Exixting DataPartI

RW2-4-5
Preparation of Rwanda Land Use and Development Master Plan

Report on Collection of Existing Data
March 2009
Table of Contents
LIST OF TABLES ..........................................................................................................8
LIST OF FIGURES ......................................................................................................10
LIST OF BOXES ..........................................................................................................12
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS.....................................................................14
SUMMARY ...................................................................................................................17
1 INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................21
1.1 Organisation of Report..................................................................................21
1.2 Purpose of Report ..........................................................................................21
1.3 Project Background .......................................................................................21
1.4 Project Description ........................................................................................22
1.4.1 Project aims and objectives.............................................................................. 22
1.4.2 Delimitations.................................................................................................... 23
1.4.3 Project methodology ........................................................................................ 23
1.4.4 Capacity building ............................................................................................. 27
1.5 Progress...........................................................................................................28
1.5.1 Inception .......................................................................................................... 28
1.5.2 Collection of secondary data............................................................................ 28
1.5.3 National geodetic system ................................................................................. 29
1.5.4 Aerial photography and changes to TOR......................................................... 29
2 CONTEXT......................................................................................................31
2.1 Introduction....................................................................................................31
2.2 Rwanda’s Political Origins and Evolution ..................................................31
2.2.1 Post 1994 political reconstitution and governance reforms............................. 32
2.2.2 National unity, justice and reconciliation ........................................................ 34
2.2.3 Decentralisation ............................................................................................... 35
2.2.4 Local government ............................................................................................ 36
2.2.5 District.............................................................................................................. 37
2.2.6 Sector ............................................................................................................... 38
2.2.7 Cell................................................................................................................... 38
2.3 The Economy..................................................................................................38
2.3.1 Vision 2020...................................................................................................... 38
2.3.2 Economic Development and Poverty Reduction Strategy (EDPRS) Paper..... 40
2.3.3 Economic performance .................................................................................... 41
2.3.4 Economic growth and general poverty reduction but widening inequality ..... 43
2.4 Physical Geography .......................................................................................47
2.4.1 Relief................................................................................................................ 47
2.4.2 Soils and subsoil .............................................................................................. 48
2.4.3 Weather and climate ........................................................................................ 52
2.4.4 Hydrography .................................................................................................... 54
2.4.5 Land cover ....................................................................................................... 55
2.5 Demography ...................................................................................................57
2.5.1 Introduction...................................................................................................... 57
2.5.2 Population statistics ......................................................................................... 57
2.5.3 Temporal demographic trends ......................................................................... 58
2.5.4 Spatial and gender analysis of population trends............................................. 59
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2.5.5 The issues......................................................................................................... 62

2.6 Health ..............................................................................................................62
2.6.1 Introduction...................................................................................................... 62
2.6.2 Rwanda’s health sector .................................................................................... 63
2.6.3 Major illnesses afflicting population ............................................................... 64
2.6.4 Accessibility of health services........................................................................ 65
2.6.5 Expansion of health services............................................................................ 66
2.7 Education ........................................................................................................68
2.7.1 Introduction...................................................................................................... 68
2.7.2 Primary education ............................................................................................ 68
2.7.3 Distribution of primary schools ....................................................................... 71
2.7.4 Secondary education ........................................................................................ 71
2.7.5 Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET)............................ 72
2.7.6 Higher education.............................................................................................. 73
2.7.7 Issues................................................................................................................ 74
3 SOILS..............................................................................................................75
3.1 Summary.........................................................................................................75
3.2 Introduction....................................................................................................75
3.2.1 Background ...................................................................................................... 75
3.2.2 Methodology .................................................................................................... 76
3.3 Soil Map of Rwanda.......................................................................................76
3.4 Agricultural zones..........................................................................................79
3.5 Land Capability Classification .....................................................................80
3.6 Crop Suitability Classification......................................................................81
3.7 Hydrogeological Map, Wells Archive ..........................................................82
3.8 Geological Map of Rwanda ...........................................................................83
3.9 Issues ...............................................................................................................83
3.9.1 General............................................................................................................. 83
4 AGRICULTURE.......................................................................................... 85
4.1 Summary.........................................................................................................85
4.2 Introduction....................................................................................................85
4.3 DDPs................................................................................................................86
4.4 Present agricultural situation .......................................................................88
4.4.1 Statistics on national agricultural production .................................................. 88
4.4.2 Major agricultural crops................................................................................... 89
4.4.3 DDP Perceptions.............................................................................................. 91
4.5 Agricultural Problems ...................................................................................91
4.5.1 General problems ............................................................................................. 91
4.5.2 Specific problems............................................................................................. 92
4.5.3 Storage, marketing and processing .................................................................. 93
4.5.4 Livestock production ....................................................................................... 94
4.5.5 Fisheries ........................................................................................................... 94
4.5.6 Beekeeping....................................................................................................... 94
4.6 Issues ...............................................................................................................95
4.6.1 Land use planning ............................................................................................ 95
4.6.2 Regionalisation ................................................................................................ 95
4.6.3 Imidugudu ........................................................................................................ 96
4.6.4 Urban agriculture ............................................................................................. 96
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4.7 Way forward...................................................................................................97

4.7.1 Tools ................................................................................................................ 97
5 FORESTRY....................................................................................................98
5.1 Summary.........................................................................................................98
5.2 Introduction....................................................................................................98
5.3 Methodology ...................................................................................................99
5.4 Current Characteristics of Forestry Sector...............................................100
5.4.1 Context........................................................................................................... 100
5.4.2 Historical background of forestry sector........................................................ 100
5.4.2 Current level of forest resource...................................................................... 102
5.5 Role of Forest in Economy ..........................................................................104
5.5.1 Introduction.................................................................................................... 104
5.5.2 Economic functions of productive forests ..................................................... 104
5.5.3 Socio-recreational functions of the national parks......................................... 106
5.5.4 Ecological functions and protection forests................................................... 107
5.6 Forest management......................................................................................107
5.6.1 General policy frameworks............................................................................ 107
5.6.2 Specific policy frameworks ........................................................................... 108
5.6.3 Forest planning and management .................................................................. 109
5.6.4 Administration of forestry sector and institutions ......................................... 110
5.7 Issues .............................................................................................................111
5.7.1 Challenges...................................................................................................... 111
5.7.2 Way forward .................................................................................................. 112
6 ENVIRONMENT.........................................................................................114
6.1 Summary.......................................................................................................114
6.2 Introduction..................................................................................................114
6.3 Environment and Natural Resources.........................................................115
6.3.1 Wetlands ........................................................................................................ 115
6.3.2 Land ............................................................................................................... 115
6.3.3 Forests ............................................................................................................ 116
6.3.4 Biodiversity.................................................................................................... 116
6.3.5 Areas Protected .............................................................................................. 117
6.4 Policy and regulatory framework...............................................................118
6.4.1 National framework ....................................................................................... 118
6.4.2 Institutional Framework................................................................................. 122
6.5 Issues .............................................................................................................122
6.5.1 Broad environmental issues for present Project............................................. 122
7 ECOLOGY ...................................................................................................123
7.1 Summary.......................................................................................................123
7.2 Introduction..................................................................................................126
7.3 Methodology .................................................................................................126
7.3.1 Data collection and data standards................................................................. 126
7.4 Need for Ecological Consideration in the Planning Process ....................128
7.4.1 The importance of biodiversity and functioning ecosystems ........................ 128
7.5. Ecological Footprint.....................................................................................129
7.5.1 Definition ....................................................................................................... 129
7.5.2. Ecological deficit in Rwanda ......................................................................... 131
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7.6 Climate Change............................................................................................130

7.6.1 Universal and African impacts....................................................................... 130
7.6.2 Impact in Rwanda .......................................................................................... 131
7.7 Legal and Policy Context.............................................................................131
7.7.1 International commitments ............................................................................ 131
7.7.2 National policies and legal instruments ......................................................... 133
7.8 Geographical context ...................................................................................136
7.8.1 Physical geography ........................................................................................ 136
7.8.2 Climate........................................................................................................... 136
7.8.3 Hydrography .................................................................................................. 137
7.8.4 Eco-region...................................................................................................... 137
7.8.5 Agro-ecological region .................................................................................. 139
7.8.6 Soils................................................................................................................ 139
7.9 Biodiversity Inventory .................................................................................140
7.9.1 Eco-systems in Rwanda ................................................................................. 140
7.9.2 Cropland and natural vegetation mosaic........................................................ 140
7.9.3 Forest.............................................................................................................. 140
7.9.4 Wetlands and water bodies ............................................................................ 141
7.9.5 Important Bird Areas (IBAs) in Rwanda ....................................................... 143
7.9.6 Red Data Listed (RDL) Species..................................................................... 144
7.10 Threats to Ecosystem Services and Biodiversity.......................................147
7.10.1 General........................................................................................................... 147
7.10.2 Habitat conversion and destruction................................................................ 147
7.10.3 Pollution......................................................................................................... 149
7.10.4 Over-exploitation ........................................................................................... 149
7.10.5 Climatic conditions ........................................................................................ 149
7.10.6 Invasive species ............................................................................................. 150
7.10.7 Drivers of ecological threats .......................................................................... 150
7.11 Protected Areas ............................................................................................152
7.11.1 General........................................................................................................... 152
7.11.2. Need for Buffer Areas, Corridors and Protected Areas ................................. 153
7.12 Indicators ......................................................................................................154
7.13 Findings and Issues ......................................................................................156
7.13.1 Availability of data ........................................................................................ 156
7.13.2 Justification to include environmental concerns in Master Plan ................... 157
7.13.3 Areas of special ecological importance ......................................................... 158
7.13.4 Threats to biodiversity ................................................................................... 158
7.14. Recommendations for Present Project.......................................................160
8 SOCIAL INFRASTRUCTURE................................................................. 165
8.1 Summary.......................................................................................................165
8.2 Introduction..................................................................................................165
8.2.1 Prior consultations on emerging issues.......................................................... 166
8.2.2 Export crops and change of use restrictions .................................................. 167
8.2.3 Rental land use conditions ............................................................................. 168
8.2.4 Land market and land use strategising........................................................... 168
8.2.5 Livestock issues ............................................................................................. 168
8.2.6 Lakeshore issues and fisheries ....................................................................... 169
8.2.7 Marshlands and small scale clay extraction................................................... 169
8.2.8 Soil erosion .................................................................................................... 170
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8.2.9 Small scale mineral extraction ....................................................................... 170

8.2.10 Landholding patterns, including fragmentation and consolidation................ 170
8.2.11 Land sharing................................................................................................... 172
8.2.12 Informal settlement upgrading....................................................................... 172
8.2.13 Expropriation and change of use.................................................................... 173
8.2.14 Imidugudu and participatory planning........................................................... 173
8.3 Methodology .................................................................................................175
8.4 Assessment of Existing Data and Recommendations Arising..................176
8.5 Key Findings of Field Study........................................................................177
8.6 Implications for National Parks .................................................................179
8.7 Recommendations for Further Studies......................................................179
9 PHYSICAL INFRASTRUCTURE.............................................................181
9.1 Introduction..................................................................................................181
9.2 Transport ......................................................................................................181
9.2.1 General........................................................................................................... 181
9.2.2 Problems related to transportation ................................................................. 182
9.2.3 Roads as the principal sub-sector................................................................... 185
9.3 Public Transport in Rwanda ......................................................................186
9.3.1 Road Transport............................................................................................... 186
9.3.2 Air Transport.................................................................................................. 188
9.4 Roads.............................................................................................................188
9.4.1 General existing situation and jurisdiction .................................................... 188
9.4.2 General road inventory .................................................................................. 190
9.4.3 Problems associated with road infrastructure ................................................ 190
9.4.4 Plans and programmes ................................................................................... 192
9.5 Railways ........................................................................................................195
9.5.1 Background .................................................................................................... 195
9.5.2 First stage objectives...................................................................................... 195
9.5.4 Isaka Dry Port ................................................................................................ 198
9.6 Air Transport ...............................................................................................199
9.6.1 Overview........................................................................................................ 199
9.6.2 Kigali airport.................................................................................................. 200
9.6.3 Plan to improve other airports and aerodromes ............................................. 203
9.7 Water Transport ..........................................................................................203
9.7.1 Akagera River Navigability Study................................................................. 203
9.7.2 Construction of seven quays on Lake Kivu ................................................... 203
9.8 Policies and legal framework on transport................................................204
9.8.1 National Transport Policy .............................................................................. 204
9.8.2 Transport Master Plan.................................................................................... 206
9.8.3 Road Agency.................................................................................................. 206
9.8.4 Road Maintenance Strategy ........................................................................... 206
9.8.5 Road Classification ........................................................................................ 207
9.8.6 The National Transport Development Board................................................. 207
9.8.7 Other issues envisaged by MININFRA ......................................................... 207
9.8.8 New Partnership for African Development (NEPAD) .................................. 208
9.8.9 The Sub-Saharan Africa Transport Policy Program (SSATP) ...................... 208
9.9 Issues related to transportation ..................................................................209
9.9.1 Roads.............................................................................................................. 209
9.9.2 Intermediary Means of Transport (IMT) ....................................................... 210
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9.9.3 Railways......................................................................................................... 212

9.9.4 Airports .......................................................................................................... 213
9.9.5 Water Transport ............................................................................................. 213
9.10 Energy ...........................................................................................................213
9.10.1 Background .................................................................................................... 213
9.10.2 Sub-sector profiles ......................................................................................... 214
9.10.3 Overview........................................................................................................ 214
9.10.4 Current national energy constitution.............................................................. 215
9.10.5 Vision 2020 and EDPRS initiatives............................................................... 217
9.10.6 Electricity Transmission and distribution ...................................................... 218
9.10.7 Summary of distributed electricity in Rwanda .............................................. 219
9.10.8 Potential electric energy principal sources .................................................... 220
9.10.9 Micro-hydro electricity .................................................................................. 221
9.10.10 Methane gas from Lake Kivu ........................................................................ 221
9.10.11 Solar energy ................................................................................................... 223
9.10.12 Thermal Solar................................................................................................. 224
9.10.13 Biomass.......................................................................................................... 224
9.10.14 Biogas ............................................................................................................ 226
9.10.15 Wind Energy .................................................................................................. 226
9.10.16 Geo-thermal energy ....................................................................................... 226
9.10.17 Inter-connections to import and export electricity......................................... 227
9.10.18 The Kampala–Kigali oil pipeline project....................................................... 227
9.10.19 Prospects for oil exploration in Rwanda........................................................ 228
9.10.20 Bio-fuels......................................................................................................... 228
9.10.21 Conversion of Methane Gas........................................................................... 229
9.11 Water and Sanitation...................................................................................229
9.11.1 Overview........................................................................................................ 229
9.11.3 Sources of water............................................................................................. 230
9.11.4 Expansion and Strategic Plans ....................................................................... 231
9.11.5 Water treatment and distribution ................................................................... 232
9.11.7 Toilet ‘waste’ ................................................................................................. 232
9.11.8 Toilet wastes .................................................................................................. 233
9.11.9 Eco-sanitation ................................................................................................ 234
9.11.10 Management of human end products in urban areas ..................................... 234
9.11.11 Industrial effluent........................................................................................... 235
9.12 Solid ‘waste’..................................................................................................235
9.12.1 Production ...................................................................................................... 235
9.12.2 Collection and dumping................................................................................. 235
9.12.3 Separating ...................................................................................................... 236
9.13 Information and communication Technology (ICT) ................................237
9.13.1 Overview........................................................................................................ 237
9.13.2 A Mile Stones in ICT Evolution .................................................................... 238
9.12.3 National ICT human resources ...................................................................... 238
9.13.4 Telecommunication........................................................................................ 239
9.13.5 Various indicators in ICT evolution .............................................................. 240
9.13.6 The ICT Bus Project ...................................................................................... 242
10 LAND USE AND DEVELOPMENT PLANNING ...................................245
10.1 Introduction..................................................................................................245
10.2 Land Use Management................................................................................245
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10.2.1 Vision 2020.................................................................................................... 245

10.2.2 EDPRS ........................................................................................................... 245
10.2.3 Urbanisation Policy........................................................................................ 246
10.2.4 Land policy, laws and regulations ................................................................. 246
10.2.5 Land administration structures....................................................................... 248
10.3 Development Planning.................................................................................250
10.3.1 Introduction.................................................................................................... 250
10.3.2 Urbanisation................................................................................................... 250
10.3.3 Context........................................................................................................... 251
10.3.4 Urban development........................................................................................ 251
10.3.5 EDPRS ........................................................................................................... 252
10.4 Urbanisation Policy......................................................................................255
10.4.1 Introduction.................................................................................................... 255
10.4.2 Population evolution ...................................................................................... 255
10.4.3 Urban Population Distribution....................................................................... 255
10.4.4 Regional and International Context ............................................................... 256
10.5 Major challenges ..........................................................................................256
10.5.1 Lack of plots and basic infrastructure............................................................ 256
10.5.2 Lack of basic urban data ................................................................................ 256
10.5.3 Inappropriate urbanisation and construction norms and standards................ 257
10.5.4 Low percentage of registered land tenure...................................................... 257
10.5.5 Lack of financial resources for people with expropriated land...................... 257
10.5.6 Lack of appropriate planning and urban management tools.......................... 257
10.6 Basic principles.............................................................................................258
10.6.1 Balanced and sustainable development ......................................................... 258
10.6.2 Urbanisation process...................................................................................... 258
10.6.4 Development planning ................................................................................... 258
10.6.5 Policy vision, objective and strategies ........................................................... 258
10.7 Housing .........................................................................................................259
10.7.1 Introduction.................................................................................................... 259
10.7.2 EDPRS ........................................................................................................... 259
10.7.3 National Human Settlement Policy................................................................ 260
10.7.4 National Grouped Settlement Policy ............................................................. 261
10.7.5 Urban and rural infrastructure........................................................................ 262
REFERENCES............................................................................................................265
APPENDIX 1...............................................................................................................273
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List of Tables
Table 2.1- Real growth rate trends by activities (5-year averages in percent) .............. 42
Table 2.2 - Poverty headcount (share of population and number)................................. 44
Table 2.3 Wellbeing self-ranking or categorisation ...................................................... 46
Table 2.4 - Major perceived causes of poverty............................................................... 46
Table 2.5 - Meteorological stations ................................................................................ 52
Table 2.6 – Ever used any method of contraception (% of method)............................... 59
Table 2.7 - Population structure..................................................................................... 60
Table 2.8 - Male-female ratios........................................................................................ 61
Table 2.9 - Childhood mortality and maternal mortality rate ........................................ 63
Table 2.10 - HIV prevalence in population aged 15-49 disaggregated by sex............... 64
Table 2.11- Reported literacy levels for individuals aged 15 and above (%) ................ 68
Table 2.12– Net primary school enrolment rate by gender and stratum (%)................. 69
Table 3.1 - Dataset layers relevant to the present Project ............................................. 79
Table 3.2 – Drilling Register .......................................................................................... 82
Table 4.1 - DDP problems identified and ranked in one typical district........................ 87
Table 4.2 - Production of some food crops in Rwanda 1986 and 2006 in tonnes .......... 90
Table 4.3 - Livestock 2006 .............................................................................................. 90
Table 4.4 – Comparative crop yields between farmers’ and research stations’ fields .. 93
Table 4.5 - Regionalisation of crops by agro bio-climatic zones ................................... 95
Table 5.1 - Critical events in the history of the forestry sector in Rwanda .................. 101
Table 5.2 - Evolution of the Rwanda forest cover in time ............................................ 102
Table 5.3 - Forest plantations in 2007 in ha ................................................................ 102
Table 5.4- Natural forests of Rwanda........................................................................... 103
Table 5.5 - Annual wood production (m3).................................................................... 105
Table 5.6 - Place of wood in energy supply in Rwanda................................................ 106
Table 5.7 – Tourist revenue from forest........................................................................ 107
Table 7.1– Eco-system areas by type............................................................................ 140
Table 7.2 - Forest cover and change in forest area in Rwanda ................................... 141
Table 7.3 - Wetland surface area by district (old classification) ................................ 142
Table 7.4 - Lakes and marshes .................................................................................... 142
Table 7.5 – Important bird areas.................................................................................. 143
Table 7.6 – RDL plant species ...................................................................................... 144
Table 7.7 - Threatened animal species ......................................................................... 145
Table 7.8 – Threats to ecosystem service by province.................................................. 147
Table 7.9- CBD Sustainability Indicators..................................................................... 155
Table 7.10 -Areas of special ecological importance .................................................... 158
Table 7.11 - Features for the National Land Use and Development Master Plan....... 160
Table 9.1 - Distances and times of transit towards ports ............................................. 184
Table 9.2 – Transportation per sub-sector ................................................................... 186
Table 9.3 - Major arteries used by public transport..................................................... 186
Table 9.4 – Problems associated with sub-standard roads .......................................... 191
Table 9.5 – On-going or completed works re paved road network .............................. 192
Table 9.6 - Projects in pipeline re paved road network ............................................... 193
Table 9.7 - New Road constructions re paved road network........................................ 193
Table 9.8– On-going maintenance contracts re rural gravel road network................. 193
Table 9.9 - Rwanda Airports and Aerodromes ............................................................. 200
Table 9.10 - Production costs of electricity in Rwanda by source ............................... 216
Table 9.11 - Household consumption of electricity in some neighbouring countries .. 217
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Table 9.12 - Quantitative presentation of institutions earmarked for solar power

installation ............................................................................................... 224
Table 9.13 - Piped water sources in Rwanda ............................................................... 231
Table 9.14 - Indication of access to toilet facilities 2005-6.......................................... 233
Table 9.15 - Indicators of ICT infrastructure development.......................................... 239
Table 9.16 - Estimated level of computers usage by staff per sector............................ 240
Table 9.17 - Estimated level of internet usage by staff per sector................................ 240
Table 10.1 - Projected land use planning..................................................................... 246
Table 10.2 - Progress towards Vision 2020 targets by Millennium Development Goals253
Table 10.3 – Envisaged projection by EDPRS on infrastructure, habitat and
urbanisation ............................................................................................. 253
Table 10.4 – Roads and network................................................................................... 263
Table 10.5 – School, health and market ....................................................................... 263
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List of Figures
Figure 1.1- Participatory training and monitoring cycle.............................................. 27
Figure 2.1 - Organisation structure of the province...................................................... 36
Figure 2.2 - The District organisational structure ......................................................... 37
Figure 2.3 - Changes in poverty at regional and national level (poor as % of the
population)................................................................................................. 45
Figure 2.4- Map showing Rwanda relief distribution .................................................... 48
Figure 2.5 – Carte pédologique du Rwanda................................................................... 49
Figure 2.6 - Soil texture classes of dominant soil units in Rwanda................................ 50
Figure 2.7 - Soil depth classes of dominant soil units in Rwanda.................................. 51
Figure 2.8 - Drainage classes of dominant soil units in Rwanda................................... 51
Figure 2.9 – Map showing Rwanda temperature distribution........................................ 53
Figure 2.10 – Map showing Rwanda climate ................................................................. 54
Figure 2.11 - Rainfall distribution in Rwanda................................................................ 55
Figure 2.12 – Map showing Rwanda land cover............................................................ 56
Figure 2.13– Map of Rwanda showing health centres ................................................... 67
Figure 2.14 – Map of Rwanda showing schools............................................................. 71
Figure 3.1 - Soil boundaries with soil vector data at 1:50000 scale.............................. 77
Figure 3.2- Soil map with raster data at 1:50000 scale ................................................. 78
Figure 5.1- Forest plantations of Rwanda.................................................................... 103
Figure 5.2 - Natural forests of Rwanda ........................................................................ 104
Figure 5.3 - Annual wood production in Rwanda ........................................................ 105
Figure 7.1 - Red Data List Criteria .............................................................................. 127
Figure 7.2 - Ecosystem services.................................................................................... 128
Figure 7.3 - Ecosystem services and drivers of change................................................ 129
Figure 7.4- Global 200 Eco-regions in Rwanda .......................................................... 138
Figure 7.5 – Conservation zoning ................................................................................ 163
Figure 9.1- Rwanda sub-regionally landlocked .......................................................... 183
Figure 9.2 - Taxi-Mini Buses ........................................................................................ 188
Figure 9.3 - Kigali City, Mount Kigali in background ................................................ 188
Figure 9.4 - Kigali International Airport: ............................................................... 188
Figure 9.5 - National Flag Carrier............................................................................... 188
Figure 9.6 - General Road Map of Rwanda. ................................................................ 189
Figure 9.7 - Schematic view of the proposed railway alignment ................................. 196
Figure 9.8- Schematic presentation of part of the proposed railway towards Kigali and
environs, in relation to other transport infrastructure ............................ 197
Figure 9.9 - Schematic presentation of part of the proposed railway: Link to Burundi197
Figure 9.10 - Kigali City in relation to the location of new airport............................. 199
Figure 9.11 – Major long-term accesses to the new airport site.................................. 203
Figure 9.12 - Common Intermediary Means of Transport ........................................... 211
Figure 9.13 - Illustrations of use of animals of burden as an IMT............................... 212
Figure 9.14- Energy consumption in Rwanda .............................................................. 215
Figure 9.15 - Trend of electricity tariffs in Rwanda..................................................... 216
Figure 9.16 - Potential Energy Sources ...................................................................... 220
Figure 9.17 - View of Lake Kivu................................................................................... 222
Figure 9.18 - Map of Lake Kivu.................................................................................... 222
Figure 9.19 – Kivu methane gas extraction rig ............................................................ 222
Figure 9.20 - Gisovu tea factory firewood Figure 9.21 - Domestic use firewood...... 225
Figure 9.22- Regional interconnections of electric power ........................................... 227
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Figure 9.23 - Overrun Kigali City dumpsite at Nyanza................................................ 236

Figure 9.24 - Burning due to biogas formation............................................................ 236
Figure 9.25 – Separation of organic matter, compressing and briquettes................... 237
Figure 9.26 - Subscribers of mobile, fixed telephones and internet development........ 239
Figure 9.27 - Percentage of educational institution with internet, website and teachers
using PC at home ..................................................................................... 240
Figure 9.28 - Percentage of health institutions with PC, internet and website............ 240
Figure 9.29 - Percentage of ICT indicators urban vs Rural......................................... 241
Figure 9.30 – Interior of ICT bus ................................................................................. 243
Figure 10.1 - Diagram of land administration organisation........................................ 250
Figure 10.2 - Examples of urban morphology.............................................................. 251
Figure 10.3 - Positive association between population density and poverty incidence252
Figure 10.4 - EDPRS planning linkages to achieve its objectives ............................... 254
Figure 10.5 - Planning and reporting tools for implementing EDPRS ........................ 254
Figure 10.6 - Upgrading or bulldozing? ...................................................................... 261
Figure 10.7 - Exising umugududu neighbourhood ...................................................... 262
Figure 10.8 - Layout of unugududu ............................................................................. 262
Figure 10.9 - Medium density housing in Kigali ......................................................... 263
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List of Boxes
Box 1.1 – Project ten steps.............................................................................................. 24
Box 2.1 - Rwanda and Berlin conference ....................................................................... 31
Box 2.2 - Office of the Ombudsman ................................................................................ 33
Box 2.3- Gacaca courts................................................................................................... 34
Box 2.4 - Sector strategies .............................................................................................. 41
Box 2.5 – Trade deficit.................................................................................................... 43
Box 4.1 - DDP participation.......................................................................................... 88
Box 4.2 – Danish land reform......................................................................................... 96
Box 4.3 – Urban agriculture in Kampala ....................................................................... 97
Box 6.1 - International obligations............................................................................... 121
Box 7.1 - Carbon foot print and carbon credit ............................................................. 130
Box 7.2 - International conventions, treaties and protocols signed by Rwanda .......... 132
Box 7.3 - Rwanda Ramsar contracting party................................................................ 133
Box 7.4 - Legal instruments on forestry........................................................................ 135
Box 7.5 – Wetland areas legal instruments .................................................................. 135
Box 7.6 - Protected areas legal instruments................................................................. 136
Box 7.7 - Basins, freshwater source and withdrawal rate............................................ 137
Box 7.8 - Rift forests, moorlands and rift valley lakes.................................................. 138
Box 7.9 - Natural forests............................................................................................... 141
Box 7.10 - Important birds areas.................................................................................. 143
Box 7.11 - Nearly threatened, endemic and extinct birds............................................. 146
Box 7.12 - Policy, legal framework and constraints..................................................... 151
Box 7.13 - Reduced parks forest reserves reduced or gone.......................................... 152
Box 7.14 - Ecologically important areas ...................................................................... 162
Box 8.1 – National Land Tenure Reform Programme 2006 field consultations .......... 166
Box 8.2 –Tea and change of use ................................................................................... 167
Box 8.3 – C offee and change of use............................................................................. 167
Box 8.4 - Pyrethrum and change of use....................................................................... 167
Box 8.5 – Renting-in land ............................................................................................. 168
Box 8.6 – Average size landholdings ............................................................................ 171
Box 8.7 - NLTRP raised imidugudu concerns ............................................................. 174
Box 9.1 – Dry port history ............................................................................................ 198
Box 9.2 – Existing airport limitations........................................................................... 201
Box 9.3 - Proposed Implementation phasing................................................................ 202
Box 9.4 – Project aspects.............................................................................................. 204
Box 9.5 - Inspiration ..................................................................................................... 206
Box 9.6 – Stand-by diesel generators ........................................................................... 214
Box 9.7 – Measures to improve transmission and distribution .................................... 219
Box 9.8 – Micro-hydro sites and plants ........................................................................ 221
Box 9.9 – Costly panels hamper market growth ........................................................... 224
Box 9.10- Government measures .................................................................................. 225
Box 9.11 – Alternative biomass sources ....................................................................... 225
Box 9.12 - Untapped African potential ......................................................................... 226
Box 9.13 – Clean source of energy ............................................................................... 226
Box 9.14 - Ethical issue? .............................................................................................. 229
Box 9.15 - Biogas from ‘waste’ could bring change .................................................... 237
Box 9.16 - ICT Specific Projects................................................................................... 242
Box 10.1 – Organic land Law provisions. .................................................................... 248
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Box 10.2 – Land management institutions.................................................................... 249

Box 10.3 - Population growth....................................................................................... 251
Box 10.4 – Rapid urban population growth ................................................................. 260
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Abbreviations and Acronyms

ACNR Association pour la Conservation de la Nature au Rwanda
AEC Agro-Ecological Zoning
AIS Alien and Invasive Species
ANCR Association for the Conservation of Nature in Rwanda
BADEA Arab Bank for Economic Development in Africa
BEST Biomass Energy Strategy
CBD Convention on Biological Diversity
CGIS–NUR Centre of Geographic Information Systems of NUR
CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species
CR Critically Endangered
DHS Demographic and Health Survey
DFGF Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund
EAC East African Community
EBA Endemic Bird Areas
EDPRS Economic Development and Poverty Reduction Strategy
EN Endangered
ESRI GIS software brand
ESSP Education Sector Strategic Plan
EW Extinct in the Wild
EX Extinct
FAO United Nations Food and Agriculture Organisation
FFN Fonds Forestier National (National Forestry Fund)
GCC Global Conservation Concern
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GIS Geographical Information System
GIS-NUR Geographic Information System Research Centre, NUR
GOR Government of Rwanda
GTZ German Technical Cooperation
HSSP Health Sector Strategic Plan
HIPC Heavily Indebted Poor Country
HIMO Haute Intensité de Main d’Oeuvre (High Labour Intensive Work)
ha hectar
IBA Important Bird Area
ICRAF World Agro forestry Centre
IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development
IISD International Institute for Sustainable Development
IMCE Integrated Management of Critical Ecosystems
IPCG International Programme for the Conservation of the Gorillas
IRST Institut National de Recherche Scientifique et Technologique
IRWR Internal Renewable Water Resource
ISAR Institut des Sciences Agronomiques du Rwanda
ISRT Institute for Scientific and Technological Research
IMT Intermediary Means of Transport
ITRF International Terrestrial Reference Frame
IUCN International Conservation Union
IUGG International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics
JADF Joint Action Development Forum
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KRC Karisoke Research Centre

LTSFF Long Term Strategy and Financial Framework
MA Millennium Ecosystem Assessment
MAB Man and Biosphere Programme
MDG Millennium Development Goals
MINAGRI Ministry of Agriculture and Animal Resources
MINALOC Ministry of Local Government and social affairs
MINECOFIN Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning
MINICOM Ministry of Commerce, Industry, Investment promotion, Tourism
and Cooperatives
MININFRA Ministry of Infrastructures
MINIRENA Ministry of Natural Resources
MINITERE Ministry of Lands, Environment, Water, Forest and Mines
(former, now MINIRENA)
MTEF Medium-Term Expenditure Framework
MOH Ministry of Health
NAFA National Forestry Agency
NGO Non Governmental Organisation
NICI National Information and Communications Infrastructure
NIS National Investment Strategy
NT Near Threatened
NTFP Non Timber Forest Products
NUR National University of Rwanda
OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
OPEC Organization of the Petrolium Exporting Countries
ORTPN Tourism and National Parks Authority
PAFOR Projet d'Appui à l'Aménagement des Forêts au Rwanda
PAREF Programme d’Appui à la Reforestation au Rwanda
PCFN Project for the Conservation of Nyungwe Forest
PIGU Project d’infrastructures et de gestion urbaine
PNILP National Malaria Control Programme
RDL Red Data List
REMA Rwanda Environment Management Authority
RIEPA Rwanda Investment and Export Promotion
RRS Restricted Range Species
RSA Rwanda Standardisation Authority
PSTA Strategic Plan for Agricultural Transformation in Rwanda
RURA Rwanda Utilities Regulatory Agency
RWDA Rwanda Workforce Development Authority
Sida Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency
SOER State of the Environment Report
STRABAG European construction company based in Vienna, Austria
TOR Terms of Reference
TVET Technical and Vocational Education and Training
TSC Teacher Service Commission
UN United Nations
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNEP United Nations Environment Programme
UNESCO United Nations Education, Social and Cultural Organisation
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USAID United States Agency for International Development

VU Vulnerable
WCS World Conservation Society
WB World Bank
WWF World Wide Fund for Nature
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Summary
Introduction. Project purpose, background, aims and objectives, delimitations,
methodology and progress are provided in Section 1 of this report of data collection.
The purpose of this report of collection of existing data is to provide the Project team
with enough background and information to enable them to meaningfully engage in the
next phases in the Project. It is written to be useful to a wide set of stakeholders in the
preparation of the Rwanda national land Use and Development Master Plan. The
Project background is imbedded in a need to operationalise the objectives and
provisions of the National Land Policy and Organic Law. Government is, thus,
enjoined to put in place the master plan to guide use and management of land in
Rwanda towards efficient, effective and equitable use of the country’s natural
resources. Swedesurvey, having won the tender for the project, works in close
collaboration with the National land Centre (NLC). The Project aim and objectives
comprise two interlinked components – preparation of a national Land Use and
Development Master Plan and assistance in the planning and setting up of an
organisational structure for collecting and managing land use data at NLC. The former
concerns assistance with preparation of a master plan that will engender more rational,
efficient, equitable and sustainable management of land and related resources. The
latter entails assisting NLC to establish an organisation to manage land use data.
Whereas taking cognisance of these, Plan preparation is delimited in that it will not
focus per se on conditions for land management aspects below the District level.
Validity of the Plan will depend on continuous evaluation and up-dating. Whereas a
mechanism for this is to be built into the plan, the plan itself cannot guarantee this. The
plan preparation methodological approach is guided by Rwandan land policy
conception of land as a common heritage for past, present and future generations for
all. Its methods will utilise up-from technology, especially with use of GIS as decision
making tool. Techniques will involve consultation and participation as crucial elements
in seeking to ensure Plan relevance with broad and deep Rwandan ownership. On
progress, an inception report has been submitted in parallel with Project mobilisation.
This report, based on individual sectoral specialists’ reports – primarily using
secondary but also primary data sources - is the result of the collection of existing data
period in the project. It has been conducted together with studies of the national
geodetic system and a GIS specification for NLC. Aerial photography from 3000 m has
also been carried out over around 70 % of Rwanda with following ground controls and
orthophoto production. The latter results in high resolution map images for land
registration and detailed spatial planning purposes, among other uses, is scheduled to
be completed by end of June this year, a month when the remaining part of the country
is to be photographed for securing completing orthophotos to cover the whole of
Rwanda for up-to date mapping.
Context. The Rwandan context to the project is provided in Section 2. It outlines the
country’s political origins and evolution, political reconstruction and governance
reforms, entailing national unity, justice and reconciliation. It accounts for
decentralisation with local government through de-concentration and devolvement of
power to District, Sector and Cell levels. The economic approach in Rwanda is dealt
with through Vision 2020 and Economic Development and Poverty Reduction Strategy
(EDPRS), with reference also to economic performance and growth, and its relation to
poverty reduction and inequality. The Rwandan physical geography is given regarding
soils, weather and climate, hydrography and land cover. He country’s demographic is
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situation is accounted for with general population statistics, temporal demographic

trends, spatial and gender trends and by Project team perceived emerging issues. The
section also addresses the situation on health by visiting the Health Sector Strategic
Plan, the health sector itself, major illnesses and accessibility of health services.
Concluding, Section 2 accounts for the education situation in Rwanda. The introduction
shows that there are lacking skills to move the economy forward towards the
knowledge-based transition, Primary, secondary, technical and vocational education
and training, and higher education are outlined. Also to education related issues are
raised.
Soils A brief overview of the existing data on the soil situation in Rwanda is found in
Section 3. It is complimented by more detailed accounts on soil inherent in the sections
on agriculture, forestry and ecology in this report. By way of an introduction, focus is
on the existing soils map of the country, which is considered highly useful together
with accompanying data package. Mapped agricultural zones and land and crop
capability classifications are outlined, as well as existing hydrological and geological
maps. The few issues raised concern lack of seamlessness in soil map related data and
ministerial soil survey unit with limited resources.
Agriculture. An overview of existing data regarding the agricultural situation in
Rwanda is given in Section 4. It informs that the most up to date agricultural data
corresponds to former administrative units in Rwanda. Due to absence of a conversion
programme to transform the data to new administrative situation, the utility of the data
suffers. The data in the District Development Plans (DDPs), however, are found highly
useful in compensation. An overview of the present agricultural situation is presented
with statistics, together with major agricultural crops. General and specific problems
related to agriculture are outlined as relating to: storage, marketing and processing;
livestock production; fishing; and, beekeeping. Issues focus on those pertaining to a
perceived need for land use planning, to regionalisation, cost-benefit of Imidugudu and
urban agriculture. Use of GIS as a tool in agriculture is suggested as part of a way
forward, as well as pilot projects. An in-depth complimentary study on agro-ecological
issues is to be conducted following the initial data collection, which is subject to this
report. It will also seek to secure data that was difficult to access or use during the
initial audit.
Forestry. Existing data regarding forestry in Rwanda is outlined in Section. It identifies
the forest as a party in completing land uses situation in Rwanda. After declaring the
methodology for the Project inventory on forestry, current characteristics of the forestry
sector are given. It includes reference to general context, historical background, level of
the forest resource including its productive economic and ecological functions. Forest
management is outlined through visits to general and specific policy, planning and
management, administration of forestry sector and related institutions. Challenging
issues include high wood demand exceeding supply, high dependency on wood as
source of household energy and high competition for land among different uses in
conflict with forest. Ways forward propose an integrated orientation.
Environment. A an overarching view of existing data pertaining to the environmental
situation in section in Rwanda is provided in Section 6. It is complimented by sections
on agriculture, forestry, ecology and social and physical infrastructure in this report. By
introduction it defines environment and outlines its current problems due to lack of
environmental awareness, care and know-how. Moreover it advances its crosscutting
nature with a need for a holistic approach. On environmental and natural resources
overview, the section accounts for the environmental state of wetlands, land and
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forests. It accounts for the depleted bio-diversity situation and of protected areas in a
response attempt. Regarding the Rwandan policy and regulatory framework, the role
vis-à-vis environment of Vision 2020, Rwanda Environment Management Authority
(REMA), Sectoral Policy on Water and Sanitation and National Land Policy is
surmised. Rwanda’s international obligations on environment are given. Issues for the
present Project concern efficient, equitable and sustainable land use and development
planning with minimal impact on the environment. Particular reference is given to land
degradation, water resources decline, forest resources destruction, wetland degradation
and loss of scenic and recreational resources.
Ecology. Existing data regarding ecology in Rwanda is found in Section 7. It is both
universal in its approach and local-specific. Its beginning therefore, discusses priorities,
ecosystems prerequisites and threats with justification of a need for ecological
consideration in the planning process. The concept of the ecological footprint is
explained with an account of the ecological deficit in Rwanda. Global climate change
and its impact on Rwanda are outlined. The section also audits the situation in Rwanda
regarding legal and policy context. It accounts for the country’s geographical situation
including climate, hydrography and eco-region role. A bio-diversity inventory
overview is provided ranging from eco-systems, cropland and natural vegetation
mosaic, forest, wetland an d water bodies and important bird areas, red data listed
species. The section accounts for threats to eco-system services and biodiversity
generally and specifically with reference in the latter to deforestation, erosion and
unsustainable utilisation of wetlands. It makes reference to existing extend and degree
of pollution, over-exploitation, floods and drought, invasive species, drivers of
ecological threats and protected areas in the country. The need for buffer areas,
corridors and protected area and indicators are given. On findings and issues, the
section advances that spatial and biodiversity for GIS analyses is limited and indicates
the particular parts of this lacuna concerning ecology. Reiterating in the audited
Rwandan ecological context, the section by means of conclusion, provides a
justification for including environmental concerns in the present Project, refereeing
also to environmental justice. It lists areas of special ecological importance and threats
to biodiversity. It also makes Project recommendations including a need to accumulate
further GIS data.
Social infrastructure. A condensed version of the Project Specialist’s report on data
collection in this area of social infrastructure is provided in Section 8. A comprehensive
and systematic audit of existing data sources and data regarding all Project sectors with
extracts and notes is provided in her Project report. It also contains a purpose-designed
field study on emerged issues (Annex 1). The section on social infrastructure, by way
of introduction, accounts for the different elements of socio-economic inventory input,
including earlier familiarisation with review of existing data. It outlines the context and
prior consultation on emerging issues, which include those relating to; export crops and
change of land use restrictions; rental land use conditions; land market and land use
strategising; livestock; lake shore and fisheries; marshland and small scale clay
extraction; soil erosion; small scale mineral extraction; land holding patterns including
fragmentation and consolidation, land sharing; informal settlement upgrading;
expropriation and change of use; Imidugudu and participatory planning; and,
expropriation and change of use. The section accounts for adopted data collection
methodology. It also gives an assessment of existing data with recommendations for
the project arising. Key findings of the field study are given together with perceived
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socio-economic implications for the National parks. Concluding, suggestions for

further study are provided.
Physical Infrastructure. Covering a broad range of components, existing data on
physical infrastructure is accounted for I Section 9. It deals with transport, energy,
water and sanitation, solid ‘waste’ and ITC. On transport, after a general definition, it
outlines a range of inherent Rwandan-specific problems including those of challenging
topography and ‘landlockedness’. The public transport situation in the country is
outlined regarding all modes. Focus is then provided on transportation pertaining to
roads, railways, air and water. Polices and legal framework and institutions on
transportation is visited through National Transport Policy, Transport Master Plan and
Road Agency. Issues related to all existing and envisaged Rwandan transportation
means are raised including those related to Intermediary Means of Transport (MIT).
The section also addresses the situation in the country concerning energy, starting with
the context and current energy constitution and policy. Existing electricity provision in
all its existing forms in Rwanda is accounted for including its generation and
transmission. Proposed approaches and projects are accounted for. A Rwandan water
and sanitation overview is given. On the former, supply, sources, treatment and
distribution are provided. On the latter toilet waste handling is outlined with reference
to the existing lacking - and to health detrimental - situation in contrast with eco-
sanitation potential. Solid ‘waste’ is accounted for. Concluding, the section deals with
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) by means of an overview of policy
aspirations and justification. Focus is given to telecommunication and associated
services potential.
Land use and development planning. As a stepping stone to continuing work, leading
to Project proposals for land use and development in the preparation of the national
land Use and Development Master Plan, an overview of existing data on land use and
development planning is provided in Section 10. By introduction, the section intimates
the Rwandan focus on a need for urbanisation. It outlines the approaches on land use
management and development planning inherent in Vision 2020 and Rwanda
Development and Poverty Reduction Strategy (EDPRS). Different other policies, laws
and regulations, which explicitly and implicitly steer land management, are also
accounted for. Land administration structures are outlined. Attention is then given to
development planning with general reference to competing land uses, urbanisation and
urban development. The role and direction of EDPRS in this context is provided with
targets. Urbanisation policy in Rwanda is then focused on through accounting for
population evolution, urban population distribution, also in a regional and international
context. Major challenges with lack of: plots and basic infrastructure; urban data;
appropriate norms and standards; secure tenure; finances for relocation after
expropriation; and, adequate planning and management tools. The section also
discusses universally accepted basic principles on urbanisation and development
planning, and outlines Rwandan policy vision, strategies and objectives in this context.
Concluding, it deals with housing through national policy and strategies including the
national human settlement policy and EDPRS. It also outlines the National Grouped
Settlement Policy. Urban and rural infrastructure approach is accounted for through
reference to address to it in EDPRS. Implicit in the section, topic related emerging
issues are raised.
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1 Introduction
1.1 Organisation of Report
Editor and authors. This report has been edited by Dr, Nils Viking, the Rwanda
Land Use and Development Master Plan Project Manager and Team Leader, who
assumes responsibility for any mistakes related to editing. He is also responsible for
compiling the section on environment. Other sections in the report emanate from
Project Specialist’ own reports of data collection. The report by the Project Socio-
economist, by nature of the cross-cutting nature of her subject area, is voluminous
per se. As it also contains references to and extracts from source material of interest
to all Project areas of interest, it is annexed in full to the present report. The section
on social infrastructure in the present report, is, therefore, condensed. The report is
the result of contributions of:
• Dr Emmanuel Nkurunziza, Project Core Team Member – Sections 1.2-2 on
Introduction and Context;
• Mr Ola Wennerby, Swedesurvey, HQ – Section 3 on Soils;
• Mr Ole Olsen, Project Consultant – Section 4 on Agriculture;
• Mr Aphrodise Mbonyintwali, Project Consultant – Section 5 on Forestry;
• Ms Birgitta Farrington, Project Consultant – Section 7 on Ecology;
• Dr Liz Daley, Project Consultant – Section 8 on Social Infrastructure (also
Annex 1);
• Mr Paul Gasinzigwa, Project Consultant – Section 9 on Physical
Infrastructure; and,
• Mr Dismas Nkubana, Project Core Team Member – Section 10 on Land Use
and Development Planning.
1.2 Purpose of Report

