption
of nth August 1883 suggested that the equivalent
depth of the atmosphere was also 10.4 km.
Search began for 2 equivalent depths of the
atmosphere, 7.84 km and 10.4 km. Several
famous geo-physicists exchanged arguments
about the correct formula to calculate the
equivalent depth of the atmosphere. In 1936,
Taylor suggested that there was a double infinity
of equivalent depths of the atmosphere, one pair
corresponding to each vertical profile of
temperature in the atmosphere. In 1937, Pekeris
came out with a brilliant calculation showing that
for the then known vertical profile of temperature
in the atmosphere, there were two equivalent
1-114 1.8 Summary
depths, 7.84 km and lOA km. The problem of
semidiurnal pressure wave appeared to have been
solved.
Post-war measurements in the late 1940s
and in 1950s gave vertical profiles of temperature
which yielded equivalent depths very different
from 7.84 and lOA km. Second major difficulty
with Taylor-Pekeris theory was that it expected a
phase reversal near 30 km level, which was not
found to be present in the actual atmosphere.
In late 196Os, Chapman and Lindzen came
out with a theory that thermal forcings were all
important while the gravitational forcings were
of no great significance. Radiation properties of
water vapour and ozone were considered to
provide the necessary thermal forcings in the
lower and upper atmosphere. It was suggested
that the diurnal wave has larger amplitude than
the semi-diurnal wave in the upper atmosphere
but that it gets trapped in the upper atmosphere
while the semi-diurnal wave, even though
smaller in amplitude, pervades the whole
atmosphere and hence the semi-diurnal pressure
wave appears stronger than the diurnal pressure
wave near the surface of the earth. For the time
being, Chapman-Lindzen theory of thermal
forcings appears to be the best avaiiable in the
field. Some of its difficulties have been sought to
be resolved by adding se?sonal flow patterns to
the basic field of zero motion originally assumed
in Chapman-Lindzen computations. This theory
has also been extended to atmospheres of other
planets. Chapman-Lindzen theory is still not free
from difficulties. Two of its major difficulties are
that this theory also expects a phase reversal of
semi-diurnal pressure wave near 30 km level
which is not observed and also it does not attempt
to explain the polar standing semi-diurnal wave
at all.
7, Diurnal Variation of Precipitation in the
Tropics :
Historically, Hann's (1901) classification
has greatly influenced subsequent literature on
this subject. According to him, in continental
climates, most precipitation falls in the afternoon,
while in the maritime and coastal climates most
precipitation occurs at night or during early
morning; exceptions to this rule constitute
regional peculiarities seen only in some seasons.
Subsequently, it has been found that Hann's
classification fails to explain many of the
observed variations of precipitation patterns of
the diurnal wave in precipitation. There are too
many exceptions to Hann's classification; that
some other rule seems to guide the patterns. To
analyse this problem, we have presented the
observational material under 3 sub-headings:
i) Diurnal (24-hour) cycle of precipitation
over tropical land stations.
il) Diurnal (24-hour) cycle of
precipitation/cloudiness over the oceans.
iii) Semi-diurnal (12-hour) cycle of
precipitation and cloudiness over land and
oceans.
Our conclusions are as follows:
i) Afternoon insolation reduces the static
stability of the tropical atmosphere and tends to
cause afternoon maximum in precipitation over
land. Nocturnal cooling increases static stability
and tends to cause night minimum in
precipitation over land. However, terrain
irregularities over the continents and near the
coasts cause intense diurnal meso-scale
circulations and also variations in the intensities
and positions of synoptic-scale circulations.
These circulations, particularly the intense
meso-scale circulations, interact with the
prevailing seasonal large-scale circulations and
cause a wide variety of patterns of diurnal
variation of precipitation over land stations
including coastal stations. One half of the coastal
line may get maximum precipitation in the
afternoon while the other half may get an
afternoon minimum in precipitation. Similarly,
one side of a mountain may get afternoon
maximum and the other side may get an
afternoon minimum.
ii) There are relatively few observations
which present real open-ocean conditions.
However, there is evidence that in association
with organised weather systems and cloud
clusters, heavy convection over the oceans has a
maximum in the morning and a minimum in the
evening. This cycle becomes obscure for light
precipitation/cloudiness over the open oceans.
Radiative processes appear to be the main
cause for this observed phenomenon, through
combination of mechanisms proposed by
Gray-Jacobson (1977) and Xu-Randall (1995).
iii) There is a strong suggestion that
semi-diurnal cycle exists in precipitation /
cloudiness over the tropical region, with maxima
around 7 A.M. and 7 P.M.
 References 1-115

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