Essential knowledge base for project team. Whereas it is accepted that this report
vital to the project team as a prerequisite stepping stone for engaging in the next
phases in the project, it is written in an attempt also to be useful to a wide set of
stakeholders outside the realms of the Ministry of Natural Resources (MINIRENA),
ie to other sectoral, parastatal, private sector, civic society representatives with a
stake in the project.
1.3 Project Background

A national Land Use and Development Master Plan. In line with Rwanda’s long-
term development vision, important institutional reforms in the land sector, aimed at
fostering desirable spatial development across the country, are underway. Amongst
the key outputs of the reform process so far are the National Land Policy and the
Organic Law determining the use and management of land in the country. To
operationalise the broad objectives and provisions of the two instruments, the
government is enjoined to put in place a land use and development master plan to
guide the use and management of land across Rwanda. The plan should ultimately
lead to more efficient, effective and equitable use of the country’s natural resources.
It was in a bid to effect this requirement that the then ministry in charge of lands,
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Ministry of Lands, Environment, Forest, Water and Mines (MINITERE), constituted

a taskforce to develop terms of reference (TOR) for this task and call tenders from
international companies with expertise and experience in this field.
In collaboration with NLC. Having won the tender, Swedesurvey, the overseas
agency of the Swedish government’s National Land Survey, has been charged with
the responsibility of developing the Rwanda National Land Use and Development
Master Plan since September 2007. The project falls under Ministry of Natural
Resources (MINIRENA), although it has implications for virtually all sectors of the
economy. In executing this project, Swedesurvey works in close collaboration with
the National Land Centre (NLC). To this end, besides preparation of the plan, the
project is also expected to assist in building the capacity of the newly established
NLC, specifically in areas of managing land use data using GIS. The project will
also produce orthophotos that will be used in systematic adjudication and
registration of land. Moreover they are to be used in overall and detailed spatial
development planning of Rwanda.
1.4 Project Description

Technical Proposal. The aim of this sub-section is to briefly describe the nature of
the national Land Use and Development Plan Project, highlighting its aim and
objectives as well as the methodology adopted and expected outputs. Given that the
nature of the Project has not materially changed from what was agreed during the
inception phase, this section will generally reiterate the commitments made in
Swedesurvey’s Technical Proposal – found in the bid submission that awarded the
project to the company - as subsequently affirmed in the project inception report.
The sub-section presents, below, the Project aims and objectives, as given in the
Project Tender Invitation TOR before presenting the approach adopted to realise
these.
1.4.1 Project aims and objectives

Two linked components. The project comprises two relatively distinct components,
albeit interlinked: first, preparation of a national Land Use and Development Master
Plan; and, second, assistance in the planning and setting up of an organisational
structure for collecting and managing land use data at the NLC.
Aim one. The first, and main component, of the Project is aimed at producing a
national Land Use and Development Master Plan that will engender a more rational,
efficient, effective, equitable and sustainable management and use of land and other
resources thereon. To achieve this aim, there are a number of objectives that have to
be realised along the way, and these are:
• preparation of an up-to-date national base map at a scale of 1:50000;
• completing a land audit in terms of land tenure and land use classes as
specified in the organic land law;
• understanding the existing situation in the country, and identifying the key
planning issues through collecting and analysing relevant secondary sources
planning data from both state and non-state agencies;
• undertaking specific studies of key issues such as the socio-economic
conditions of certain areas and groups of people, soil conditions, ecology and
environment to complement the secondary sources referred above;
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• preparation of alternative land use and development master plan proposals

for consultation and public hearings – the plan shall be inherently spatial
showing how conflicting land use and land related interests may be
reconciled, and it shall be based on different population projections;
• preparation of a draft law for the implementation of the land use and
development master plan; and,
Aim two. The second component that aims at planning and setting up an
organisational structure at NLC for collecting and managing land use data has the
following specific objectives:
• providing training in land use data collection and management to staff in
charge of land management, land use, monitoring and evaluation; and,
• preparation of technical specifications for the procurement of a GIS and
database for land use monitoring.
1.4.2 Delimitations
Cover and validity. Two project delimitations, although not stated in its TOR, may
be envisaged at this juncture, ie:
• whereas the national land use and development master plan will consider
aggregate information regarding the existing situation and needs at
administrative levels below the district, it will not make detailed and specific
proposals for planning based at disaggregated data at these levels – it may,
however, provide an example of how national land use and development
planning policy may be materialised at levels below that of the district, eg
how Imidugudu settlements may be spatially organised; and,
• whereas every effort is made to make the plan relevant as a dynamic and to
national policy complimentary instrument for guiding national land use and
development master planning, its validity will depend on continuous
evaluation and up-dating – feasibility for such revalidation can be built in to
the plan, but it cannot be guaranteed by the plan itself.
1.4.3 Project methodology

Preparation for guiding and process-orientation for regular review and up-dating.
We seek to prepare a national land use and development master plan that can be used
as an effective planning instrument for medium to longer term strategic decisions
and annual programming and budgeting for land use and development management
at national, provincial and district levels. The plan should reflect both the long to
medium term visions and the short term implementation capacities. The plan will,
therefore, be more than a physical layout with zoning regulations – it will need to
have a guiding spatial plan component, but this will be complimented by process-
orientated socio-economic and other components that directly address national and
local authority governance issues and implementation capacity. The plan will need
to be prepared so that it may function in a foreseeable future through regular review
and up-dating. The regularity of such review and up-dating will need to be agreed.
Approach follows Rwandan land policy. The approach we follow is guided by
fundamental principles underpinning the Rwandan national land policy, particularly
the conception of land as a common heritage for past, present and future generations,
and whose management, therefore, should be participatory and inclusive of all
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citizens and other stakeholders. The national land policy has as one of its principles
the protection of existing fragile zones that are of national interest. It also contends
that the determination of the real purpose of land and information about land is a
pre-requisite to good management and rational use of land, which is the basic
element of development and source of life. This, therefore, demands that any
planning undertaking should take into account all the various types of land-related
information, which constitute land databases as they vary in times and space.
Use of up-front technology and scientific information. As asserted by the national
land policy, physical planning should utilize the best available scientific technology
and information to identify and protect significant natural resources and to ensure
the viability of both human and natural communities. Our methodology will,
therefore, introduce methods and techniques, which make it possible to predict the
socio-economic and environmental impact of various decisions and discuss
alternatives at every stage of the project. Indicators showing whether plans promote
or work against the achievement of socio-economic and environmental objectives
shall be presented to stakeholders throughout the planning process.
Use of GIS as decision making tool. Our methods and techniques will make use of –
and show how to make use of - Geographical Information System (GIS) as a
decision support tool. This tool will not only be used in testing sustainable
environmental solutions, but also in developing standard procedures in generating
alternative spatial in all the plan preparation steps. It will introduce the stakeholders
to planning techniques and standards, GIS analysis techniques in the assessment of
socio-economic, institutional, infrastructure and environmental conditions, graphic
user interfaces and developed formal decision support models. We will also explore
and show the advantages of using the latest remote sensing techniques, such as
change detection analyses, for environmental monitoring. These utilise GIS in, for
example, overlay analyses to determine suitable areas for the development of various
public services and utilities.
The preparation of the national land Use and Development Master Plan, thus, follows
Rwandan land policy. To this end it is purpose-designed for a comprehensive and
integrated development approach in the Technical Proposal’s ‘Ten Steps’, which
remain relevant (Box 1.1, below).
Box 1.1 – Project ten steps
Step 1 - Getting organised to work and identifying stakeholders. The timely and smooth
preparation of the national Land Use and Development Master Plan is greatly dependent on
how well the anticipation and mobilization of the resources that will be needed for the
surveying and planning activities have been established. The greater part of the project
inception phase was, thus, devoted to reassessing the resource projections presented in the
project technical proposal and securing as many of these as possible, depending on how
soon they will be needed for deployment. This phase of the project has been well
accomplished through acquisition of good working premises and mobilising the physical and
human resources needed to execute the project. Whereas extra resources will continue to be
mobilised as of demands of different project activities, the major infrastructure and set-up to
run the project is in place.
Step 2 – The Vision. The Ministry of Natural Resources, MINIRENA, which has a leading
role in the master plan preparation process, has a vision, goal and objectives. MINIRENA’s
sector-specific visionary statements draw upon the national development framework
articulated in key national policy instruments such as Vision 2020 and international
development commitments like the Millennium Development Goals (MDG). The vision and
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goals of the ministry with respect to the land sector, which are reflected in the National Land
Policy and laws deriving from it, such as the Organic Land Law, shall be mirrored in the
present project. This will minimise the possibility of duplication of efforts and the risk of
confusion among stakeholders and the general public.
Step 3 – Analysing the situation: the current stage. Step 3 of the planning process -
Situation Analysis - basically answers the question: Where are we now? It is both analytical
and diagnostic, geared towards identifying issues, potentials and future development needs
and inclusive spatial requirements of the nation. Assessment involves technical and
participatory methods. Indeed, this is the stage that is currently being concluded and is the
focus of this report.
Search, collection and analysis issue identification. This phase has entailed a comprehensive
search, collection and initial analysis of essential data on the existing situation in Rwanda,
covering various sectors, with a view to identifying the key issues which the ensuing
planning stage should seek to address, in some cases through further analysis.
Base and thematic maps. Some of the data being collected, particularly that of a spatial
nature is used in the on-going preparation of an up-dated national digital base map and other
necessary thematic maps, such as land tenure maps. Inclusive set of stakeholders.
Data collection from wide set of stakeholders. Besides the data custodians specified in the
TOR we have cast the net wide to cover other important stakeholders such as: Rwanda
Environmental Management Authority (REMA); Government ministries such as Ministry of
Local Government (MINALOC), Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning
(MINECOFIN) and Ministry of Commerce, Industry, Investment promotion, Tourism and
Cooperatives (MINICOM); non governmental organisations (NGOs) engaged in land-
related activities; private sector federation; local authorities, particularly districts; and,
country offices of key Rwandan international development partners - funding major land-
based or related projects - such as IFAD, USAID, DfID and Sida. In the ensuing phases of
the project, we will seek to maximise possibilities of wider and deeper public consultation
participation. Whereas participation is recognised as essential for ensuring relevance of - and
installing a sense of ownership of - the national Land Use and Development Master Plan,
cognisance will need to be made of a need to balance given project means for participation
and by the project inspired anticipations, ie participatory modalities will need to maximise
available resources.
Needs assessment and suitability analysis. In analysing all the information gathered, two key
tasks shall be accomplished: needs assessment and suitability analysis. By identifying key
issues in different sectors, service provision gaps shall be identified by way of needs
assessment with suitability of different arrangements and locations for different
development proposals to be investigated. The needs assessment information products will
be a comprehensive combination of maps, which will not only reveal weaknesses or gaps in
Rwanda’s distribution of goods and services but also the country’s needs based on
population projections. GIS is a useful tool for this as it has the ability to make the plan
more transparent to the general public in an efficient manner. Suitability analysis
information products – which should also contain address to risk - will focus on the
limitations and potentials originating from nature and by man made or enforced restrictions,
rules and regulations. These will provide a basis upon which a sustainable land use and
development master plan for the nation may realistically be formulated.
Step 4 – Focusing objectives for national Land Use and Development Master Plan. The
next step after the data gathering and analysis is the re-visit to earlier tentatively formulated
project objectives. Taking cognisance of gathered information and analyses, it is now
possible to focus them to ensure that they are purpose-generated for the Master Plan to
achieve its aim along with Rwanda’s overall development vision. It is important that the
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Plan aims and objectives, apart from seeking to ensure that they are in tandem with those in
national policies and visions, reflect the ‘common good’ or consensus of the broader
community, without compromising the legally enshrined rights of the individual. Only then
will implementation of the Master Plan effectively engage all sectors, and ownership be
shared nationally and inclusively. We shall achieve this by conducting participatory goal-
setting processes in public settings where the ‘situation and risk and suitability analysis
information products’ be presented and discussed with the intention of being used.
Step 5 – Establishing the development thrust and spatial strategies. This step is critical in
determining the future spatial development of the Rwanda, and involves broad and deep
understanding of an inclusive set of stakeholders of what is appropriate, feasible and
possible through an exploration of different land use and development plan alternatives or
scenarios. After exploring at least three alternatives, a draft plan will be prepared based on a
preferred alternative. Only the land use and spatial planner’s imagination can define the
limits of the use GIS in this step. Most probably the use of this tool will be limited to actual
presentation and display work in the beginning. When the planner acquires advanced skills
in the use of GIS, more sophisticated spatial analysis is possible. The information products
in this step will be three alternative land use and development master plan scenarios towards
a preferred plan. It may also be called a ‘national physical structure plan’, a ‘national spatial
structure plan’, ‘national physical concept plan’ or a ‘national spatial concept plan’.
Step 6 - Preparing the Draft. It is at this stage that the national land use and development
master plan, or national spatial concept plan, components and their spatial organisation and
details are put into a final draft form. It also provides more detailed information relevant to
checking use regulations or controls at district and local levels, among others. GIS will be
useful in furnishing templates, which are based on map standards as regard to format and
symbology. To facilitate the implementation of national strategies, we propose that the draft
plan should be capable of being ‘broken-down’ into provincial and district master plans.
Step 7 - Conducting hearings. This will involve a 3-stage process namely: public display
and information dissemination; consultations; and, consultations. The objective of this
process is to inform the general public and ensure an objective and participatory review of
the draft Master Plan. Moreover it is to encourage ownership of the plan and to gain support
for its implementation.
Step 8 – Review, approval and adoption. The mandatory and comprehensive review of the
national Land Use and Development Plan will take place at this stage, after which approval,
enactment and adoption of it by the Client is scheduled. GIS benefits from permitting work
in a digital mode, compared to the time consuming and laborious process of reviewing
analogue maps and sketch proposals. Its capability of showing easily comprehendible visual
proposals of different themes and at different scales – and in different locations, ideally with
electricity so as to reduce needs for numerous paper copies, or hard copies, makes it not only
efficient but pedagogic in this step.
Step 9 – Flexible implementation. Implementing the national Land Use and Development
Master Plan requires available resources, complimented with functioning institutional
structures and procedures. It is, therefore, recommended that the required draft legislation
for implementation of the Master Plan should allow – within defined limits – as much
flexibility as possible in its interpretation depending on the local context, as long as within
legal administrative and other frameworks.
Step 10 – Monitoring, evaluation, updating and participation. The combination of attribute
and spatial data, which is a unique advantage of GIS, greatly facilitates the measurement of
development outcomes and trends. As the tools’ software is developing rapidly into a more
user-friendly interface, it will also facilitate a growing demand for transparency and
participatory planning.
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1.4.4 Capacity building

Sharing knowledge and experience and advising rather than imposing. Capacity
building is one of the most crucial factors for the success of the present project to
prepare a national Land Use and Development Master Plan. This applies both to the
individuals and the institutions involved in the process. There is already on-going
joint working between Swedesurvey and NLC staff in activities of the project, such
as measurement of photo-controls – ie, post aerial photo to rectify captured images -
using GPS, in a bid to foster exchange of experience, capacity building and transfer
of knowledge. Our approach and methodology of working as professional advisers
imply: listening carefully to presentation of problems; trying to jointly identify
possible solutions; and, advising – with as objective arguments as possible - rather
than imposing opinions, in a joint dialogue with those we will be working with.
Networking, seminars, workshops and study visits. Other important elements in
capacity building will be networking mechanisms, seminars, workshops and study
visits. All activities will contribute to the development of human resources within
the field of land use management and development planning. The needs assessment
plan will include a human resource development plan. In this work, we will build on
a participatory training and monitoring cycle. Sweden. So far two study tours for
selected individuals from MINIRENA and other sister bodies have been organised.
The destination of first tour was to land related institutions in Sweden, where up-
front approaches, methods and techniques – using Land Information System (LIS)
including GIS – were visited at central and local government levels.
Figure 1.1 Participatory training and monitoring cycle
Botswana. The second study visit concerned Botswana, involving MINIRENA

officials. The visit was enabled with funding by the Swedish International
Development Agency (Sida). This country was selected because it is one country -
of a few Sub-Saharan African countries - that is well advanced in land and spatial
data management and spatial planning both at policy and technical levels. It was
intended that this study visit would provide useful indicators of what is feasible in a
context that has similarities with Rwanda, and offer inspiration to Rwanda’s current
endeavours towards Information and Communication Technology (ICT) led land
management. Swedesurvey has also been actively involved in developing
Botswana’s spatial data infrastructure, and was thus able to use its contacts and
knowledge of the country to ensure that the team from MINITERE got as much
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benefit from the visit as possible. Moreover, as Swedesurvey’s project Kigali office
Team Leader, who accompanied the team, has an extended experience as a land use
planner and legal drafter of Botswana’s current Development Control Code 1 , he
could show in-situ examples of outcomes of, purpose-designed, enabling land use
and development legislation.
1.5 Progress
1.5.1 Inception
Report. The start period of the three-year project was September 2007 with work on
the project’s inception phase ending in December 2007. The inception phase was
successfully completed and the Inception Report arising there from accepted by the
then Ministry of Lands, Environment, Water, Forest and Mines (MINITERE),
currently MINIRENA.
Mobilisation. This period also served the important purpose of mobilising all the
essential human and physical resources necessary for the execution of this project. It
has been possible to set up a well equipped project office in Kigali to avail working
space to project staff and appropriate storage facilities for the project products.
Various types of equipment have also been secured, including software to work with
the images captured and other types of data.
1.5.2 Collection of secondary data

Sources, review and analyses. The next phase of the project involved collecting
secondary data from various ministries, governmental agencies, parastatals, private
sector and NGOs. This collection is to provide a basis for assessing the pertinent
issues relating to land and development that exist in the country with a view to
making remedial proposals in the Master Plan. The present report is an outcome of
the data sources identification, review and analysis resulting from collection during
this phase.
Secondary and primary data. Whereas this phase of the project was primarily
directed towards collecting secondary data, it was deemed pertinent to supplement
this with primary information where necessary. The nature of secondary data
collected from both published and unpublished materials includes policy documents,
research papers, maps, correspondences, statistical abstracts and published literature
on Rwanda’s political economy and land tenure development. The search for, and
review of, secondary materials was undertaken at national to district levels, and in
diverse locations and organisations. At both levels key policy and legal instruments
were identified and studied, and reports on land management and general economic
trends were examined. Information on country’s population dynamics and other
demographic attributes was obtained from National Institute of Statistics (NISR).
However, because it is almost six years since a national population census was
conducted, there is considerable reliance on the more up-to-date spell out (EICV)
reports despite them being sample-based. To supplement this data were maps and
plenty of vector data collected from different organisations such as Ministry of
1
A legal instrument – under the Town and Country Planning Act - that regulates spatial development on
individual parcels of residential, civic and community, commercial, industrial and mixed land use
(Ministry of Local Government, Lands and Housing, 1995. Republic of Botswana – Development
Control Code, 1995. The Government Printer. Gaborone. Purpose-drafted to be enabling to a
disadvantaged majority, it won a UN HABITAT award 1996.
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Agriculture and Livestock (MINAGRI), National Land Centre (NLC), NISR and
RURA.
Data verification. Documentary search was also conducted in a number of
government ministries, starting with what is posted on their websites followed by
physical visits to their offices. For purposes of gap-filling, data triangulation and
corroboration, key informant interviews were conducted with some of the officials
visited. Semi-structured interviews were used to elicit important information at both
national and district levels, primarily targeting key policy makers and administrators.
These respondents were very valuable in providing insights into policy issues
otherwise not available in documentary form and thus not in the public domain.
1.5.3 National geodetic system

Geodesy report submitted. Alongside the collection of existing information, work
has been carried out on the national geodetic system. We started off by investigating
the existing geodetic system with a view to assessing its suitability as a framework
for collecting and managing spatial data in the country. What we found was a
mixture of uncoordinated systems operating concurrently, creating potential for
confusion and major errors in the use and management of spatial data. We have
produced a report, detailing our findings and proposals for a unified modern system.
We propose to change the national geodetic system to what is referred to as
International Terrestrial Reference Frame (ITRF) as adopted by the International
Union of Geodesy and Geophysics (IUGG). We are also proposing changes to the
national map grid system so that, once mapped, the entire territory of Rwanda falls
within one mapping zone as opposed to the current two. This would eliminate some
accuracy errors that tend to occur at the meeting points of two different mapping
zones. These proposals have been presented to MINIRENA
1.5.4 Aerial photography and changes to TOR

Initial mixture of high and low level. To facilitate the planning process, the present
project is supposed to prepare an up-to-date base map for the country. To do this, an
aerial photography campaign was planned to generate orthophotos from which such
a map would be produced. In the initial project terms of reference, the aerial
photography programme was divided into two parts: low altitude photography, from
1250 m above ground level, for urban centres; and, high altitude photography, from
5000 m above ground level, for the rest of the country., As the project was
underway, however, it was felt by MINIRENA that the aerial photography campaign
should be carried out in such a way that the orthophotos produced can, besides being
used in base-map preparation, support not only land registration processes, which are
central to the government’s land reform efforts, but also detailed spatial planning.
An example of the latter is the on-going detailed planning for a new Central
Business District (CBD) of the City of Kigali. Negotiations between Swedesurvey
and MINIRENA, through the National Procurement Authority, were initiated to this
effect an addendum to the original contract was signed in June 2008. This addendum
brought major changes to the aerial photography programme.
Intermediate level with high resolution. Because the orthophotos produced from
high altitude photography at 5000 m are at a smaller scale with lesser resolution,
they cannot be easily used in demarcating and registration of land parcels. It was,
thus, agreed that the whole country be photographed from an intermediate altitude of
3000 m so that the outputs – with higher resolution - can be efficiently used for
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preparing the national land use and development master plan and support the
processes of land registration and detailed spatial planning at the same time. The
images produced from this altitude have a resolution of up to 25 cm 2 , making them
usable for land parcel demarcation and detailed spatial planning.
Aerial photo with challenges. Addendum signed, aerial photography got underway
starting from June 19, 2008. Two major challenges were encountered during the
campaign regarding inclement weather and permissions from neighbouring countries
to over fly their common borders with Rwanda. Aerial photography needs clear skies
and good visibility to ensure quality images for mapping purposes, but it is seldom
realised in Rwanda. Despite this, good aerial photography conditions existed from
the second week of June up to around July 16. From then onwards, haze and heavy
cumulus clouds became a problem for most parts of the country. Aircraft and crew,
however, stayed mobilised in Rwanda in anticipation of an improvement in the
weather conditions, but once it was clear that the weather was not getting any better
and a statistically inclement weather period was to be expected, demobilisation was
effected August 29, 2008. At the time of demobilisation, almost three quarters of the
country had been completed. It is now expected that the remaining areas, located in
the West and North-west, will be flown in June-July 2009. In the meantime, ground
control measurements, needed in the preparation of orthophotos are concluded, and
continuous delivery of completed orthophotos has started. It will continue with so far
photographed parts of the country to be delivered at the end of June, and is
scheduled to be concluded - with the remaining photography carried out – through to
and including December 2009.
Aerial photo report submitted. An aerial photo report has been submitted to
MINIRENA.
2
Ie, an object like a white 25 cm disc can be seen on the images.
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2 Context
2.1 Introduction
Facilitating background information. Whereas the some contents of this report
section, like the Sub-section, below, on the country’s political origins and evolution,
is familiar with many readers of the present report or stakeholders in the preparation
of the Rwanda national land Use and Development Plan, it is intended to familiarise
others without this familiarity or serve as a reminder. The following sub-sections on
existing Rwandan economy, physical geography, demography, health and education,
in this context section, are intended to serve most readers and stakeholders as useful
contextual Project backgrounds.
2.2 Rwanda’s Political Origins and Evolution

Kingdom with clan groups. The Republic of Rwanda traces its origins to one of the
oldest kingdoms in the East and Central African sub-region. Due to absence of
records, it is not clear when this kingdom was founded. However, it is generally
agreed that somewhere between the 14th and 16th centuries, the kingdom of Rwanda
existed as a fully-fledged well administered, highly centralised entity. Other
historical accounts, however, suggest that since the 11th century, Rwanda existed as a
nation founded on a common history of its people, shared values and a single
language and culture, extending well beyond the current boarders of the country.
The unity of the Rwandan nation was also based on the clan groups and common
rites with no discrimination based on ethnicity (MINECOFIN, 2000). Whereas the
seat of the kingdom tended to move from one hill to another, these were invariably
located in Nyanza near Butare. Kigali, the current capital of Rwanda bears no
historic significance, having been created after the arrival of Europeans. It was in
Kigali that the Germans established their headquarters, and built the residence of the
colonial governor.
Box 2.1 - Rwanda and Berlin conference
Reduced territory. Following the 1885 Berlin conference, Rwanda was given to Germany to
be administered jointly with Burundi. As a result of the conference partitioning of Africa,
Rwanda lost a big part of its territory to neighbouring countries where ethnic Rwandans can
be found even today. Because Rwanda was not considered suitable for white settlement, it
was not seen as a colony but rather a protectorate and, therefore, German authority and
administration were exercised through indirect rule. The first European residence in Kigali
was established in 1907. This was followed by setting up a military camp and thereafter
some commercial buildings in the neighbourhood.
Belgian administration with League of Nations mandate. German control of
Rwanda, however, did not last long as this came to an end following German’s
defeat in the First World War. Indeed, it was on May 6, 1916 that Belgian troops
entered Kigali, signalling the defeat of the Germans. When the war ended three years
later, Belgian administration of Rwanda was formalised but this was to be
undertaken on behalf of the League of Nations following the declaration of Rwanda
and Burundi as mandate territories of the League of Nations. Whereas the main
administrative centre for the Rwanda-Urundi mandate was in Bujumbura - in today’s
Burundi - Kigali served as local seat of the colonial administration inside Rwanda.
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Ethnic conflict supported by colonial administration. Like for most African

countries, the road to independence was marred also by Rwanda by ethnic conflict.
In the case of Rwanda it pitted the majority Hutu against minority Tutsi, all of which
was fanned and supported by the Belgian colonial administration as well as the
powerful Catholic Church. The results were the massacres of Tutsis, many of whom
fled into exile in neighbouring countries. These conflicts also culminated into the
overthrow of the centuries-old monarchy, and Rwanda became a republic.
Genocide. Rwanda’s post-colonial history has also been marked by sporadic periods
of upheavals and state-sponsored marginalisation of certain sections of the
population within the country. The state also invested a lot of efforts in denying
those Rwandans who had fled into exile the right to return to their country. Having
sought all peaceful means to resolving issues, Rwandans, particularly those in exile
resorted to waging a liberation war in the early 1990s. The civil upheavals of the
1990s culminated into the 1994 genocide, which claimed more than one million lives
and created a similar number of refugees and displaced persons.
2.2.1 Post 1994 political reconstitution and governance reforms

National level governance reforms. The genocide had a devastating effect on the
Rwanda’s social, economic and political fabric, as well as on its human resource
base and institutional capacity. The situation returned to normal with the restoration
of peace, the return of refugees and the undertaking of prudent liberalised economic
policies and programmes with the assistance of international donors. The disruptive
legacy of the 1990s has now been largely corrected, and the country’s economic and
social recovery has been strong and steady About a decade-and-a-half since the
genocide, Rwanda has made tremendous strides in rebuilding its socio-political
landscape, and significant achievements have been registered, including restoration
of security for people and property across the country, putting in place and
capacitating key state institutions.
Security and reforms. The government of Rwanda has also invested significant
efforts in improving relations with the international community and neighbouring
countries. The country has played a significant role in the international conference
on the Great Lakes Region, and is contributing to the African Union and United
Nations peace-keeping missions. This has led to improved peace, security and
stability in the region, while also improving the image of Rwanda. Several reforms
have also been effected in public, corporate and civic sectors by introducing new
institutions while revamping old ones to ensure effective service delivery, better
financial management, democratic governance, and cramping down on corruption.
More importantly the government has been able to restore security over the
country’s entire territory, with the only major threat to national security being
remnants of genocide perpetrators camped in the Democratic Republic of Congo
(DRC).
Democratisation and citizen participation. Having dealt with immediate political
and security problems following the genocide, the government of Rwanda has
embarked on consolidation and deepening of good governance on several fronts.
Through public consultations and national referendum (May 2003), a new
constitution was developed and promulgated. The constitution sought to rectify the
ills in the past political dispensation that culminated in the genocide, and has since
been a basis for regular democratic elections of leaders ranging from the lowest
levels of local government to the President. This has opened horizons for creating a
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progressively stable environment that creates confidence for Rwandans as well as

foreign investors. The new constitution has provided a framework for representation
and participation of citizens, bringing into existence key institutions including the
two chambers of Parliament, an independent judiciary, the National Electoral
Commission, the Office of the Ombudsman and the Office of the Auditor-General,
among others. Having identified corruption and injustice as two of the main evils
that undermine good governance in many countries, the Government of Rwanda
sought to put in place institutions to deal with these issues.
Box 2.2 - Office of the Ombudsman
Prevent and fight injustice, corruption and related infractions. In 2003, the Office of the
Ombudsman was created, and its primary mandate is to prevent and fight injustice,
corruption and related infractions. The institution serves as an intermediary between the
population and government or private administrative entities, and therefore, receives and
examines petitions filed by the population on individual basis and those of private
associations concerning activities of government employees, as well as those of the private
sector and seeks to mediate settlements in such cases. The Ombudsman also receives,
verifies and archives annual data on wealth declarations by civil servants as required by law.
Participation in the planning process secured. Within a short period of time
Rwanda’s has, thus, managed to establish internationally recognised democratic
credentials as evidenced by regular, peaceful, free and fair elections. Regarding
citizen participation, empowerment, transparency and accountability, the new
constitution has provided a framework for representation and participation of
citizens in the district planning process. Several mechanisms to promote citizen
empowerment, voice and accountability have been adopted. At the national level,
citizens participate through parliamentary elections, opinion polls and town
meetings. A number of mechanisms have been strengthened to promote
accountability links between citizens and local governments, including umudugu
meetings, social audits, ubudehe participatory programmes, abunzi mediators,
service satisfaction surveys, imihigo reviews, debates on radio and television, the
Joint Action Development Forum (JADF), and Youth and Women’s Councils. These
mechanisms are complemented by a contractual performance approach between
service providers and local governments or national policy makers. Furthermore, the
accountability links between local governments and national policy makers work
through inspections, audits and imihigo.
Free political competition and the independence of the media and civil society.
Deliberate efforts have been put into creating space and provide a platform for civil
society organisations to fully participate in affairs of the country. A policy on civil
society, to increase its role in national governance issues has been drafted. At the
national level, several initiatives, such as the Joint Governance Framework, the
Millennium Challenge Corporation and the creation of independent think tanks, are
underway to improve harmonisation with regard to the assessment of governance in
Rwanda. Free political competition and the independence of the media and civil
society have been reinforced through several mechanisms including the
establishment of a political party forum and of the Rwanda Civil Society Platform.
These shall also continue serving the promotion of effective partnerships between
public, private sector and civil society through, among others, Joint Action
Development Forums at local level and twinning programmes.
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Gender address with highest 55 % female parliamentarians. There has also been
significant progress on gender equality, as indicated by both girls’ primary school
enrolments and women’s representation in parliament, where Rwanda has the
highest proportion of female parliamentarians in the world at 55%. Much remains to
be done, however. A great deal of violence against women, such as rape and
domestic assault, goes unreported and hence unpunished. And there remain
problems with the Land Law: women who are not legally married have no legal
entitlement to their ‘husband’s’ land. Efforts by local communities with regard to
encouraging couples to legalise their marriages are yielding fruits through group
marriage ceremonies.
2.2.2 National unity, justice and reconciliation

Box 2.3 Gacaca courts
Alternative to the classical judicial system. One of the ills that characterised post-colonial
Rwanda before 1994 was the culture of impunity for those with state power. The post-
genocide government of Rwanda sought to deal with the culture of impunity by dispensing
justice while fostering national reconciliation. To this effect, Gacaca community courts
were introduced to speed up the delivery of justice related to genocide crimes and despite
the enormity of this challenge, the trials are almost complete. Before introducing Gacaca
courts, the government had set up special chambers to handle genocide related crimes and
other crimes against humanity but with nearly 120000 persons in Rwanda’s prisons
accused of having organized or participated in the genocide and more than a million cases
to dispense with, it soon became evident that these special chambers did not have the
capacity to handle the task. Following extensive national consultations, spearheaded by
the President of the Republic in 1998, Gacaca courts - based on Rwanda’s traditional
dispute resolution mechanisms - were adopted as alternative to the classical judicial
system. One of the principles of Gacaca Jurisdictions is to bring the accused to places
where they were alleged to have committed their crimes in the presence of the accusers,
witnesses and adult residents of the area. Through these sessions, attempts were made to
reconstruct the genocide events in question, establish the truth pointing out the preparation
and the execution of the genocide, and the identification of authors, co-authors and
accomplice of the genocide and the establishment of individual responsibility. The courts
are headed by elected individuals, referred to as ‘inyangamugayo’ (persons of integrity).
Gacaca proceedings are also underpinned by seeking voluntary confessions by the
accused, guilt pleading, repentance, forgiveness of the accused by the accusers and the
community, which are all geared towards reconciliation. Gacaca courts initially did not
have jurisdiction over what were classified as Category 1 genocide crimes that included
the primary planners and authors of the genocide. However, having staisfcatorily
completed most of the cases under them by the end of 2007, their mandate was raised to
cover even category 1 crimes.
Unity and reconciliation. Following the genocide there was, arguably, nothing more
urgent and challenging to the government as restoring a sense of unity in a severely
divided nation. For any sustainable development and durable peace in the country, it
was imperative that robust efforts be channelled towards the restoration and
consolidation of national unity in Rwanda. Efforts, aimed at fostering unity and
reconciliation, have been mainstreamed at all levels of government, with the
Commission for Unity and Reconciliation (CNUR) taking a lead role in overseeing
their implementation. The Commission has, in collaboration with different
administrative entities at various levels, embarked on a concerted campaign to
sensitize the population against all forms of divisions and genocide ideology. A
national training centre has been established at Nkumba in Musanze district to host
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training programmes for several categories of the population, including local

authorities, teachers, students having completed secondary schools who are admitted
to university, the repatriated and infiltrators who dissociated themselves from
interahamwe and ex-FAR (Forces Armees Rwandaises) the co-ordinators of unity
and reconciliation and, finally, ex-prisoners etc, on the origins of genocidal ideology
and the mechanisms to eradicate it :Generally, such training targets individuals
deemed to have some authority or influence on the population. The youth have also
been specifically targeted because they are seen as the future of this country and
therefore capable of serving a pivot for sustainable unity and reconciliation in their
respective areas. Indeed, there has been established Unity and Reconciliation clubs
in most secondary schools across the country. There are also other associations for
the promotion of unity and reconciliation in different parts of the country, which are
all monitored, supported and coordinated by the CNUR.
Human rights commission. There has also been established a National Commission
for Human Rights (CNDP) whose primary mandate is to promote and protects
human rights in the country. The Commission discharges its responsibilities through
actions of education and sensitization on human rights and receiving/addressing
complaints of human rights abuse from individual citizens or groups. Like the
CNUR, the key targets for CNDP’s sensitisation programmes are the local
administrative authorities, students as well as inmate and released prisoners.
2.2.3 Decentralisation
Devolvement of centralised power. One of the key elements of Rwanda’s
governance reforms is devolving power and authority from the central to levels of
government close to the population. Historically, Rwanda has been characterised by
highly centralised forms of governance right, through colonial times to 1994.
Successive post independence central governments tended to monopolise decision-
making authority and resources so as to ensure domination over political, social and
economic life of the population. While exercise of authority was top-down,
accountability of the public sector was invariably upwards toward the centre, rather
than to citizens and communities. Following the 1994 genocide and subsequent
national introspection, the government of Rwanda decided to embark on an
ambitious governance reform programme, giving greater say to common people in
the management of their affairs. The National Decentralization Policy, officially
adopted in May 2000, sets out a new course of citizen participation through elected
organs at the local level. Hence, citizens will be able to gain access to decisions that
affect them and participate in civic affairs. As clearly outlined in the decentralisation
policy document, the objectives of Rwanda’s decentralisation programme are:
• promotion of community participation in the decision-making process
engendered by devolving powers and resources to the local level;
• strengthening accountability and transparency by public offices and local
authorities with respect to the communities they serve by establishing a clear
link between taxes paid and service delivery;
• enhancing the response capacity and sensitivity of public administration to
the local environment by placing the planning, financing, and management of
service delivery at the delivery point;
• enhancing and sustaining local planning and management capacity as a
means to promote economic development and poverty reduction; and,
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• strengthening the efficiency of service delivery.

Reduced number of administrative units. By the time the Government of Rwanda
adopted the current National Decentralisation Policy in May 2000, the country’s
administrative structure comprised of 11 prefectures including Kigali City, 106
Districts, 1545 Sectors and 9165 cells. Subsequent to the latest territorial reform in
2005, with a view to using scarce financial and human resources more efficiently,
the country territory has have been restructured into 4 provinces plus Kigali city, 30
Districts, 416 Sectors and 2148 Cells.
Province de-concentrated organ. The province serves as a co-ordinating organ of
the central government to ensure the efficiency in government’s planning, execution
and supervision of the decentralized services. As de-concentrated bodies, the
provinces are not identified as local governments. The central government retains a
strong degree of authority over the provinces and the decision making remains
within the same level of government.
Kigali City Council with special provincial administration. Kigali City Council
(KCC) is a special kind of provincial administration. Besides undertaking strategic
planning for urban development for the Kigali area, KCC also co-ordinates, monitors
and evaluates development plans of local governments under its jurisdiction so as to
ensure uniform development of the city. KCC is also responsible for providing
services regarded as complex or cutting across jurisdictions of individual district
authorities.
Figure 2.1 Organisation structure of the province
Source: MINALOC website.
2.2.4 Local government

Local government – districts and ‘below’. Local government structures refer to the
districts, and under them, the sectors and cells. Districts have a significant level of
autonomy as they prepare their own budgets and are governed by elected councils.
Districts also have their own taxing powers from which they can raise revenue to
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supplement central government transfers. Districts are generally responsible for the
overall co-ordination of economic development, and ensuring the planning,
financing and implementation of service delivery at sector levels as well as
promoting co-operation with other local governments. The management structure of
the district is as follows.
2.2.5 District
District or Akarere Council. The District Council is the policy making and
legislative body at the district level. It functions as a parliament of the district
through which the people, through their representatives, can exercise their decision
making, planning and control powers to determine the development of the district.
District Executive Committee. In its inaugural meeting, the District Council together
with all the members of the Sector Executive Committees and Chairpersons of the
Cell Councils constitute an electoral college to elect the chairperson of the District
Council among the elected councillors of the district and four members of the
Executive Committee. The Executive Committee is the day-to-day contact point
between the people of the district and their elected council in matters pertaining to
service delivery and development.
District Executive Secretary. The head of administration at the district is the
Executive Secretary. He/she heads the management and technical units of the district
and is the overall supervisor of the public servants employed in the district.
Figure 2.2 - The District organisational structure
Source: MINALOC website.
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2.2.6 Sector
Sector, Umurenge, Council. This is the political organ responsible for policy-
making at the sector level. The number of Sector Council members is determined by
the number of Cells forming the Sector. The Council’s functions include approval of
Sector, Umurenge, plans and action programmes and ensuring the follow-up of their
implementation.
Sector, Umurenge, Executive Committee. The Sector Council elects the Sector
Executive Committee to support the preparation and implementation of its policies,
plans, and decisions. This committee is composed of 10 members and executes the
day-to-day administration of the Sector and the implements the decisions and plans
of the Sector Council. The Sector Executive Committee works with the technical
support of its two sub-committees: the Political and Administrative Committee
(PAC) and the Community Development Committee (CDC).
Sector - main service delivery node. Sectors - and in the future cells - have been
earmarked as main service delivery nodes due to their proximity to the population.
Whereas districts were initially established as the focal level for service delivery,
there have been consistent efforts to devolve further the fiscal and service delivery
responsibilities to the sector level. The sector will, thus, increasingly shoulder the
responsibility for the delivery of services, coordination and the management of
several basic services such as local development planning, local tax collection,
statistics, education and social affairs, land use and development planning, housing,
and local infrastructures, etc. A sector is run by an executive secretary assisted by
other technical and support staff.
2.2.7 Cell
Finally, the cell, Akagari, is the smallest politico-administrative unit in the country
and hence closest to the people. Therefore, this is the unit through which the
problems, priorities and needs of the people at a grassroots level are identified and
addressed. The key organisational bodies of the Cell or Akagari are outlined below.
The Cell, Akagari, Council. All citizens resident in the Cell who are aged 18 and
above are members of the Cell Council. The Cell Council mobilises the residents of
the Cell, identifies, discusses and prioritises the problems of Cell, and takes
decisions for their resolution.
The Cell Executive Committee. The Cell Council elects the Cell Executive
Committee composed of ten members. The Committee executes functions related to
administration and community development, including the day-to-day administration
of the Cell and the implementation of decisions taken by the Cell Council. The Cell
Executive Committee works through its technical committee (the Community
Development Committee) to identify and prioritise needs, design development plans,
mobilise development resources and implement the plans.
2.3 The Economy
2.3.1 Vision 2020

Background. Following years of mismanagement, war and genocide, the economy
of Rwanda had virtually reached total collapse by 1994. The immediate aftermath of
the genocide, government’s efforts were entirely deployed in resettling displaced
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people and returning refugees, and effecting basic reconstruction of essential

infrastructure so as to the country functioning again.
Vision 2020. As some form of stability returned, the government sought to look
forward and establish long-term development plans for Rwanda. A national
consultative process conducted at Village Urugwiro in 1998-9 galvanised national
consensus towards a need to define the country’s future and how to get there. It was
this framework that provided the basis for the formulation of the country’s Vision
2020 that is currently the guiding document for Rwanda’s development path and
strategies. Overall, Vision 2020 seeks to bring about fundamental transformation of
Rwanda moving it from one of the least developed countries in the world into a
middle-income economy by the year 2020. In measurable terms, the country’s
annual per capita income will have to rise USD 900 from USD 290 in 2000 - date of
Vision adoption, the poverty rate will have to drop from 64 % in 2000 to 30 %, and
the average life expectancy should rise from 49 years - in 2000 - to of 55. Vision
2020 provides more detailed development targets to be achieved by 2020
(MINECOFIN, 2000:25-6).
Six ‘pillars’. The broad agenda of the Vision 2020 is centred around six pillars
clearly outlined in the Vision document as:
• reconstruction of the nation and its social capital anchored on good
governance, underpinned by a capable state;
• transformation of agriculture into a productive, high value, market oriented
sector, with forward linkages to other sectors;
• development of an efficient private sector spearheaded by competitiveness
and entrepreneurship;
• comprehensive human resources development, encompassing education,
health, and ICT skills aimed at public sector, private sector and civil society -
to be integrated with demographic, health and gender issues;
• infrastructural development, entailing improved transport links, energy and
water supplies and ICT networks; and,
• promotion of regional economic integration and cooperation . at all times,
these will be affected by a number of cross-cutting issues including, gender
equality and sustainable environmental and natural resource management
(ibid:3-4).
Guide for implementation. Besides espousing aspirations shared by the people of
Rwanda, Vision 2020 presents a ‘roadmap’ that will guide the implementation and
eventual realisations of the set targets. A strategy for translating Vision 2020 into
operational medium and short-term instruments is clearly articulated in the Vision
2020 document. It enjoins all development strategies in the country to be formulated
within the Vision’s guiding framework. At the national level, some of these multi-
sectoral instruments incorporate the Economic Development and Poverty Reduction
Strategy (EDPRS), the National Investment Strategy (NIS) and the National
Information and Communications Infrastructure (NICI) plan. National instruments,
such as the EDPRS, are also to be made further made operational through medium-
term sector strategies, which inform provincial and district development plans. The
sector strategies and the decentralised development plans will be implemented
through the Medium-Term Expenditure Framework (MTEF), ie, three-year fully
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integrated budgets that mainstream the Public Investment Programmes (PIP) and
translate them into concrete action plans costed through annual budgets. The poverty
reduction achieved through the MTEF will be monitored, and will feed back into the
elaboration of sector and provincial plans.
Key assumption premises. The realisation of Vision 2020 targets is premised upon
some key assumptions with regard to the macro-economic situation of Rwanda over
the period leading to 2020. These assumptions can be summarised as follows:
• an average population growth rate of about 2.7 %;
• a minimum annual GDP growth rate of about 7 %; and,
• annually investment level of 30 % of GDP;
• contributions to GDP amounting to 45 %, 30 % and 37 % by agriculture,
industry and services respectively up to 2010, with the latter two sectors -
industry and services - taking over dominance from agriculture by 2020
when they services should be contributing 42 %, industry 26 % and
agriculture 33 % of GDP;
• private investment to account for an average of 20 % of GDP and public
investment 8 %; and,
• public capital expenditure is assumed to increase to RWF 605 billion (ibid,
2000).
2.3.2 Economic Development and Poverty Reduction Strategy (EDPRS) Paper

Document with process-orientation. One of the key instruments in operationalising
the aspirations and goals espoused by the Vision 2020 is, hence, the Economic
Development and Poverty Reduction Strategy (EDPRS). EDPRS is described as
both a document and a process. As a document, it sets out the Rwanda’s
development objectives, priorities and major policies for the next five years, ie 2008-
12. It provides a process guide for government, development partners, private sector
and civil society, pointing to where the country wants to go, the means and
mechanisms to get there, and how these means are to be secured (ibid, 2006).
Sustainable Growth for Jobs and Exports – first of three Programmes. EDPRS
priorities are grouped into three ‘flagship’ programmes namely: Sustainable Growth
for Jobs and Exports; Vision 2020 Umurenge; and, Governance. Top priority is
accorded to the programme aimed at accelerating growth to create employment and
generate exports. This, it is intended, will be achieved through making deliberate
high quality public investments with the objective of reducing the operational costs
of business. With an improved business climate, it is further expected that, the
private sector will be incentivised to increase its investment rate in subsequent years.
Given the demographics structure of Rwanda that shows a predominantly young
population - two thirds of it is aged less than twenty-five years - expanding the job
market to absorb this vast labour pool will also be an area of particular emphasis
(ibid, 2007a).
Second programme. Vision 2020 Umurenge, as the second programme, will seek to
accelerate the rate of poverty reduction by promoting a ‘pro-poor’ components of the
national economic growth efforts. Again, this will seek to tap into Rwanda’s main
resource – its human resource – by adopting strategies that release the productive
capacity of the disadvantaged majority in rural areas through a combination of
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public works, credit packages and direct support. Vision 2020 Umurenge is, in
essence, a highly decentralised integrated rural development programme designed to
accelerate extreme poverty reduction in the country. It is currently being piloted in
thirty of the least advantaged sectors (Imirenge) of the Rwanda (GOR, 2007).
Third programme. Finally, the third flagship, ‘Governance’ seeks to build on some
of the commendable achievements of the government of Rwanda within the
governance sphere such as its reputation as a country with a low incidence of, and
zero toleration for corruption, to boost its profile as proffered destination of
international investment. Rwanda has already demonstrated its ability to come up
with innovative home-grown mechanisms to deal with governance issues such as
conflict resolution, unity and reconciliation and is investing significantly in
developing a regional comparative advantage in ‘soft infrastructure’, that is, those
aspects of governance, such as well-defined property rights, efficient public
administration, transparency and accountability in fiscal and regulatory matters
(ibid).
Box 2.4 - Sector strategies
Settlement pattern planning tools to be developed – a possible task for the present project.
EDPRS also examines different sectors and offers strategies on how these can be developed
into a holistic goal of meeting the Vision 2020 aspirations. For instance, in the
environmental and land sector, the priorities defined include protecting existing ecosystems
and rehabilitating those that are degraded, paying special attention to sustainable land tenure
security through the planning and management of land registration and rational land use, soil
and water conservation, reforestation, preservation of biological diversity and adaptation and
mitigation against impacts of climate change. In the habitat sub-sector, it is proposed that
planning tools for restructuring the Rwanda’s settlement patterns should be developed, and
so should master plans for new urban residential zones and Imidugudu sites. EDPRS also
incorporates a number of cross-cutting issues (CCIs) which include gender, HIV, the
environment, social inclusion and youth. Wherever possible, issues relating to CCIs have
been integrated into the discussion of sectoral policies and programmes (MINECOFIN,
2007.a).
Estimated implementation costs. The cost of implementing the EDPRS is estimated
at RWF 5151 billion over the five years 2008-12. This amount includes public
recurrent expenditure, public capital expenditure and private investment. The public
component amounts to RWF 3434 billion, representing two-thirds of the total cost.
The extra public financing requirement is RWF 352 billion, equivalent to USD 700
million over 2008-12, or an average of USD 140 million per year (MINECOFIN,
2007).
2.3.3 Economic performance

Recovering growth rate. Following the immediate post-genocide emergency and
recovery phase, Rwanda has recorded significant economic growth and modest but
important rates of poverty reduction. Between 1996 and 2000, high rates of
economic growth were recorded, averaging about 10% per annum. This was in part a
reflection of the deep abyss from which the economy was recovering. This pattern of
growth slowed down to 0.3 % in 2003, reflecting adverse weather conditions and
unfavourable terms of trade for agricultural produce such as coffee and tea, before
recovering to about 4.0% in 2004. However, GDP has been growing at an average
rate of 6 % over the last three years and Government has set an ambitious target of
7.2 % for 2008-9. The key factors in the economic growth are increase in private
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consumption and rise in the contribution of the service sector to the economy.
Despite the impressive expansion of the service sector, agriculture remains an
important component of the country’s GDP and the largest employer of Rwandans
(Table 2.1, below)
Table 2.1- Real growth rate trends by activities (5-year averages in percent)
Share of total Average annual
GDP (%) growth (%)
Activity
1996- 2001- 1996- 2001-
2000 2006 2000 2006
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) 100.0 100.0 10.8 6.4
Agriculture 37.7 36.4 9.5 4.8
Food crop 31.9 31.4 9.9 5.1
Export Crop 1.0 1.1 11.7 6.3
Livestock 3.0 2.2 7.8 3.5
Forestry 1.5 1.3 10.7 3.7
Fisheries 0.3 0.4 29.9 3.7
Industry 15.1 14.2 7.5 8.1
Mining and quarrying 0.3 0.6 24.5 41.3
Manufacturing 8.2 6.8 4.1 6.0
Of which: Food 1.5 1.7 8.1 9.1
Beverages, tobacco 4.2 2.5 -4.4 4.6
Others 2.4 2.7 19.5 6.5
Electricity, gas, water 0.6 0.5 11.3 4.2
Construction 6.0 6.3 11.9 9.6
Services 41.9 43.8 11.7 7.4
Wholesale & retail trade 10.7 9.7 2.2 6.0
Hotels and restaurants 0.8 0.9 25.2 6.6
Transport, storage, communication 4.8 6.0 15.5 9.4
Finance, insurance 2.6 3.5 17.7 13.3
Real estate, business services 10.3 9.6 11.2 5.0
Public administration, education,
health 12.4 13.2 21.0 7.9
Other personal services 0.3 0.9 141.2 12.1
Adjustments 5.4 5.7 38.5 5.6
Less: Imputed bank service charge -1.6 -1.7 4.7 9.6
Plus: VAT and other taxes on
products 7.0 7.4 23.4 6.4
Source: National Institute of Statistics data, extracted from EDPRS, MINECOFIN,
2007:6.
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Agriculture still dominating. In 2006, agriculture was the major contributor to GDP,
at 43.2 %, and the main source of livelihood for 90 % of the population. The share of
industry is growing - 20.5 % in 2006 compared with 16 % in 2000 - and the tertiary
sector contributes 37.2 %. Services, construction and mining are strong performers
and are driving economic growth. However, given constraints including high
electricity prices and uncertain electricity supply, the manufacturing sector is faced
with strong competition from other countries of the region. Structural reforms in the
tea and coffee sectors are expected to lead to increased investment and production,
and it is hoped that quality improvements will stimulate exports (ibid, 2007).
Improvement in fiscal performance. The government’s economic policies and fiscal
management is a significant contributor to experienced continued economic growth.
Over the past seven years, there has been marked improvement in fiscal
performance, with revenue collection growing to around 13 % of GDP in 2006.
Rwanda has also benefited from both the Heavily Indebted Poor Country (HIPC)
and Multilateral Debt Relief (MDR) initiatives resulting in a sustainable debt
position, in which the net present value of debt to export ratio is less than 60 %. The
use of both the internally generated revenues and those supplied by international
development partners through these relieves and general budget support has been
increasingly more effective in targeting the needs that are considered ‘pro-poor’
(ibid).
Box 2.5 – Trade deficit
Widening gap between imports and exports In terms of trade, Rwanda still has considerable
deficit despite a steady rise of exports, growing at an average annual rate of 12.5 % since
2001. The deficit owes in part to imports of capital goods and fuel coupled with increased
public expenditures because of the Government’s commitment to investing against poverty,
mainly in infrastructure. The Monetary policy implementation is improving steadily and
helping to contain inflation at its current level of 7.5 % per annum. The country’s key export
earners are coffee, tourism and tea, accounting for 60 % of the USD 152 million earned in
2005. Despite the noted rise in exports, the expenditure on imports has been much higher
given the high capital requirements necessary at this stage of Rwanda’s development
trajectory. Indeed, imports have been increasing at an average annual rate of 1 5% over the
same period, resulting in the widening of the national trade deficit as a percentage of GDP
from 8 % in 2001 to 12 % in 2006 (ibid).
Land related reasons for reduction in agricultural production as GDP
contribution. Whereas government efforts at diversifying the export product base
seems to be paying dividends, as reflected by, for instance, increased revenues from
the tourism sector - rising from USD 5 million in 2002 to USD 33 million in 2006 -
efforts to increase production in the traditional sectors such as agriculture need to be
strengthened. The reduction in contribution to national GDP by the agriculture sector
has been attributed to a number of land related factors, including scarcity,
fragmentation, degradation, poorly defined administration system and ill-suited
settlement patterns in rural areas. There are also issues of low farming technology,
poor infrastructure and inadequate human and physical capital in rural areas (ibid).
2.3.4 Economic growth and general poverty reduction but widening inequality
More than one third below extreme poverty line. Analyses from EICV studies
undertaken in 2000-1 and 2005-6 reflect a modest decline in the incidence of
consumption poverty both Rwanda’s rural and urban (Table 2.2, below). The Rates
of poverty reduction recorded over the five-year period covered by the survey are
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not deemed fast enough to meet either the targets set in Vision 2020 or MDG. More
than one third of the population is classified as falling below the extreme poverty
line, defined as the level of expenditure needed to provide minimum food
requirements of 2100 kcal per adult per day. The surveys also identified an upper
poverty line referring to inability to meet other non-food basic requirements and
over half of country’s population falls below this line (ibid, 2007.b).
Table 2.2 - Poverty headcount (share of population and number)
Type of poverty Poverty Number of poor
headcount (share (millions)
of population)
EICV1 EICV2 EICV1 EICV2
Upper poverty line
Kigali 16.1% 13.0% 0.11 0.09
Other urban 46.5% 41.5% 0.29 0.36
Rural 66.1% 62.5% 4.43 4.93
National 60.4% 56.9% 4.82 5.38
Extreme poverty line
Kigali 8.4% 6.3% 0.06 0.04
Other urban 28.5% 25.3% 0.18 0.22
Rural 45.7% 40.9% 3.06 3.23
National 41.3% 36.9% 3.30 3.49
Source: NISR, 2006.
Provincial differences in poverty trends. A comparison of consumption-related
poverty trends 2000-6 by province indicates significant differences, with rapid
poverty reduction in the Eastern Province in contrast to stagnating and rising poverty
in the Southern Province and marginal declines in. the Northern Province and in the
City of Kigali. Calculations show that 68 % (MINECOFIN, 2007.b) of the total
reduction of poverty in the country over the period in question was accounted for by
poverty reduction in Eastern Province. The positive trends in the Eastern province
may due to several reasons, including poor initial conditions due to the severe
drought experienced in the region in 2000-1, the fast growth of cereals over the
period, trade with neighbouring countries and low population density (Figure 2.3,
below).
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Figure 2.3 - Changes in poverty at regional and national level (poor as % of the population)
80.0
70.0
60.0
50.0
40.0
30.0
20.0
10.0
0.0
Kigali Southern province Western province Northern province Eastern province National
EICV1 EICV2
Source: NISR, 2006.

Increasing inequality. Poverty trends were not necessarily in tandem with economic
growth patterns. For instance, poverty reduction in the Northern Province was high
despite limited growth at 1 % per annum, whereas the relatively strong growth at 4
% per annum in the Southern province could only result in marginal or negative
poverty reduction. It is clear that economic growth did not necessarily benefit the
disadvantaged, and there is a widening gap between the richest and the poorest.
Inequality across the country, as measured by the Gini coefficient rose from an
already large 0.47 to 0.51 over the period 2000-6. The pattern of inequality varied by
location - it was rising in rural areas and falling in urban.
Own perceptions of poverty. Using participatory methods, attempts were made
through the Ubudehe survey to establish qualitative measures of poverty where
communities across the country were asked about their own subjective perceptions
of poverty. Overall, communities were able to classify themselves into seven socio-
economic categories of wellbeing (Table 2.3 below). The majority of people asked
were classified in the umuhanya and umutindi categories, indicating they felt they
were among the poorest.
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Table 2.3 - Wellbeing self-ranking or categorisation

Perceived poverty Share of respondents
classification (%)
Destitute, Umuhanya 18.0
Poorest, Umutindi nyakujya 52.5
Poorer, Umutindi 9.8
Poor, Umukene 7.1
Vulnerable, Utishoboye 4.8
Surviving, umukene wifashije 1.1
Others, Abandi 6.8
Total 100.0
Source: MINECOFIN, 2007..
Percieved land related reasons for experienced poverty. Major perceived causes of
poverty identified by the Ubudehe survey respondents were lack of land, poor soils,
unpredictable weather and lack of livestock (Table 2.4, below). Exit strategies out of
poverty were identified as paid employment, commerce and livestock. Over half of
the households sampled felt that their income or livelihood had not improved in the
past three years. Principal activities to be undertaken in future Ubudehe work were
identified in the areas of as livestock rearing, agriculture, small business, water and
roads.
Table 2.4 - Major perceived causes of poverty
Cause Share of respondents (%)
Lack of land (Kutagira isambu) 49.5
Poor soils (Ubutaka butera) 10.9
Drought/weather (Izuba ryinshi) 8.7
Lack of livestock (Kutagira itungo) 6.5
Ignorance (Ubujiji) 4.3
Inadequate infrastructure (Ibikorwa remezo bidahagije) 3.0
Inadequate technology (Ikoranabuhanga ridahagije) 1.7
Sickness (Uburwayi) 1.7
Polygamy (Ubuharike) 1.2
Lack of access to water (Kubura amazi) 1.1
Population pressure (Ubwiyongere bw'abaturage) 0.7
Others(Izindi) 10.6
Total 100.0
Source: MINECOFIN, 2007.
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Poverty highest in cases of agricultural wage labour. Evidence from the EICV
survey shows that the incidence of poverty is highest in households whose main
source of income is agricultural wage labour. In 2005-6, 91 % of such households
lived below the poverty line, which is a similar proportion to that in 2000-1.
Households, which depend on combining self-employment in agriculture with
agricultural wage labour, are not much better off, as 82 % of this group live in
poverty. This is a cause for concern because the proportion of individuals aged 15
and above whose main job is agricultural wage labour doubled from 4 % in 2000-1
to 8 % in 2005-6. Such development reflects the acute shortage of land in many
areas and the lack of rural non-farm employment opportunities. This occupational
group is likely to continue increasing its share of the agricultural labour force in the
medium term (ibid).
2.4 Physical Geography
2.4.1 Relief
Mille Collines. Rwanda has been described as the country of ‘a thousand hills’
because of the numerous highly dissected hills, often with flat peaks and convex
slopes, separated by relatively narrow valleys covered with alluvium matter. The
average altitude is 1250 m above sea level. The country’s relief presents varieties.
From east to west, the altitude varies between 1000-4500 m. The setting of this relief
is composed mainly in the east by lowlands; in the centre by hills and in the west by
high mountains (Figure 2.4, below).
The Congo-Nile Ridge. This is a range of mountains, with an altitude ranging
between 2500-3000 m. Overhanging Lake Kivu, it divides Rwanda’s waters in two
parts: those which flow into the Congo basin in the west; and, those which flow into
the Nile in the east. The Congo-Nile Ridge is dominated in the north-west by the
volcanoes range, which consists of five massifs, the highest of which is Kalisimbi
with an altitude of 4507 m.
The Central Plateau. With an altitude ranging between 2000-1500 m, the central
plateau’s relief is made of hills with tops that are sometimes stretched, sometimes
round, separated by deep valleys of 50-15 m, often filled up with alluvial deposits.
The lowlands of the East. The lowlands are dominated by a depression of the relief,
generally undulating between 1500-1100 m of altitude.
The lowlands of the South West in the plain of Bugarama. This is part of a tectonic
depression of the African Rift, and it has an altitude of 900 m.
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Figure 2.4 – Map showing Rwanda relief distribution
Source: MINAGRI.
2.4.2 Soils and subsoil

Cultivated area at 60 %. Being a predominantly agricultural society, soil is a highly
valuable resource in Rwanda. With an estimated 90 % of the working population
engaged in some form of agricultural activity and the sector contributing about 93 %
of exports, the value of soil is phenomenal. As estimated in 1998, the cultivated area
was about 825000 ha representing 60 % of the land suitable for cultivation. At
present, the cultivable area available is about 0.60 ha per household, and this leads to
over farming and often misuse of land, with the harmful consequences on land
resource and environment in general.
Rigorous digital soil data. Rwanda had a rigorous set of soil data that was gathered
and analysed during a project named ‘Carte pedologique du Rwanda’ undertaken by
Ghent University of Belgium and funded by the Belgian Administration for
Development Cooperation (BADC). A large amount of data was collected by this
project and stored in a computerised database, which was later expanded by the
addition of other spatial data using GIS. For the purpose of producing a national soil
map at a scale of 1:100000, a survey of the country’s soils was conducted during
1981-94. Given the complex geo-morphology of Rwanda, a larger mapping scale
became necessary and subsequently soil maps for the whole country had to be
produced at a scale of 1:50000 covering a total of 43 sheets (Figure 2.5, below, is
one of the 43 sheets).
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Figure 2.5 – Carte pédologique du Rwanda
Source: MINAGRI.
Six types of soil. The physical properties that characterise soil vary with underlying
parent material that weathers into mineral soil upon the impact of climatic elements
such as temperature and rainfall. Rwanda’s pedology is characterised by six types of
soil:
• about 50% are said to derive from schistose, sandstone and quartzite
formations;
• 20 % of soils in the country derive from granite and gneissic formations - this
is especially important in the north-eastern savannah and the agricultural
zone of the granitic ridge;
• soils derived from intrusive basic rocks cover close to 10 % of the national
territory;
• soils derived from recent volcanic materials also occupy about 10 % of the
territory;
• soils derived from old volcanic materials, cover about 4 % of the territory;
and,
• alluvial and colluvial soils, features of marshes in Rwanda, occupy 6 % of
the territory.
Varying soil development status. The soil development stage also varies across the
country. In 33 % of the soils, a well-developed argillic horizon has been recorded. It
is the dominant stage found in the western and north-central part of the country. In
the east and in the old volcanic region, most soils are characterised by an intergrade
between argillic and oxic horizon, covering 19 % of the area. In the north-east, in the
east near Akagera River and in Bugesera, ultimate weathering has resulted in the
formation of oxic horizons. The valleys of these regions are frequently filled with
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strongly decomposed organic material or with soil showing vertic properties,

occupying 3 % and 2% of the country, respectively (Figure 2.6, below).
Figure 2.6 - Soil texture classes of dominant soil units in Rwanda
Source: MINAGRI Website

Soil depth. The Carte pedologique du Rwanda soil survey, was also able to
investigate soil depth and texture, establishing five major soil texture categories that
range from fine clay soils to sandy soils. Soils developing on granite or shale
intervened by quartzite are loamy and generally have a clay content between 20-
35%. This texture applies to 17 % of Rwanda’s surface area. Very clayey soils are
developing on the old volcanic materials, whereas the vertisols of the eastern valleys
are characterised by clay content over 60 % - together they cover 10 % of the
country’s territory. In terms of depth, 66 % of the soils in Rwanda are deeper than 1
m. In steep sloping areas, on quartzite, granite or volcanic materials, soil depth can
be between 0.5-1 m (15%) or even shallower (25%). In 19 % of the soils, soil depth
is limited by the presence of stones and gravel of different origin. For instance,
volacanic ejecta limit the soil depth in the Virunga, whereas laterite is frequently
found in the strongly weathered soils of the east. In addition to high volumes of
coarse fragments, soil depth can also be limited by the presence of a lithic, paralithic
or petroferric contact. Shallow lithic or paralithic contacts are frequently found in the
steeply sloping areas of the quartzite ridges and occupy 22 % of Rwanda’s surface
area (Figure 2.7, below).
50 (274)
Figure 2.7 - Soil depth classes of dominant soil units in Rwanda
Source: MINAGRI Website

Soil drainage. As far as drainage is concerned, the soils in Rwanda are generally
well to excessively drained in most, ie 95 %, parts of the country. The valley soils
are moderately to imperfectly drained, representing 2 % of Rwanda, but sometimes
the drainage is even worse, resulting in poorly drained soils, found in 4% of the
country’s land area (Figure 2.8, below).
Figure 2.8 - Drainage classes of dominant soil units in Rwanda
Source: MINAGRI Website (http://www.minagri.gov.rw).
51 (274)
Subsoil minerals. Rwanda’s subsoil contains deposits of ore such as tin ore,
wolfram, colombo-tentalite, gold, all of which are exploited on a small-scale. The
country also has industrial minerals and materials for building, which are also
exploited using traditional methods. From 1999 to 2001, minerals played an
important role in Rwanda’s export earnings in the following proportions: 1999 - 5.9
%; 2000 - 12.58%; 2001 - 42.64%. In 2001, mineral exports took the second position
after coffee.
2.4.3 Weather and climate

Records of meteorological observations. Weather and climate are atmospheric
conditions that affect the day to day activities of humankind and contribute to socio-
economic development activities. Meteorological observations commenced in
earnest around 1873 but for Rwanda they started around 1906 at Save, in Butare. By
1930, there were about 40 meteorological stations in the country but these were
damaged by the 1959 upheavals. Rehabilitation work on some of the destroyed
stations was undertaken between 1962 and 1970 with additional stations for
collecting rainfall and temperature data established. In addition to these stations,
conspectus stations with the ability to collect all atmospheric parameters on a 24 h-
day basis were constructed 1967-95. It was not until 1988 that agro- meteorological
stations were established. By time of the genocide in 1994 Rwanda had more than
150 meteorological stations of which five were conspectus, 139 climatological while
six were agro- meteorological stations. However, the war destroyed more than 80 %
of the stations and personnel. Despite recent efforts to rehabilitate some of the
stations, their ability to function is severely hampered by lack of qualified personnel
(Table 2.5, below).
Table 2.5 - Meteorological stations
Type of station Year
1994 (pre-genocide) 2002

Climatological stations 139 10
Conspectus stations 5 3
Agro-Meteorological stations 6 1
Total 150 14
Systematic analysis of climatic data. Besides the routine data collected by the
national meteorological department, there was an attempt by the national soil survey
project, executed by Ghent University, to undertake a systematic analysis of climatic
data. Suring the survey, a time series of monthly climatic data recorded between
1973 and 1989 in 197 meteorological stations was gathered. Temperature and
humidity was measured in part of them while the values for the other stations were
estimated through a correlation with altitude. Recently the data has been extended
with data from the meteorological service in Kigali. This database contained daily
temperature, rainfall, relative humidity, sunshine duration, wind direction and wind
speed data, recorded in different meteorological stations over a time period varying
from a few years to several decades, depending on the station.
52 (274)
Temperate, continental, tropical climate. As a general description, despite located

close to the equator, Rwanda’s climate is not the typical hot and humid equatorial
climate associated with the region and this is primarily due to moderation arising
from its high altitude. The country enjoys a temperate continental tropical climate
characterised by relatively stable and consistent temperature and rainfall patterns.
The average temperature ranges 16°-17°C in the high altitude region to the
Northwest of the country, 18°-21°C in the Central Plateau, and 20°-24°C in the
lowlands of the East and West. It is generally estimated that temperature changes by
0.5°C for every 100 m change in altitude. Besides spatial stability across the country,
there are also limited temporal variations, with daily temperature minima ranging
16.2-17.6°C while the daily maxima varies 27.3-31.0°C (Figure 2.9, below).
Figure 2.9 – Map showing Rwanda temperature distribution
Source: MINAGRI.
Dry and wet seasons have been less predictable. The amount of rainfall received
annually has in the past been relatively stable, but the pattern has been more erratic
in the past few years. In general, there are notable variations in the annual rainfall
received across the four relief regions. On average annual rainfall across the country
varies between 700-1400 mm in the lowlands of the east and west, between 1200-
1400 mm in the Central Plateau, and between 1400-2000 mm in the high altitude
region. Two rainy seasons peaking around April and November, alternating with two
dry seasons, can be distinguished. The main rainy season falls between March-May
whereas an extended dry season stretches between June-September. Perhaps, due to
effects of global warming, the dry and wet seasons have been less predictable, with
the country experiencing increasingly long periods of drought particularly in the
regions of Bugesera, Mayaga and Umutara in the Eastern Province. The effects of
extended dry weather were particularly felt in 2003 when water levels in major lakes
53 (274)
and rivers went precariously low affecting not only agriculture but also hydro-power
generation both in Rwanda and neighbouring countries.
Figure 2.10 – Map showing Rwanda climate
Source: MINAGRI.
2.4.4 Hydrography
System split into two by Congo-Nile ridge. Whereas Rwanda is known more for its
numerous hills, the country is also endowed with a generous water system consisting
of an extensive network of rivers, lakes and wetlands. The country’s hydro-graphic
system is split into two by the Congo-Nile ridge, with water systems to the west of
the ridge flowing into the Congo basin, whereas those to the east of ridge pour into
the Nile basin. Of the two hydrographic sub-systems, the Nile-basin covers the
greatest part of the country and includes some of the country’s major river systems.
Most rivers such as Nyabarongo, Akanyaru, and Akagera, with their numerous
tributaries, are part of this sub-system together with numerous lakes such as Rweru,
Cyohoha, Ihema and Muhazi. These rivers are also closely associated with vast
marshes and numerous shallow lakes. The Congo basin generally consists of less
significant and short rivers, which flow into Lake Kivu. The main outflow of this
sub-sytem is into the Rusizi river, which flows into Lake Kivu. Its principal
tributary, the Ruhwa, marks the border between Rwanda and Burundi in the western
part of their common border, whereas the Sebeya in the north flows into Lake Kivu
at Gisenyi (Figure 2.11 below).
54 (274)
Figure 2.11 - Rainfall distribution in Rwanda
Source: MINAGRI Website.

Ground water. Ground water in Rwanda is primarily within the vast alluvial aquifers
adjacent to major rivers. Lesser amounts of ground water can be found within the
fractured bedrock of porous volcanic rock. It has been estimated that the total ground
water resources of Rwanda have a renewable extraction rate of approximately 66 m3
per second, with a total existing yield of all sources.
2.4.5 Land cover

Vegetation. The importance of vegetation attributes are manifested in their
contribution to the national economy and well-being of the citizens. In Rwanda the
livestock and wildlife industries are based on the use of vegetation, which covers
most of the country’s landscapes, land units and forms. They provide grazing
resources, food and energy sources besides offering protection against elements of
soil erosion. Vegetation cover also significantly improves micro-climates in areas
that are forested through increased rainfall – this is the case in areas around
Nyungwe forest and the Volcanoes.
Varying land cover. Rwanda’s land cover varies according to the relief and the
distribution of rainfall, ranging from the dense forests to the west and north-west to
the semi-arid savannah lowlands of the east. According to Verdoot and van Ranst
(2003), the vegetation can best be characterised as a regional mosaic, including
sections of Guineo-Congolian and Sudanian vegetation. The Congo-Nil ridge is
generally covered by mountainous tropical forests, whereas the central plateau and
east and west lowlands of the country are characterised by what may be called East
African bush land of varying density. Invariably, natural vegetation, outside the
protected areas such as national parks, has increasingly been replaced or modified by
human activity, with both positive and negative outcomes. For instance, whereas
human activity has encroached upon some of the natural forests, there have been
positive afforestation efforts in some parts of the country.
55 (274)
Efforts to protect natural land and ecosystems. There are increasingly effective
government efforts aimed at protecting existing natural land cover and critical
ecosystems. The protected areas consist of the natural forest of Nyungwe, the
Volcanoes National Park and the Akagera National Park, with natural reserves being
the natural forest of Mukura and the forests of Cyamudongo, Busaga and the
savannah of the east. The natural forest of Gishwati has virtually disappeared.
Located on the shores of Lake Kivu in the south west of Rwanda, the forest of
Nyungwe is probably the largest mountain rainforest in the whole of Africa, with a
surface area of 924 km2 in 2000. With an altitude ranging between 1600 and 2950 m,
the forest shelters a complex mosaic of vegetation types. The forest also has an
extensive range of flora and fauna, including several species of birds and primates.
Gorilla sanctuary. Like Nyungwe, the Volcanoes national park, has some peculiar
vegetation owing to its high altitude, volcanic soils and abundant rainfall. The park
is characterised by a high altitude alpino-african vegetation that is sanctuary to
mountain gorillas (Gorilla Gorilla Beringei) and other endemic and CITES
internationally protected species. It also hosts several species of plants, mammals,
birds, reptiles, amphibians and arthropods.
Figure 2.12 – Map showing Rwanda land cover
Source: Agricover.
56 (274)
2.5 Demography
2.5.1 Introduction
Population, resources and productivity for development. One of the critical factors
in the development of a country is the level of productivity and dependency ratios of
the population. Aware of this crucial to national development, the government of
Rwanda has, over the years, attempted to devise strategies aimed at striking an
optimum balance between population growth and available resources, and link them
with productivity. One notable early initiative was the family planning campaign
started in 1980, which provided training to family planning mobilisers or
communicators - locally referred to as abakangurambaga - and improved access to
family planning services across the country. The scope of this initiative was
expanded in 1990 to incorporate measures aimed at reducing fertility rates through
behavioural change. These measures included promotion of women education,
public health improvements, employment and general advancement of women.
Population policy towards slowing growth. Post genocide population policy has
sought to make more specific links between population growth, national
development and quality of life. Whereas during the immediate post-genocide years,
there was no formally constituted population policy, there were concerted attempts
to make the measures aimed at curbing population growth that was part and parcel of
the then foremost concern of rehabilitation and resettlement of internally displaced
people and returning refugees. A new national population policy that was finalised in
2003 places emphasis on the quality of life by providing strategies for influencing
fertility and mortality as well as addressing the linkages between population growth
and socio-economic factors. The policy’s main thrust focuses on slowing
demographic growth and relating this to broader issues of sustainable natural
resources management, food safety, equal opportunity and participation by both men
and women in national development. This approach is reflected in one of the four
stated priorities of the Economic Development and Poverty Reduction Strategy
(EDPRS), which is “…to slow down population growth through reducing infant
mortality; family planning and education outreach programmes, while also
improving the quality of health care and schooling, particularly for girls.”
(MINECOFIN, 2007:28). EDPRS specifically aims to reduce total fertility rates
from 6.1 to 4.5 children per woman (ibid).
2.5.2 Population statistics

High population growth rate. The most recent comprehensive population and
housing census was conducted in 2002, although other studies and sample surveys
have been conducted since to give a more up-to-date picture of the population
dynamics. Some useful baseline studies are currently underway, but the next national
population and housing census is due in 2012. According to the 2002 census, the
population of Rwanda was 8128553 people (MINECOFIN, 2003:3), but recent
estimates put the figure at about 9.05 million. The current population growth rate,
estimated at around 3 %, is greater than the 2.6 % projected by the census, and this is
the same with the fertility rate. It was projected to be 5.9 % as compared to current
estimates of 6.1 %. The rate of population increase had significantly declined,
however, from 3.1 %, during the inter-census period 1978-91, to 1.2 % between
1991-2002 (NISR, 2006:3). The sharp decline could be partly attributed to the loss
of about 1 million people in the 1994 genocide, although it would appear that this
57 (274)
effect was gradually offset by the post genocide return of more than one million
Rwandans who had been living in exile in neighbouring countries since the 1959
civil strife.
As far as household size and composition are concerned, the Demographic and
Health Survey 2005 estimates the average household size in Rwanda to be 4.6
persons, varying from 4.5 in rural areas to about 4.8 in urban areas. It is also
estimated that 66 % of Rwandan households are male-headed, whereas 34% are
female-headed. The female-headed households are shown to have increased from 21
% in 1992 to 34 % in 2005. Again, this is partly attributable to the effects of the
1994 genocide.
2.5.3 Temporal demographic trends

No shift towards growth rate reduction. As indicated above, despite government
efforts to reduce population growth, there has been moderate success. The currently
estimated population growth rate of 3 % is likely to be unsustainable and so is the
fertility rate. The fertility of Rwandan women remains high, with women having an
average of 6.1 children by the end of their childbearing years. Disaggregated into
rural and urban categories, the fertility levels in urban areas are about 4.9 % and 6.3
% in rural areas with infant mortality rate higher in rural areas. This was the same
level of fertility recorded in the 1992 Demographic and Health Survey, signifying no
shift at all over the 13 years between the two surveys. Levels of primary infertility in
Rwanda have also consistently remained at a low level and were estimated to be 1.2
% by the 2005 Demographic and Health Survey.
Low and reduced level of contraception. To partly explain the unabating fertility
levels, the findings of the 2005 Demographic and Health Survey on knowledge and
use of contraception are instructive. It was found out that whereas nearly all women
and men know of a modern contraceptive method, only 10 % of the women between
the ages of 15-49, married or unmarried but sexually active, used any contraceptive
method at the time of the survey; 6 % were using a modern method, with 4 % using
a traditional method. The level of contraceptive use had, surprisingly, gone down
from the 13 % recorded in the 1992 Demographic and Health Survey to 10 % in
2005 (NISR, 2006:55). To try and assess the level of contraceptive use at any time in
the women’s reproductive life other than the just looking at the time of survey,
women were asked whether they had ever used any method of contraception. The
results are tabulated below and whereas they are not any better, there is evidence of
intermittent use of contraception. It would be interesting to find out why this is the
case if sustained use is to be made a reality.
58 (274)
Table 2.6 – Ever used any method of contraception (% of method)

Age group Any method Modern method Traditional method
15-19 1.3 1.2 0.3

20-24 12.3 7.8 6.7
25-29 27.3 19.3 14.3
30-34 33.1 22.3 17.9
35-39 36.6 25.7 17.9
40-44 36.3 27.5 14.8
45-49 34.2 25.8 15.6
50-54 21.4 15.2 10.5
Source: NISR, 2006:53.
Majority to use contraception. Given the relative widespread awareness of
contraception and the apparent willingness of most women to use them, improved
access may help the current dismal levels of contraceptive use. The Demographic
and Health Survey 2005 indicates that among the women who were not using
contraception at the time of the survey 59 % stated that they intended to use a
contraceptive method in the future. 7 % were not sure and 34 % had no intention of
using contraception. The reasons given by those who do not plan to use
contraception in future may guide the development of an effective family planning
marketing strategies. These reasons included: fertility/infertility related reasons such
as infrequent sex/no sex; menopause; the desire to have as many children as possible
and low fertility (44 %); opposed to contraception mainly because of religious or
cultural reasons (22 %); health concerns and fear of side effects (22 %); and, lack of
knowledge (2 %) (ibid).
Education and fertility rate. The level of education of women is also a key factor in
family planning and birth control as it has been shown to be inversely correlated to
the total fertility rate of a woman. In Rwanda, the total fertility rate among women
with no education is 6.9 %, dropping to 6.1 % for those with primary education and
4.3 amongst women with secondary or higher education (ibid).
2.5.4 Spatial and gender analysis of population trends

Highest population density in Africa. Given the small surface area of Rwanda and
the continued population growth, the country’s density has been steadily rising from
191 persons per km2 in 1978 to 283 in 1991 and 321 in 2002 (NISR, 2006:3).
Rwanda currently has the highest population density in Africa. The distribution of
the population is such that the highest densities are in the north and north-west, ie
Ruhengeri-Gisenyi area, whereas the lowest are in the Eastern Province in areas
bordering the Akagera National park. As far as the rural-urban divide is concerned,
the Rwandan population is largely rural, with about 83.1 % of the population
residing in the countryside in 2002. The urban population was projected to rise from
16 % in 2002 to 19.8 % in 2007. Detailed analysis of the spatial distribution of the
population is not only complicated by the changes in administrative units
engendered by several rounds of local administration reforms, but is also affected by
the population displacements arising from the 1994 genocide. The latter entailed
59 (274)
resettlement of returning refugees and problems of insecurity in some parts of the

country that persisted for several years after the genocide (ibid).
High dependency ratios. As far as population structure is concerned, the Rwanda
population is generally young with high dependency ratios. According to the 2002
census, more than two-thirds (67 %) of the population were under the age of 20.
Recent estimates show that this trend is continuing with under 5s constituting 16.3 %
of the population and under 15s making up 55.2 %. Only 2.7 % are over 65 years of
age (NISR, 2008). Regarding gender, females are in the majority, constituting 52 %
of the population, with males at 48 %.
Table 2.7 - Population structure
Age group Male Female Urban Rural Total
0-4 655090 665141 194051 1126180 1320231
5-9 563351 577688 157009 984030 1141039
10-14 536876 558349 149787 945438 1095225
15-19 526563 552276 184874 893965 1078839
20-24 382561 428120 177151 633530 810681
25-29 253180 302329 130102 425407 555509
30-34 208742 239697 100840 347599 448439
35-39 177816 204820 76430 306206 382636
40-44 168934 194133 63795 299272 363067
45-49 122615 145647 43450 224812 268262
50-54 86925 106457 30845 162537 193382
55-59 50480 73388 18782 105086 123868
60-64 45221 66588 15483 96326 111809
65-69 35178 49750 11333 73595 84928
70-74 30970 40050 8790 62230 71020
75-79 16255 21734 4451 33538 37989
80-84 12081 14707 3295 23493 26788
85+ 6610 8231 2136 12705 14841
Total 3879448 4249105 1372604 6755949 8128553
Source: MINECOFIN, 2003:5-9.
The over-representation of women is reflected both in rural and urban populations,
although in the rural areas the gap is narrower in the age groups below 20 years. In
the Demographic and Health Survey conducted in 2005, it was found out there are
more males than females in the under 20 age groups (DHS, 2005:11).
60 (274)
Table 2.8 - Male-female ratios

Age group Rural Urban
Male Female Male Female

0-4 557973 568207 97117 96934
5-9 485703 498327 77648 79361
10-14 464929 480509 71947 77840
15-19 436987 456978 89576 95298
20-24 284416 349114 98145 79006
25-29 179131 246276 74049 56053
30-34 148871 198728 59871 40969
35-39 131699 174507 46117 30313
40-44 130100 169172 38834 24961
45-49 96608 128204 26007 17443
50-54 69252 93285 17673 13172
55-59 40919 64167 9561 9221
60-64 37928 58398 7293 8190
65-69 30012 43583 5166 6167
70-74 26945 35285 4025 4765
75-79 14332 19206 1923 2528
80-84 10703 12790 1378 1917
85+ 5768 6937 842 1294
Total 3152276 3603673 727172 645432
Source: MINECOFIN, 2003:9.
Migrant workers explain figures. As far as urban areas are concerned, the overall
total number of females is lower than that of males, but this is not the case for all age
groups. In the age groups less than 20 years and over 59 years, there are more
females than males, but in the middle age groups men dominate. This is likely to be
a result of migrant workers who tend to be men moving from the rural areas in
search of work in towns.
High fertility but higher mortility. The data from the Demographic and Health
Survey conducted in 2005 reveals similar population characteristics as those
depicted above, but goes further to make very pertinent analyses. The age pyramid
constructed from the survey shows a wide base that rapidly narrows as it reaches the
upper age limits, which is interpreted as symptomatic of a population with high
fertility and even higher mortality. The survey also highlights the population gender
imbalances (Table 2.8, above), and shows how there is significant drop in male
numbers in the 30-34 and 45-49 age groups. It is surmised that this may have been
caused by the excess mortality during the 1994 genocide.
61 (274)
2.5.5 The issues

Dependency levels potentially threaten. As shown by the data presented in the sub-
sub-section above, the rate of population growth in Rwanda appears unsustainable -
past population control intervention measures have registered limited success. Worse
still, the population structure that is so wide at the base that it engenders high
dependency levels. These potentially threaten to significantly reduce the impact of
even the highest levels of economic growth on the population’s quality of life. The
effects of the 1994 genocide on the population structure, reflected by phenomena
such as the high percentage of female-headed households, increases the number of
vulnerable categories of people whose plight needs targeted interventions.
Need for curbing population growth. The problem of high population growth is
further compounded by the majority of the population deriving its livelihood from
direct use of land, a commodity that is increasingly becoming scarce. It is thus
imperative that as much effort is put on curbing population growth as it is on
avenues of accelerating economic growth. As reflected in EDPRS, there is
increasing realisation that other sources of livelihood have to be explored because
long-term dependence on land is no longer a realistic option for most Rwandans. It is
thus critical that the change of focus from land-based livelihood strategies to other
alternatives such as building a knowledge-based economy be intensified.
2.6 Health
2.6.1 Introduction
Broad inventory with present Project interface. Given the critical position of the
health sector in a country’s fabric, it is imperative that in the planning process, the
needs and demands of such an important sector are taken into consideration. It is in
that vein that the existing situation in the sector is being examined in this section of
the present report. Whereas a broad coverage of the sector will be attempted, the area
of most interest is the interface between health sector service provision and land use
and development planning, including spatial planning that is the concern of the
present Project. Issues of geographical accessibility of the population to health
services and location of health facilities are of primary concern. This, however, does
not diminish the importance of understanding some of the key indicators of the state
of health of the Rwandan population, the performance of the health system in
general and future direction of the sector.
Health Sector Strategic Plan. The importance of the health can, thus, be overstated.
The state of this sector determines the human capabilities, and, hence, overall
individual productivity that is a critical input into the long-term development of a
country. The Government of Rwanda places the health of its population amongst its
top-most priorities as reflected by its budget allocations to the sector. The
Government budget allocation to health has increased substantially, showing almost
a twofold (185 %) nominal increase between 2002-4 (MOH, 2005:6). The allocation
to health constituted 6.1 % of the total budget in 2005, but this is targeted to rise to
12 % by 2010. Government is also committed to broader international goals in the
area of health such as the MDG - particularly health-related MDG 1 and 4-6). To
achieve these goals the Ministry of Health has been designated as the principal
government agency responsible for health sector development. More specifically the
Ministry is responsible for setting policy, setting standards, regulating, mobilising
resources and monitoring activities in the sector. The overall vision of Government
62 (274)
is to guarantee the wellbeing of the population translated into the health sector
mission that seeks to ensure and promote the health status of the Rwandese
population by providing qualitative preventative, curative and rehabilitative services
within a well-performing health system. In its strategic plan (2005-9), referred to as
the Health Sector Strategic Plan (HSSP), the health ministry has set itself seven
major objectives:
• ensuring availability of human resources,
• ensuring availability of quality drugs, vaccines and consumables;
• expanding geographical accessibility of health services;
• improving financial accessibility of health services;
• improving the quality of and demand for services in the control of diseases;
• improving national referral hospitals and research and treatment institutions;
and,
• reinforcing institutional capacity (MOH, 2005).
2.6.2 Rwanda’s health sector

Rehabilitation with mortality rate improvement. The nature and functioning of the
Rwandan health sector has seen major transformation from treatments based on
traditional African healing methods during the pre-colonial era through faith-based
healthcare introduced by the Germans and Belgians to the current predominantly
state run health system. Perhaps, nothing had as dramatic an effect on the health
system as the destruction of human life and infrastructure occasioned by the 1994
genocide. The immediate post-genocide years were thus spent on rehabilitation, and
trying to reconstitute some of health cadre ship to provide the badly needed health
services. Besides causing unprecedented levels of mortality, the genocide also had
lasting effects on the population’s health outcomes. For instance, infant mortality
rate rose from 85/1000 live births in 1992 to 107/1000 in 2000, with maternal
mortality rate increasing from 500/100000 live births in 1992 to 1071/100000 in
2000 (DHS, 1992:24; DHS, 2000:14). This negative trend of health outcomes was
largely a result of the breakdown of the health system and the loss of most health
workers during the genocide. These indicators are steadily improving as shown by
the EICV1 and EICV2 surveys. Between 2000-1 and 2005-6, the infant mortality
rate (IMR) is shown to have declined by 19.6 %, the under-five mortality rate
(U5MR) fell by 22.4 % and the maternal mortality rate (MMR) decreased by 29.9 %
(MINECOFIN, 2007:18).
Table 2.9 - Childhood mortality and maternal mortality rate
Childhood mortality (per 1000 live births) Maternal mortality
Locality Infant mortality Under-5 mortality (per 100000 births)
2000 2005 2000 2005 2000 2005
Rural 123.5 108 216.2 192 * *
Urban 77.9 69 141.3 122 * *
Total 107 86 196 152 1071 750
Note: * data not available., Source: MINECOFIN, EDPRS, 2007:18, reported to be based
on NISR, 2005.
63 (274)
Mortality rate differentials. There are, however, large differentials in health

outcomes across Rwanda. Rural rates of mortality remain over one-and-a-half times
those in urban areas, and the gap has not narrowed over time. U5MR is highest in
the Eastern Province at nearly one-in-four children (233/1000) and lowest in Kigali
city at one-in-eight children (124/1000). Southern, Western and Northern provinces
have similar rates of mortality (around 170/1000) (MINECOFIN, 2007).
2.6.3 Major illnesses afflicting population

Malaria and HIV/AIDS. The two biggest ailments that strain the health system are
Malaria and HIV/AIDS. In Rwanda in 2005 malaria accounted for 41 % of all
consultations in health centres (MOH, 2005:10). On a positive note, there have
notable declines in HIV/AIDS prevalence, having risen in 2000 to a high of about
13.2 % in Kigali, 6.3 % in other urban areas and 3.1 % in rural areas (DHS,
2000:232). More recent estimates (2005) put the prevalence rate among Rwandans
aged 15-49 at 3 %, with the rate among women in this age group at 3.6 % and their
male counterparts at 2.3 % (DHS, 2005:231). The infection ratio of women to men
is, therefore, 1.6, meaning that 160 women are infected to every 100 men (Table
2.10, below).
Table 2.10 - HIV prevalence in population aged 15-49 disaggregated by sex
Age group Male (%) Female(%)
15-19 0.4 0.6

20-24 0.5 2.5
25-29 2.1 3.4
30-34 4.2 5.9
35-39 2.3 6.9
40-44 7.1 6.3
45-49 5.3 4.1
Source: DHS 2005:231.
HIV/AIDS higher in urban areas. The prevalence rate of HIV/AIDS is also higher
in urban areas at 8.6 % among women and 5.8 % among men than rural areas at 2.6
% among women and 1.6 % among men. Prevalence rates also vary with other
socio-demographic characteristics such as level of education, wealth and marital
status (DHS, 2005: 232-7).
Malaria main cause of mortality. Whereas HIV/AIDS has tended to attract more
attention internationally, malaria remains the biggest killer in much of Sub-Saharan
Africa. It afflicts 300-500 million people worldwide every year, killing between one
and two million (DHS, 2005:119). More than 80 % of those afflicted and 90 % of
the deaths occur in Africa. Malaria is also estimated to cost 1.3 percentage points in
GDP growth annually, and is a major contributor to school absenteeism. In Rwanda,
malaria is the main cause of mortality, and in 2005 about 30 % of all malaria cases
were among children under the age of five (DHS, 2005:120). Given the enormity of
the problem of malaria, the Government of Rwanda established the National Malaria
Control Programme (PNILP) in 1999 with strategies and activities to combat the
disease through managing reported illness cases, prevention, epidemiological
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surveillance, health education, community participation and operational research.

Spatially, Rwanda is divided into four natural malaria eco-zones: the first stratum
extends from Lake Kivu to the Congo-Nile ridge and in this zone the
plasmodicindices among children are between 5 % and 30 %. The second zone
consists of a north-south band 160 km long and 20-50 km wide located east of the
first stratum between elevations of 1800 m and 3000 m. The plasmodic index in this
zone is under 2 %. The third stratum is located on the central plateau between
elevations of 1000m and 2000 m. The plasmodic indices vary widely in this zone,
ranging from 10 % to 50 %. The area is at risk of malaria epidemics, with the valleys
being the main malaria-endemic pockets from which malaria epidemics may spring.
The fourth stratum covers the lower eastern parts of the country at elevations ranging
from 1000 m to 1500 m, where malaria is endemic.
High maternal mortality. Besides malaria and HIV/AIDS, diseases related to
childbirth are responsible for high levels of maternal mortality. Infant and child
mortality is also high in the country, largely caused by neonatal complications,
malaria, diarrhoea, HIV/AIDS and malnutrition. The state of malnutrition remains
very high: an examination of recent trends in child nutrition reveals a mixed picture.
The incidence of stunting amongst children rose from 42 % to 45 % in 2000-5 and is
highest in Northern Province (52 %) followed by the Western Province (47 %)
(MINECOFIN, 2007:19). In contrast, nutritional indicators, which are more sensitive
to short-term fluctuations, like wasting and underweight, improved over the period
from 7 % to 4 % and from 25 % to 23 %, respectively (ibid). A possible reason for
this could be that the increase in under-five survival means that stunted children who
would previously have died are now recorded in the sample. Rwanda is also prone to
regular epidemics of cholera, dysentery and meningitis.
Safe water precondition for improving health. Overall, more than 80 % of diseases
that afflict Rwandans are waterborne, meaning that access to safe water is a
precondition for improving environmental and personal health. The number of
people with access to safe water increased 2000-5, but there was neither change in
the proportion of households having access to safe water (64%), nor was there any
reduction in the average distance a household had to travel to fetch safe water (0.5
km). The EICV2 survey found that, of all public services, Rwandans are least
satisfied with access to drinking water (only 50% express satisfaction). The results
of the Ubudehe (MINECOFIN, 2007) survey also suggest Rwandans would rank
water access as highest priority in infrastructure services, followed by roads, health,
schools and electricity. It is, therefore, important that issues of access to safe water
are addressed if the desired health outcomes amongst the population are to be
realised (ibid) (See Section 9 on Water and Sanitation).
2.6.4 Accessibility of health services

Mixed progress. Access to and use of health and health-related services have
improved in some areas, but not in others. Improved access is reflected in progress
in maternal and child health care. For example, according to baseline data in
EDPRS, 95 % of women of reproductive age in Rwanda who have ever been
pregnant received antenatal care during their last pregnancy (MINECOFIN,
2007:20). Other programmes such as immunisation coverage have stalled since
2000, with the percentage of children receiving all vaccines remaining at 75 %,
though falling in urban areas. Sustained sensitisation campaigns in the rural areas
may explain why rural rates of immunisation are now higher than urban (ibid).
65 (274)
Unequal use of health consultations. All quintiles covered by EICV2 reported an

increase in the proportion of households, which consulted a medical practitioner
2000-5. Nevertheless, inequalities in access to health care remain. Of those
individuals reporting themselves as ill in EICV2, 20 % of the poorest consumption
quintile saw a medical practitioner, compared with 43 % of those in the highest
quintile (NISR, 2006:18). One factor that contributes to this difference is the
proximity of medical facilities. People in the lowest quintile live an average of 15
minutes further away from the nearest health care centre than those in the highest
quintile. Similarly, poor people live an hour’s walk further from the nearest district
hospital than those in the highest quintile (NISR, 2006).
User satisfaction with health services. Improvements in the health sector were
assisted by a strong strategic plan from early in the PRSP period with careful
targeting of all groups of the population, for example through the roll out of the
mutuelles 3 health insurance scheme. Government efforts to extend health insurance
coverage are bearing fruit with 38 % of the EICV2 sample included in mutual
insurance schemes and a further 5 % covered by other forms of insurance (NISR,
2006:19). Users’ evaluation of health services appears favourable with 77 % of
EICV2 user-respondents declaring they were satisfied with their nearest health care
centre and 74 % registering satisfaction with their district hospital. Similar results
emerge from the Ubudehe survey (MINECOFIN, 2007) where 60 % of respondents
considered the mutual insurance scheme to be a success and 52 % considered that
health service delivery had greatly improved (ibid).
2.6.5 Expansion of health services

Kigali best served. A contribution to the health sector that can be made by land use
and development planning with regard to the objective of ’expanding geographical
accessibility of health services’ (introductory sub-sub-section above), is
determination of areas or populations that lack or have constrained geographical
access to health facilities; it can identify space requirements for proposed expansion
of health infrastructure and mediate these requirements with those of other land uses
so as to identify appropriate locations of the necessary health physical infrastructure.
According to the Health Sector Strategic Plan (2005-9), the health infrastructure in
Rwanda is generally satisfactory after considerable rehabilitation and construction
undertaken since 1994. It is stated that in the public and government assisted not-for-
profit sectors there are: 385 health centres - having increased from 333 in 1997; 34
district hospitals - an increase from 30 in 1997; and, four national referral hospitals
(MOH, 2005:10). Besides these, there is a thriving private sector health provision,
consisting of about 325 dispensaries and clinics 4 . More than half (52 %) of these
privately owned facilities are, however, located in the City of Kigali (ibid). This
qualifies their general accessibility.
4
It must be conceded that given the pace of development the number of health facilities are likely to
have increased since this data was captured. It will, thus, be necessary to update this information before
detailed analysis of catchment areas and determination of future land needs for health infrastructure is
undertaken.
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Figure 2.13– Map of Rwanda showing health centres
Source: NUR-CGIS.
Functioning health accessibility by 2009. In general, geographical health access in
Rwanda is comparable to that in other countries within the sub-region. It is estimated
that 60 % 5 of the Rwandan population is within 5 km of a health centre with 85 %
within 10 km of such a facility. However, it should be noted that this information
masks regional differences since these are national averages. There is also an issue
of the quality of services available at these health facilities. They vary greatly,
particularly with respect to staff and equipment. Detailed catchment analysis will
have to be undertaken so as to identify the gaps that need filling. The deficiencies in
the data notwithstanding, the Health Sector Strategic Plan seeks to expand the
geographical accessibility to functioning health services through:
• constructing and rehabilitating health centres and district hospitals in health
districts with worst geographical access;
• establishing an efficient equipment procurement system;
• providing health districts with adequate transportation for emergency referral
to district hospitals;
• ensuring there is a functioning laboratory network in place;
• ensuring functioning and regular inspection of health facilities; and,
• promoting use of private sector health facilities.
Targets surpassed. The targets accompanying these objectives, which are to be
realised by the end of 2009, include increasing the 60 % population with 5 km of a
functioning health facility to 70 %. If data presented in EDPRS is reliable then this
5
Baseline data used by the EDPRS shows this figure to have reached 75% (MINECOFIN, 2007:20)
67 (274)
target is surpassed as the figure for 2007 was put at 75 %, raising the proportion of
health centres with means of transport for emergency referral services from 32 % to
60 %. Improvement in geographical access disparity was also to be focused on in the
former provinces of Gikongoro, Butare, Kigali Ngali, Kibungo and Umutara.
2.7 Education
2.7.1 Introduction
Lacking skills to move economy forward. For Rwanda to make the transition to a
knowledge-based economy and society, it is essential to improve access to
qualitative, equitable and efficient education. The education sector has a range of
policies in place intended to achieve this, and to ensure that the country attains the
Millennium Development Goal ‘Education for All’ and those concerning education
in Vision 2020. Policy and planning documents that have been purpose-developed
include an Education Sector Strategic Plan (ESSP 2007-11), a ten-year-education-
plan and a Long Term Strategy and Financial Framework (LTSFF 2007-15). A
recently concluded ‘Skills Audit’ in the country revealed severe shortages of the
skills necessary to propel the economy forward. The education sector is, therefore,
expected to play a critical role in rectifying the situation.
It is estimated that about two-thirds of Rwandans aged 15 and above are self-
declared literate (NISR, 2006). The literacy rate reported by males is higher at 70 %
than that of females at 60%, and literacy in Kigali at 87 % is much more widespread
than in rural areas at 73% (ibid:16).
Table 2.11- Reported literacy levels for individuals aged 15 and above (%)
Location Male Female All
Kigali 89.5 83.6 86.5

Other urban 75.6 67.0 70.9
Rural 69.1 57.1 62.5
National 71.5 60.1 65.3
Source: NISR, 2006:16.
Need to raise literacy. For a country that is aiming to be a knowledge-based
economy, the figures above will have to rise rapidly so that the population can
acquire additional skills necessary in this kind of economy. The sub-sub-sections
below examine the current situation at different levels of education as well as the
strategies in place aimed at moving the sector forward.
2.7.2 Primary education

Background. With the introduction of ‘Universal Primary Education’, Rwanda has
registered progress in availing access to education to the majority of children at
school-going age. Comparing data from EICV1 and EICV2 surveys shows that
enrolment rates in both primary and secondary schools increased substantially
between 2000/1 and 2005/6. With net primary enrolment rate increasing from 74 %
to 86 % over this period, Government is on track to achieve the second Millennium
Development Goal (MDG) of universal primary education by 2015. The increase in
enrolment appears even greater when gross enrolment is considered because it
captures even pupils who are outside the official school going age bracket of 7-12
68 (274)
years. The gross enrolment rate had reached 140 % of the primary school going age
population in 2005-6, meaning that pupils outside the official school going age
contributed an additional 54 % to the net enrolment of 86 % (NISR, 2006). In terms
of proportions, pupils attending primary school who are outside the official school
going age constitute one-third of the total primary school enrolment. It is estimated
that more than half of all 13-15 year-olds are still in primary school, and this is often
caused by class repetition, late starting or interruption of education (ibid).
Gender parity improvement. One interesting finding by the EICV surveys is that
the net primary school enrolment for girls, which had already achieved parity with
that for boys in 2000-1, has now overtaken it. In 2005-6, the net primary school
enrolment rate for females was found to be 87 % compared to 85 % for males.
Achieving gender parity in access to education was a key component in the goal for
Education for All that Government set. There is still a lot more to do, however,
given that girls are lagging behind boys in terms of completion rates and on exam
scores. Generally, gender disparities tend to emerge after the third grade of primary
school, as well as in upper secondary schooling and higher education. To deal with
these issues, the other elements of the goal of Education for All, such as the need not
only for girls to be present in school, but also for attention to be paid to their needs
in relation to teaching and learning practices, curricula and safety of the school
environment, will need to be paid considerable attention. To this end, the girl-child
education policy in Rwanda includes a school campaign to encourage girls’
performance in school as well as remedial classes during vacations. EDPRS makes
the following particular commitments (ibid).
Girls for science and technology. Efforts will need to be made to encourage girls to
study science and technology subjects, and programmes are to be developed to
sensitise teachers, parents and education managers to promote girls’ education.
Achieving this requires action on several fronts. School infrastructure should, for
instance, be made more gender-sensitive by providing separate sanitation facilities
for boys and girls. More role models are needed, both inside and outside the
education sector, for female pupils. To this end, measures will be taken to increase
the number of women occupying senior positions in the educational system.”
(ibid:60).
Table 2.12– Net primary school enrolment rate by gender and stratum (%)
Location 2000/1 2005/6
Male Female All Male Female All

Kigali city 81.5 83.9 82.7 89.8 91.0 90.4
Other urban 75.5 72.8 74.1 89.0 91.3 90.1
Rural 72.9 73.0 72.9 84.0 86.2 85.1
National 73.7 73.7 73.7 84.8 86.9 85.9
Source: NISR, 2006:12
69 (274)
Narrowing urban-rural enrolment disparities. It is not only the gender gap that has
narrowed but also the disparity between urban and rural areas (Table 2.12, above).
The enrolment rates are still higher in the City of Kigali than elsewhere in the
country, but rural areas have considerably narrowed the gap from a 10 % deficit to
about 5 % between 2000-1 and 2005-6. Large disparities in school attendance
remain across income distribution, with enrolment increasing with household
income. In the richest consumption quintile, 92 % of primary-age students attend
primary school, as compared to 79 % of those in the lowest quintile. However, this
gap of 13 % is smaller than the 19 % gap observed in 2000-01. This indicates that
enrolment rates have risen faster among students in the lowest income group than
among those in the highest income group. There is hardly any difference in the
likelihood to attend primary school by children living in female-headed households,
including widows, as compared to those from male-headed households. However,
more research is needed to determine whether girls and boys from female-headed
households drop out sooner or perform more poorly.
General improvements but teacher absenteeism. It is not just enrolment that has
improved, but other aspects such as the rise in the number of qualified primary
school teachers by 40 %. There has also been an improvement in the completion and
repetition rates to 42 % and 17 %, respectively (MINECOFIN, 2007). EICV2 also
examined the level of satisfaction with primary schools amongst the concerned
households, which was found to be high. Almost four out of every five households
are satisfied with the service the schools provide, and one-third reported observing
an improvement in the twelve months preceding the EICV2 survey. These findings
are confirmed by the results of the Ubudehe survey in which 70 % of respondents
considered that the delivery of primary education had improved greatly in the last
three years. Educational priorities identified by Ubudehe were ranked as follows:
more classrooms, more kindergarten schools, more qualified teachers, higher salaries
for teachers and access to adult education. Citizen Report Cards reported satisfaction
with primary education, but also pointed to serious problems with teacher
absenteeism. This needs to be addressed to further cut down the repetition and drop-
out rate (ibid).
Means to increase completion rates. At primary level, Government aims to increase
completion rates significantly by reducing the high rates of drop out and repetition in
schools. Rwanda currently has one of the highest pupil-teacher ratios (71:1) in Sub-
Saharan Africa, and reducing this will be vital to improving the quality of education
in primary schools. Increased access and completion in primary schools will require
increases in the civil service wage bill, as well as acceleration in the numbers of
teachers being trained in teacher training colleges. The Teacher Service Commission
(TSC) has been put in place to develop strategies for teacher motivation and
retention including the set up of teacher co-operatives. The current EDPRS also
provides for the construction of extra classrooms that meet minimum quality to
reduce class size. It further seeks to reduce the student-textbook ratio to 1:1 in core
subjects accompanied by the in-service training of teachers in the effective use of
learning materials. An ongoing programme will equip all 2200 primary schools in
the country with a science corner to promote fundamental information about science
(ibid).
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2.7.3 Distribution of primary schools

Umudugudu to school or vice versa. There are about 2200 primary schools spread
across Rwanda, with inevitably the highest concentration in Kigali city. In planning
for further primary school provision, an analysis of the catchment areas of existing
schools will have to be undertaken. It is also likely to be the case that more efforts
will have to be directed to expand classroom a space in existing facilities to
accommodate the numbers that will be brought in by the recent change from six-year
primary school system to nine years. If the ‘villagisation’ policy is fully
implemented, it may have implications for future primary school provision
depending on where the collective villages will be located in relation to existing or
proposed new primary schools or which primary schools may be relocated. The
villagisation policy also provides standards of service provision to be adhered to,
including access to schools. It will thus be necessary to bear all these factors into
consideration during the analysis and planning phase of the present national Land
Use and Development Master Plan Project so as to determine the appropriate
number and locations of additional primary schools (ibid).
Figure 2.14 – Map of Rwanda showing schools
2.7.4 Secondary education

Background. Unlike with primary school education, only a small fraction of
children attend secondary education in Rwanda. Because of this, one of the priority
objectives of the country’s recent education policy is to increase secondary school
enrolment, so that all children complete nine years of basic education, which until
recently was divided into six years of primary school plus three years at lower
secondary level (tronc commun). Recent policy changes seek to merge lower
secondary education with primary school education so that there are more
continuous nine years of basic education. The plan is to make all the nine years of
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basic education free. This policy change is to have effect starting 2009, which means
that it too early to speculate on how effective it is going to be (NISR, 2006).
More teachers – not proportionately more pupils. To achieve its educational
objectives at secondary level, the government of Rwanda increased the number of
teachers by 40 %, the number of qualified teachers by 45 % and the number of
schools by 47 % between 2000-1 and 2005-6. Expansion at the tronc commun level
has been mostly done through the public sector, whereas at upper secondary level
there has been a strong component of growth among the providers of private
schooling. The effect of this expansion on school enrolment has, however, been
modest. Over the same period, net secondary school enrolment rose from 7 to 10 %.
The rate is now slightly higher for boys at 10.6 % than for girls at 9.5 %, which
reverses the situation observed in 2000-1. It is striking that the increased use of
qualified teachers had little effect on enrolment. This may be due to the slow growth
of number of classrooms and because at the time of the EICV2 survey, secondary
schools were still charging enrolment fees for the tronc commun (ibid).
Highly unequal secondary school enrolment. The disparity in enrolment in
secondary schooling between the poorest and richest households is greater than at
the primary level, and has increased over time. In 2005-6, net secondary school
enrolment among children from the highest consumption quintile was ten times
higher at 26 % than among children from the lowest quintile 2.6 %. Membership of a
female-headed or widow-headed household has little effect on enrolment rates.
However, enrolment in secondary school among full orphans is much higher than for
non-orphans. This reflects the greater probability of full orphans being found in the
top consumption quintile where enrolment rates are highest. Only 57 % of user-
households expressed satisfaction with secondary schools, which is substantially less
than was the case among users of primary schools at almost 80%. Furthermore, less
than one-quarter of user-households reported improvements in secondary schools
during the previous twelve months as compared with one-third for primary schools
(ibid).
30 % enrolment by both girls and boys 2012. To improve enrolment at secondary
school level, the government education plan has set gross enrolment targets of 30 %
for boys and girls to be achieved by 2012, rising to 60 % by 2020, and also ensuring
that a higher proportion of those who enrol finish this cycle of their education. The
completion rate for the tronc commun is intended to double from 20 % to 40 %, with
that for upper secondary planned to rise from 11 % to 16% (MINECOFIN, 2007).
2.7.5 Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET)

Background. For Rwanda to achieve the socio-economic transformation implied by
the targets of Vision 2020, the country must quickly develop a wide range of skills
among its labour force. Equipping new entrants to the labour force with the skills
needed to operate and manage a continuous flow of new technologies requires that
measures must be taken to update the vocational educational system to ensure
competitiveness in regional and international markets. Besides, Rwanda cannot meet
its ambition of being the regional ICT hub unless it expands access to Technical and
Vocational Education and Training (TVET), ensuring that existing centres are
adequately equipped (MINECOFIN, 2007).
More instructors and training centres. In 2007, the graduate output from vocational
training institutions was 8250, but the this is planned to rise to about 135000 by
72 (274)
2012 (ibid) To achieve this target, EDPRS proposes to retrain already operating
instructors and new ones to be trained, increasing their number to 300. Five regional
vocational training centres are also to be established and tasked with co-ordinating
training activities in their respective geographical jurisdiction. The location of these
centres is not yet specified, but it would appear that there will be one for each of the
four provinces and the City of Kigali. Thes centres will also have a business
enterprise unit, which will match the students of the schools with employment
opportunities. The overall overview of implementing the TVET policy will lie with a
TVET board that will co-ordinate all public and private stakeholders to ensure the
provision of outcomes-based TVET as well as to co-ordinate the TVET strategy with
economic and district development strategies. The Rwanda Workforce Development
Authority (RWDA) will guide, co-ordinate and regulate vocational training in the
country to provide quality assurance. EDPRS also proposes the preparation of a
fully-fledged strategic master plan for vocational education and training.
2.7.6 Higher education

Background. The 2002 census showed that there are only 0.5 % of graduates in the
population of Rwanda, which is much lower than the African average of 4 %.
However, the gross enrolment rate at tertiary level is 3.2 %, which is regionally
comparable. It is important to note, however, that the numbers of students enrolled
in higher institutions of learning have been steadily rising, increasing from a total of
10000 in 2002 to 27787 in 2005 with the institutions of higher learning rising to 18,
including six that are publicly funded. For Rwanda to compete effectively in the
global economy, increasing access to higher education is a priority. Equally
important is the need to improve the quality of provision so that graduates have the
requisite transferable skills required. EDPRS seeks to increase higher education
gross enrolment rate from 3.2 % to 4.5 %, while quality will be enhanced by
ensuring that the proportion of teachers with appropriate qualifications in higher
education rises from less than 20 % to 30 %. These targets are to be achieved
through an expansion of full and part-time programmes with the use of ICT enabling
open and distance modes of learning. Furthermore, efforts will be put in expanding
the range and diversity of programmes, with new priority subjects identified to meet
EPDRS needs included in the curriculum. Key curriculum areas for growth are
planned to include offerings in: environment and sustainable development; logistics
and supply chain management; food science, processing and manufacture; tourism,
leisure and hospitality management; and, engineering and design. To ensure that
graduates’ skills meet labour demands, EDPRS proposes that academic staff
transform their approach, consistent with a more student-centred and practically-
oriented philosophy. Higher learning institutions are to place emphasis on industrial
attachment and practical work in their courses (MINECOFIN, 2007).
Science-based programmes encouraged. Despite the steady rise in higher education
enrolment, there has been little change in the number of students undertaking science
and technology subject. Many of the curriculum offerings in Rwanda’s institutions
of higher learning are of a generalist nature and are in the arts and the humanities,
with insufficient numbers in science and technology. Government is, however,
directing its efforts at encouraging science-based programmes at universities and
colleges. For instance, expenditure for science laboratories and equipment is being
prioritised in the budget. Study loans and grants are being targeted to the priority
areas of science and technology. Attempts are also being made to recruit
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international expertise in these areas to help build local capacity in teaching science
and technology subjects at university (ibid).
2.7.7 Issues
Increased quality. There is need general for increased access at all levels of
education but, perhaps, more especially it is imperative that the gains registered in
primary school enrolment be consolidated and improved upon. There are issues of
quality that relate to teacher-pupil ratio, availability of textbooks and other scholastic
materials as well as qualified teachers. The positive quantitative achievements need
to be built upon with improvements on quality. EDPRS makes solid proposals aimed
at addressing the above issues. The recent expansion of primary school education
from six years to nine years is positive as it will provide avenues for more efficient
use of land given that instead of setting up separate premises for the first three of
secondary education, these will be incorporated in existing primary schools. What is
needed is to explore ways of expanding facilities in existing primary to
accommodate the inevitably increased pupil population.
Land for schools and imidugudu. Identifying future land needs for developing
school facilities, particularly primary schools ought to be undertaken in tandem with
the implementation of the villagisation policy. It is only when locations of
imidugudu have been identified that proper school catchment analysis can be
undertaken and needs identified or vice versa. Implementing the villagisation policy
is a complex task. It may time to be completed, thereby holding back decisions on
appropriate locations for services, including education.
Land for TVET centres. It is also important that the proposed strategic master plan
on Technical and Vocational Education and Training is expedited so that land needs
for the necessary centres can be ascertained. The government is keen on expanding
vocational training considerably with space implications addressed.
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3 Soils
3.1 Summary
Assignment approach. The TOR for the assignment of specialist on Soils in the
present Project has required the author of the present section to make an inventory
and report of the existing soils related data for the Project and raise issues emerging
there from. A first hand observation is that there is a great deal of relevant existing
soils related data in Rwanda for the present Project. Soils data exists, and is fairly
well, or well, presented in analogue maps or in digital, or computerised, formats,
also in shape files in an ESRI environment. The approach for achieving the
objectives set in the TOR has been to capture and analyse secondary data during
initial inventory engagement by the author. After the inventory search, interviews
and discussions were held with relevant key persons.
Soil map. A national soil survey project, Carte Pédologique du Rwanda, started in
1981 and was finalised in 1994. This semi-detailed survey has resulted in a soil map
at 1:50000 scale, presented on 43 topographical sheets covering the country. The soil
data from all observation points (>200 soil profiles, corresponding to 176 different
soil series described) have been stored in a master, ‘natural resources’, database (in
Access DB). The custodianship of this database, including its soil maps is with the
Ministry of Agriculture and Animal Resources (MINAGRO). The organisation to
deal with the soil mapping - and interlinked production of land capability and crop
suitability classifications and mapping - is the Soil Survey Unit at MINAGRO.
Soil suitability classification. A prerequisite for the preparation of a national land
use and development master plan - especially for a country highly dependant on
agriculture like Rwanda – is availability of information on the capability of the land
for agricultural production. To such end, a land suitability classification exists for 12
Rwandan crops. The classification is based on the suitability classes offered by FAO
(1976 classification). For each of the 12 crops a crop suitability map at a scale of
1:250 000 is available.
Useful package for Project. The thoroughly conducted semi-detailed soil survey of
Rwanda has, thus, resulted in a highly useful soil map and data set package. The
map and package will fully suffice to meet the specific requirements of the present
Project at national and district planning levels. Whereas, an existing agricultural
zones map may be used only for reference for general national planning purposes in
the present Project, the land capability and crop suitability mapping will meet the
specific requirements of the Project national-wide.
An issue. The constrained management capacity of the soil map and associated data
set package with the Soil Survey Unit with MINAGRI needs urgent address for it to
efficiently utilise and enhance the data set it is currently custodian of.
3.2 Introduction
3.2.1 Background
Cover also computerisation plans. The TOR for the assignment requires the author
of the present report to make an inventory and report of the relevance of the existing
soils related data for the Project. A first hand observation is that there is a great deal
of different data captured. Relevant soils data does exist. It is fairly well, or well,
presented in analogue maps or in digital, or computerised, formats, with shape files
75 (274)
in the ESRI environment. The scope of work of this assignment, has, therefore, been
extended to also cover suggestions on continued computerisation plans on soil data,
and integration of the soil data sets to the present Project base map data sets.
3.2.2 Methodology
Secondary data capture and analysis. The approach for achieving the objectives set
in the TOR has been to capture and analyse secondary data that has been possible to
capture during the initial inventory Project engagement by the author. After the
inventory search, interviews and discussions were held with relevant staff at the
National Land Centre (NLC), Ministry of Agriculture and Animal Resources,
(MINIRENA) and the Swedesurvey Kigali Project office. Report reading has
enhanced analyses.
3.3 Soil Map of Rwanda

Soil survey. A national Rwandan soil survey project started in 1981 and was
finalised in 1994. The semi-detailed survey has resulted in a soil map at a scale of
1:50000 scale, presented on 43 topographical sheets covering the country. The
survey was based on extensive use of aerial photographs combined with field work.
At the end of the field survey and mapping work, a final field check was carried out.
The soil survey data has as well been simplified to produce one generalised soil map
at a scale of 1:250000, covering the entirety of Rwanda. Soil data from all
observation points (>200 soil profiles, corresponding to 176 different soil series
described) in the national soil survey has been stored in a master, ‘natural resources’,
database (in Access DB). The soil survey and mapping is in a joint Rwandan–Ghent
University (Belgium) effort. Soil boundaries together with a legend are in digital, vector,
format. They are geo-referenced, and coded due to the data in the database (Figure
3.1, below).
Solid platform. This entire soil boundaries and associated soils dataset package is a
solid platform on which the analysis and generation of agricultural zones (Figure 3.1
below), land capability classifications (Figure 3.4 below) and crop suitability
classifications (Figure 3.5 below) can be done. The package meets the requirements
for mapping accuracy equivalent to 1:50000.
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Figure 3.1 - Soil boundaries with soil vector data at 1:50000 scale
Source: MINAGRI.
Database not seemless. The soil maps - superimposed on a 1:50000 topographical
template with contours, names, boundaries and location, and including soil legend -
are in digital, raster format; one each for the 43 sheets covering Rwanda (Figure 3.2,
below). The soil map at 1:50000 scale is digitised per individual map sheet. This
means that the soil map database consist of 43 different shape files, thus not found in
a seamless database. The advantage of using a seamless database is that of the
possibility of plotting one map covering a requested area vs to print the number of
map sheets covering the same area. Another advantage with a seamless data base is
that simultaneous analysis and reporting of an entire district, or even the entire
nation, can be done.
77 (274)
Figure 3.2- Soil map with raster data at 1:50000 scale
Source: MINAGRI.
Soil Survey Unit with limited resources. The custodianship of the soil database,
including its soil maps is with MINAGRI. The organisation to deal with the soil
mapping - and interlinked production of land capability and crop suitability
classifications and mapping - is the Soil Survey Unit at the Ministry. At present this
function is handled by one MINAGRI staff, mainly working as GIS officer. The full
attention to and management of the soil map and data set package is, thus, lacking. If
this situation is not addressed the effects will be severe. In the long run, it will result
in inadequate utilisation or and limited enhancement of the data set, or simply that it
falls into negligence.
Data layers. Different spatially premised soil, land capability and crop suitability
data layers are relevant to the preparation of the national Land Use and Development
Master Plan (Table 3.1, below).
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Table 3.1 - Dataset layers relevant to the present Project

Type of dataset Mandate of data Status Remarks
NLC Development plan
Administrative
National (Rwanda incl. Coastline) NIS Digital Vector
Provincial NIS Digital Vector
District NIS Digital Vector
Cell NIS Dig. (Gasabo, Musanze) Vector
Names ( related to administrative areas and map
Land tenure (Customary, Public- and Private- NLC
Protected areas (Parks, Wetland, Forests) ORTPN / MINAGRI / REMA
Census
Constituency
Grid Sheet index for old 1:50 000 topographical NLC
Grid Sheet index for 2007-08 orthophotos NLC
Elevation
Geodetic reference NLC Digital Vector
Contour lines, 10 m NLC Digital Vector
Contour lines, 25 m NLC Digital Vector
Elevation model (DEM), 90 m NLC Digital Raster
Infrastructure, Hydrography, Land cover NLC
Raster. res.12,5
Orthophoto NLC Digital 2007, 2008
cm, 25 cm
Built-Up (Residential, Institutional, Commercial,
Industrial, Health, Education, Religious, 1:50 000
Recreation)
Roads NLC (NIS?) 1:50 000
Railway NLC 1:50 000
Airport 1:50 000
Powerline
Hydrographic - Lakes NLC 1:50 000
Hydrographic - Rivers, streams, waterways NLC (NIS?) 1:50 000
Hydrographic - Wetland NLC 1:50 000
Hydrology - Bore holes District Authority
1:50 000, Vector
Landcover - Soil data Digital
and Raster
Landcover - Vegetation (natural-, planted NLC
Climate
Meterological ( Rainfall, Temperature, Wind,
Humidity, Sunshine)
GIS applications
Landcover - Land capability MINAGRI / NLC Digital 1:250 000, Raster
Landcover - Crop Suitability MINAGRI / NLC Digital 1:250 000, Raster
Landcover - Erosion pronessed areas MINAGRI / NLC
Landcover - Agriculture (crop-, animal 1: 250 000, 12
MINAGRI / NLC
production, horticulture, fishing) zones
Hillshade NLC Digital, coverage ? Raster
Source: MINAGRI.
3.4 Agricultural zones

12 mapped zones. For Rwanda the agricultural potential has been delimited into 12
zones (ISAR, 1974). Together with a description, the agricultural zones have also
been mapped. In this context, land productivity is a variable of:
• chemical and physical properties characterising the soil;
• climate, ie temperature and rainfall;
• topography, ie the slope gradient, the altitude;
• actual natural vegetation; and,
79 (274)
• management practices.
The agricultural potential is an interaction of above interdependent factors. The
‘Agricultural zones in Rwanda’ is in digital, raster, format at a scale of 1:250000
(Figure 3.3, below).
Figure 3.3 - Agricultural zones with raster data at 1:250000 scale
Source: MINAGRI.
3.5 Land Capability Classification

Arable land for agriculture. A prerequisite for the preparation of a national land use
and development master plan - especially for a country highly dependant on
agriculture like Rwanda – is availability of information on the capability of the land
for agricultural production. The land capability classification of arable land is
ordered according to its potentials and limitations for sustained agricultural
production. The non-arable land is ordered according to its potentials and limitations
for the production of permanent vegetation.
The 1:250000 soil map (3.3, above), together with topographical and climatic data,
has been used to prepare mapping for land capability for agricultural production
mapping of Rwanda. A purpose-designed GIS analysis tool (ESRI software) has
been utilised in the preparation. The analysis was conducted by Ghent University.
The ‘Land capability map’ is in digital, raster, format at a scale of 1:250000 (Figure
3.4, below).
80 (274)
Figure 3.4 – Land capability map with raser data at 1:250000 scale
Source: MINAGRI.
3.6 Crop Suitability Classification

12 Rwandan crops. When developing the national land use and development master
plan the information on the capability of the land, which in turn gives the suitability
for various agricultural production is essential. A land suitability classification exists
for 12 Rwandan crops, namely common bean, maize, sorghum, pea, sweet potato,
potato, cassava, groundnut, soybean, banana, arabica coffee and tea. The
classification is based on the suitability classes offered by FAO (1976 classification).
For each of the 12 crops a map at a scale of 1:250 000 is available. The classification
was made by Ghent University. The land suitability map is in digital, raster format at
a scale of 1:250000 (Figure 3.5, below).
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Figure 3.5 – Crop suitability map with raster data at 1:250 000 scale
Note: Map is depicting suitability for bean production.

Source: MINAGRI.
3.7 Hydrogeological Map, Wells Archive

Through an IFAD funded project on borehole drilling carried out in three districts in the
Eastern Province in 2006-7, a spread sheet containing technical descriptions is identified.
The descriptions involve design, depth, water capacity, ground water level and geographical
position (Table 3.2, below).
Table 3.2 – Drilling Register
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Gatsib o Rw m
i bo go Nd am a 21 41 71 98 2 0120 1 43 7 2 8 -01 -07 Dri llco n 8 1,8 5 gr 51 55 57 72 110 21 ,09 0,8 0 0,80 0 ,70 12,53 18 2
Gatsib o Rw mi bo go Mu cu cu IV 22 96 54 98 3 0627 1 31 7 0 5 -02 -07 Dri llco n 8 1,8 5 sc 55 72 78 110 29 ,17 2,2 5 2,25 1 ,62 10,27 40 5
Gatsib o Rw im bo go Mu cu cu I 23 24 95 98 2 7510 1 35 7 0 7 -02 -07 Dri llco n 9 0,0 5 sc - - - - - - - -
Gatsib o Rw im bo go Mu cu cu III 23 24 91 98 2 7507 1 35 6 0 9 -02 -07 Dri llco n 53 gr 39 43 47 110 27 ,71 0,7 3 0,73 0 ,95 2,91 16 7
Gatsib o Mu ni ni Ka be za 22 25 24 98 1 7694 1 3 -06 -07 Dri llco n 4 5,2 qz 30 36 39 42 45 110 25 ,40 2,7 0 2,70 2 ,06 3,90 39 4
Kayon za Mwil i Ka ge yo 1 23 84 88 97 9 6784 1 30 6 0 3 -11 -06 Dri llco n 9 0,9 5 qz 87 110 46,39 0,20 0 ,20
Kayon za Mwil i Ka ge yo 2 23 85 50 97 9 7126 1 31 2 0 4 -11 -06 Dri llco n 9 1,0 5 qz 73 76 91 110 18,80 4,80 4 ,80 2 ,11 6 ,19 4 27
Kayon za Mwil i Ka ge yo 3 23 97 73 97 9 6015 1 30 1 0 3 -12 -06 Dri llco n 9 0,6 8 sc 85 90 110 36,76 0,50 0 ,70 0 ,57 28 ,24 1 57
Kayon za Mwil i Ka ge yo 4 23 85 54 9797 122 1 31 2 0 6 -07 -07 Dri llco n 8 9,8 5 sc - - - - -
Kayon za Mwil i Ka ge yo 5 23 93 81 9796 456 1 30 1 0 7 -07 -07 Dri llco n 89 sc - - - - - -
Kayon za Mwil i Mu ro ri 22 87 43 97 9 0588 0 8 -09 -07 Dri llco n 4 0,5 7 gr 12 20 26 110 1,52 0,78 0 ,78 0 ,70 12 ,38 1 65
Kayon za Ga hi ni Ka hi 23 09 95 98 0 7708 1 44 6 2 3 -03 -07 Dri llco n 86 s c + qz - - - - - - - -

Kayon za Ga hi ni Ts i ma I 23 23 15 97 9 6800 1 44 8 2 4 -03 -07 Dri llco n 7 6,8 5 sc 51 59 65 74 110 33,95 3,20 3 ,20 2 ,03 8 ,87 1 40
Kayon za Ga hi ni Ts i ma II 23 35 83 97 9 4673 1 43 2 2 9 -03 -07 Dri llco n 9 1,0 5 sc - - - - - -
N ya ga tare Ka ra nga zi Mb ar e II 20 87 64 98 4 5728 1 35 9 2 1 -04 -07 Dri llco n 3 4,8 5 qz 12 16 110 10,40 2,40 2 ,40 1 ,05 3 ,98 5 78
N ya ga tare Ka ra nga zi Ka ra n ga zi II 21 01 39 98 4 6486 1 36 0 1 5 -12 -06 Dri llco n 5 6,8 5 qz 19 23 31 110 5,27 6,00 6 ,00 1 ,91 8 ,88 5 14
N ya ga tare Ka ra nga zi Ka ra n ga zi I 20 90 23 98 4 5003 1 36 1 1 8 -12 -06 Dri llco n 5 1,2 msc 19 33 37 110 12,20 2,70 2 ,70 2 ,63 6 ,38 8 98
N ya ga tare Ka ra nga zi Ka ra ma 20 82 08 98 3 1076 1 39 5 0 9 -04 -07 Dri llco n 67 gr - - - - -
N ya ga tare Ka ra nga zi Mu se nyi II 21 00 52 98 3 3556 1 36 2 2 3 -01 -07 Dri llco n 6 6,8 5 gr 41 54 56 58 110 17 ,70 2,0 0 2,00 0 ,87 11,25 24 8
N ya ga tare Ka ra nga zi Mu se nyi I 20 97 27 98 3 4038 1 36 1 1 8 -08 -07 Dri llco n 35 msc 23 110 15 ,11 2,0 0 2,00 1 ,05 2,71 33 6
N ya ga tare Ny ag atare Bu ru mb a I 20 68 94 98 5 5907 1 32 6 0 9 -01 -07 Dri llco n 70 msc + g r 47 57 110 29 ,29 2,4 5 2,45 0 ,95 15,64 31 6
N ya ga tare Ny ag atare Bu sh og a 20 12 94 98 4 9448 1 37 0 1 6 -02 -07 Dri llco n 45 gr 25 35 110 6 ,78 1,6 0 2,57 2 ,59 22,85 18 5
N ya ga tare Ny ag atare Ba rij a 20 31 35 98 5 9257 1 42 9 0 8 -01 -07 Dri llco n 9 0,7 5 gr 13 66 82 110 3 ,15 1,2 0 1,20 0 ,77 17,40 62 6
N ya ga tare Ka tab age Ny ak i ga nd o 20 42 03 9839 759 1 47 2 0 1 -01 -07 Dri llco n 91 msc + g r 91 110 0,17 0 ,17
N ya ga tare Ka tab age Ru to ma 20 03 61 98 4 0510 1 39 7 0 9 -03 -07 Dri llco n 40 gr 15 18 27 33 110 1,87 3,00 3 ,00 1 ,74 17 , 35 2 97
N ya ga tare Ka tab age Ntom a 20 25 65 98 3 8350 1 38 7 0 3 -03 -07 Dri llco n 41 gr 9 23 110 17,04 0,76 0 ,75 0 ,71 5 ,04 2 59
N ya ga tare Ka tab age Ka tab ag em u 19 79 03 98 3 7220 1 40 7 1 8 -03 -07 Dri llco n 43 qz 11 19 31 110 3,00 2,55 2 ,55 1 ,80 21 ,10 1 93
Source: MINAGRI.
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3.8 Geological Map of Rwanda

Rock outcrops. With the Department of Geology and Mining, MINIRENA, there is
a geological map at a scale of 1:250000 dated 1982. The map is in digital, raster,
format (Figure 3.7, below). The map, together with superimposed topographical
contours can be utilised for identifying and demarcating rock outcrops.
Figure 3.7 – Geological map with raster data at 1:250000 scale
Source: MINAGRI.
3.9 Issues
3.9.1 General
Need to address seamlessness in soil data base. Whereas there is an excellent
Rwandan soil map at a scale of 1:50000 and an associated soil data set package that
will fully suffice to meet the specific requirements of the present Project, the
situation that the soil map database is not found in a seamless database is an issue
that need to be addressed for multi-purpose advantages towards soil data
management efficiency in the country. The recommendation is to establish a
seamless – edge-matching of soil boundaries - soil map database.
Agricultural zones map accuracy limited. The agricultural zones map may be used
at a national planning and reporting level in the present Project. With the variety of
parameters depicting the different zones, the mapping accuracy achieved, however,
will only allow for an equivalent scale of 1:250000.
Land capability and crop suitability map accuracy limited. The land capability and
crop suitability mapping in 1:250000 will suffice to meet generalized requirements
of the present Project on national planning level. To meet the specific requirements
83 (274)
at district planning level there is a need to make the land capability and crop
suitability analysis directly from more accurate 1:50000 soil maps.
Ministry soil mapping capacity needs strengthening. The soils related data is with
the custodianship of MINAGRI. The institution to deal with the soil mapping - and
interlinked production of land capability and crop suitability classifications and
mapping - is the Ministry’s Soil Survey Unit. At present this function is handled by
one staff, mainly working as GIS officer. For maintenance, as well further
development of the soils data set, there is a need to increase human resources and
technical capacity. The recommendation is that the Soil Survey Unit is strengthened
to this end.
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4 Agriculture
4.1 Summary
Focus on DDPs. The inventory of data pertaining to agriculture in Rwanda is
essentially based on the 30 District Development Plans (DDPs) completed in 2007.
Resources and efforts have been spent at all levels from central to local, including
cell and village, levels to achieve nationwide prioritised planning through a
participatory approach. The analyses made for this purpose have lead also to
identification of major problems and constraints, and each District has ranked the
identified 10 problems considered as most important. The first priority set of
problems, in most cases, has been identified in the DDPs as low level of agricultural
production, ie crops and livestock, deforestation, and erosion - all key issues in the
agricultural sector. One of the key concerns is the decrease in average farm size - at
1.0 ha in 1983 to 0.72 ha in 2006 - to a level where it can hardly provide sustainable
livelihood for a family, and not allow developing modern, rational farming systems
with increased productivity.
Better practices and land use and settlement plan. Some DDPs include, more or
less specifically, address to development of a district land use and settlement
development master plan, management of marshland or wetland, irrigation works,
retention structures for rainwater, etc, as tools for balanced development of the
district. They also include a need for identification of fertile areas for cultivation,
grouping homesteads in rural centres, ie imidugudu, and thus, a quest for liberating
land for agriculture to allow for mechanised farming. A related aspect, raised in the
DDPs is ‘La regionalisation agricole’, which entails growing crops and keeping
livestock adapted to the specific edaphic and climatic conditions in a certain area,
thus providing potential for high production. An agricultural sub-sector not
specifically mentioned in the DDPs is urban agriculture, which is already practised
in the capital and bigger towns in Rwanda. It may, nonetheless, be virtuous to
investigate if there is a need for structuring and organising such a sub-sector to fully
exploit its potential for contributing to improved food security. Kampala, in Uganda,
offers an interesting case in point as of the most advanced cities in this respect, and
the results achieved there may give inspiration for similar development in Rwanda.
Need for GIS among issues. The DDPs are the result of a recent, thorough
development planning exercise, including the agricultural sector and land use issues.
Their further elaboration will benefit from a GIS backed planning environment at the
district level as a planning and implementation tool for implementation of the Plans.
Pilot exercises with such environment with 3-4 districts could be useful in this
connection. Sub-section 4.8, below, presents land use related problematic issues,
which have emerged of relevance for the national land Use and Development master
Plan Project as result of the so far carried out inventory of agricultural data.
4.2 Introduction
Available data with limitations. The most up to date agricultural statistics the author
of this section of the present report has secured is the Rwanda Agricultural Survey
2006 (NISR, 2007). The structure of the data, however, corresponds to the former
administrative units, ie 11 Provinces including Kigali Ville/Kigali Ngari. There is
according available information, no developed conversion programme to adapt the
data in the survey to the present administrative structure in the country with four
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provinces and Kigali City, comprising altogether 30 Districts. The District

Development Plans (DDPs), finalised mid 2007, include data on the present situation
relating to agriculture in each district and, a few, of its sectors 6 . Whereas useful
reference has been made to the Rwanda Agricultural Survey 2006 in the present
Project agricultural inventory, inventory data from the DDPs have been found more
useful in relation to the needs for preparing the present Project national Land Use
and Development Master Plan. Notwithstanding, the found data is sometimes
limited, not always ‘inter-DDPs consistent’. As far as agro-ecological zones are
concerned, the situation regarding available data is the same as reported by the
present Project Ecologist, ie mapping of the zones will need to be done in
accordance with recent a GIS mapping exercise undertaken by MINAGRI as part of
the ‘2002 Schema d’Amenagement des Marais, de Protection des Bassin Versants et
de la Conservation des Sols’. This study includes a database with shape files relating
to land suitability, agro-climatic and agro-ecological zoning and soil distribution.
The database and shape files were, however, were not available at the time of
writing. It should also be considered to what extent the ‘A Large-Scale Land
Suitability Classification for Rwanda’ (Verdoodt and van Ranst, Ghent University,
2003) can be used.
4.3 DDPs
DDP with local priorities in line with Government policy. The DDPs are found in
conformity with Government policy for development of the Rwanda, which means
they comply with: Vision 2020 (July 2000); Vision 2020 Umurenge; An integrated
Local Development Program to Accelerate Poverty Eradication, Rural Growth and
Social Protection; EDPRS Flagship Program Document (August 2007); National
Agricultural Policy (March 2004); Strategic Plan for Agricultural Transformation In
Rwanda (October 2004); and, others. The DDPs are also found congruent with
Governments’ Good Governance Policy, and Decentralisation Policy, and, therefore,
with the national administrative reform with effect from 1st January 2006 - entailing
5 provinces, 30 Districts and 413 Sectors, as well as with the policy of promoting the
private sector. Significant resources and efforts have, thus, been spent at all levels -
from central to local, including cell and village, levels to achieve nationwide district-
prioritised planning through a participatory approach.
Identification of problems and constraints. The DDPs are based on analyses of the
existing situation in the districts and proposals for ways forward, which has
embraced reviewing current and future public and private sector engagement in
education, health and physical infrastructure. With regards to agriculture this
engagement including crop and livestock production, processing and marketing.
These analyses lead to identification of major problems and constraints to the
wanted development. These have been ranked according to importance as perceived
at sector level. In many cases the low agricultural production - often below food self-
sufficiency - is considered to be the most important problem (Table 4.1, below).
6
The total number of Sectors in Rwanda is currently 413.
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Table 4.1 - DDP problems identified and ranked in one typical district
Problem Major problems identified Sector
ranking
1 low level of agricultural production, ie crops and agriculture and
livestock, deforestation and erosion livestock
2 difficult access to drinking water and poor hygiene water and
sanitation
3 insufficient infrastructure and equipment education
related to schools and education
4 difficult access to health services health
5 Living areas anarchistic and not organized physical planning
and urbanisation
6 insufficient capital and poor organization of financial systems
co-operatives and co-operative
movement
7 insufficient buildings for the administration administration
and good
governance
8 isolated location of communities, ie transports and
insufficient and isolated poor state of roads communication
and communication infrastructure
9 insufficient availability of electric energy energy
10 only few opportunities for youth and youth, sports and
recreational possibilities only little developed recreation
Source: DDP Gicumbi, 2007:iv.
Priorities of the population. Any development plans, like the DDPs, will only be
relevant if they are based on thorough knowledge of the existing situation and
developed through consultation and participation, ie with support from the
population, local administration and, possibly, development partners, be they private
sector businesses, donors or NGOs. If local revenues are not sufficient, central
government may also need to assist with human and other resource capacity
including finance. The backbone of Rwandan DDPs is interventions responding to
priorities of the population formulated as projects within the relevant sectors. The
Plans have been approved by the District Councils after deliberations with
participation of representatives from civil society and the population at large. In the
Rwandan DDP case, a stated perceived particular problem is fear that the stipulated
planning process may not be respected. The compilation of DDP information about
the local situation is made at cell level, and are based on the results coming from the
villages, imidugudu, in the cell. It is supported by the different decentralised
administrative units of district departments. All categories of the population are
given a voice in a concerted action to prepare the DDPs in a response to the realities
of the district and on the national strategy for economic development and poverty
reduction as defined in EDPRS, objectives of the Millennium Development Goals
(MDG) and Vision 2020.
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Box 4.1 – DDP participation

Accelerated Participatory Research. The preparation of the DDPs has involved all layers
of the population. The methodology used is based on ‘Accelerated Participatory
Research’, which is based on participation of the population in the identification of the
needs, analysis of problems and major constraints that are perceived to constrain
development of the district and the communities living in towns and villages that
constitute the habitat that the district wants to progress between now and 2012. The search
for solutions with a participatory modality encourages the population to engage actively in
the formulation of development proposals. To be implicated means that the population
makes its priorities. Because they are likely to know the local specificities best,
participants in the DDP preparation are able to base their needs on what, at least, they
perceive as realities.
Intensification and rationalisation. Economic development in Rwanda currently
depends heavily on agriculture, including crop and livestock production as well as
fisheries for subsistence and diversified and refined products for export. The
development vision and policy of Government puts strong emphasis on
intensification and rationalisation of agriculture, and to decrease the proportion of
the population working in this sector from 80-90 % to 50 % by 2002. To achieve this
will require development of small and medium enterprises, financial systems with
credit and savings and increasing investments in the rural sector. It will need address
to crosscutting issues of gender and environment, among others, and the introduction
and adoption of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) as a
development tool. Poverty reduction will be a product of combined efforts from all
participants. It will be necessary to increase the productivity of the land, ie
production per unit of surface or yield, in a parallel effort to create employment
outside the agricultural sector.
4.4 Present agricultural situation
4.4.1 Statistics on national agricultural production

Context. In 2006 the agricultural population was 7567443 and the total number of
households 1524424 NISR, 2006:13. The average farm size was 0.72 ha, which
means a reduction over 24 years by 30 %. Compared to 1983, the average size was
1.0 ha (ibid:16). To prevent the trend, Government conceived 2005 through the
Ministry of Agriculture and Animal Resources (MINAGRI) a National Agricultural
Policy and a Strategic Plan for Agricultural Transformation in Rwanda (PSTA) – it
is imperative that is implemented as a priority.
General statistics. The following statistics are obtained from Rwanda Agricultural
Survey 2006 (ibid:16-8).
• there are two active members per household - a calculation shows that main
farming activities on 0.72 ha require 103 days per season 7 , ie 57 % of 180
days;
• on 97.16 % of the land the production depends on rainfall - only 1.64 % is
under irrigation and 12 % has been drained;
• cultivation methods are traditional, ie manual with hoe and machete, on 98 %
of the land - only on 1.4 % is used animal traction and only on 0.1%
7
It should be remembered that there are two agricultural seasons per year and in some areas three.
88 (274)
machinery - these figures show that much can still be done to improve
productivity and production;
• on average 29 % of the cultivated land has no protection against erosion and
only 12.5 % have terraces, whereas 25.7 % are protected with trenches - it is
estimated that of the land protected against erosion, 36.9 % have radical
terraces, 12 % progressive terraces and 40.7% trenches.
Fertiliser use. The use of fertiliser is as follows:
• compound fertilisers, with a content of Nitrogen, Phosphorous and
Potassium (NPK) - used by 70964 households;
• di-ammonium phosphate (DAP) - used by 18379 households;
• nitrogen fertilizer, urea - used by 14014 households; and,
• lime to neutralise excessive acidity – used by 4740 households.
73 % of households using fertiliser live in Gisenyi and Ruhengeri area, where
production of potatoes, vegetables and pyrethrum is common. All the households
using lime live in the Gikongoro area where large areas have acid soils.
4.4.2 Major agricultural crops

Cereals and legumes. The national production of maize is lower than consumption.
The deficit is covered from imports, some of which from Uganda. Rice production is
increasing and some is exported to DRC. About 80 % of households in Rwanda
produce beans, which are a major source of protein, ‘the poor man’s meat’. Peas are
considered a minor crop, and are mainly produced in high altitude areas. They
require a relatively fertile soil and application of manure and/or chemical fertiliser.
Groundnut is also a minor crop although it is one of the sources of vegetable oil in
Rwanda. Soya is more important for oil production, which is vital because the
majority of the rural population do not get enough fat in the diet. The soya is mainly
produced in the Gitarama area where processing is also taking place. Sunflower
production is also increasing and becoming more important as a source of vegetable
oil.
Roots, tubers and banana. Cassava is mainly produced in the southern part of the
country where it is both a food crop and a cash crop. One of the constraints on
cassava production is the plant disease ‘mosaic’ virus. Rwanda is exporting cassava
flour to Europe. Sweet potato production has decreased - to some extent because rice
is replacing it in cultivated marshland and wetland areas. It is grown throughout the
country and is considered a food security crop. ‘Irish’ Potato production is
concentrated in the northern part of the country, and has increased considerably.
Some is exported to Burundi. Banana production is by volume the most important
crop in Rwanda. Part of a production decrease over the last 20 years is due to disease
problems. New, resistant – and higher yielding – plant material is needed to
overcome this problem. Bananas are imported from DRC and Uganda to meet the
domestic demand (Table 4.2, below).
89 (274)
Table 4.2 - Production of some food crops in Rwanda 1986 and 2006 in tonnes
Crop 1986 season A+B 2006 season A+B Change 1986-2006
Total production Total production
Cereals
sorghum 158878 206520 +47642 (+30 %)
maize 135003 94145 -40858 (-30 %)
wheat 14919
rice 34197
Legumes
beans 278286 389396 +111110 (+40 %)
peas 19036 41161 +22125 (+116 %)
groundnuts 12332
soya 19624
Banana
cooking 554635 385186 -169449 (-31 %)
for wine 1596038 834497 -761541 (-48 %)
apple banana 247408 85881 161527 (-65 %)
Total 2398379 1305564 -1092815 (-46 %)
Roots and Tubers
sweet potatoes 861904 741497 -120407 (-14 %)
potato 241466 654,889 +413423 (+171 %)
cassava 361899 323981 -37918 (-10 %)
taro 95176
Source: NISR, 2006:20-7.
Rabbits, goats and cattle dominate. The livestock situation in Rwanda is recorded in
2006 (Table 4.3, below).
Table 4.3 - Livestock 2006
Category of livestock Total Local breed Improved breed
cattle 1122179 1035402 86777
sheep 695367 683616 11751
goats 2655798 2640362 15436
pigs 527531
chickens/fowls 1714989 2936
other poultry 97120
rabbits 418361
Source: NISR, 2006:36-7.
90 (274)
4.4.3 DDP Perceptions

Variation on common theme. Each of the 30 DDPs presents the situation 2006-07 in
the district with similar types of problems and constraints for development of the
agricultural sector. There is, however, variation between and within districts, in the
perceived importance of problems by the populations.
Economic engine with problems. Emerging from the review of DDPs is an inherent
common understanding that the agricultural sector – occupying about 80 % of the
population - remains the engine in economic development, although it is faced with
the constraint of lack of arable land coupled with degradation of the cultivated land
by erosion. It is necessary to develop other sectors, which can give employment for
the artisan sector, industry and tourism to contribute to achieving Vision 2020.
Change of mindset needed. There is, among general constraints, observed
opposition among the rural population - classified in the DDPs as ‘obscurantism’
and ‘conservatism’. A category of farmers do not adapt easily to changes intended to
improve practices through adoption of modern techniques. A change of mentality
and know-how is, thus, required in changing a subsistence economy to a market
economy.
Below poverty line. The majority of the rural population lives with incomes below
the poverty level. In the DDPs mentioned reasons for this are the use of traditional
methods in crop and livestock production, little investment in the rural sector as
such, high population growth rate and the artisan and industrial sector being only
little developed.
4.5 Agricultural Problems
4.5.1 General problems

Pertaining from the initial present Project inventory of the agricultural situation in
Rwanda, the general problems concerning the country’s agriculture may be listed,
without internal ranking, as follows:
• reduction of the area of arable land because of increasing population
pressure;
• continuous division of land into smaller areas and holdings;
• demographic growth not proportionate to the growth of resources at disposal;
• low total production due to lack of arable land;
• overexploitation of land;
• distribution of rains not appropriate;
• climatic risks with drought and flooding;
• scattered location of homesteads makes a rational allocation of land and
optimal use difficult;
• lack of knowledge among farmers of modern agricultural technology;
• limited technical knowledge of the use of inputs;
• insufficient extension service and lack of extension agents and veterinarians;
91 (274)
• lack of financial means at the disposal of the farmers - difficult access to

agricultural credit; and,
• week co-operation between civil society, private sector and the public sector.
4.5.2 Specific problems

As of the initial present Project inventory of the agricultural situation in Rwanda,
specific problems concern crop production. They are listed, without internal ranking,
as follows:
• cultivation without fallow;
• cultivation manual with farmers lacking knowledge of use of draft animals;
• lack of irrigation facilities;
• irrigation technology not known therefore almost only rain fed agriculture;
• soil erosion is a handicap for the agricultural development;
• erosion is removing every year considerable amounts of the arable soil layer;
• low fertility acid soils;
• marshland and wetland suffer from stagnant water and deposition of soil
particles due to erosion in higher altitudes;
• lack of improved seed, chemical fertilizer and manure;
• not enough agricultural input stores;
• lack of improved banana planting material;
• lack of fruit tree seedlings;
• old coffee trees with low productivity have been abandoned because coffee
growers do not all know need for regular maintenance of the coffee trees;
• lack of agro forestry tree seedlings;
• agricultural tools at disposal are practically limited to hoe and machete; and,
• where radical terraces have been constructed and marshland and wetlands
have been reclaimed, these areas are not fully exploited because of lack of
inputs, etc.
Cattle for manure. The soil is degraded to a degree where people in some cases
keep cattle that are not their own - not just to have an animal, but to get manure for
application on their land. This is the consequence of the land being degraded to an
extent where it will not produce if fertiliser or manure is not applied. The value of
the soil lost every year can be calculated as the value of the amounts of plant
nutrients lost if they were to be replace by application of fertiliser.
Potential. The yields are low because in general traditional cultivation methods and
practices - as well as not improved seed and plant propagation material8 - are still
used. In spite of general and specific problem, she potential for increase in
productivity and production in Rwanda is high (Table 4.4, below).
8
Multiplication of banana, cassava, sweet potato, (Irish) potato and others is not done by seed, but by
cuttings, of shoots ao.
92 (274)
Table 4.4 – Comparative crop yields between farmers’ and research stations’ fields
Crop Yields, farmers’ fields Yields, research stations’ fields
(tonnes/ha) (tonnes/ha)
Sorghum 1.8 3–6 (+67-233 %)
Maize 1.8 3 (+67 %)
Beans 1.2 2 (+67 %)
Sweet potato 12.5 20–40 (+67 %)
Rice 3.5-4.25 5–6 (+18-71 %)
Source: DDP Nyanza.
Reasons for low inputs. Lack of manure is ascribed in the DDPs resulting from the
relatively low number of livestock. The low degree of availability of agricultural
inputs - like seed, chemical fertilizer and pesticides - is as a reason of the private
sector’s low involvement in the production and distribution of needed inputs. When
using part of the harvest for seed, seed born plant diseases are transmitted to the
following harvest, leading to reduced yields and degeneration of the plant material.
4.5.3 Storage, marketing and processing

As of the initial present Project inventory of the agricultural situation in Rwanda, the
following specific problems, without internal ranking, relate to storage, marketing
and processing:
• most farmers are not commercial minded,- lack of ‘commercial spirit’;
• lack of silos for storage of agricultural produce;
• lack of processing facilities;
• lack of improved markets;
• poor market access means that produce prices are low;
• low purchasing power among the rural population;
• relatively high costs of transport when marketing because fields are dispersed
and often isolated and marketed amounts per producer small;
• lack of infrastructure for internal and external marketing;
• lack of easy access to marketing information, no institution to keep the
farmers up to date with information on prices on local, regional and
international markets;
• level of organisation of farmers is low, only about 10 % are organised in
associations or co-operatives;
• week commercial capacity of producer organizations;
• week organization of coffee growers to ensure optimum selling prices;
• a constraint for commercialization, especially internationally, is also that
only little consideration is given to food quality and safety; and,
• co-operatives lack management experience and access to credit because of
lack of guaranties.
93 (274)
One DDP advances that livestock and beekeeping are developing thanks to one
major market outlet – a weekly market with hundreds of traders from surrounding
districts and from RDC. In many cases marketing is difficult because of bad roads.
Farmers are motivated to increase the production on condition that chances of an
additional income are sufficiently high. This requires that transportation and
marketing are efficient, facilities for storage of perishable produce available and
market prices favourable.
4.5.4 Livestock production

following specific problems, without internal ranking, relate to livestock production:
• number of livestock has been reduced during the Genocide in 1994;
• livestock population is almost only traditional, low yielding breeds;
• breeding programmes for genetic improvements of livestock population, eg
artificial insemination and introduction of breeding bulls, are weak;
• lack of pastures, low productivity of pastures, overgrazing;
• insufficient cultivation of fodder crops;
• lack of drinking water supply for livestock;
• insufficient nutrition of livestock, in terms of quantity and quality, because of
poor pastures, lack of water and limited use of agricultural by-products for
fodder;
• livestock diseases;
• lack of veterinarians;
• lack of veterinary services like dispensaries, pharmacies, laboratories and
cattle dips;
• lack of veterinary medicine and other veterinary inputs;
• lack of infrastructure for storage and processing of livestock products (milk
and meat cold stores; and,
• livestock markets not organised.
4.5.5 Fisheries
following specific problems, without internal ranking, relate to fisheries:
• fish ponds damaged;
• poor organisation of fishing; and,
• week organisation of fishermen in co-operatives.
4.5.6 Beekeeping
following specific problem relate to beekeeping:
• majority of the beehives are of traditional types.
94 (274)
The yield from traditional bee hives are about two kg honey per year, compared to
50 kg from improved types of hives. The price paid to the producer is about the
equivalent of one USD per kg.
4.6 Issues
4.6.1 Land use planning

Need for land use and development plan to manage a range of issues. Some DDPs,
eg that of Kirehe’s, advance specifically land use and development planning as an
important element in the development of the agricultural sector, and that it is
precondition for development of the district. It should pave the way for construction
of basic infrastructure like energy - hydroelectric, biogas or solar energy – and roads.
They see the need for development of a master plan to manage land use and
settlement, marshlands and wetlands, irrigation and retention of rainwater. The
master plan should include topographical, pedological and geological maps. The
purpose of the land use plan should among others be to:
• identify fertile areas, and, thereby, reserve these for the cultivation of
appropriate crops; and,
• group the homesteads in rural centres to liberate land for agriculture and
allow mechanised cultivation.
4.6.2 Regionalisation
Consideration of non-agro bio-climatic factors. The term, regionalisation of
agriculture, means growing crops and keeping livestock, which are adapted to the
specific edaphic 9 and climatic conditions in a certain area where they have a
potential for high production. Introduction of agriculture based on regionalisation is
considered an important means by Government for developing the agricultural sector
in Rwanda (MINAGRI, 1998). In its logical conclusion, it would entail that less than
10 crops would be grown in the district (Table 4.5, below).
Table 4.5 - Regionalisation of crops by agro bio-climatic zones
Zones Very favourable crops Favourable crops
Southern Plateau (Bwanamukali) rice babana
soya haricot volubil
coffee sorghum
Mayaga rice manioc
soya beans (haricot nain)
sugar cane sorghum
coffee
Source: MINAGRI, 1998.
In the context of edaphic and climatic suitability for crop cultivation and livestock
keeping, it should be noted that other factors than these agro bio-climatic ones may
be taken into consideration in the choice of crop or type of livestock, ie: food
security and market prices. The present Project agricultural specialist has not found
9
Influenced by factors inherent in the soil rather than by climatic factors.
95 (274)
analyses and assessments of the costs and benefits - short term and long term - of the
proposed regionalisation of agriculture in Rwanda if non-agro bio-climatic
considerations were considered (see also Section 8 on Social Infrastructure).
4.6.3 Imidugudu
Cost-benefit analyses. Generalised, there are two types of homesteads in Rwanda -
dispersed and grouped. The former not only makes it difficult to supply quality
services and basic infrastructure. It is also a waste of land, which could be used for
crops or pastures. Grouping homesteads is, therefore, considered of vital importance
by Government to increase the area of land that can be cultivated and to facilitate
access to basic infrastructure, like drinking water, sanitation and health posts, and
management of the environment including reclamation of swamps, protection of
slopes, etc. The present Project Agricultural specialist has not found any short-long
term cost-benefit analyses of the proposed grouping of homesteads, but claims that it
is known from Denmark, when a land reform was implemented around the end of
1700, the effect of reallocation and redistribution of land was enormous, and is
considered the kick-start of the development of the agricultural sector and in rural
parts of the country.
Box 4.2 – Danish land reform
Consolidation. Each farmer had small pieces of land scattered around the village.
The land was surveyed, and the good and poor qualities assessed. Farmers were
then resettled with their land consolidated around the homesteads. The total farm
size was adjusted according to the previous total area and quality, so that the result
- before and after - could be as neutral as possible. A fantastic achievement at the
end of the eighteenth century.
4.6.4 Urban agriculture

Definition. Urban agriculture can be defined as distinguished from rural agriculture
by its integration into the urban economic and ecological system. Urban Agriculture
is an industry located within (intra urban) or on the fringe (peri urban) of a town, city
or metropolis, which grows or raises, processes and distributes a diversity of food
and non-food products and services found in and around that urban area, and in turn
supplies human and material resources, products and services largely to that urban
area.
Address to potential. Urban agriculture is noticeably already practised in Rwanda,
not least in the capital, Kigali. Considering that the current national agricultural
policy visions is that the agricultural population should decrease from 80-90 % to 50
% before 2020 and the imidugudu grouping homesteads, the feasibility of
consolidating the concept of urban agriculture should be considered. Observation of
one of the districts in the City of Kigali, however, shows that already practiced urban
agriculture in the district is not organised or regulated. Address to the potential of
urban agriculture could lead to better utilisation of scarce resources and benefits. Its
sustainable practice, however, requires both health and environmental
considerations. The risks of using polluted water for irrigation and of leaching of
agricultural chemicals, for instance, would need to be eliminated.
96 (274)
Box 4.3 – Urban agriculture in Kampala

Urban agriculture enabled. In Kampala, the capital of Uganda, the urban local
government has a whole department dealing with agriculture, and has developed a
typology of urban and peri-urban farming systems to apply to what goes on within its
boundaries. Kampala City Council (KCC) has carried out a review of legislation
governing urban food production and distribution. New by-laws on urban agriculture,
livestock, milk, meat and fish production, processing and marketing passed in 2004 and
came into force in 2006. It is recommended, that Kigali and the bigger towns in Rwanda
take a look at the situation in Kampala, to identify measures, which could be of interest in
developing urban agriculture in Rwanda.
4.7 Way forward
4.7.1 Tools
Updating of maps and use of GIS. Updating of maps is of utmost importance as a
tool in the development process, not least in the development of the agricultural
sector that in many countries is the biggest player in the management and use of
land. Geographical Information Systems (GIS) have been introduced in the so called
developed countries as a tool also in the implementation and enforcement of rules
and regulations related to land use. In Rwanda, at this stage, a detailed, functional
GIS, accessible not only central level, but also district and, possibly, sector level,
would be extremely useful.
Pilot projects. In the present Project, ensuing proposals - in a situation of competing
and conflicting land use demands – should attempt to embrace how development,
implementation, maintenance and use of GIS at the local government level may
benefit also the agricultural sector. In practise this could be initiated through pilot
activities with a limited number of districts. Selection criteria of piloting districts
could be such that a range of districts were chosen, from those with already
demonstrated high planning skills to those where planning skills could be improved.
97 (274)
5 Forestry
5.1 Summary
Forest for livelihood and woos supply. This report presents the current situation of
the Rwandan forestry sector in the framework of the preparation of the Rwanda
national Land Use and Development Master Plan. To this end, documentation and
literature has been reviewed, and contacts taken with relevant institutions and
stakeholders involved in the management of the forestry sector. Among these are the
forest service of MINIRENA, NAFA, CGIS-NUR, ISAR and REMA. Interviews
were also held with resource persons, knowledgeable in the field. The data and
information collected so far allows for an in inventory of the situation of the
Rwandan forestry sector in terms of the:
• forest resource available;
• management of the forest resource and the sector in general and the
institutions involved; and
• forest products and their utilisations, and more specifically the demand and
supply of wood.
The report also sheds light on the importance of the forests and the forestry sector in
the economy of the country and the livelihoods of the population.
Issues and challenges. During the collection process, it was possible to identify
issues and challenges facing the development of the forestry sector. The main ones
are the following:
• high wood deficit (the imbalance between the demand and the supply) and
more specifically the high dependency on biomass as a source of household
energy which has a negative impact on the forest ecosystems of the country;
• high competition from other land uses - agriculture, livestock, imidugudu
human settlements - threatening in some areas the existence of the forest;
• forest management practices, which are not environmentally sensitive (old,
degraded and unproductive forest plantations with soil erosion underneath);
and
• weak administrative structures for the implementation of existing forest laws,
regulations and other legal instruments.
5.2 Introduction
Competing land use. Within the framework of the present Rwanda national Land
Use and Development Master Plan Project, thematic studies are to be undertaken and
the forestry is identified as one of the sectors to be analysed. The common aim of
these studies is to collect and compile relevant data, and to subsequently analyse it to
get information that can feed in the preparation of the Master Plan preparation. The
forestry sector is perceived as important in this process primarily because forest is
one of the land uses that require a high quantity of land, and is, therefore, likely to
compete or conflict with other land uses. The report, which is the basis for this
collection of data report, is a first step in this process. It aims at providing a broad
and overall picture of the current situation of the Rwandan forestry sector Annex 5).
98 (274)
Inventory of existing situation. The TOR for the initial forestry data collection,
which is the basis for this section in the present main report of data collection,
requires statistically backed inventory of:
• current situation vis à vis forestry and associated livelihood practices; and,
• existing forestry units in different zones comprising data pertaining to
potential production and its destination.
Emerging issues. This section, thus, presents and describes the current situation of
the Rwandan forestry sector with supporting relevant statistical data and
information. Emerging issues from the inventory are raised. After a brief overview,
below, of the methodology used in data collection, the report provides the following
information on:
• forest resource available;
• management of the forest resource and the sector in general and the
institutions involved;
• forest products and their utilisations, and more specifically the demand and
supply of wood;
• issues and challenges faced by the development of the forestry sector; and,
• way forward understood in terms of issues for future consideration.
The particular section on ecology in this report (Section 7, below) (see also Annex 7)
deals with the overall framework of ecology and biodiversity conservation aspects,
and hence this section on forestry only addresses these aspects as they are rooted in
forestry.
5.3 Methodology
In trying to understand the current situation on the Rwandan forestry sector, several
methods and techniques were used for the collection of relevant data and
information. They are accounted for in this sub-section.
Documentation review. There is considerable documentation on the forestry sector
in Rwanda, which gives basic information on the sector. This documentation is
found in institutions dealing with forestry matters such as the ‘forest services’ at:
• MINIRENA;
• Environment division at district offices;
• ISAR;
• CGIS-NUR; and,
• ORTPN.
Visits to key institutions. The forestry specialist had the opportunity to accompany
present Project ecology and soil specialists on on their visits to institutions be it in
Kigali or outside Kigali. With the former REMA, ORTPN, and ISAR - forestry
department (Ruhande), CGIS-NUR, IRST, WCS and ACNR - were visited. With the
atter ISAR – Karama and the district of Bugesera - were visited. These occasions
were used as opportunities to raise forestry issues during discussions held with the
persons met.
99 (274)
Discussions with key resource-persons. Interviews, on individual to individual

basis, were held with resource persons who are also key stakeholders in the
management of the forestry sector. Essentially, these were the professionals at the
forest service in MINIRENA, the cadres at NAFA and researchers at ISAR –
forestry department.
Participation in meetings and workshops. At meetings and workshops - in which

issues related to land use are addressed - the author of the Master Plan Project
forestry study and the present report section on forestry has informed participants of
the existence of the Project. Requests, reactions and inputs by the author have on the
whole been provided.
Generally, the combined use of these methods has permitted the securing of data and
information related to the following aspects of the Rwandan forestry sector:
• existing forest resource;
• policies and strategies;
• management in terms of administration and institutions, planning,
implementation of activities on the field, demand and supply of forest
products, forest research, forest education, etc;
• legal framework; and,
• issues and challenges for the development of the sector.
5.4 Current Characteristics of Forestry Sector
5.4.1 Context
Pressurised life support system. Forests are a key component of the life-support
system in view of both the products and services they provide. This is particularly so in
Rwanda where forests protect watersheds, thus making agriculture viable, and meet the
energy needs of the majority of the population. Furthermore, forests generate direct
monetary income for households, public entities and the country in general. Due to
high population densities in the country - at 321 inhabitants/km2 in 2002 - farming
land per household is decreasing fast, and most of the soils have been exhausted. As a
result, cultivation is pushed into marginal areas, particularly in steep slopes, leading to
widespread landslides and soil erosion. In addition to land degradation, there is
reduction of vegetation including forest cover, siltation of water bodies, frequent
droughts and unreliable precipitation. These negative tendencies within the natural
resources domain are putting severe pressure on the life-support systems, including
that of forestry, of the country.
5.4.2 Historical background of forestry sector

Forest products now rare. Traditionally in Rwanda, wood and other forest products
have been extracted from the natural forests. Towards the 1920s, the forests started
either being encroached by agricultural activities or being gazetted as national parks,
ie the Virunga national park in the north–west in 1924, the Akagera national park in
the north–east in 1934 and the Nyungwe national park in the south-west in 2007.
Natural forest products have became rare.
100 (274)
Plantations with ups and downs. The first artificial plantations were established in
Rwanda in the early 1930s when eucalyptus was introduced in the country to
supplement wood production from natural forests. The plantation rhythm slowed
down during the 1940s-50s, period of securing independence the at end of the 50s -
beginning of the 60s and during ensuing periodic social unrest. Forest plantations
started to gain momentum in the late 1960s when the first forestry project, ie PPF 10
was started in Kibuye at the initiative of Swiss donor co-operation. Later other
projects were launched with the peak around the 1980s. These forest and tree
planting programmes saw considerable financial support from external bilateral or
multilateral donors, be it in the form of loans or grants. The early 1990s saw another
slowdown of the plantation programmes due to war and insecurity, but around 1996
they were renewed. Forests and trees were planted at a large scale, although the
survival rate has not been as intended. In short, the history of the Rwandan forestry
practice is characterized by ‘ups and downs’ depending on the socio-political
situation of the moment.
1988 forest resources law. A National Forestry Law was enacted by the government
in 1988 and this was meant to regulate the use of the forest resources in the country.
The late 1990s saw another slowdown of forest programmes due to war and
insecurity, but around 1996 the programme was renewed again. Forests and trees
were again planted at a large scale although the survival rate has been questionable
in many instances. The history of the Rwandan forestry practice is, thus,
characterised by ‘ups and downs’ depending on the socio-political situation at the
time (Table 5.1, below). The evolution of the Rwandan forest cover over time is
shown in Table 5.2, below.
Table 5.1 - Critical events in the history of the forestry sector in Rwanda
Year/Period Event
1924 creation of Albert National Park – ‘Volcanoes National Park’ in Rwanda
1934 creation of Akagera National Park
1970 start of academic training of foresters in universities in Africa, Europe
and America
1973-90 implementation of major forestry projects
1976 institutionalisation of the National Tree Planting Day
1988 promulgation of the first forestry law
1989 creation of the National Forest Fund (NFF)
1991-96 encroachment to forests for agriculture and settlement and illegal tree
felling in public forests
2000 institutionalisation of the National Tree Planting Week
2002 starting up of Rwanda Forest Management Support Project (PAFOR)
10
PPF: Projet Pilote Forestier (de Kibuye).
101 (274)
Table 5.2 - Evolution of the Rwanda forest cover in time

Type of Name of forest Periodic evolution of forest cover (area in ha)
forest
1960 1970 1980 1990 1996 1999 2000 2002
Natural Nyungwe National 114000 108800 97500 97500 94500 92400 92400 92400
Forest Park +
Cyamudongo
Gishwati 28000 28000 23000 8800 3800 600 600 600
Mukura 3000 3000 2100 2100 1600 1200 1200 1200
Volcano National 34000 16000 15000 12760 12760 12000 12000 12000
park
Akagera National 241000 241000 241000 241000 241000 90000 90000 90000
Park
Hunting domain 64000 45000 45000 34000 0 0 0 0
Umutara
Galerie Forest - 150000 150000 90000 55000 30000 25000 25000 25000
East
Sub total natural forest 634000 591800 513600 451160 383660 221200 221200 221200
Artificial forest plantations 24500 27160 80 000 247500 232000 252000 282563 306663
Source: FAO, 2005, cited by Thaddée, 2007:10.
5.4.2 Current level of forest resource

There exist in the documentation various sources of statistics related to the forest
resource available in the country. In 2007, a national forest mapping and inventory
activity was completed under the auspices of MINIRENA. This activity was carried
out by the CGIS-NUR and ISAR, and the results are currently considered by most of
the stakeholders in the sector as the most up-to-date and most reliable available.
Hence, they are used in the main Project forest inventory report and in the present
data collection report section (Table 5.3 for artificial forest plantations) (Table 5.4
for natural forests).
Table 5.3 - Forest plantations in 2007 in ha
Province Eucalyptus Pinus Total
East 11090,4 11090,4
South 80836,3 5995,2 86831,5
West 97801 5921,4 103722,4
North 35273,3 102,4 35375,7
City of Kigali 3626,9 1,4 3628,3
Total 228627,9 12020,4 240648,3
Source: CGIS-NUR and ISAR, 200:34.
102 (274)
Figure 5.1- Forest plantations of Rwanda
Total
CITY OF KIGALI
2% EAST
NORTH 5%
15% EAST
SOUTH SOUTH
36% WEST
NORTH
WEST KIGALI
42%
Note: All artificial plantations are in Eucalyptus and Pinus, highly concentrated in western
and southern provinces.
Source: Author.
Table 5.4- Natural forests of Rwanda

Area
Types of Natural Forest (ha)
Nyungwe National Park (including Cyamudongo) 103363
Volcanoes National Park 16219
Akagera National Park 1277
Gishwati Natural Forest Reserve 1028
Mukura Natural Forest Reserve 1913
Busaga Natural Forest Reserve 151
Other natural forest formations 2565
Total 126516
Source: CGIS-NUR and ISAR, 2007:30
103 (274)
Figure 5.2 - Natural forests of Rwanda
2%
0%
2% Nyungwe National Park
(including Cyamudongo)
1%
Volcanoes National Park
1%
13% Akagera National Park
Gishwati Natural Forest

Reserve
Mukura Natural Forest
81% Reserve
Busaga Natural Forest
Reserve
Other natural forest
formations
Source: Author.
5.5 Role of Forest in Economy
5.5.1 Introduction
Economic, social and ecological functions. From usage or utilisation perspectives,
the forest resources in Rwanda play vital roles and functions in the livelihoods of the
people and in the economy and development of the country. Three categories of
functions may be threefold: first, economical, through various products derived from
productive forests, including energy; second, social and recreational benefits and
revenues derived from protected forests managed as national parks; and, third,
ecological through benefits derived from protection forests. The content of these
categories, which tend to overlap each other, is elaborated below.
5.1.2 Economic functions of productive forests

Plantations. In this category are found artificial forest plantations, which have been
created on land with a good level of productivity, and it is hence possible to produce
wood in a financially feasible manner. These plantations are normally subjected to
intensive silvicultural 11 tending operations, to optimise their productivity and
production. It is from these plantations that the essential wood products that are
11
Silviculture is the art and science of controlling the establishment, growth, composition, health, and
quality of forests to meet diverse needs and values of the many landowners, societies and cultures over
the parts of the globe that are covered by dry land Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/silviculture
(retrieved Mar 2009).
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consumed in the country are extracted. In this regard, areas of interest for analysis
are the following:
• wood production (supply) and consumption (demand);
• non timber forest products; and,
• employment creation.
Wood production and consumption. Current estimates of wood produced in
Rwanda are based on results of the national forest inventory carried out by ISAR in
2007 mentioned earlier. This one estimates the average productivity of Rwandan
forest plantations at 13 m3/ha/year and 5 m3/ha/ year for pines and eucalyptus
plantations respectively (Table 5.5, below).
Table 5.5 - Annual wood production (m3)
Province Eucalyptus Pinus Total
South 526523 62244 588767
West 376706 74022 450728
North 188957 18267 207224
East 19302 19302
Kigali City 8687 364 9051
Total 1120175 154897 1275 072
Figure 5.3 - Annual wood production in Rwanda
Annual wood production per Province
1%
2%
16%
South
46% West
North
East
Kigali City
35%
Source: Author.
With regards to wood consumption, the main uses of wood produced in Rwanda are
accounted for below.
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Energy. The importance of wood in the provision of energy consumed cannot be

understated (Table 5.6, below).
Table 5.6 - Place of wood in energy supply in Rwanda
Type of energy Place of consumption
Kigali City Other urban Rural National
Fire wood 23.1 73.7 95.5 88.2
Charcoal 72.4 19.6 1.1. 7.9
Gas 0.2 0.1 0.0
Electricity 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.1
Kerosine 0.8 0.3 0.0 0.1
Agricultural residues 0.1 2.5 3 2.7
Others 3.3 3.4 0.4 0.9
Percentage 100 100 100 100
Source: BEST, 2008:26.
Construction and Furniture. Wood in Rwanda is also used in construction, be it in
rural areas or in urban areas. The consumption figure is estimated at around 420000
m3 in rural areas and 15-20000 m3 in urban areas. Also, part of the wood produced
is sawn and used in furniture making. The current consumption is estimated at
around 36 000 m3 (Habiyambere, 2007:22).
Non timber forest products. Among the non timber forest products extracted from
the Rwandan forests are the following:
• medicinal plants by herbalists;
• shrubs used by various artisans; and,
• honey produced either with traditional or modern beehives by beekeepers.
Employment creation. Activities undertaken in the forests and in the forestry sector
in general are opportunities of employment, especially in the rural areas. Below are a
few examples derived from the limited data available in that area:
• Graduate with university degree of different levels – 33;
• Forestry technicians with secondary school level – 78;
• Forest rangers with around three years of secondary school – 182;
• Carpenters and wood artisans – 2000; and,
• Char coalers - 1500 (Habiyambere, 2007:19).
5.5.3 - Socio-recreational functions of the national parks

Tourist revenues. A large proportion of the Rwandan forests, around 57 %, is
protected and managed as ‘national parks’. As such, they have significance at local,
national and international levels. To mention one example, monetary revenues
earned in hard currency through tourism activities are at an increase since 2005.
Recent statistics obtained from the ORTPN website give an indication of that trend
(Table 5.7, below).
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Table 5.7 – Tourist revenue from forest

Year Revenue No of tourists
(USD)
2007 1380000 826374
2008 2140000 1000000
2009 2240000 1140000
Source: www.ortpn.kwita izina ceremony.org
These figures places the tourism sector in the top position in earning foreign
exchange for the country, a place that had been occupied by coffee or so long. And
this is without taking into account all the local related local economic activities and
all the employment which is generated.
5.5.4 - Ecological functions and protection forests

Although the above identified three categories of forests in Rwanda play an
ecological role related to environment protection and conservation in general, there
exist forests that have had a sole ecological objective. These forests are as a rule
located on steep slopes or are part of ecologically fragile ecosystems. The ecological
functions of the forest, in general, are understood in terms of:
• protecting soil against rain water erosion;
• preventing land slides;
• serving as water reservoirs;
• regulating the local micro climate; and,
• useful in carbon sequestration.
Furthermore, the ecological footprint12 analysis points to the importance of forests in
the equation. In the case of Rwanda, information given in on ecology in the present
report (Section 7) (see also Annex 7) show that Rwanda has already a deficit in this
regard, meaning that the demand exceeds what nature can durably sustain. This is a
critical dimension to take into account during the development planning phase of the
national Land Use and Development Master Plan preparation process.
5.6 Forest management
5.6.1 General policy frameworks

The current situation of the Rwandan forestry sector has to be analyzed and
understood in the overall development context of the country. There are at present
key policy development documents, the most prominent ones being:
• Vision 2020;
• Decentralization and community development;
• Economic Development and Poverty Reduction Strategy; and,
12
Ecological footprint: "The Ecological footprint measures the bio productive area (whether land or
water) a population would require to sustainably produce all the resources it consumes and to absorb the
waste it generates using prevailing technology."
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Vision 2020. Vision 2020 is the basic policy statement that outlines the vision of the
country in terms of desired and expressed development targets. It ‘main pillars’ are:
• good political and economic governance;
• rural economic transformation;
• development of services, infrastructures and mining;
• human resources development;
• lower risks and costs of doing business in Rwanda an development of the
private sector;
• regional and international economic integration; and,
• poverty reduction.
Reduced role of wood in national energy. In relation with the forestry sector, Vision
2020 expresses the following aspirations: “Rwanda will be producing enough energy
for economic and social development, while avoiding the degradation of the
environment. The country will have considerably reduced the role of wood in
national energy use while expanding the use of electricity and renewable energy.
Despite Rwanda’s population growth, pressure on natural resources (land, water,
biodiversity, mines) will have considerably eased and the process of environmental
pollution and degradation will have been reversed.” (MININFRA, 2004:8).
Decentralisation and community development. The decentralization policy aims at
empowering local communities so that they can own the processes that shape their
development. It hence has community development as sister policy as this last one
defines the roles and responsibilities of the different stakeholders and actors in
community development. Both policies devote a fundamental role to local
communities and local leaders in the management of local public affairs, including
the public forest plantations. (MINITERE, 2004:12).
Economic Development and Poverty Reduction Strategy (EDPRS). EDPRS is a
five–year (2007-11) comprehensive development plan, which is derived from Vision
2020. It was developed as a follow-up plan to PRSP 1. In relation with forestry,
EDPRS puts emphasis on reforestation to increase the forest resource base of the
country (ibid).
5.6.2 Specific policy frameworks

Sectoral forest policy. In 2004, a new forest policy was adopted by the government
of Rwanda and this one highlights the major objectives and orientations that shall
govern the management of the Rwandan forest sector. This policy includes also
elements of strategy, although clarification around this aspect is still yet to come.
The specific objectives outlined in the new policy are the following:
• increase and diversify of forest resource;
• improve management of existing forest resources;
• improve forestry education and extension;
• give value to wood products and non wood forestry products;
• develop appropriate research in forestry and agro forestry;
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• develop economics of wood;

• strengthen capacity of government forestry institutions;
• evaluate contribution of forestry sector to national economy;
• strengthen regional and international cooperation; and,
• integrate gender dimension in management of forestry sector.
5.6.3 Forest planning and management

Forestry planning. Currently, there are two planning processes which are underway
in the forestry sector. At the national, an activity for the elaboration of a ‘National
Forestry Plan’ for a ten –year period has been launched in 2006 and it is still on
going. It started with a national forest mapping and inventory for forests areas of and
above 0.5 ha and this has been completed and results are available and already in use
by different stakeholders. Another activity of mapping the forests areas below 0.5 ha
and agro-forestry resources is still to be organized and then the elaboration of the
plan document. At district level, there is also a process of elaboration of the ‘District
Forest Management Plan’ and the process is halfway i.e. 16 districts already have
their plans.
Forest management. By management, the understanding in this section is that
operations in the field aiming at wood and other forest products production. In the
current context of Rwanda, forest activities in the field are implemented through
different mechanisms, characterised essentially by tree and forest planting. The
follow-up silvicultural operations have been neglected most of the time.At the sector
level of administration, there is always a community tree nursery, and seedlings are
planted during the ‘tree planting week’ through Umuganda community work. There
are also forest projects which are implemented with external financial support, the
major current being:
• PAFOR, funded by the African Development Bank and covers 18 Districts -
it has been going on for more than five years, and it is expected to end in
December 2009;
• PAREF I, supported by Belgian co-operation, it has just started and it shall
last four years and it covers six districts;
• PAREF II, supplementary to PAREF I, supported by Netherlands co-
operation - it shall also last for four years and covers nine Districts; and,
• V-LIFE, supported by Swedish co-operation - it is a household livelihood
project with an agro forestry component.
International and local NGOs, with the financial support of external donors are also
implementing some forestry related activities in many parts of the country:
• CARE International – it implements a project funded by the European
Commission aiming at the dissemination within the communities of
improved charcoal making techniques and improved fuel cooking stoves;
• FAO - is also funding similar activities to those of CARE International; and,
• HelpAge Rwanda – implements with Netherlands funding a HIMO type of
project aiming at soil/land conservation/protection through appropriate agro
forestry techniques.
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5.6.4 Administration of forestry sector and institutions

In Rwanda, there are a limited number of institutions, which are involved in the
management of the forestry sector. There are those acting at the central level and
those acting at the local level.
National Forest Service. This is a service, which is located in the Ministry
(MINIRENA) under the direct supervision of the Unit of Planning and Human
Resources Development. It is responsible for sector policy and strategies formulation
and the monitoring and evaluation of their implementation. Also, it entertains
external relations and synergies with other development sectors at its level.
National Forest Protection Service. This is a specific service under the supervision
of the Permanent Secretary at MINIRENA, and it is responsible for the protection of
all the forests which are on the Rwandan territory. This service ensures the
implementation and respect of instructions and regulations which are provided in the
National Forestry Law.
National Forestry Fund. This is a special fund provided for in the National Forestry
Law and it is expected to be a fund through which all funding and donations in the
forestry sector are channelled. Currently, it has a “Board of administration” but it is
still has to get a “permanent secretariat” so that it can be fully operational.
District Environment officer. At the district level, an environment officer co-
ordinates, activities of the forestry sector under the management of the usual
leadership of the district. Direct technical support is provided from the National
Forestry Service.
Sector Agricultural officer. At the sector level, an agriculture officer co-ordinates
the administration of forest activities related to tree planting.
The National Forestry Agency (NAFA). A new institution in the administration of
the forestry sector in Rwanda, NAFA has been legalised by the government. It is not
yet operational on the ground, but is expected to co-ordinate the implementation of
forestry activities - apart from MINIRENA’s National Forest Service, all other
services and institutions shall be co-ordinated and supervised by NAFA.
Office Rwandais du Tourisme et des Parcs Nationaux (ORTPN). ORTPN is in
charge of all the three national parks. It has the mandate of conservation of these
parks and the promotion of tourism.
Rwanda Environmental Management Authority (REMA). REMA is another
institution that has a stake in the management of the Rwandan forests as it has the
mandate of co-ordination of all environmental conservation and protection activities.
Essentially, REMA ensures that all the different laws and regulations related to the
management of forested areas are in line and conformity with the Organic Law on
Environment.
National Institute for Agricultural Research (ISAR). The major part of the forestry
research is done through the ‘Lands and Forest Research Centre’ of ISAR. The
centre is based in Ruhande, Huye district (formerly Butare). The agro-forestry
component of this centre is technically and financially supported by the Agro
forestry Research Centre (ICRAF) in Nairobi.
Specialist studies by individual. Specific and specialised studies are sometimes done
by individual specialists. These are mainly expatriates who occasionally come to the
country for short missions. A recent example of such a study is the Biomass Energy
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Strategy (BEST), conducted by the private consulting company MARGE in

collaboration with GTZ.
Forestry education. Forestry education in Rwanda is threefold. It is provided at
secondary school, college and university. At secondary school level there is ‘Ecole
Secondaire de Kibisabo’, located since 1985 in Nyabihu district in the Western
Province. A technical school was opened 1988 in the southern province at Kitabi, ie
Kitabi College of Conservation and Environment (KCCE). It has the mandate of
training technical staff for the management of the sector of bio-diversity
conservation and wildlife in particular. Since 2004, an agro-forestry option at the
level of A1 is offered at Institut d’Agriculture et Elevage (ISAE). At university level,
the Faculty of Agriculture at the National University of Rwanda (NUR) initiated
2006 a special programme of MSc in agro-forestry with the financial assistance of
the Netherlands government. Other forest related university degrees at BSc and MSc
levels are mainly pursued in Kenya and Tanzania.
Forestry Legislation. The first legislation on forestry was law 47/88 enacted late
1988, covering the following:
• to have forest plans for all forest owners of more than two hectares namely
State, Districts and Private sector;
• modalities of excision and harvesting of forests, transport and marketing of
wooden forest products. These modalities aim to discourage bad practices of
clearing forests;
• collection of statistics on forests and forest products; and,
• gazetting of roadsides plantations, ie reserving in 10-15 m State forest road
reserve on both sides of public roads.
This law has, however, not been effectively implemented. Consequently, forest
plantations and natural forests have been further degraded through excision,
encroachment for agriculture, wild fires, grazing and uncontrolled harvesting.
5.7 Issues
5.7.1 Challenges
Currently, there are many of issues and challenges facing the management and
development of the Rwandan forests and forestry sector. Focus in this report is on
those that have a direct or indirect relation with land use and development master
planning.
The demand in wood exceeds the supply. Although there are no reliable statistics on
wood demand (consumption) in the country, there are clear and visible indications
that the demand is too high compared to the productive capacity of annual wood
production of the forest available - deforestation is observable in many parts of the
country, and agricultural residues 13 are used as a source of energy in many rural
households. Such a situation puts severe pressure on life-support systems of the
country. The root cause of this problem seems to lie in population growth pressure
and the low level of development of the country, unable to find for alternatives to
wood.
13
‘Agricultural residues’ refer to biomass remains after agricultural crop harvest.
111 (274)
The high dependency on wood as a source of household energy. Current statistics

indicate a high dependency on biomass as a source of household energy, either in the
form of firewood or charcoal. Not only are other sources of energy scarce, they are
expensive and hence inaccessible to the vast majority of Rwandans. The current
situation is environmentally unsustainable. On the one hand, there is a need to make
more efforts in the promotion of more efficient and energy saving techniques and
practices, and, on the other, a need for expanding and encouraging the use of other
sources of energy ,eg, electricity, biogas, peat and solar.
The high competition for land among different uses. The Rwandan reality is that
land is scarce given the current levels of population pressure for land and the
alternative livelihood source inherent in diversified economic activities including
Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) among technological, financial
or other development of the country. In the past, including in the recent years,
officials have most of the time turned to forested lands to get space for various
development activities, and, more specifically, to re settle people in the
agglomerations commonly known as imidugudu. This practice has negatively
impacted on the environmental equilibrium of the country. Whereas there exist good
national environment law and regulations - and also international conventions and
treaties that Rwanda has ratified to protect the environment - bold action needs to be
taken to enforce and implement them on the ground for the benefit of all
stakeholders.
Irrational forest management practices. Among many technical shortcomings
observed in the management of Rwandan forests, the silvicultural tending operations
that are overdue in many forest plantations - especially those in the buffer zone on
the Congo-Nile Crest – are central. The current lack of this, leads to reduced
production, low quality of wood and soil erosion underneath. In the context of scarce
land, all measures have to be taken to ensure optimum production on all land,
including the forested lands.
Weak administrative institutions and structures. Useful legal instruments are, thus,
in place but their implementation is lacking, mainly because the administrative
institutions and structures for their enforcement are weak. Staff available is still
insufficient both in terms of quality and number.
Weak legal framework. Although the forestry law was promulgated in 1988, most of
the ministerial decrees envisaged to clarify and accompany the implementation of
this law have not been issued. Hence, the legal management and development of the
forest sector is hampered.
Insufficient reliable statistics. Statistics currently used - derived mainly from old
and outdated documents, surveys and projections - are not always reliable and valid.
Only in 2007 a national forestry mapping and inventory was undertaken. It gives the
information on wood supply, but it does not take into account wood production from
woodlots and agro-forestry. So statistics are incomplete.
5.7.2 Way forward

Integrated orientation. With stock of the existing forest and forestry related
situation in Rwanda accounted for, this sub-sub-section focuses on identified issue
based considerations that constitute the basis for the next discussions with the
national Land Use and Development Master Plan stakeholders. The orientation
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around these issues attempts to integrate political, social, economical, technical, etc,
considerations.
30 % National Forest area target as of Vision 2020. Vision 2020 sets a target of 30
% of the national area to be covered by forests. What approaches and strategies are
going to be needed to reach that target – ie, increasing the forest resource base? It is
proposed that the following will need to be examined in the next phase of the present
Project:
• role of agro-forestry and woodlots;
• involvement of new actors and institutions in the management of forests;
• role of the communities in the whole management process; and,
• productivity of existing forest plantations.
How can the forestry sector benefit from the present Project? The following are
some of the possibilities that stakeholders may pursue through the project:
• improvement on the existing forest atlas;
• furthering of forest inventory with availability of aerial photos at high
resolution;
• improvement of protection of existing forest land; and,
• improvement of information on available land for forests.
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6 Environment
6.1.Summary
Significance to land use and development planning. This section describes the state of
environment and its significance to socio-economic development in general and its
relevance to land use and development planning in Rwanda in particular. It reviews existing
information regarding the state of the environment. Through partnership with UNEP
Rwanda has conducted a Post Conflict State of Environment Report. There is also a recent
and more comprehensive draft State of Environment (SoE) report under final preparation.
Although a draft, it contains details of the status of environmental resources and the drivers,
pressures and threats to different natural resources.
Complimenting related Project sectors. Complimenting detailed accounts of existing data

with regard to the different Project sectoral areas related to the environment - like
agriculture, forestry and ecology – this section attempts to reinforce the recognition of
environment as a crosscutting own ‘sector’ with importance for overall sustainable
development. Environment as a sector in it own right is important in the land use and
development planning process as it constituters a necessary overriding criterion in the
decision making process – a process that entails compromising between competing and
often conflicting land uses, while maintaining the ecological function of land as a
prerequisite resource. Recognition of the importance of the environment and adequate
address to it ensures sustainability of all economic development activities without impacting
negatively on natural resources. An understanding of the environment as a crosscutting
sector facilitates the important general establishment of the impacts of land use on core
ecosystem services. It also benefits more directly appreciable and affected socio-economic
sectors such as tourism and recreation.
6.2 Introduction
Definition. The national environment law, ie Organic Law N° 04/2005 of 08/04/2005,
defines the natural environment to be composed of soil and subsoil, water, air, biodiversity,
mountains and landscapes, tourist sites and monuments.
Problems from lack of environmental care. Rwanda is a land locked country, characterised
by a predominantly hilly and, partially, mountainous landscape. Population pressure for
subsistence and cash crop and pastoral land, against the backdrop of this terrain, is a
contributing factor to land degradation that has been identified as the major environmental
issues that needs immediate response. The country is endowed with diverse ecosystems,
from high altitude rainforests, savannah grasslands, wetlands and lakes, which are home to a
variety of flora fauna species. The majority of the population is dependent - directly on
indirectly - on this natural capital for their sustenance. The recent increase in population has
significantly accelerated the decline of natural resources as people encroach and over-
exploit the resources in search of primary materials for socio-economic activities. The
increasing population density has triggered natural resources decline, witnessed through the
encroachment of critical ecosystem in search for agricultural land and the expansion of
human settlement. Over the years these natural resources have been subject to unsustainable
management methods, without appropriate redeeming policy focus and budget allocation. It
has been observed that the major challenges have been the inadequacy of policy instruments
and management tools in ensuring the sustainability of the natural capital.
Low technical know-how. Rwanda has had low technical capacities and purposely-directed
financial resources for effective planning and management of the country’s natural resources
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endowment. Without these, likely to be in combination with unawareness, natural resources

have been over-utilised without consideration of their sustainability. This has resulted in the
failure to sustainably maximise the economic productivity of the resources. The country also
possesses a dense hydrological network of both surface and ground water, but access to
drinking water is still low. Environmental decline is a result of an amalgamation of several
weak natural resources management practices over time, resulting in a situation where
efforts to reverse these trends will requires concerted efforts and the adoption of lessons
learnt and best practices acquired in the local context.
Crosscutting nature with holistic approach. In recognition of the importance of the

environment, the Government has instituted several measures to put in place a policy and
institutional framework that will facilitate sustainable utilisation of natural resources, and, in
parallel with the strategic actions required as of the Economic Development and Poverty
Reduction Strategy (EDPRS). The crosscutting nature of environment - and its level of
integration onto the EDPRS - ensures a holistic policy and programme planning approach
through the sectors of economic development. Several institutions such the Rwanda
Environment Management Authority (REMA), National Forest Authority (NFA) and
National Land Centre (NLC) have been established and mandated to oversee the
management of the different components of the environment while maintaining the overall
strategic and priority targets of the environment sector.
6.3 Environment and Natural Resources
6.3.1 Wetlands
Unsustainable encroachment. Wetlands in Rwanda are heavily relied on for subsistence
agriculture, which supports close to 90 % of the population. Increasing utilisation of these,
coupled with unsustainable farming methods, have led to decreased soil fertility and
subsequently a reduction in yields. This trend forces the population to encroach on
undisturbed wetland for agricultural land to meet its food demand. These are however
temporary and unsustainable solutions that irreversibly destroy the wetlands. The
Government has, thus, gazetted the Rugezi marshland complex, in the former provinces of
Ruhengeri and Byumba, as a RAMSAR site (see Section 7 on Ecology).
Severely decreased and degraded wetlands. In low-lying and wetland areas, pressure for
agricultural space and inappropriate marsh cultivation has caused stream flow changes,
increased water evaporation, and reduced water tables and groundwater recharge (Odada et
al, 2004; World Bank, 2004). Currently, at least 93754 ha of the total 164947 ha of wetland
surface area have been cultivated (Kanyarukiga and Ngarambe, 1998). In the Lakes
Cyohoha, Bugesera and Rweru region in the Kigali-Ngali Province, and, in the Lake
Mugesera area of the Kibungo region, reclamation, siltation, flood damage and water weed
infestation have severely decreased and degraded wetlands. In the Bugesera region of the
Kgali-Ngali Province, the Gashora marsh was drained for food emergency assistance in
2000 (FAO, 2001).
6.3.2 Land
Soil erosion with impacts on yields. There are basically five distinct ecosystem areas in
Rwanda: cropland and natural vegetation form 47 % of total land; 32 % is under scrublands,
savannah and grasslands; 12 % is under forest; 8 % is wetlands and water bodies; and, about
1 % is sparse or barren vegetation (World Resources Institute. 2003d). With a hilly
topography, the country carries out expansive subsistence agriculture on its numerous
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slopes, leaving its hill slopes bare and exposed to soil erosion causative factors. Soil erosion
is a very serious problem that has obvious and immediate impacts on the agricultural yields
in the country.
6.3.3 Forests
Drastic clearing. The forest resources in Rwanda have been subjected to increasing pressure
mainly through increased forest clearing. Nyungwe forest surface was reduced from 114125
ha in 1958 to 97138 ha in 1978 a 15 % reduction. Nyungwe is now estimated at 90000 ha. In
efforts to halt further loss, the forest was declared a protected area in 2000. The Volcano
forest, in the Northern Province, with an area of 35000 ha has been reduced – giving way to
extensive pyrethrum growing and other agricultural activities – to 15000 ha. The Gishwati
forest at 21000 ha in 1930 has now been reduced by more than 80 %. The forest was mainly
converted for agricultural use and human re-settlement (MINIRENA, 2004).
No remedial large scale plantation. The problems related to forestry in Rwanda primarily
stem from the forest resource depletion as a result of no effective measures in place to
address the increasing rural and urban demand for forest products. The natural forest has
diminished dramatically over time, and yet there has been no corresponding effort to
establish large scale plantation forest to counter the over-decline in forest cover. The major
problems of the forest sector may be considered threefold. First, excessive felling - fuel
wood is the basic source of energy for more than 90 % of the population, and with the rapid
increase in population demand for wood has increased with increased pressure on the forest
resources. Second, low afforestration and reforestration - figures from the Forestry Unit of
MINAFRI indicate that comparisons of annual forested land and free space show that forest
expansion is still low. FAO standards put optimal forest area required per individual at 1 Ha,
in order to satisfy his/her wood needs while maintaining an ecological balance. The average
forest area per individual is approximately 0.059 ha, much less than the FAO standard
(National Forest Policy, 2004). Third, insufficient sylvicultural practice - tree cropping and
harvesting activities are not adequately planned or rotated to effectively address current
wood demands. This negatively impacts on the vigour, health and growth of forest stands.
Poor practices like clear cutting and monoculture have progressively led to the decline and
degradation of the forest resources. Fourth, insufficient information - lack of reliable and
up-to-date data on the forests resources limits planning and financing of forest management
initiatives. Economic valuation for planning and budget allocation is not possible and more
often the forest resources are undervalued because their primary ecological functions are not
easily presented in the monetary equivalent which can allow the forest sector appropriate
priority and budgetary allocation as compared to other sectors of development. The inability
to demonstrate the economic value of forest in clear terms for decision makers often results
in disproportionate representation in economic planning and public expenditure.
6.3.4 Biodiversity
Loss of variability. Ecosystems in Rwanda - the primary source of biodiversity, genetic
resources and bio-chemicals - are composed of forests at 12 % of total land area, savannah
at 32 %, wetlands at 8 % and mixed cropland/natural vegetation at 47 %. Rapid
deforestation and conversion of natural habitats to agricultural systems, however, has caused
a loss in the variability across them (World Resources Institute 2003d). Currently, Rwanda
protects 7.7 per cent of its total land area and, thus, only a small proportion of its
biodiversity (World Resources Institute 2003a). Rwanda’s remaining protected areas,
namely the Volcans National Park in the north-west (Gisenyi and Ruhengeri), Nyungwe
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Montane Forest Reserve in the south-west (Cyangugu), and Akagera National Park in the
north-east (Umutara), hold exceptional biodiversity.
Today, Akagera is considered the most complex savannah ecosystem in eastern Africa,
combining wetlands and savannah habitats, and is home to 12 species of primates
(Kanyamibwa, 1998). The Volcanoes National Park is home to approximately half (320) of
the world’s population of mountain gorillas, which consume vegetation from more than 70
different plant species (World Bank, 2004). Nyungwe’s flora alone comprises more than 250
tree and plant species, including more than 100 orchid species, and is dominated by the
bamboo Arundinaria alpine (Kanyamibwa 1998). It is also home to the owl-faced monkey
Ceropithecus hamylini and 275 known bird species (Kanyamibwa, 1998; World Bank
2004).
Figures on biodiversity loss. Factors influencing biodiversity loss Biodiversity loss in

Rwanda is severe and mainly due to the progressive disappearance of national parks and
large-scale habitat destruction (World Bank 2004). Between 1958-79, Volcanoes National
Park lost 55 % of its natural habitat mainly for pyrethrum growing (Kalpers, 2001). During
the genocide, in addition to human casualties, direct fighting and bombs killed wildlife
throughout Rwanda; large-scale fighting occurred inside Akagera National Park and soldiers
killed many animals. Akagera National Park lost approximately 90 % of its mega-fauna, and
approximately two-thirds of its original area. Since the genocide, Akagera National Park and
Mutara Game Reserve have been taken over by 700000 grazing cattle from Uganda, and
temporary and permanent buildings are widespread with Nyungwe Montane Forest Reserve
now fragmented by agriculture (Kanyamibwa, 1998). Moreover, natural forests have
declined by 78 % since 1990 (World Resources Institute 2003d). Rwanda’s most recent
biodiversity strategy (2003) states that the Mukura and the Gishwati forests have particularly
high rates of deforestation (Rwanda Ministry of Lands, Resettlement and Environment
2003).
Red listed plant and animal species. Three plant and 13 animal species are IUCN red listed
- as critically endangered, endangered and vulnerable - and primates are threatened by
habitat destruction and poaching (FAO 2003b; World Bank, 2004). Loss of agro-diversity is
occurring as the genetic base erodes for cattle breeds, crops, and vegetables/fruits; fewer
benefits are realized from local variety qualities, which traditionally increase tolerance,
productivity and resilience; and, there is growing dependence on exotic seeds and imported
varieties. Fish diversity is also decreasing along with a loss of wetland biodiversity and
habitat, though exact data is lacking (World Bank 2004). In addition, the invasion of water
hyacinth into East Africa’s Lake Victoria 13 years ago has reduced water quality and
threatened biodiversity, particularly along the Kagera River system, at the eastern border
(Moorhouse, Agaba and McNabb, 2000) (see also Section 7 on Ecology).
6.3.5 Areas Protected

Huge loss of mega-fauna and area. During the 1990-94, large scale fighting occurred
inside the Akagera National Park and many animals were killed. Animals migrated to more
peaceful land in the neighbouring countries of Uganda and Tanzania. Akagera National Park
lost approximately 90 % of its mega-fauna and approximately 67 % of its original area.
Immediately after the war in 1994, resulting from the need to resettle returning refugees, the
Akagera National Park and Mutara Game Reserve were invaded by 700,000 grazing cattle
(Kanyamibwa 1998). Adding to increased domestic animal prevalence, the area was also
used for the construction of temporary and permanent buildings. Although exact data is
missing, fish catch trends show a decrease in fish diversity along with a loss of wetland
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biodiversity and habitat (World Bank, 2004). The invasion of the Akagera river system has
reduced water quality and is threatening biodiversity (Moorhouse, Agaba and McNabb
2000).
6.4 Policy and regulatory framework
6.4.1 National framework

Economic Development and Poverty Reduction Strategy (EDPRS) and environment.
EDPRS is a follow up strategy of the Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP), which -
although it had a substantial planning component for economic development - did not
sufficiently incorporate the environment as a priority area that needs action. The strategy
recognises the importance of environment, however, and aims at improving environmental
management through increased address to forest cover, reduction in annual wood
consumption and rehabilitation of critically degraded ecosystems. EDPRS plans strategic
actions to manage the environment and ensure optimal utilisation of natural resources
through:
• rehabilitation of degraded wetlands/ecosystems and other protected areas to ensure
the preservation of biological diversity;
• creating an enabling environment for an effective regulatory and policy framework
for environment management;
• adoption of clean development mechanism throughout the industrial sector;
• development and disseminating various sector guidelines for conducting
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA); and,
• establishing land management institutions to ensure the optimal utilisation of land,
effective land registration mechanisms and upholding rights and ownership of land.
Priority areas of action. EDPRS further details priority areas of action for optimal
utilisation of natural resources under its ‘flagship programme’ on complementary sectoral
interventions to achieve the strategy targets. As a crosscutting issue, environment will be
taken into consideration through joint sector initiatives such as activity planning and policy
formulation intended to ensure minimal negative impacts on the environment. Such joint
initiatives are to include:
• agricultural sector collaboration with the environment sector to address, soil erosion,
soil degradation and soil fertility issues;
• collaboration of the forestry, energy and environment sectors to address the energy
issues as they explore alternatives for more efficient energy options; and,
• adjustments to the mining sector to avert the environmental degradation resulting
from quarries and other mining activities.
Water and sanitation plan. Through the water and sanitation sector, EDPRS anticipates to
improve water resources management and increase access to potable water. Key areas
include: preparation of a national water and sanitation master plan; increasing access to
water for domestic, industrial and agricultural demands; strengthening capacity in the water
and sanitation sector; and, putting in place a suitable institutional and policy framework for
the implementation of the national water and sanitation master plan.
Vision 2020 and environment. Vision 2020 recognises the increased pressure on the natural
resources, which is primarily made worse by the increasing population. Among its priority
strategies, in addressing environmental decline, is: increasing access to safe water from 64
% in 2006-7 to 100 % in 2020; increasing land under protection against soil erosion to 100
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% in 2020; achieving land tenure security for 60 % of land parcels in 2020; increasing forest
cover to 30 % in 2020; and, reducing wood energy consumption to 50 % in 2020
(MINECOFIN, 2000). Under the ‘pillar’ on infrastructure development, the vision aims at:
• reducing fuel wood dependence by increasing energy production through the
development of hydroelectric power, exploitation of methane gas in L. Kivu and
solar energy generation;
• increasing utilisation of the numerous water resources so that 100 % of the
population will have access to portable water by 2020; and,
• increasing access to adequate drainage and sewage disposal facilities or services for
both the rural and urban populations.
In addition, protection of environment and sustainable natural resource management is

considered as one of the crosscutting areas that will be implemented along with the other
pillars of Vision 2020.
Environment law. The Organic Law N° 04/2005 of 08/04/2005 - determining the modalities
of protection, conservation and promotion of environment in Rwanda - recognises that
environment in the country constitutes a common national heritage and it the duty of all
Rwandans to protect, conserve and promote it. The law generally aims at:
• conserving the environment with the interests of the people as priority;
• establishing principles that will guide environmental protection and prohibit or limit
the degradation and destruction of natural resources;
• maximising and supporting equitable and wise use of natural resources in the
promotion of social welfare of the population;
• guaranteeing sustainable development and social welfare of the population and
ensuring the quality and quantity of the natural resources for the future generations;
and,
• putting in place institutions mandated with the planning, management and protection
of the environment in accordance to the provisions and directives of the organic law.
The law ascribes to the fundamental principles of: protection; sustainability of environment
and equal opportunities among generations; the polluter pays; community sensitisation in
conservation and protection of the environment; and, co-operation. It also makes provisions
for: obligation of involvement of central and local governance structures and local
population in environmental management; establishing institutions such as the Rwanda
Environment Management (REMA), responsible for environmental management; directives
and guidelines for conducting of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) for development
projects; incentives for persons that conserve the environment; and, preventive and punitive
measures for destruction or negative impacts to the environment.
REMA Act. Law N° 16/2006 of 03/04/2006 establishes and determines the organisation,
functioning and responsibilities of Rwanda Environment Management Authority (REMA).
It gives the organisation legal credence, and allows it to enforce the environment policy with
the support of other existing instruments. The law provides the authority with the mandate
as the policy implementation arm of the Ministry of Natural Resources (MINIRENA), and
spells out the specific responsibilities that will guide the functioning of REMA. The
authority is the organisation in charge of supervision, follow up and mainstreaming of
environment in all development planning both at the central and decentralised level of
governance. The law provides among others the following as specific responsibilities of
REMA:
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• implementation and monitoring the implementation of the environment law and

policies;
• advice to government on policies, strategies and legislation related to the
management of the environment as well as the international and regional
environment agreements Rwanda is partner to;
• regular inventories, carrying out of comprehensive supervision of environmental
management and publishing of the State of Environment (SoE) every two years;
• review and approval of environmental impact assessment studies; and awarding of
EIA certificates for all socio-economic activities with potential negative impacts;
• Preparation of and publishing of guidelines and manuals that will raise the general
public awareness of environmental issues and will facilitate greater incorporation of
environment concerns in development activities - increased knowledge of the
environment will allow greater participation of the population on environmental
protection; and,
• regular monitoring and conducting of environmental audits of development
programmes and projects.
Sectoral Policy on Water and Sanitation. The overall objective of the sector is to improve
the living conditions of the population through optimal use of water resources and access for
all to water and sanitation services. The specific objects of the policy include: the
sustainable management of water resources; increased access to drinking water and water
for agriculture; catchment and watershed protection; increasing hydroelectric power
generation; and, capacity building for better water resources management. The policy sets
the sector priorities based on the following principles:
• water is a social and economic good with value that requires protection - the
environment functions of water resources need to be considered as well;
• each person has the right to access to clean water;
• priority should be given to the development of water resources to satisfy the national
demands;
• water resources management should be an integrated approach, that should involve
all partners and it should cover larger water sheds; and,
• quality of water should be monitored and maintained according to regulations and
established standards.
The sector envisions achieving the following:

• 100 % of the population with access to clean drinking water and sanitation services;
• adoption of improved water collection and retention techniques for domestic and
agriculture water needs; and,
• protection of natural water reservoirs and watersheds.
National Land Policy on Environment. The objective of the National Land Policy is to
facilitate sustainable development through the establishment of a land tenure system that
ensures tenure security for all Rwandans and gives guidance for the management and
rational use of land resources. The specific objectives of the policy are:
• putting in place mechanisms and incentives for the promotion of investments in land;
• allocating land according to appropriate land use type to ensure optimal allocation
and utilisation of land resources;
• effective land valuation to ensure the contribution of land resources in the country’s
socio-economic development.
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• conservation and sustainable utilisation of wetlands;

• focusing land management towards more viable and sustainable production;
• establishing institutional land administration arrangements that reflect the actual
market value of land; and,
• increasing knowledge dissemination and awareness raising of the public at all levels
on environmental protection and good land management practices.
Box 6.1 - International obligations
Rwanda is signatory to the following:
International Convention on Biological Diversity and its Habitat signed in RIO DE JANEIRO in
BRAZIL on 5 June 1992, as approved by Presidential Order n° 017/01 of 18 March 1995;
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, signed in RIO DE JANEIRO in

BRAZIL on 5 June 1992, as approved by Presidential Order n° 021/01 of 30 May 1995;
STOCKHOLM Convention on persistent organic pollutants, signed in STOCKHOLM on 22 May

2001, as approved by Presidential Order n° 78/01 of 8 July 2002;
ROTTERDAM International Convention on the establishment of international procedures

agreed by states on commercial transactions of agricultural pesticides and other poisonous
products, signed in ROTTERDAM on 11 September 1998 and in New York from 12 November
1998 to 10 September 1999 as approved by Presidential Order n° 28/01 of 24 August 2003
approving the membership of Rwanda;
BASEL Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous wastes and

their disposal as adopted at BASEL on 22 March 1989, and approved by Presidential Order n°
29/01 of 24 August 2003 approving the membership of Rwanda;
MONTREAL International Convention on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, signed in
LONDON (1990), COPENHAGEN (1992), MONTREAL (1997), BEIJING (1999), especially in
its Article 2 of LONDON amendments, and Article 3 of COPENHAGEN, MONTREAL and
BEIJING amendments as approved by Presidential Order n° 30/01 of 24 August 2003 related to
the membership of Rwanda;
CARTAGENA protocol on Biosafety to the Convention of Biological Biodiversity, signed in

NAIROBI from May 15, to 26, 2000 and in NEW YORK from June 5, 2000 to June 4, 2001 as
authorised to be ratified by Law n° 38/2003 of 29 December 2003;
KYOTO Protocol to the Framework Convention on Climate Change adopted at KYOTO on

March 6, 1998 as authorised to be ratified by Law n° 36/ 2003 of 29 December 2003;
RAMSAR International Convention of February 2, 1971 on Wetlands of International

importance, especially as waterfowl habitats as authorised to be ratified by Law n° 37/2003 of 29
December 2003;
BONN Convention opened for signature on June 23, 1979 on conservation of migratory species
of wild animals as authorised to be ratified by Law n° 35/2003 of 29 December 2003
Washington Agreement of March 3, 1973 on International Trade in endangered species of Wild

Flora and Fauna as authorised to be ratified by Presidential Order n° 211 of 25 June 1980;
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6.4.2 Institutional Framework

This section does not deal with the institutional framework per se, as it is sufficiently done
so in other sections, notably that on ecology (Section 7) in this report.
6.5 Issues
6.5.1 Broad environmental issues for present Project

Land use and development planning should be efficient, ensure equality and be
sustainable. To be this it needs to ensure that:
• proposed land use should be economically viable and should be matched to the
productive potential of that particular area;
• proposed land use must be without social conflict and must be acceptable by
affected communities or other interest groups - land use types with significant
social implications and obligations should involve all partners in the planning
and decision making process; and,
• sustainable land use meets the needs of the present while conserving for the
future - this will require a combination of production today and conservation of
the land resource for future production needs.
Minimal impact on environment. Sustainable land utilisation or land use and

development planning should consider social and economic development and
ecological functions and carrying capacity of land resources. Existing environmental
laws, policy instruments and guidelines make provisions for ensuring that any land use
should have controlled or minimal negative impacts on land resources, ie environment.
Policies provide for the institution of Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) of
development projects and Strategic Environment Assessment (SEA) of policies and
high level programmes. To ensure sustainable land utilisation the following
environment effects and causalities – in addition to loss of ecosystem services
contributed by land use and development – should be considered in the National Land
Use and Development Master Plan preparation:
• land degradation - proposed land use types that will increase the severity of
soil erosion, land slides, irreversible soil structure modification and soil fertility
loss;
• water resources decline - proposed land use types that increase siltation and
sedimentation of water resources thus affecting the quantity and quality of
water;
• forest resources destruction - proposed land use types that lead to the clearance
or degradation of forests;
• quality of critical ecosystems and wildlife habitat - proposed land use types
that will modify the structure and composition of forests, grasslands and
wetlands, ie, critical areas that need to maintain wild plant and animal
communities;
• wetland degradation - proposed land use types that support encroachment and
irreversible conversion of pristine wetlands; and,
• loss of scenic and recreational value - proposed land use types that destroy the
tourism, leisure and recreational utilities of land resources.
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7 Ecology
7.1 Summary
Background. This section is based on the main report on collection of existing
ecological and associated environmental data in Rwanda, which is the result of a
three-week input into the Rwanda Land Use and Development Master Plan project
by the present Project Ecologist. The section, as part of the collection of data from
sector-specific areas of I interest, like agriculture and forest, is voluminous in
comparison with that of other sections in this report. This serves to highlight the
importance of ecology per se and as a crosscutting issue. The initial inventory was
undertaken, by the Project Ecologist, during a two-week visit to Rwanda 14 . The
report summarises current available information, lists missing data, as well as points
out areas where there is currently no available data. It also provides justification for
including ecological considerations into the land use and development master
planning process, and provides recommendations on the way forward. Information
for the present report was gathered from a variety of secondary sources, including
national databases and reports, as well as from key biodiversity stakeholders and the
Internet. While collecting information for the study it became clear that certain key
documents are not yet available. It specifically refers to spatial data for GIS analysis.
Biodiversity data is also spread out among a variety of stakeholders and some older
reference material quoted in more recent publications has been difficult to find.
Justification to include ecological considerations in the land use planning process.
There are scientific, economic, legal, security and moral reasons for including
ecological considerations in the land use and development master plan. Functioning
ecosystems underpin all life through provision of so called ecosystem services, ie the
benefits that people obtain from functioning ecosystems, including food, freshwater,
fuel, but also important aspects for human well-being such as climate regulation and
disease regulation. Rwanda is not only dependent on its natural resources for
ecosystem services, but land, forests, waters and wildlife currently also constitute the
country’s main sources of households and national income. Restoration of destroyed
habitats is difficult and can be very costly. The cost of erosion and watershed
deterioration is even greater. In the long term, inclusion of ecological considerations
in the land us planning process is likely to prove cost effective. From a legal
perspective Rwanda has signed an ratified a number of international convention,
treaties and protocols, and is committed to contribute to the conservation of
ecosystems, flora and fauna, and to environmental protection in general. There is
also a fairly strong environmental legal framework to take into consideration, which
promotes the precautionary principle and the polluter pays principle. From a security
perspective it is well known that environmental destruction leads to scarcity and
scarcity can trigger conflict which can develop into violence. Thus, environmental
security is vital to human security and well-being. Unless ecosystem and
biodiversity issues are addressed in the today’s planning exercises, we risk to
substantially diminishing the benefits that future generations obtain from
ecosystems, which has moral implications.
Ecological and environmental status. This section in the present report provides an
overview of Rwanda’s ecological and environmental status (see also Setion 6 on
14
2-13 June 2008
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Environment). Rwanda’s ecological deficit is currently negative at about -0.19. It

means that any population or consumption increases and industrial developments
that will increase CO2 emissions are going to lead to a greater deficit. It means that
any population and/or consumption increases in Rwanda are going to lead to a
greater deficit, which in the long term is ecologically unsustainable. Like all
countries in the world Rwanda will be subjected to the effects of climate change,
which implies increased uncertainty in weather, such as rainfall and changes in
frequency and intensity of extreme weather events. This will affect natural and
human systems, altering productivity, diversity, and functions of ecosystems and
livelihoods. Mitigation against the effects of climate change will require: increased
understanding of local natural resources, and ecosystem services; protection of
natural buffers, eg forests (see also Section 5 on Forestry); economic incentives for
sustainable resource management; and, diversifying and enhancing livelihoods so
people are better prepared, able to cope and recover from climate stresses, eg
drought and heavy rainfall. Maintaining biological diversity, species and genetic
diversity in particular, will also help to cushion the effects of and adapt to climate
change.
Rwanda’s biodiversity resources seriously depleted. Over the last two decades
Rwanda’s biodiversity resources have been seriously depleted, predominantly
through a rapid conversion of its natural ecosystems to agricultural land, including
the progressive disappearance of national parks. Between 1958 and 1979, Volcanoes
National Park lost 55 per cent of its natural habitat mainly for pyrethrum growing
(Kalpers, 2001). Forests declined by 78 per cent between 1990 and 2000, and the
country is also experiencing loss of its agro-diversity and wetland biodiversity.
Apart from the national parks few natural ecosystems, therefore, remain. The
protected area constitute approximately 8 % of the total land area, which is below
the recommended 10 %. It is, thus, of key importance not to reduce these habitats
any further. This means making sure the boundaries of the national parks are
respected. In addition, it is expected that the on-going forest and wetland inventories
will identify additional areas - most probably coinciding with the currently
unprotected Important Bird Areas (IBAs) - which should not be designated for
development, but should instead be protected. All districts are affected by
deterioration of biodiversity and ecosystem services, but the two main problem areas
are the former provinces of Butare and Kbiungu.
Environmental monitoring. Environmental monitoring is essential in development
planning. Apart from in the national parks there is currently little ecological
monitoring and therefore difficult to establish trends. In summary, the availability of
biodiversity baseline and monitoring data in Rwanda is a follows: Rwanda does not
have a national checklist of flora or fauna; the Global Red Data List contains a
number of both faunal and flora species under threat in Rwanda - this list, however,
needs to be re-examined locally as some of the listed species are not likely to occur
in Rwanda according to area specialists. It is not clear if a national Red Data List
exists. If it does, it is not public; a list of protected animal species in Rwanda is
reported to exist and has been requested from Tourism and National Parks Authority
(ORTPN), but has not yet been received; no State of the Environment Report
(SOER) has been compiled for Rwanda; Birdlife International, Association for the
Conservation of Nature in Rwanda (ANCR) and ORTPN are in the process of
compiling an atlas of Important Bird Areas (IBAs) in Rwanda and it is hoped that
the spatial data in the atlas will be available for inclusion in the Land Use and
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Development Master Plan analysis -in the meantime the consultant of the present
report has used data from the Birdlife International publication Important Bird Areas
of Africa from 2001; an inventory of wetlands is underway under the Integrated
Management of Critical Ecosystems (IMCE) project - data and maps should be
available in September 2008 and should be included in the Land Use and
Development Master Plan mapping exercise; a new forest atlas, including GIS
information has been compiled but is not yet available - it will be a key source of
data for the national Land Use and Development Master Plan; and, land suitability
maps, recently prepared by the Ministry of Agriculture, are a key source of
information for the Land Use and Development Master Planroject, and for this
component.
The threats to biodiversity. The threats to biodiversity in Rwanda may be divided
into the following groups: habitat conversion and destruction, ie, deforestation,
erosion, unsustainable utilisation of marshes and wetlands, fire, etc; pollution; over
harvesting, ie unsustainable harvesting and poaching; climatic change , ie foods and
droughts; and, invasive species. Of these, habitat conversion is the most serious
threat to biodiversity in Rwanda at present. The main drivers of threat to biodiversity
include population pressure and poverty. The limited amount of suitable land for
agriculture, coupled with a growing population, means that subsistence farming is
not a major viable long-term livelihood option for Rwanda. It is, therefore, essential
to create alternative livelihoods options, which are not directly based on access to
land. This is again most pressing in the areas bordering the National Parks. This is in
line with the objectives of Vision 2020 (MINECOFIN, 2000).
Findings and issues. The following features should be included in the geo-database
to allow for future trend analysis and mapping. Inclusion of environmental indicators
in the Land Use and Development Master Plan GIS data base, will facilitate
monitoring and establishment of trends as well as facilitate reporting on these issues
as part of national and international ‘State of the Environment Reporting’
requirements or Environmental Outlook reporting (UNEP – State of the
Environment Reporting). Areas of special ecological importance, which should be
given special focus in the Master Plan are shown in the author’s Project report on
collection of existing data on ecology in Rwanda. Some GIS data still needs to be
collected. Lacking data include: Forest Atlas database and shape files (with NUR-
GIS) from the Ministry of natural Resources (MINIRENA); land suitability
mapping, agro-climatic and agro-ecological zone mapping, and soil mapping
database and shape files, ie, interactive land use map and all available GIS mapping
done for the Schema d’Amenagement des marais, de protection des Bassins Versants
et de la Conservation des Sols: Rapport global definitive phase 1 (GOR, 2002);
wetlands and critical ecosystems database and shape files from the from the
Integrated Management of Critical Ecosystems Project at Rwanda Environment
Management Agency (REMA) - to be followed up with REMA; shape files for
official boundaries for National Parks - To be followed up with ORTPN; and,
Important Bird Areas in Rwanda – any shape files available – to be followed up with
ANCR and REMA.
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7.2 Introduction
Priorities, eco-systems prerequisites and threats. In reporting on the existing state
of ecology in Rwanda, the following TOR were given the Project Ecologist:
‘prioritise’ interest areas of national and international ecological and biodiversity
importance – like forests, wetlands, distribution of endemics and threatened species
– sorted by agro-forestry-ecological zones; establish the need for, and propose nature
of, protecting buffer areas, wildlife corridors and other landscape characteristics
essential for healthy and functioning eco-systems; and, identify potential threats,
impacts and appropriate indicators for monitoring the situation and for establishing
trends.
Stocktaking. To prioritise interest areas and analyse conservation needs, the first
step was to undertake a stocktake of existing information. Most of the initial work,
thus, entailed collecting data and interviewing relevant biodiversity authorities. The
initial approach was to collect distribution data for the various biological groups to
make a biodiversity hotspot analysis to guide biodiversity conservation measures.
Due to the lack of distribution data this has not been possible and the approach has
been changed to focus on identify important ecosystems.
Summary of existing information. This report summarises current available
information, lists outstanding data, as well as highlights the areas where there is
currently no available data. It also provides justification for including ecological
considerations into the land use planning process and provides recommendations on
the way forward.
Delimitations. This data collection phase had not included fieldwork or collection of
new data. However, in recent years several biodiversity inventories have taken place,
and it is hoped that the information and related GIS data will be made available for
use by the National Land Use and Development Plan Project, as this will avoid
duplication. As most of the GIS related data is not yet available, it has not been
possible to do any mapping at this stage.
7.3 Methodology
7.3.1 Data collection and data standards

Sources. Information for this section has been gathered from a variety of sources,
including national databases and reports, as well as from key biodiversity
stakeholders and the Internet. A key source of information has been the Rwanda
Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan and the Rwandan first country report
submitted to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).
National focus within international parameters. Whereas the data collection and
analyses in this section are focused at the national level, internationally accepted
definitions and standards have been used deliberately where applicable to increase
compatibility with international reporting systems.
Red Data List (RDL) Categories and Criteria. The 2007 IUCN Red Data List
(RDL) of Threatened Species (IUCN, 2007) (Figure 7.1, below). Any threatened
rating implies that a species has a high to extremely high risk of becoming extinct in
the wild (for details on the specific criteria, please refer to:
http://www.iucnredlist.org/info/categories_criteria2001).
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Figure 7.1 - Red Data List Criteria
Extinct (EX)
Extinct in the Wild
Critically Endangered (CR)

Adequate Data Threatened
Endangered (EN)
Vulnerable (VU)
Evaluated Near Threatened (NT)
Least Concern (LC)

Data Deficient (DD)
Not Evaluated (NE)
Source: IUCN, 2007).

Eco-region zoning. World Wide Fund for Nature’s (WWF) classification scheme of
eco-regions, and their Global 200 list, was used to identify areas of global ecological
importance in Rwanda. WWF defines an eco-region as a large unit of land or water
containing a geographically distinct assemblage of species, natural communities, and
environmental conditions, i.e. the boundaries of an eco-region are not fixed and sharp,
but rather encompass an area within which important ecological and evolutionary
processes most strongly interact. The mapping of the WWF eco-regions is based on
the following parameters: species richness; endemism; higher taxonomic uniqueness,
eg, unique genera or families, relict species or communities, primitive lineages;
extraordinary ecological or evolutionary phenomena, eg, extraordinary adaptive
radiations, intact large vertebrate assemblages, presence of migrations of large
vertebrates; and, global rarity of the major habitat type.
Agro-ecological zoning. Mapping of Agro-ecological zones will be done in
accordance with the recent GIS mapping exercise undertaken by MINAGRI as part
of the 2002 Schema d’Amenagement des marais, de protection des Bassins Versants
et de la Conservation des Sols. This study includes a database and shape files
relating to land suitability, agro-climatic and agro-ecological zoning and soil
distribution. The database and shape files are not yet available.
Ecological footprint. The ecological footprint data used in the report is based on the
classification developed by the Global Footprint Network, a non-profit organisation
which was set up in 1993. The concept of the ecological footprint, which is a
measure of how much biologically productive land and water an individual,
population or activity requires to produce all the resources it consumes and to absorb
the waste it generates using prevailing technology and resource management
practices, is now in wide use by governments, communities, and businesses around
the world to monitor current ecological resource balances and to plan for the future.
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7.4 Need for Ecological Consideration in the Planning Process
7.4.1 The importance of biodiversity and functioning ecosystems

Billions of years of evolution. ‘Biological diversity’ or ‘biodiversity’ includes
diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems (Convention on
Biological Diversity, Article 2). The biodiversity we see today is the fruit of billions
of years of evolution, shaped by natural processes and, increasingly, by the influence
of humans. An ‘ecosystem’ is a natural dynamic unit consisting of all plants, animals
and micro-organisms (biotic factors) in an area functioning together with all of the
non-living physical (abiotic) factors of the environment (Wikipedia, 2008 -
Ecosystem). Functioning ecosystems underpin all life through provision of so called
ecosystem services, ie the benefits that people obtain from functioning ecosystems,
including food, freshwater, fuel, but also important aspects for human well-being
such as climate regulation, disease regulation and cultural values (Figure 7.2,
below). ‘Level of biodiversity’ is an indicator of the state of ecosystem functioning
and hence its ability to provide ecosystem services.
Figure 7.2 - Ecosystem services
Source: Millennium Ecosystem Assessment Final Report, 2005.
The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA), released in 2005, reported, that 15 of

the 24 ecosystem services assessed were being degraded or used unsustainably
(Millennium Ecosystem Assessment). The indirect and direct drivers, which
influence ecosystems, are illustrated in Figure 7.3, below.
Rapid conversion of Rwanda’s natural ecosystems. Rwanda has seen a rapid
conversion of its natural ecosystems to agricultural land in recent years, mainly due
to population increases, and hence a growing demand for food and timber. Today, it
128 (274)
is only the areas, which are under formal protection, ca 8 % (World Resources
Centre, 2003a), which can be called natural ecosystems. Maintaining natural
ecosystems while meeting increasing demands for their services will involve
significant changes in policies, institutions and practices (Millennium Ecosystem
Assessment). However, reversing and restoring degraded ecosystems is more costly
in the long term than to maintain them, and unless ecosystem and biodiversity issues
are addressed in the today’s planning exercises, we risk to substantially diminish the
benefits that future generations obtain from ecosystems. In practice this means that
measures need to be put in place to allow the remaining natural ecosystems in
Rwanda to carry on functioning.
Figure 7.3 - Ecosystem services and drivers of change
Human Well-being and Indirect Drivers of Change

Poverty Reduction Demographic
Basic material for a good life Economic (globalization, trade,
Health market and policy framework)
Good Social Relations Sociopolitical (governance and
Security institutional framework)
Freedom of choice and action Science and Technology
Cultural and Religious
ECOSYSTEM SERVICES
Provisioning (eg food,water, fibre and Direct Drivers of Change
fuel) Changes in land use
Regulating (eg climate regulation, Species introduction or removal
water and disease) Technology adaptation and use
Cultural (eg spiritual, aesthetic,
External inputs (e.g., irrigation)
recreation and education)
Supporting (eg primary production Resource consumption
and soil formation) Climate change
Natural physical and biological
LIFE ON EART - BIODIVERSITY drivers (e.g., volcanoes)
Source: Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2008 (adjusted by author).
7.5. Ecological Footprint
7.5.1. Definition
Print vs capacity. The ‘ecological footprint’ is a well-known resource accounting

tool. It is a measure of much productive land and sea is needed to feed us and
provide all the energy, water and materials we use in our everyday lives.
‘Biocapacity’, on the other hand, measures the capacity of ecosystems to produce
useful biological materials and to absorb waste materials generated by humans,
using current management schemes and extraction technologies. Together they
129 (274)
allow us to compare human consumption of natural resources with planet Earth’s

ecological capacity to regenerate them. The Ecological Footprint is most commonly
expressed in units of global hectares. A global hectare is a hectare that is normalized
to have the world average productivity of all biologically productive land and water
in a given year.
7.5.2. Ecological deficit in Rwanda
Risk of ecological unsustainability. Based on a population of 8.4 million in 2003,

according to the Global Footprint Network, Rwanda’s total ecological footprint is
0.66 global hectares per person, whereas the total bio-capacity is 0.47, resulting in
an ecological deficit of -0.19 15 . It means that there is a risk that any unmitigated
population and/or consumption increases in Rwanda will lead to a greater deficit,
which in the long term is ecologically unsustainable. It is, therefore, important to
ensure that development planning takes into account the need to maintain bio-
capacity by maintaining, for example, forest and wetland ecosystems.
Box 7.1 - Carbon foot print and carbon credit
Carbon footprint. The carbon footprint is included in the calculation of the ecological
footprint (see above), where it is synonymous with demand on carbon dioxide (CO2) area,
ie, the bio-capacity required to sequester (through photosynthesis) the CO2 emissions from
fossil fuel combustion. In the climate change debate, however, the phrase ‘carbon
footprint’ is often taken to mean tonnes of carbon emissions rather than demand on bio-
productive area.
Carbon credit. Carbon footprints and carbon credit are closely related. The international
carbon credit-trading scheme has recently been created to mitigate global warming
through trading carbon emissions with carbon credits. Credits can be exchanged between
businesses or bought and sold in international markets at the prevailing market price.
Countries with a positive ecological footprint can take advantage of the carbon credit trade
by selling carbon credits. Carbon credit can, for example, be created by preserving trees
that store carbon dioxide or by preventing the release of green house gases through the use
of clean technologies. Plants absorb CO2, the main pollutant blamed for global warming,
and use it to convert light into chemical energy. The older the forest, one the one hand, the
more CO2 it can absorb. Protection of intact forests is, therefore, a key mechanism for
reducing carbon-dioxide emissions. Destruction of forests, on the other hand, releases CO2
into the atmosphere and contributes to the carbon emissions.
Low CO2 in Rwanda. Rwanda’s per capita CO2 emissions are comparatively low, at 0.1
thousand metric tonnes in 1998 and 0.1 thousand metric tonnes in 2006, compared to the
African and world averages (World Resources Institute, 2003b:1).
7.6 Climate Change
7.6.1 Universal and African impacts
African continent vulnerable. Today, most of the world’s scientists agree that
human activity - mainly greenhouse gas emissions from the burning of fossil fuels
for energy - is now causing the Earth’s climate to change. The impacts of climate
change are overwhelmingly negative and will affect disadvantaged and vulnerable
communities first and hardest. The African continent is highly vulnerable to the
impacts of climate change (IISD-ACCESA) with many relying on climate-sensitive
15
The world average is -0.5.
130 (274)
economic activities such as rain-fed subsistence agriculture. According to the

Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 16 , observed recent impacts of climate changes
on ecosystems include: changes in species distributions; changes in population sizes;
changes in the timing of reproduction or migration events; and, increase in the
frequency of pest and disease outbreaks. Whereas some ecosystem services in some
regions may initially be enhanced by projected changes in climate, the harmful
impacts are likely to outweigh the benefits in most regions of the world as climate
change becomes more severe.
7.6.2 Impact in Rwanda

Rainfall uncertainty and extreme weather. It is difficult to predict the exact effects of
climate change on Rwanda, but increased uncertainty in weather, such as rainfall and
changes in frequency and intensity of extreme weather events are likely. This will
affect natural and human systems, altering productivity, diversity, and functions of
ecosystems and livelihoods. Mitigation against the effects of climate change will
require: increased understanding of local natural resources, and ecosystem services;
protection of natural buffers, eg forests; economic incentives for sustainable resource
management; and, diversifying and enhancing livelihoods so people are better
prepared, able to cope and recover from climate stresses, eg drought and heavy
rainfall (Willets, 2007). Maintaining biological diversity, species and genetic
diversity in particular, will also help to cushion the effects of and adapt to climate
change.
7.7 Legal and Policy Context

Full review ensuing. This sub-section provides a brief overview of the legal and
policy context in Rwanda with regards to biodiversity and ecological issues. It is
based on available documentation. This represents only one part of the legal
framework with which the present National Land Use and Development Master Plan
Project needs to comply with. A full legal review by a legal specialist is, however, to
be done as part of the development of the National Land Use and Development
Master Plan. It will revisit also laws and policy relating to ecology.
7.7.1 International commitments

Rwanda committed. Rwanda has signed important international conventions, treaties
and protocols. By signing and ratifying them, Rwanda is committed to contribute to
the conservation of ecosystems, flora and fauna, and to environmental protection in
general.
16
The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment is the result of a five year project to assess the consequences
of ecosystem change. From 2001-5 it involved more than 1360 experts worldwide. The work provides a
scientific basis for action to conserve and sustainable use of ecosystems.
131 (274)
Box 7.2 - International conventions, treaties and protocols signed by Rwanda

Rwanda’s commitment to conservation and environmental protection (in chronological
order)
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (came into force 1981)
Convention on Biological Diversity (1995)
United Nations Outline Convention on Climatic Changes (1998)
United Nations Convention on Desertification (1998)
Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer (2001)
Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Polluting Agents (2002)
Ramsar Convention on Wetlands (2003)
Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (2003)
Convention on the Prior Informed Procedure for certain hazardous chemicals and
pesticides in international trade (2003)
Basel Convention on control of transboundary movements of hazardous wastes and their
disposal (2004)
Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Convention on Climate Change (2004)
The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). Rwanda signed the International
Convention on Biological Diversity in Rio in June, 1992, and ratified it in March,
1995. Through the ratification Rwanda has undertaken to implement the provisions
of the Convention including Articles 6 and 7 relating to the general measures for
conservation and sustainable use and to identification and monitoring. In April 2002,
the Parties to the Convention committed themselves to achieve by 2010 a significant
reduction of the current rate of biodiversity loss at the global, regional and national
level as a contribution to poverty alleviation and to the benefit of all life on Earth.
This target was subsequently endorsed by the World Summit on Sustainable
Development and the United Nations General Assembly, and was incorporated as a
new target under the UN Millennium Development Goals (MDG).
The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands. The Convention on Wetlands, known as the
Ramsar Convention, is an inter-governmental treaty, which provides the framework
for national action and international co-operation for the conservation and wise use
of wetlands and their resources. The broad objectives of the Convention are to
ensure the wise use and conservation of wetlands because of their abundant richness
in flora and fauna and their economically important functions and values. States
which are Contracting Parties accept obligations relating to the conservation and
wise use of wetlands throughout their territory.
132 (274)
Box 7.3 - Rwanda Ramsar contracting party

REMA. Rwanda became a contracting party in April 2006, and as such has designated the
Rugezi-Bulera-Ruhondo wetland area as a national Ramsar site (site no 1589).
Subsequently, a Memorandum of Cooperation was signed in April 2008 between the Ramsar
Secretariat and Rwanda Environment Management Authority (REMA) to prepare the
inventory and categorisation of the Rwanda wetlands and marshlands. In addition, the two
institutions will collaborate on: developing a political and legal framework for the wise use
of Rwanda marshlands; strengthening the conservation and integrated management of
Rwanda wetlands in general and marshlands in particular; and, raising funds and securing
technical assistance for the Rwanda Wetlands Program.
UNESCO Man and Biosphere Programme and World Heritage Site Programme.
The Man and the Biosphere Programme (MAB) was launched by UNESCO in the
early 1970s, aimed at combining scientific knowledge and governance modalities to:
reduce biodiversity loss; improve livelihoods; and, enhance social, economic and
cultural conditions for environmental sustainability. The objective is to contribute to
achieving the Millennium Development Goals (MDG), in particular MDG 7 on
environmental sustainability. Rwanda has got one designated Biosphere Reserve, the
Volcanoes Biosphere Reserve. It covers an area of about 15000 ha, and is part of the
Volcanoes National Park.
7.7.2 National policies and legal instruments

To safeguard also natural heritage. Rwanda has a good, and in parts very up-to-
date, legal and policy framework with regards to protection of bio-diversity and
related issues. The country has recently embarked on reforming laws concerning
environment by drafting an Organic Law on Environment Protection and
Management (2005). The law sets out the general legal framework for environment
protection and management in Rwanda. The law, on the one hand, gives right to
every natural or legal person in Rwanda to live in a healthy and balanced
environment, but, on the other hand, obliges them to contribute individually or
collectively to safeguard country’s natural, historic and socio-cultural heritage.
Vision 2020. The protection and management of environment are among the pillars
of Vision 2020 (Republic of Rwanda, 2000). The objective of the Government is that
by 2020, it will have built a nation in which pressure on natural resources,
particularly on land, water, biomass and biodiversity, has significantly been reduced,
and the process of environmental pollution and degradation has been reversed; a
nation in which the management and protection of these resources and environment
are more rational and well regulated to preserve and bequeath to future generations
the basic wealth necessary for sustainable development.
Biodiversity. The National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan was published in
2003. The strategy is built around twelve objectives deduced from five major aims.
These are:
• improved conservation of protected areas and wetlands;
• sustainable use of the biodiversity of natural ecosystems and agro-
ecosystems;
• rational use of biotechnology;
• development and strengthening of policy, institutional, legal and human
resource frameworks; and,
133 (274)
• equitable sharing of benefits derived from the use of biological resources.

Bill on flora and fauna. The 2007 Bill on Wild Flora and Fauna Protection and
Management in Rwanda determines the overall legal framework of the protection
and management of the wild flora and fauna of the protected areas in the country. It
states that the precaution principle is very important towards avoiding or decreasing
harmful consequences the wild flora and fauna. It also advocates the adoption of the
‘polluter pays’ principle.
Organic law on bio-divdersity. The N° 04/2005 Organic Law, determining the
modalities of protection, conservation and promotion of environment in Rwanda,
aims at:
• conserving the environment, people and their habitats;
• setting up fundamental principles related to protection of environment, any
means that may degrade the environment with the intention of promoting the
natural resources, to discourage any hazardous and destructive means;
• promoting the social welfare of the population considering equal distribution
of the existing wealth;
• considering the durability of the resources with an emphasis especially on
equal rights on present and future generations;
• guaranteeing to all Rwandans sustainable development, which does not harm
the environment and the social welfare of the population; and,
• setting up strategies of protecting and reducing negative effects on the
environment, and replacing the degraded environment.
General law and policy on land. The Rwanda Draft Land Bill, 2004, institutes
principles on land legal rights to be followed throughout the country together with
land appendages, be they natural or man-made The National Land Policy (2004) is a
national land policy that aims to guarantee a safe and stable form of land tenure, and
bring about a rational and planned use of land while ensuring sound land
management and an efficient land administration. The National Human Settlement
Policy (2004) advocates improved urban planning, the restructuring of unplanned
residential areas in towns and the regrouping of settlements (imidugudu) in rural
areas.
Forests From 1920, Rwanda has been applying a reforestation policy necessitated by
the continuous increase of the demand for wood products. This has included the
introduction of non-native rapidly growing species such as the Eucalyptus and the
Cypress. An updated forestry policy came out in 2004. It targets ecological and
economic welfare of the existing woodlands/forests, forestry research, other types of
forestry, institutional capacity building - number and quality of the personnel - and
the ongoing desertification process in some parts of the country. Moreover, it
recognises the importance of linking forestry with rural development by establishing
relationship between forestry and actors, ie beneficiaries. Three existing legislative
instruments concern forestry (Box 7.4, below).
134 (274)
Box 7.4 - Legal instruments on forestry

Decree, law and code. First, Decree of 18/12/1930 concerning the cutting and selling of
wood regulates that any cutting or sale of wood requires prior authorisation. The decree
provides for penalties to offenders and fixes taxes to be paid before the issue of the permit
to cut or buy wood. Second, Law No 47/1988 on the organisation of forestry addresses a
number of concerns, including: readjustment of the law to current and future
contingencies; filling the gaps in the various modes of use and classification of forests;
measures for the conservation of soil fertility and for avoiding erosion; and, new resources
put at the disposal of the government for streamlining lumbering. The law provides for
establishment of a forestry unit, creation of the State forestry estate as well as a
management committee of a national forestry fund created by the Presidential Decree of
13/3/1992. Third, Rwanda’s criminal code provides for soft penalties to any individual
who, in fenced or unfenced areas, wickedly destroys or damages trees, crops, agricultural
implements, knowing that they belong to the State.
Wetland areas. Earlier National Environment Plans have advocated for a
compromise between the need to safeguard and the necessity to develop marsh areas.
The instructions of the Ministry of Agriculture of 1997 aim at minimising the
procedures for the distribution of plots in the marshes, but an appropriate policy for
the development of marshland is yet to come. With regard to aquatic areas, five legal
instruments are applicable (Box 7.5, below).
Box 7.5 – Wetland areas legal instruments
Five instruments. First, Order No. 221/116 of 20/5/1958 on bathing in lakes and rivers.
The first Article of this order recommends to provincial administrators to take measures
for safeguarding the cleanliness, the tranquillity or public order on lakes and rivers.
Second, Decree of 6/5/1952 on easements relating to underground water, water from the
lakes and rivers as well as the use of such water. Third, Order of 1/7/1914 on pollution
and contamination of water sources, lakes and rivers and parts of rivers. Article 1 of this
order instructs provincial administrators to determine protection areas for water sources,
lakes, rivers or parts of rivers used or that may be used as water supply. Article 2
stipulates that in such areas, it is prohibited to: build houses, cabins, huts or straw huts; to
establish factories, commercial houses, butcheries, kraals or cattle pens; to establish
graves; to dig excavations; to create agricultural fields; to throw or bury rubble or refuse,
debris, bodies or rubbish of any kind; and, to enter or walk or graze animals. Fourth, a bill
on drainage was prepared by the Ministry of Public Works in February 1997. It provides
for, among others: general conditions for the disposal of used water; collection and
drainage of rainwater; collection, disposal and treatment of solid waste; authorisation of
disposal; and, pollution and atmospheric nuisances and offences and their repression.
Fifth, a bill on the use of marshland exists since 1988. Its objectives are to extend land for
agricultural use in Rwanda to contribute to the general development of the country’s
economy. The same bill subjects the launching of any major project for the development
of marshland to prior studies of environmental impacts. It also provides means for
classification of marshlands according to location, size, soil and hydraulic potentialities. It
is from this classification that choice should be made as to which marshes should be
developed and which should be preserved for their crucial role in the conservation of
biodiversity, given that marshes constitute favourite habitats for species of mammals,
birds and reptiles.
Protected forests. Protected areas in Rwanda include: Volcanoes National Park –
established in 1925; Forest of Nyungwe –established in 1933; Akagera National
Park and the hunting fields, established in 1934; Giswati Forest Reserve; and,
Mukuru Forest Reserve. The Volcanoes National Park and the Akagera National
Park fall under the Tourism and National Parks Authority (ORTPN), whereas the
135 (274)
rainforests of the Congo-Nile ridge are managed by Ministry of Agriculture

(MINAGRI). The major objective for their preservation is the conservation of
species and various habitats of biodiversity for educational, tourism and research
purposes. The protected areas are governed by six special legal instruments that
determine their borders (Box 7.6, below).
Box 7.6 - Protected areas legal instruments
First, Decree of 26/11/1934 (Belgian Congo Institute of National Parks) - establishment of
the Akagera National Park. Second, Decision No. 3 of the Cabinet sitting on 29/7/1997 on
new borders of the Akagera National Park. The new borders of the park have been
reviewed, following the resettlement and the need for land for agro-pastoral activities for the
repatriated people. A bill is being finalised on the new borders of the park in its present
form. Third, Decree of 26/11/1934 (Belgian Congo National Park Institute) fixes the borders
of former Albert National Park since 1925, of which Rwanda’s side became known as the
Volcanoes National Park whose borders were fixed by the decree establishing also the
Akagera National Park in 1934. Fourth, R.U.O. No.83a/Agri of 12/12/1922 establishing two
forest reserves in Rwanda. This Order creates as a reserve the Natural Forest of Nyungwe
situated in the mountainous massifs of the Congo-Nile ridge, the dividing line between
Congo and Rwanda. Fifth, Decree-law of 26/04/1974 confirming and modifying the decree
of 18/6/1973 establishing the Tourism and National Parks Authority (ORTPN). ORTPN’s
main objectives are to: promote tourism, and to use all means likely to contribute to the
development of tourism and protection of nature, more particularly fauna and flora; and, to
enhance scientific research and tourism insofar as the latter two activities are compatible
with the protection of nature. Sixth, Order No. 52/175 of 23/05/1953 on bush fires. This
order prohibits bush or undergrowth fires, mulch 17 , wood, live plants or dead cover fires
whose immediate aim is not development or crop management.
7.8 Geographical context
7.8.1 Physical geography

A thousand hills. Rwanda occupies an area of 26338 km2, of which 1390 km2 is
water. The terrain is mountainous, declining eastward toward the Tanzanian border.
The highest point is in the northwest, with Volcan Karisimbi at 4519 m, whereas the
Rusizi River in the west, at 950 m, is the lowest point. Although Rwanda is
relatively small in area, it can be divided into four distinct geographical areas. Lake
Kivu, the country’s largest lake, is located in western Rwanda, an area that is part of
the Rift valley. The Virunga Mountains area is located in the northwest. The central
part of the country is a high plateau area, which was once forested but now consists
of grasslands. In the southeast is a region of lakes and marshes. Rwanda has five
volcanoes, 23 lakes and numerous rivers, some forming the source of the River Nile
(see also Section 2 on Context, above).
7.8.2 Climate
Although located only two degrees south of the equator, Rwanda’s high elevation
makes the climate temperate, with temperatures ranging from 16 to 17°C for the
high altitude region, 18 to 21°C for the Central Plateau and 20 to 24°C for the
lowlands in the east and west. There are two distinct wet seasons in February-May
and September-December and two dry seasons in December-March and June-
August. Annual rainfall averages 800 mm but is generally heavier in the western and
17
Mulch is a protective cover placed over the soil, primarily to modify the effects of the local climate. A
wide variety of natural and synthetic materials are used.
136 (274)
north-western mountains than in the eastern savannas. Despite relatively high

rainfalls, Rwanda suffers from frequent droughts caused by erratic rainfall patterns
(see also Section 2 on Context, above).
7.8.3 Hydrography
Rwanda’s dense hydrographic network is divided in two unequal watersheds,
situated on either side of the Congo-Nile ridge. They are the Congo basin and the
Nile basin (see also Section 2 on Context, above).
Box 7.7 – Basins, freshwater source and withdrawal rate
Nile and Congo basins. The Nile basin covers the greatest part of the country,
approximately 65 %, and drains 90 % of the national waters through two major water
courses, Nyabarongo and Akanyaru, together with their tributaries form the river Akagera,
which drains the best part of Rwanda’s waters towards the Nile, forming the border with
Burundi in the south and Tanzania in the east. Numerous vast marshes and shallow lakes
are found along the Nyabarongo and Akagera rivers. The size of these lakes changes
continuously with the rainfall and the flow rate of the rivers. The Congo basin, on the
other hand, consists of insignificant and short rivers, which flow into Lake Kivu.
Freshwater. Rwanda’s main source of freshwater comes from its yearly average
precipitation of 1200–1280 mm/year. It has an Internal Renewable Water Resource
(IRWR) value of 9.5 km3 per year with the internal renewable water resource per capita
being 638 m3 per year (World Resources institute, 2003b (2001 data)). Despite an
abundance of rainfall and watersheds, the areas formerly known as Bugesara (Kigali-
Ngali), South and East Kibungo, Butare, Gikongoro and Umatara provinces suffer from
occasional droughts and are rain deficit (IISD and UNEP, 2005).
Present system cannot meet UN demand for water for all. Rwanda has a relatively low
withdrawal rate of 0.8 km3 per year or 141 m3 per capita per year (World Resources
Institute, 2003c (1993 data). The low withdrawal 18 rate suggests that there is currently
little pressure on Rwanda’s water systems in meeting demands. This does not imply,
however, that the internal capacity of ecosystems to capture, store and release water is not
being deteriorated - FAO data show a decrease in per capita IRWR from 833 m3/year in
1994 to 638 m3/year in 1999–2000 (Karyabwite 2000, p 11), implying that the present
system cannot meet the demand for water if all individuals are given the minimum
amount of 1000 m3 as recommended by the United Nations. Baechler (1999) using the
Falkenmark indicator, estimates that Rwanda is among water scarce countries of the
world, and Ehrlich et al (2000) states that countries with less than 1700 m3 of water
available per capita cannot maintain food self sufficiency reliably. Rwanda, with 870
m3/year per capita water availability by mid 1990s, ranks as 18 from the bottom of
countries with Per-Capita Water Availability Below 1,700 m3/p/year.
7.8.4 Eco-region
Three globally important eco-regions in Rwanda. Eco-regions can be defined as
geographically, environmentally and ecologically distinct areas. The World Wide
Fund for Nature (WWF) has ranked the world’s eco-regions according to their
ecological and biodiversity values, and have developed the so called Global 200
Eco-regions, which is a list of the world’s most biologically outstanding terrestrial,
freshwater and marine habitats, and, therefore, of global conservation interest. Three
of these globally important eco-regions can be found in Rwanda (Figure 7.4, below).
They are the: Albertine Rift Highland Forests (No 7) – tropical and subtropical
18
Refers to total water removed for human uses in a year, not counting evaporative losses from storage
basins.
137 (274)
broadleaf forest; East African Moorlands (No 104) – tropical montane 19 grasslands
and savannas; and, Rift Valley Lakes (No 165) - lake and closed basin freshwater
ecosystems.
Figure 7.4- Global 200 Eco-regions in Rwanda
East African moorlands
Albertine Rift highland forest
Rift Valley Lakes
Source: WWF and National Geographic (website)

Box 7.8 - Rift forests, moorlands and rift valley lakes
Albertine Rift High Land Forests. This eco-region measures about 104000 km2 in total,
and reaches from the lowland rainforests in the Democratic Republic of Congo eastward
towards Lake Tanganyika, and includes the Virunga, Itombwe and Rwenzori mountain
ranges. It is one of the most biologically distinctive areas in Africa, with exceptionally
large numbers of endemic 20 plants and animals. In addition to the many endemic smaller
species, the mountain gorilla, one of the most critically threatened large mammals in
Africa, is also found in a few places within the eco-region. The region also contains some
of the easternmost populations of chimpanzee in Africa. The conservation status of this
eco-region is considered by WWF as critical or endangered. The main threats include
agriculture, grazing of livestock, hunting and logging. Many of the montane forests have
already been cleared, but some sizable blocks of montane forest still occur in areas such as
the Virunga, Itombwe and Rwenzori Ranges. In Rwanda this eco-region is represented in
the western part of the country and includes Nyungwe National Park, Mukura and
Gishwati Forest Reserves and any pockets of forest in between.
19
Pertaining to, growing in, or inhabiting mountainous regions.
20
Native or restricted to a certain country or area
138 (274)
East African Moorlands. The East African Moorlands are a small eco-region covering
only 6000 km2. This Global 200 eco-region is made up of the East African montane
moorlands and the Ruwenzori-Virunga montane moorlands eco-regions. It contains the
only grassland in Africa that grows high up on mountains, and is one of the few tropical
alpine areas in the world. The species here have developed special adaptations to protect
against solar radiation and freezing night temperatures. As a result, many plants have thick
and woolly leaves. 81 % percent of the plant species in the East African Moorlands are
endemic. However, the endemism in the plants is not mirrored in the vertebrates; the
number of vertebrate species is small and endemism rates are low. WWF considers the
conservation status of the East African moorlands to be relatively Stable/Intact, mainly
because many parts are protected in national parks. As pressure on the montane grasslands
increases, efforts to protect them must increase too. The largest threat to the moor lands
comes from humans - through fires, firewood extraction, over-grazing, and over-
browsing 21 . Tourism has also caused a negative impact in some areas, through litter and
severe erosion. Predicted global climate change could also affect species that are
specifically adapted to current conditions. In Rwanda the East African Moorlands eco-
region is represented in the Volcanoes National Park
Rift Valley Lakes. The Rift Valley Lakes cover an area of more than 300000 km2 along
the Great Rift Valley, which extends into the eastern side of Rwanda. The lakes are world-
renowned for the diversity of cichlid 22 fish species that have evolved in their waters. The
lakes are not only important from a biodiversity perspective, but they also play a role in
regulating the local climate. WWF has classified the conservation status of the Rift Valley
Lakes as critical and endangered. Causes for concern include the introduction of exotic
fish and aquatic plant species, pollution, over fishing and deforestation, which causes
sedimentation. In Rwanda the Rift Valley Lakes can be found along the eastern border in
and around Akagera National Park.
7.8.5 Agro-ecological region

Land suitability, agro-climatic, agro-ecological and soil maps have recently been
made for the Rwanda under the 2002 MINAGRI project Schema d’Amenagement
des marais, de protection des Bassins Versants et de la Conservation des Sols
project. A GIS database and shape files are available at MINAGRI. The national
Land Use and Development Master Plan Project will need to include the information
on the present Project base map and/or thematic maps.
7.8.6 Soils
Six groups. Rwandan soils can be divided into six main groups. They are derived
from: schistose, sandstone and quartzite formations found in the Congo-Nile Ridge,
part of the Central Plateau and on highlands in Byumba; granite and gneissic
formations found around Gitarama (Central Plateau) and in the Mutara plains;
intrusive basic rocks in the north of Kigali and west of Byumba; alluvial 23 and
colluvial 24 marshes and valleys which comprise mineral soils found in the valleys of
the east and the organic soils of the valleys of Akagera, Nyabarongo and Rugezi;
recent volcanic materials found at the piedmont of volcanoes; and, old volcanic
materials found in the plateau of Cyangugu in the south west of the country (GOR,
21
Feeding on leaves, twigs or other high-growing vegetation
22
Perchlike freshwater fish of the Cichlidae family. Cichlids are popular aquarium species.
23
Made up from deposit of clay, silt, sand and gravel let by flowing steams in a river valley or delta,
typically producing fertile soils.
24
Made up from deposits of material that accumulates at the foot of a step slope.
139 (274)
Ministry of Lands, Resettlement and Environment, 2003:7) (see also Section 3 on

Soils, above).
Degraded soils. According to the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan
(Republic of Rwanda - Ministry of Lands, Resettlement and Environment, 2003, p7),
many of the soils have been degraded due to high rainfall, uneven relief conducive to
erosion and over-farming. More than half of the soils in Rwanda are, thus, unsuitable
for intensive cropping. The best soils for agricultural purposes are found in parts of
the Central Plateau, the volcanic region, Bugarama and part of the Mutara region.
7.9 Biodiversity Inventory

Incomplete biological inventories and species data. The planned approach for the
present inventory study on ecology was to draw up an inventory of flora and fauna
species distribution and by using GIS tools analyse the data including threats and
protection to identify biodiversity hotspots in Rwanda. During the study it was
realised that there is incomplete biological inventories and species data available, so
the biodiversity inventory, instead, is focusing at the ecosystem and habitat level.
7.9.1 Eco-systems in Rwanda

Five systems. Five distinct ecosystem areas can be found in Rwanda (Table 7.1,
below).
Table 7.1– Eco-system areas by type
Eco-system type % of total area
Cropland and natural vegetation mosaic 47
Scrubland, savannah and grassland 32
Forest 12
Wetland and water body 8
Sparse vegetation (snow and ice) 1
Urban built up area 0
Source: World Resources Institute, 2003b:1.
7.9.2 Cropland and natural vegetation mosaic

Largest eco-system. This type of ecosystem occupies the biggest part of Rwanda,
and whereas it may be important for agro-biodiversity and may locally contain
species of special interest, it is not of high overall biodiversity value.
7.9.3 Forest
Essential ecological role. Forests are key elements in the regulation of the climate
and river systems, in the prevention of erosion and reduction of the atmospheric
pollution. They play an essential role in global carbon and hydrological cycles.
Erosion on agricultural land, for example, is estimated to be 75 times greater than
what occurs in natural forested areas (Myers, 1993, in Gurrieri et al, 2003:10). At
the watershed level, reduced sedimentation and stream flow regulation help maintain
soil quality, limit erosion, stabilise hillsides, modulate seasonal flooding and protect
water. Moreover, the forest holds a large number of flora and fauna species. Many
people live in and around the forest, and depend directly on it for food, medicines
and other basic needs (see also Section 5 on Forestry).
Disappearing forest. Thousands of years ago, most of Rwanda was covered in
forest. Today the situation is different and natural forests are still disappearing at an
140 (274)
alarming rate (Table 7.2, below). The new Forest Atlas for Rwanda is expected to
provide updated forest cover information to the Land Use and Development Master
Plan project in due course.
Table 7.2 - Forest cover and change in forest area in Rwanda
Type Total area cover (ha) Area change 1990-2000 (%)
Natural forest 46000 -78%
Plantation 261000 +1%
Total forest area 307000 -33%
Source: World Resource Institute 2003b:1.
Box 7.9 – Natural forests
Mountain and gallery forests. The natural forest in Rwanda includes the mountain
forests, and comprise: Nyungwe (89150 ha in 1999); Mukura (1600 ha), which is
marginalised and threatened by man’s activities; and, Gishwati whose rate of deforestation
is so high that it will soon be extinct; and, Gallery forests. The latter are strips of swampy
forests that were extensive in times past. They are all found in the eastern part of the
country, mainly in the Akagera river-lake system, and appear to cover a surface area of
about 163 ha - to be confirmed by the Forestry Atlas data. Despite the small size of these
gallery forests, there are home to an important biodiversity with endemic and rare species.
The most important is the Ibanda-Makera forest. Most of the plant species found there are
used in traditional medicine, diet and other activities practised by the local population for
survival.
7.9.4 Wetlands and water bodies

Lakes, rivers and marshes. Wetlands and aquatic lands are generally represented by
lakes, rivers and marshes. In Rwanda, wetlands and aquatic lands cover a surface of
about 254847 ha - representing 10 % of the national territory of which 5.71 % is for
lakes and rivers and 3.9% for marshes. The most important rivers are: Akagera,
Nyabarongo, Akanyaru, Ruhwa, Rusizi, Mukungwa, Kagitumba and Muvumba. The
biggest marshes are found around these rivers. Most of them are of low altitude, and
Kamiranzovu and Rugezi are the only major high altitude marshes. The distribution
of wetlands by district and their total areas including cultivated are accounted for in
greater detail in the author’s Project report on data collection on ecology. Wetlands
and lakes are of general importance for biodiversity. REMA is currently
implementing the project ‘Integrated Management of Critical Ecosystems’, which
includes an inventory of the wetlands in Rwanda. Information, including GIS data
will be available in September 2008. This information should be included in the
present Project mapping. With regard to rivers, Rwanda is at the top of the Nile
basin accounts for surface areas of the lakes and six biggest marshes in the country,
and highlights areas of special interest (Tables 7.3-4, below).
141 (274)
Table 7.3 - Wetland surface area by district (old classification)

District Total wetland area Cultivated
Total area Cultivated %
ha ha
Butare 24570 18726 76
Byumba 27823 12965 47
Cyangugu 7441 7251 97
Gikongoro 9698 9339 96
Gisenyi 1637 1627 99
Gitarama 16730 14020 84
Kibungo 32276 7661 24
Kibuye 995 984 99
Kigalu 34122 14932 44
Ruhengeri 9655 6249 65
Total 164947 93754 57
Source: Kanyarukiga and Ngarambe, 1998.
Table 7.4 Lakes and marshes
Category Name Surface Special interest
area
(ha)
Marshes Nyaborongo 24698 The fauna of big rivers and associated
Akanyaru 12546 marshes consists of ungulates,
Akagera 12227 carnivores, primates, rodents,
Kagitumba 7000 lagomorphs, insectivores and birds.
Rugezi 6294
Kamairanzovu 1300
Lakes Kivu Poor biodiversity due to limnological 25
100000
problems.
Lakes of Bugesera Very rich in plankton.
Lakes of Akagera National 12000 Rich in fish species.
Park Problem with aquatic weeds.
Lakes of Gisaka 5980 Very rich phytoplankton in species.
Bulera 5500 Poor biodiversity.
Limnological problems.
Lakes of Nasho basin 4300 Rich phytoplankton diversity.
Associated with gallery forests found
on their shores and on small islands
Important populations of
hippopotamuses and crocodiles.
Muhazi 3412 Isolated and its fish fauna is quite poor.
There are three endemic species
Ruhondo 2800 Poor biodiversity. Limnological
problems
Source: Adapted from GOR, 2003:15 (Based on Nezehose, 1990; Gashagaza, 1999).
25
Biological, chemical and physical features of lakes and other bodies of fresh water.
142 (274)
7.9.5 Important Bird Areas (IBAs) in Rwanda

Definition. IBAs are key sites for conservation – small enough to be conserved in
their entirety, and often already part of a protected-area network. A site qualifies as
an IBA by complying with one or more of the following criteria: A1 - holding
significant numbers of one or more globally threatened species; A2 - Holding
restricted-range species; A3 - holding biome-restricted species; and, A4 - receives
exceptionally large numbers of migratory or congregatory species. These IBA
criteria are internationally agreed, standardised, quantitative and scientifically
defensible. By definition, an IBA is an internationally agreed priority for
conservation action.
IBAs in Rwanda. The NGO Association for the Conservation of Nature in Rwanda
(ANCR) through Rwanda Environment Management Authority (REMA) is in the
process of producing an updated map of the Important Bird Areas in Rwanda
(Annex 7 on Ecology). It will be important to consider these when preparing the
National Land Use and Development Master Plan, as these areas are not only of
national but international importance.
Box 7.10 - Important birds areas
Seven areas. An earlier inventory (Fishpool et al. (ed), 2001:703-10) lists a total of seven
Important Bird Areas (IBAs) in Rwanda, covering 2538 km2 or approximately 9 % of the
area of the country (Table 7.5, below). Of these sites, two are National Parks, two are
Forest Reserves whereas three are unprotected. Three are located within montane forests
and three are considered wetlands. Akagera National Park IBA is a mixture of savannah
woodland and wetland. Unclear. All sites qualify under criterion A1 (see above and Table
7.5, below for species names). Four sites also qualify under the A2 criterion (see above) as
they form part of the Albertine Rift mountains Endemic Bird Area (EBA), between them
holding all 25 of the restricted range species of this EBA. One site qualifies under the A3
criterion (see above) for the Guinea-Congo Forests biome 26 , holding 11 of the 23 species
restricted to the biome., as well as a further six species for which there are only one or two
records.
Table 7.5 – Important bird areas
IBA Species
Site Name Province Area (ha)
Code RRS GCC EN VU
RW001 Rugezi marsh Northern 8800 1 2 1
Volcans Northern,
RW002 National Park Western 15000 17 2 1 1
Akagera
RW003 National Park Eastern 100000 1 1 1 1
Nyabarongo City of
RW004 wetlands Kigali 10000 1
Akanyaru
RW005 wetlands Southern 30000 1
Cyamudongo
RW006 forest Western 300 8 1 1
RW007 Nyungwe forest Western 90000 25 6 2 2
Note: RRS - Restricted Range Species; GCC - Global Conservation Concern; EN –
Endangered; and,VU – Vulnerable.
Source: Fishpool et al, 2001, p701-710 (NB Data from 1988).
26
A climatically and geographically defined area containing ecologically similar communities of plants
, animals , and soil organisms – often also referred to as ecosystems
143 (274)
7.9.6 Red Data Listed (RDL) Species

Need to secure local red data list. The International Conservation Union, IUCN, has
developed criteria for assessing the conservation status of flora and fauna. According
to the latest list (IUCN, 2007) Rwanda has 17 mammals of which two are bat
species, ten birds, eight amphibians, ie frog species, nine fish five invertebrate and
three plants species on the list, making a total of 52 species in the threatened
categories - Vulnerable (VU), Endangered (EN), Critically Endangered (CR ). It
should be noted that these are species that are globally threatened (ibid), but it has
not been possible to track down a local red data list, ie a list of species, which are
locally at risk of disappearing from the wild. Species, which are listed under the
threatened categories, are at high to extremely high risk of going extinct in the wild.
Flora. The latest IUCN Red List (2007) of threatened species lists six plant species,
five of them trees, as occurring in Rwanda. Three of these are listed as vulnerable at
a global level. It has not been possible to source a local Red Data List, but tree
species such as Entandophragma excelsum, Faurea saligna, Symphonia globulifera,
Hagenia abyssinica, Parinari excelsa, and Podocarpus latifolius are reported as
becoming rare following selective felling for sawmill products. Polyscias fulva,
Markhamia lutea, Arundinaria mildbraedii have become very rare in the gallery
forests of the east, while the bamboo forests at base of the volcanoes are decreasing
and Neobutonia macrocalyx, Dombeya goetzenii and Prunus africana have become
extinct from the forests in Volcanoes National Park (Republic or Rwanda, 2003:42).
Table 7.6 – RDL plant species
Scientific Common
No Rating Trend Family Type
Name Name(s)
1 Pouteria LR/cd ? SAPOTACEAE Tree
altissima ver 2.3 (1994)
2 Balthasaria LR/nt ? THEACEAE Tree
schliebenii* ver 2.3 (1994)
3 Milicia LR/nt ? MORACEAE Tree
excelsa ver 2.3 (1994)
4 Ocotea VU A1cd ? LAURACEAE Tree
kenyebsis ver 2.3 (1994)
5 Prunus Red VU A1cd ? ROSACEAE Tree
africana stinkwood ver 2.3 (1994)
6 Secamone VU A2c ? ASCLEIPIDACEAE Climber
racemosa ver 3.1 (2001)
Note: *Tropical Africa Balthasaria schliebenii is a synonum of Melchiora Schliebenii (Melch.)
Kobuski var intermedia; and, ? = trend not known.
Source: IUCN, 2007.
Fauna. The IUCN Species Survival Commission lists six fauna species occurring in
Rwanda as critically endangered, four of which are fish species. Twelve species, including
the mountain gorilla and the chimpanzee are endangered and 26 animal species are
vulnerable animal species in Rwanda (IUCN, 2007) (Table 7.7, below).
144 (274)
Table 7.7 - Threatened animal species

Scientific Name Common Red List Status Trend Type
Name
Rhinolophus hilli CR B1ab(iii) ? Bat
Barbus ruasae CR B1ab(ii,iii)+2ab(ii,iii) - Fish
Chiloglanis ruziziensis CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) ? Fish
Varicorhinus platystoma CR - Fish
B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)
Varicorhinus randae CR B1ab(ii,iii)+2ab(ii,iii) - Fish
Diceros bicornis Black CR A2abc + Mam

rhinoceros
Apalis argentea Kungwe apalis EN B1ab(i,ii,iii,v) - Bird
Ardeola idea Madagascar EN C2a(ii) - Bird
pond-heron
Bradypterus graueri Grauer’s scrub- EN B2ab(ii,iii,iv,v) - Bird
warbler
Barbus acuticeps EN A2bcd - Fish
Barbus claudinae EN B1ab(ii,iii)+2ab(ii,iii) ? Fish
Haplochromis EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) - Fish
erythromaculatus
Marcusenius victoriae Victoria EN A2bcde - Fish
stonebasher
Leptopelis karissimbensis EN B1ab(iii) - Frog
Delanymys brooksi Delany’s EN B1ab(iii) - Mam
mouse
Gorilla veringei Mountain EN A2cd ? Mam
gorilla
Lyacon pictus African wild EN C2a(i) - Mam
dog
Pan troglodytes Chimpanzee EN A4cd - Mam
Rhinolophus ruwenzorii Ruwenzori VU A4c; B1ab(iii) ? Bat
horseshoe bat
Balaeniceps rex Shoebill VU C2a(ii) - Bird
Chiropeta gracilirostris Papyrus yellow VU C2a(i) - Bird
warbler
Cryptospiza shelleyi Shelley's VU C2a(i) - Bird
crimson-wing
Falco naumanni Lesser kestrel VU A2bce+3bce - Bird
Glaucidium albertinum Albertine owlet VU C2a(i) - Bird
Torgos tracheliotos Lappet-faced VU C2a(ii) - Bird
vulture
Trigonoceps occipitalis White-headed VU C2a(ii) - Bird
vulture
Synodontis ruandae VU D2 ? Fish
Afrixalus orophilus VU B1ab(iii) - Frog
Callixalus pictus VU B1ab(iii) - Frog
Hyperolius castaneus VU B1ab(iii) - Frog
Hyperolius discodactylus VU B1ab(iii) - Frog
Phrynobatachus versicolor VU B1ab(iii) - Frog
Phrynobatrachus VU B1ab(iii) - Frog
acutirostris
Phryobatrachus bequaerti VU B1ab(iii) - Frog
145 (274)
Scientific Name Common Red List Status Trend Type

Name
Crocidura lanosa Lemara shrew VU D2 ? Mam
Hippopotamus amphibious Common VU A4cd - Mam
hippopotamus
Hybomys lunaris Moon striped VU D2 0 Mam
mouse
Loxodonta africana African VU A2a ? Mam
elephant
Panthera leo African lion VU A2abcd - Mam
Pelomys hopkinsi Hopkins's VU B1ab(iii) ? Mam
groove-toothed
swamp rat
Praomys degraaffi VU B1ab(iii) - Mam
Profelis aurata African golden VU C2a(i) - Mam
cat
Ruwenzorisorex suncoides Ruwenzori VU B2ab(iii) ? Mam
shrew
Thamnomys kempi Kemp’s thicket VU B1ab(iii) ? Mam
rat
Source: IUCN 2007.
Box 7.11 - Nearly threatened, endemic and extinct birds
Nearly threatened birds. In addition to the threatened Rwandan birds (Table 7.7, above),
there are a number of nearly threatened bird species including three non-breeding migrants
from the Paleartic, ie, Circus macrourus (NT), Gallinago media (NT) and Glareola
nordmanni (NT), whereas Ardeola idea (NT) breeds in Madagascar. The breeding species
include eight Albertine Rift endemics: Glaucidium albertinum (VU), Indicator pumilio
(NT), Malaconotus lagdeni (NT), Zoothera tanganjicae (NT), Kupeornis rufocinctus
(NT), Apalis argentea (VU), Bradypterus graueri (VU) and Cryptopiza shelleyi (VU). Of
the remainder, two are species of papyrus swamps, ie, Laniariums mufumbiri (NT) and
Chloropeta gracilirostris (VU), whereas the others are Balaenicps rex (NT) and Lybius
rubrifacies (NT), both of which occur in the savannah-wetlands complex of Akagera. The
presence of a further three species in Rwanda, all vulnerable, remains to be confirmed.
They are: Phodilus prigoginei, Musicapa lendu and Mectarinia rockefelleri.
Endemic Albertine Rift Endemic birds. There are no birds endemic to Rwanda, but the
montane forests and associated habitats hold 25 of the 37 species of Albertine Rift
Endemic Bird Area (EBA 106). In addition, L rubrifacies is also a restricted-range species
whose distribution defines the dry woodlands west of Lake Victoria Secondary Area
(s057).
Now extinct? There are no recent records of a number of species on the Rwandan list, and
it is thought some may have become nationally extinct, presumably due to the destruction
of their habitat. These include Phyllastrephus scandens, Cossypha cyanocampter, and
Camaroptera chloronota from gallery forests north of Akagera National Park,
Trachyphonus purpuratus , Stiphrornis erythrothorax and Muscicapa cassini from lower-
altitude forest in Nyungwe and Hyliota flavigaster and Anthreptes orientalis from the
Rusomo region (Fishpool et al, 2001:703-10).
146 (274)
7.10 Threats to Ecosystem Services and Biodiversity
7.10.1 General
78 % forest decline 1990-2000. Biodiversity loss in Rwanda is severe. It is mainly
due to the progressive disappearance of national parks and large-scale habitat
destruction (World Bank 2004 cited in IISD and UNEP, 2005). Between 1958-79,
Volcanoes National Park lost 55 per cent of its natural habitat mainly for pyrethrum
growing (Kalpers, 2001). Forests declined by 78 per cent between 1990 and 2000,
and the country is also experiencing a loss of its agro-diversity and wetland
biodiversity (IISD and UNEP, 2005:5). Biodiversity loss is closely linked with the
loss of ecosystem services, which in turn is linked to people’s well-being. A study
by UNEP and IISD in 2005 - be it on limited data, based on the former provinces
structure - found that all provinces except Kigali City were experiencing ecosystem
services deterioration to some degree. The provinces with the highest level of
ecosystem services stress were Kibungo, Buture, Cyangugu, Gikongoro and Gisenyi
(Table 7.8, below).
Table 7.8 – Threats to ecosystem service by province
Maintenance
Food Energy
Province of Water supply
production resources
biodiversity
Butare X X 0 X
Byumba x x 0 0
Cyangugu x x 0 x
Gikongoro x x x 0
Gisenyi x x 0 x
Gitarama x x 0 0
Kibungo X X X X
Kibuye x x 0 0
Kigali-ngali 0 x x 0
Ruhengeri x x 0 0
Umutara 0 x x 0
Note: ‘X’ indicates an ecosystem service or well-being constituent under threat in
the particular region; ‘O’ indicates that an ecosystem services or well-being
constituent is not under threat; and, bold highlights those areas of immediate
priority.
Source: IISD and UNEP 2005:2.
7.10.2 Habitat conversion and destruction

Habitat conversion. Habitat conversion from natural land to agriculture has been the
major cause of loss of natural habitats in Rwanda. It is a difficult problem as there is
limited amount of land but a growing demand. In low-lying areas, pressure for
agricultural space has led to inappropriate marsh cultivation. In higher elevation
areas, deforestation has played a key role in decreasing the ability of watersheds to
catch and restore water.
Deforestation. Deforestation and conversion to agricultural land is a main problem,
especially in the western parts of Rwanda, where great areas of the natural forest of
Gishwati has recently been drastically reduced, adding pressure on the wildlife in the
area as their habitat is reduced. Of special concern are the Ape populations in these
areas and some of the globally threatened birds which can be found here. The
147 (274)
western part of Rwanda form part of the Albertine Rift Highland Forest eco-region,
which is a globally threatened system with a critical conservation status.
Deforestation not only reduces biodiversity, it also adds to the risk of erosion and
loss of soil fertility. In higher-elevation and mountainous areas, deforestation has
played a key role in decreasing the ability of watersheds to catch and restore water,
which could have serious long-term effects.
Mountains. Mountains are known as headwater catchment systems, that is, rivers
originate from them. In humid areas up to 60 % and in semi-arid and arid areas up to
95 % of the fresh water in watersheds are captured by mountains (Mountains of the
World, 1998). The same characteristics, which enable mountains to provide
invaluable services to human and nature make them vulnerable or give rise to
vulnerable characteristics. High altitudes, large amounts of rainfall and often steep
slopes are the conditions which promote soil erosion. One natural measure that
reduces soil erosion rates in these vulnerable areas, however, is vegetation cover,
which not only dampen the impact of rainfall onto the soil but their root systems
hold the soil together and in place, preventing soil erosion and land slides and
reduces evaporation rates evaporation rates by providing shade to the bare earth.
Mountain catchments are also important in the role they play as upstream locations.
Whatever occurs upstream will have an effect downstream.
Erosion. Rwanda’s relief consists of high mountains, steep-sloped hills and
depressions, which together with the climate make it susceptible to physical erosion
and in some cases even landslides. Particularly fragile are the ecosystems of
mountain regions in the North and in the West. The intensity of land-use in this
fertile part of the country has led to all forests outside of the national parks being
cleared for cultivation. Whether by wind or by water, erosion ends up by causing a
reduction of soil fertility by removing the arable layer and, consequently, it
contributes to the extinction of some plant formations and to the loss of the fauna’s
habitat; an estimated 11 tons of soil are lost per hectare per year through erosion
(Waller, 1996 cited in UNEP, 2004) and some eroded areas are no longer suitable
for agriculture. Deforestation, construction, over-grazing and cultivation of steep
hills all contributed to erosion. Farming without replenishing nutrients also
contributes to degrading of the soils, as does ploughing of steep slopes, especially
over 50 %. Ploughing is therefore not recommended on slopes steeper than 50 % and
should not be done more than twice a year in other sloping areas.
Development of and unsustainable utilisation of marshes and wetlands. Land
reclamation and the development of marshes and depressions cause hydrological
imbalances of wet ecosystems, and this affects the fauna and flora of these
ecosystems. In low-lying and wetland areas, pressure for agricultural space and
inappropriate marsh cultivation has caused stream flow changes, increased water
evaporation, and reduced water tables and groundwater recharge (UNEP, 2004). By
1998, about 94000 ha of the total 164947 ha of wetland surface area had been
cultivated (Kanyarukiga and Ngarambe, 1998). In the Bugesera Region the Gashora
marsh was drained for food emergency assistance in 2000 (FAO, 2001, cited in IISD
and UNEP, 2005:15). Wetlands degradation in Rwanda is closely linked to
development in urban centres countrywide. Many construction activities being
carried out require inputs from wetlands such bricks and sand, a factor that has led to
over exploitation of the resource. High demand for brick making coupled with sand
mining due to current development construction has led to misuse of wetlands in the
country.
148 (274)
Fire. Bush fires can pose a serious threat to fauna and flora. Periodically, protected
and non-protected areas are devastated by deliberate, criminal or accidental fires.
The negative effects of these bush fires include: extinction of the micro fauna and
micro flora; disturbance and damage to the micro-fauna and micro-flora; disturbance
of the hydric regime, which may lead to the depletion of water sources; acceleration
of erosion and modification of the physico-chemical composition of the soil; and,
atmospheric pollution, which may aggravate the problem of climatic change through
the emission of gas with greenhouse effects. Areas that are mostly affected by these
fires are: the forest of Nyungwe; the Akagera National Park; and the savannas of the
east; and, the valleys of Nyabarongo, Akagera and Akanyaru.
7.10.3 Pollution
Pollution does not appear to be a major threat to biodiversity at the moment, as the
level of industrialisation is still low. There are, however, exceptions, and wetlands
especially near urban areas are being affected by poor sanitation infrastructure,
industrial waste and poor waste management.
7.10.4 Over-exploitation
Unsustainable harvesting. In Rwanda, overexploitation of biological resources is an
important threat to biodiversity. This over-exploitation is sometimes caused by using
unsuitable harvesting methods, like fishing with the wrong size nets or continued use
of the soil without adding fertilizers or soil amendments. This overexploitation is
usually not deliberate but a consequence of socio-economic conditions and
sometimes due to poor education and environmental awareness. Short-term
economic gains, if not properly regulated, can also motivate over-harvesting of
specific species through commercial hunting of selected species and felling of high
value timber species such as Entandophragma excelsum, Faurea saligna, Prunus
africana and Polyscias fulva.
Poaching and pirating. Protected and wet areas shelter a varied fauna and flora,
which are subjected to poaching and bio-pirating for domestic consumption or trade.
Poaching, which for a long time has been practised for domestic purposes by the
people living in the vicinity, has to day become a business extended beyond nearby
communities. In the Akagera National Park this has contributed to drastic reduction
of the most targeted animal species such as elephant, Royal antelope, sitatunga 27 ,
buffalo, gazelle, wild boar, porcupine and partridge The nature and extent of the
problem of bio-pirating, ie, the appropriation of biological material and sometimes
related indigenous knowledge, is not well known to day.
7.10.5 Climatic conditions

Floods and drought. Flooding can be harmful to biodiversity as it can contribute to
erosion leading to siltation of lakes destroying spawning grounds for fish
reproduction, asphyxiation 28 of plants, physical damage and leaching of chemicals
into water systems. With climate change the weather patterns are expected to
become more erratic with increased incidents of flooding and drought. Prolonged
drought affects biodiversity habitats, and can lead to a drastic reduction of varieties
and species. Drought combined with land degradation can contribute to
27
The sitatunga or marshbuck (Tragelaphus spekii) is a swamp-dwelling antelope found through Central
Africa.
28
Killing by depriving them of oxygen
149 (274)
desertification. The eastern part of Rwanda is would be particularly vulnerable to

this.
7.10.6 Invasive species

Disease causing organisms and pest. Diseases and pests can sometimes cause
considerable damage to floral and faunal species and varieties, both wild and
cultivate, which can have effects on whole ecosystems. For example, sporadic
outbreaks of serious tree pests and diseases can lead to the complete destruction of
large areas of natural and/or planted forests which, in turn, can lead to loss or
reduction of vital forest ecosystem functions, and considerable economic losses. In
developing countries and countries in transition, severe outbreaks are particularly
serious as they may compromise national economies and threaten local economic
stability and food security (FAO, 2003). Climate change will affect plant pests and
diseases in the same way it affects infectious disease agents. In other words, the
range of many insects will expand or change, and new combinations of pests and
diseases may emerge as natural ecosystems respond to altered temperature and
precipitation profiles. Any increase in the frequency or severity of extreme weather
events, including droughts, heat waves, windstorms, or floods, could also disrupt the
predator-prey relationships that normally keep pest populations in check.
Alien and Invasive Species. Alien and Invasive Species (IAS) are one of the global
key threats to biodiversity and can be very costly. It is, therefore, essential that their
numbers and spread, as well as their impacts on native populations, be monitored
and controlled if necessary. Alien plant species are commonly seen in Rwanda, but
are generally not considered a major problem at the moment, as most of them occur
in and around the cultivated areas, and some are not invasive in nature. For example,
Eucalyptus is one of the dominant tree species. The situation is different in the
natural areas where alien and native invasive species can affect biodiversity. For
example, the liana Sericostachys scandens is reported to have become a problem in
Nyungwe National Park, as a result of the reduction of herbivores 29 , which used to
graze it. In the lake system within the Akagera Park in the east of the country the
extremely invasive Water Hyacinth (Eichornia crassipes) is now present, and unless
controlled in a systematic way could cause tremendous problems. It is believed that
in the late 1980’s (Twongo 1996 cited in UNEP, 2004), spreading to about 3 ha per
day. As a result the invasion and proliferation of water hyacinth in the Lake had led
to reduced oxygen levels and, consequently, to reduced floral and faunal diversity.
Exotic fish species, like the Nile Perch (Lates niloticus), which has been deliberately
introduced in places, are also a threat to aquatic biodiversity as they will often out-
compete indigenous species.
7.10.7 Drivers of ecological threats

Population pressure and movements. Rwanda has a population density of around
343 people per km2 (Wikipedia-Rwanda). This is already putting pressure on the
land, and any future population increase will result in increased demand of natural
resources like land, water, energy and foodstuffs, land clearing for agriculture and
grazing, house building, removal of species for traditional medical purposes, etc, ie,
further modification and destruction of habitats and deforestation, which, ultimately,
may lead to the extinction of some species. Large movements of people, as a result
29
An animal that feeds on plants
150 (274)
of economic or security reasons can also lead to degradation and destruction of

ecosystems.
Economic and socio-economic conditions. Rwanda is a Low Income country with
per capita income of around USD 260 (Murenzi, 2007). The majority of people
make their living from working the land, the vast majority as subsistence farmers.
These people cannot always afford to make the right decisions from a long-term
environmental perspective, which sometimes leads to practicing of poor farming and
harvesting systems. These, in turn, lead to soil erosion, loss of soil fertility, over
harvesting of fish and other resources, etc. Rwanda’s reliance high on wood for fuel
with not many alternatives is contributing to deforestation.
Policy, legislation and human resources. Bad or conflicting sectoral policies and
strategies, lack of legislation and enforcement and lack of human resources can add
to the threat to biodiversity. Some of Rwanda’s sectoral policies concerning
biodiversity are old and need updating, whereas others are clear and well elaborated
but are not respected or properly implemented. Some do not exist or are in the
process of development.
Box 7.12 - Policy, legal framework and constraints
Forestry policy. The policy, which was developed in 1997, aims at preserving enough
forests so as to protect biological diversity, conserve fragile ecosystems and maintain the
functions that forests and trees, particularly in wooded watersheds, play in environment.
Whereas the intention of the policy is good, illicit clearings and cutting of timber, fires as
well as mining in forests continue to be. The policy does not give sufficient importance to
native species, and yet they are more adapted to Rwanda’s ecosystems and are less
degrading.
Wetlands management policy. Threats against wetlands come particularly from the
agricultural sector. The absence of a clear wetlands management and conservation policy
makes them vulnerable and exposed to exploitation and pollution. Policies in the field of
fisheries and fish-farming have not been effective, and have resulted in the introduction of
exotic species.
Agricultural and stockbreeding policy. The intensive agricultural policy involves
increased use of mineral and organic fertilizers, pesticides and selected seeds. Misuse of
these agro-chemical products could potentially have harmful consequences on the natural
ecosystems.
Settlement policy. In 1996 Rwanda adopted a settlement policy aimed at reorganizing the
dispersed settlements into agglomerated settlements. Re-settlement of people was started
before its adoption so as to deal with post war emergency cases, which has resulted in
losses of biodiversity, particularly when resettlement sites chosen were communal forests
or even protected areas such as the Akagera National Park and the natural forest of
Gishwati. There is an urgent need to adopt a coherent policy for the management of rural
and urban areas as well as well defined administrative measures in the field of and use
planning.
Protected areas policy. Protected areas play an environmental, economical and cultural
role. However, policies and strategies to preserve protected areas have been amended,
dropped or just not implemented, resulting in a shrinking protected area network.
Legal framework. Gaps in the legislation and non-enforcement of environmental
legislation have caused problems in Rwanda in the past, and have allowed for
unsustainable harvesting practices to continue and a lack of phyto 30 and zoosanitry 31
30
Relating to plant
151 (274)
control. The lack of a mechanism to compensate for wildlife damages has resulted in lack
of support for some biodiversity conservation schemes.
Institutional framework related threats. Rwanda has in the past suffered from the lack of
an institutional framework for conservation and use of its biological diversity. The lack of
co-ordination has resulted in some overlapping and duplication of interventions and in
some cases competition and conflict between ministries.
Constraints related to human, material and financial resources. Constraints related to
inadequate human resources and finance can have major impacts on biodiversity
conservation. Without the necessary resources it is difficult to manage and patrol protected
areas, and to provide essential education and awareness.
7.11 Protected Areas
7.11.1 General
Three national parks, forest reserves and wetlands. Protected areas in Rwanda
include: three national parks, ie, Volcanoes National Park, Akagera National Park
and Nyungwe National Park; forest reserves, ie, Buhanga, Gishwati and Mukura
Forests; and, a wetland of global importance, ie, Complex Rugezi-Bulera-Ruhondo.
The total coverage of protected areas, thus, constitutes almost 8 % of the total
surface area of the country (World Resources Institute, 2003d). This is less than the
internationally recommend target of 10 %. All parks have had their areas drastically
reduced in recent years. The same has happened with the forest reserves and
Gishwati and Mukura forest. Montane forests are close to extinction with 86 % and
90 %, respectively, cleared, and the Mutara hunting domain has completely
disappeared.
Box 7.13 - Reduced parks forest reserves reduced or gone
Volcanoes National Park. The Volcanoes National Park stretches along the southern part
of the Volcanoes range, which constitutes Rwanda’s northern border with the Democratic
Republic of Congo and Uganda. At present, its surface area is 12760 ha. This park is
characterised by an altitudinal layering of vegetation, from the bamboo forest (at 2300-
2600 m) to the afro-alpine vegetation resembling that of the tundra from 4200 m up to the
summit of Karisimbi at 4507 m. This park, the sanctuary of mountain gorillas (Gorilla
gorilla beringe), hosts half of the world population of mountain gorillas. The special
ecology - high altitude, high rainfall and cool temperatures - results in a diversified
biodiversity. The Volcanoes National Park is home to 245 species of plants, including 17
dominant ones of which 13 are internationally protected orchidaceas 32 , 115 species of
mammals, 185 species of birds and 27 species of reptiles and amphibians and 33 species
of invertebrates (Republic or Rwanda, 2003:12, based on Fischer and Hinkel, 1992;
Gapusi, 1999; Kabuyenge; 1997).
Akagera National Park. The Akagera National Park is situated in the eastern part of the
country, straddling the provinces of Kibungo and Umutara, and it constitutes the border
with Tanzania. Its surface area has been reduced to 90000 ha in 1999 from 267000 ha in
1960. The biggest reduction of the national park took place after 1994 when more than 2/3
of its surface area was given away for the resettlement of the repatriated population. The
Park is a unique ecological entity – land wise - situated between 1300 m and 1825 m of
altitude. The eastern part of the park is bordered by a vast wetland consisting of the
Akagera river-lake depression that represents a typical immersion landscape. The lakes
and the marshes cover about 100000 ha. More than 900 species of plants, including 60
31
Sanitary with regard to pests and pathogens on plant and animals respectively.
32
Orchid family
152 (274)
internationally protected orchids can be found in the park. The fauna constitutes the park’s
major attraction. It comprises 47 species of big mammals, including elephant, African
buffalo, lion and eland, more than 500 species of birds, nine species of amphibians and 23
species of reptiles (Republic or Rwanda, 2003:13).
Nyungwe National Park. Nyungwe Forest is a high-altitude, mountainous rainforest in
southern Rwanda established as a forest reserve in 1933. Just recently the Nyungwe forest
received National Park status, making it East Africa’s largest protected high-altitude
rainforest. It is contiguous with the Kibira National Park in Burundi and combined, these
two protected areas form the largest block of forest in east Africa - between 1500 and
2300 m in altitude. It stretches at an altitude ranging between 1600 and 2950 m, and
shelters a complex mosaic of types of vegetation. This rich variety of flora is accompanied
by an equal variety of fauna, including several species of birds and primates. A high
percentage of these species are endemic and are found only in the forests surrounding
Albert Rift. There are more than 1200 plant species among which are found at least 50
species of fodder and 133 species of orchids. More that 250 wood species have been
identified, including ten tree species which were described for the first time in Rwanda
during the 1999 survey (GoR, 2003:11, based on Ewango, 2000) With more than 275
species of birds, 24 of which are endemic to Albert Rift, the forest of Nyungwe ranks
among the most important regions of the world for the conservation of birds. Thirteen
types of primates have been identified, representing 1/5 of Africa’s primate species among
which is the most threatened, namely the monkey with an oval face (Cercopithecus
hamlyni) and the golden monkey (Cercopithecus mitiskandti). Nyungwe has also one of
the remaining biggest populations of chimpanzees of the east (Pan troglodytes
schweinfurtii). The Angola colobus (Colobus ngolensis) is generally found in stable
groups of between 300 to 400 individuals. This is a well-known attribute of Nyungwe that
is found nowhere else in the world for species of tree monkeys. The natural forest of
Nyungwe is one of Rwanda’s water towers - it shelters 60 % of the country’s waters. In
addition, the source of the Nile is found in this same forest. Finally, about 39 plant species
are threatened with extinction, some of them are rare.
Gishwati and Mukura Forest Reserves. Gishwati and Mukura Forest are located in the
western part of Rwanda. The reserves have been heavily affected by human activity for a
while. Gishwati, which constituted approximately 280 km2 in the mid-1970s and has been
reduced by almost 90 %. A WCS/PCNF survey in 2000 revealed that little of the original
forest is remaining in Gishwati and that there are now only a few stands of trees of less
than one ha in size. Mukura Forest, which comprised about 20 km2 in the late 1970s, has
now been reduced to around eight km2 (Plumptre, 2001). In early 2000, WCS/PCFN
organised a survey of both forests to assess the current status of the natural forest, and to
determine whether it would be useful to encourage conservation efforts. Findings of the
survey were bleak. The remnant forest still contains several Albertine Rift endemic birds
of conservation importance, a few chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and golden monkeys
(Cercopithecus mitis kandti). It is unlikely that these populations will be viable in the long
term with such a small area of habitat. Nyungwe and the Volcans National Park are now
the only sites where these species are likely to survive for any length of time.
7.11.2. Need for Buffer Areas, Corridors and Protected Areas

Threat to viability of wildlife and migrations and ways to prevent decline. The
increasing isolation of protected areas poses a serious threat to the long-term
viability of many wildlife populations and migrations in Africa. Restricted the
movement of wildlife into and out of reserves create sinks, which have effects on the
gene pools. A further indirect effect of protected area isolation is restriction of the
ability of many plant and animal species to relocate to new geographic areas in
response to global climate changes. Recent research (Newmark, 2008) shows that
ways to prevent decline in plant and animal populations include a need to: enlarge
153 (274)
and link protected areas through the removal of fences and the rerouting of
highways; protect critical wet-season dispersal zones; establish wildlife corridors
among reserves; upgrade the protected area status of many reserves, such as forest
reserves, game control areas and open areas to national parks or game reserves, so as
to provide additional protection of species and habitats; expand inoculation
programmes for live and domestic animals in the human/livestock/domestic animal
matrix surrounding reserves; and, reform policies that promote agricultural
expansion, human settlement, and commercial poaching in lands adjacent to reserves
Rwanda context of conflicting land uses. In the Rwandan context it will be difficult
to increase the protected areas due to the high demand on land for agriculture. The
Mukura and Gishwati forests could theoretically be linked with Nyungwe National
Park and Volcans National Park. In practice this might not be feasible, and the two
forest reserves are now so degraded that protection and creating biodiversity
corridors might be meaningless. Apart from Nyungwe Forest, the National Parks
currently do not have buffer areas. This makes park management and disease control
more difficult, and creates human wildlife conflict situations.
7.12 Indicators
Environment and ecology part of planning input. To ensure sustainable
development it is important to incorporate environmental and ecological issues and
trends into the development and economic planning process. Mapping of ecological
features and units and subsequent monitoring of these will help in establishing
environmental and ecological trends, and thus sustainability. The Convention on
Biological Diversity (CBD) has identified 17 headline indicators from the seven focal
areas for assessing progress towards the 2010 CBD targets at a global level (Table
7.9, below) . These indicators will help to measure the wellbeing of the environment
and thus, indirectly the wellbeing of the people who live there. Some indicators are
still under development. Not all of these indicators are applicable to Rwanda, but
many of them are. As they are indicators of sustainable development, and will form
part of CBD reporting formats, it will make sense to include the relevant features in
thematic map contexts of the ntional Land Use and Development Master Plan. Many
biodiversity indicators are ready for immediate use at the global scale, but others
require further development and testing. Each headline indicator may be made up of
a composite of indicators.
154 (274)
Table 7.9- CBD Sustainability Indicators

Focal Area of Interest Indicators
Status and trends of the 1 Trends in extent of selected biomes, ecosystems and habitats
components of • forest and forest types;
biodiversity • grasslands;
• dry and sub-humid lands;
• peat lands;
• inland wetlands;
• crop lands:
• urban;
• polar/ice;
• tidal flats/estuaries;
• coral reefs; and,
• sea grasses.
2 Trends in abundance and distribution of selected species
• global Wild Bird Index (bird statistics for global bird
populations); and,
• living Planet Index, tracking populations of 1313 vertebrate
species of fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals from all
around the world - by tracking wild species, the Living Planet
Index is also monitoring the health of ecosystems.
3 Coverage of protected areas
• actual coverage;
• coverage overlaid (Using GIS) with biodiversity; and
• management effectiveness of protected areas.
4 Trends in genetic diversity
• Ex situ 33 crop collections; and,
• Genetic diversity of terrestrial domesticated animals.
Sustainable use 1 Areas under sustainable management
• Area of forest under sustainable management - certification
• area of forest under sustainable management - degradation and
deforestation
• Area of agricultural ecosystems under sustainable
management.
2 Proportion of products derived from sustainable sources
• proportion of fish stocks in safe biological limits
• status of species in trade
• wild Commodities Index.
3 Ecological Footprint and related concepts
Threats to biodiversity 1 Nitrogen deposition (pH in lakes, etc)
2 Invasive Alien Species
Ecosystem integrity and 1 Marine trophic index
ecosystem goods and 2 Water quality
services 3 Connectivity/fragmentation of ecosystems
• forest fragmentations; and,
• river fragmentation and flow regulation.
4 Health and well being of communities
33
Off-site conservation. It is the process of protecting a species of plant or animal by removing part of
the population from a threatened habitat and placing it in a new location, which may be a wild area or
within the care of humans
155 (274)
5 Biodiversity for food and medicine

• nutritional status of biodiversity; and,
• conservation status of medicinal plants.
Status of traditional 1 Status and trends of linguistic diversity and numbers of speakers
knowledge, innovations of indigenous languages
and practices
Status of access and 1 To be determined
benefits sharing
Status of resource 1 Official development assistance provided in support of the CBD
transfers
Source: 2010 Biodiversity Indicator Partnership.
7.13 Findings and Issues

The preliminary findings and issues emerging from of the inventory study are
summarised in this sub-section.
7.13.1 Availability of data

Spatial and biodiversity data not available . While collecting information for the
study it became clear that certain key documents are not yet available. It specifically
refers to spatial data for GIS analysis. Biodiversity data is also spread out among a
variety of stakeholders and some older reference material quoted in more recent
publications has been difficult to find. In summary, the availability of biodiversity
baseline and monitoring data in Rwanda is a follows:
• Rwanda does not have a national checklist of flora or fauna;
• the Global Red Data List contains a number of both faunal and flora species
under threat in Rwanda - this list, however, needs to be re-examined locally
as some of the listed species are not likely to occur in Rwanda according to
area specialists. It is not clear if a national Red Data List exists. If it does, it
is not public;
• a list of protected animal species in Rwanda is reported to existm and has
been requested from ORTPN - but has not yet been received;
• no State of the Environment Report (SOER) has been compiled for Rwanda;
• Birdlife International, ANCR and ORTPN are in the process of compiling an
atlas of Important Bird Areas (IBAs) in Rwanda and it is hoped that the
spatial data in the atlas will be available for inclusion in the Land Use and
Development Master Plan analysis. In the meantime the consultant of the
present report has used data from the Birdlife International publication
Important Bird Areas of Africa from 2001;
• an inventory of wetlands is underway under the Integrated Management of
Critical Ecosystems (IMCE) project - data and maps should be available in
September 2008 and should be included in the Land Use and Development
Master Plan mapping exercise;
• a new forest atlas, including GIS information has been compiled but is not
yet available - it will be a key source of data for the national Land Use and
Development Master Plan; and,
156 (274)
7.13.2 Justification to include environmental concerns in Master Plan

Environmental justice essential part in avoiding conflict. Functioning ecosystems
underpin all life through provision of so called ecosystem services, ie, the benefits
that people obtain from functioning ecosystems, such as food, freshwater and
climate regulation. Rwanda is not only dependent on its natural resources for
ecosystem services, but land, forests, waters and wildlife currently also constitute the
country’s main sources of households and national income, providing the basis for
farming, fishing, household energy production as well as tourism. Environmental
destruction leads to scarcity and scarcity triggers conflict which can develop into
violence. Thus, environmental security or justice is vital to human security and well
being.
Rwandan natural and ecosystem resources seriously depleted. Over the last two
decades, however, these resources have been seriously depleted. Rwanda has seen a
rapid conversion of its natural ecosystems to agricultural land in recent years,
essentially due to population increases and hence a growing demand for food and
timber. Few natural ecosystems, therefore, remain. These are mainly in the formally
protected areas, Akagera National Park, Nyugwe National Park and Volcans
National Park, which constitute approximately 8 % of the total area (World
Resources Centre, 2003a). The three parks cover three of the world’s priority
conservation eco-regions, including the rapidly disappearing biodiversity rich
Albertine Rift Montane Forest. Through the CBD and other environmental
conventions, Rwanda has accepted a global responsibility to help maintain its
biodiversity.
Ecological deficit. Rwanda’s ecological deficit is currently at -0.19. It means that
any population or consumption increases and industrial developments, which will
increase CO2 emissions, are going to lead to a greater deficit. Any increase in the
deficit is not sustainable in the long term, and reversing and restoring degraded
ecosystems is difficult and more costly than to maintain them. Environmental
destruction leads to scarcity and scarcity triggers conflict which can develop into
violence. Thus, environmental security is vital to human security and well being. It
is, therefore, important to ensure that development planning takes into account the
need to maintain bio-capacity by maintaining protected areas, forests and wetland
ecosystems. There is also a legal basis for including ecological concerns into the
planning process, with support for the precautionary principle and the polluter pays
principle.
157 (274)
7.13.3 Areas of special ecological importance

Several areas of special ecological importance exist in Rwanda (Table 7.10, below).
Table 7.10 -Areas of special ecological importance
Area Justification
Akagera, Volcan These are the only three areas which can be said to still contain natural
and Nyungwe ecosystems. They each represent a globally important eco-region, and
National Parks are hosts to a number of species of conservation concern.
Wetlands Many of the wetlands correspond with the internationally Important
Bird Areas. One wetland area has recently been designated as a Ramsar
site (Rugezi-Bulera-Ruhondo – Ramsar site no 1589). The legal status
of this area is not yet clear. Wetlands are also important from a
hydrological point of view. There is currently a project mapping and
classifying the wetlands (IMCE). Its findings will be important to
include in the Land Use and Development Master Plan.
Forests These constitute habitats for man plant and animal species and are
important as carbon sinks, for erosion control and for watershed
management in general. They are also the main source of energy as
there are few alternative energy resources in Rwanda. Most of
Rwanda’s forest has been drastically reduced in recent years, with loss
of biodiversity, erosion, etc, as a result.
The forthcoming Forest Atlas should provide detailed mapping of
remaining forests, and the data should be incorporated in the National
Land Use and Development Plan.
Habitats for Many of these correspond with the national parks, forest reserves and
globally wetland areas. Of these, only the national parks are formally protected
threatened today.
species, ie, IBAs Rwanda has a global responsibility to help conserve these rare
and, RDL species birds, animals and plant species.
Steep Slopes Due to the high competition for land, agriculture is currently practised
on steep slopes that lead to erosion problems.
Watersheds/Water The loss of forest cover and conversion to other land uses can adversely
towers affect freshwater supplies and compound human disasters resulting
from hydro-meteorological extremes. Trees - forest cover- play an
important role in water discharge, and in regulating streams and rivers,
especially in mountain areas. Appropriate management of forests
around watersheds, therefore, is essential for water quality.
Buffer zones and If protected areas are too small, this could potentially be fatal for many
wildlife corridors species due to genetic erosion and limited opportunities to migrate
when climatic conditions change. It is, therefore, important to make
sure the protected areas are big enough and to link areas through
corridors.
Buffer zones around protected areas are essential to reduce human
and wildlife conflict.
Source: Author.
7.13.4 Threats to biodiversity

Need for check on continued reduction of natural habitat conversion. Habitat
conversion is the most important threat to biodiversity in Rwanda at present. Only a
small area of natural habitats remains. It is, thus, of key importance not to reduce
these habitats any further. This means making sure the boundaries of the national
parks are respected. In addition, it is expected that the on-going forest and wetland
inventories will identify additional areas - most probably coinciding with the
158 (274)
currently unprotected IBAs - which should not be designated for development, but
should instead be protected. All districts are affected by deterioration of biodiversity
and ecosystem services, but the two main problem areas are the former provinces of
Butare and Kbiungu.
Alien and invasive species. Alien and invasive species (AIS) are a threat to natural
biodiversity, and efforts should be made to limit their distribution. Some alien,
exotic, species such as the tree species Eucalyptus has a role to play in Rwanda
where there is a high need for fuel wood - few tree species can compete with the
Eucalyptus in this respect. There are ecological problems, however, related to the
cultivation of Eucalyptus and AIS. In the long-term, it would be advantageous to
restrict exotic trees to plantations, and to allocate resources as soon as possible to
combat potentially expensive invasive species such as some of the aquatic weeds
like the Water Hyacinth (Eichornia crassipes), which is now present within the
Akagera lake system. Promotion of indigenous agro-forestry species and agro-
forestry in general is recommended. Alien and Invasive Species are not yet a major
problem in the country, although the Akagera lakes are potentially at risk from the
Water Hyacinth and exotic fish species. Eucalyptus species and other exotic trees are
widespread. Whereas they may not be the best trees from a water and soil
conservation perspective, they are not invasive and as such not really a threat to
biodiversity. It would be preferable, however, if exotic species were to be kept in
forest plantations and indigenous trees were to be used wherever possible.
Steep slopes cultivation with erosion. Unsuitable farming methods, such as
cultivation of steep slopes, needs to be discouraged as they lead to erosion and soil
deterioration. Healthy soils and vegetation in the watershed are also essential to
proper watershed functioning
Community involvement. Involvement of communities in the conservation effort is
essential. This is especially important in protected area buffer areas. Issues to
consider in the Rwandan context include ‘Access and Benefit Sharing’ and
compensation for loss due to wildlife conflict. This is specifically a problem areas
bordering national parks where wildlife sometimes stray outside of the park
boundaries and destroy crops.
Economic diversification. The limited amount of suitable land for agriculture,
coupled with a growing population, means that subsistence farming is not a major
viable long-term livelihood option for Rwanda. It is, therefore, essential to create
alternative livelihoods options, which are not directly based on access to land. This
is again most pressing in the areas bordering the National Parks. This is in line with
the objectives of Vision 2020 (Republic or Rwanda, 2000).
Protection of forests and wetlands. Based on the results of the new inventories of
forests and wetlands, it is recommended to work toward giving formal protected
status to the most important forest and wetland areas.
Survey and monitoring. The national Land Use and Development Master Plan and
associated geo-database should to be linked to an environmental monitoring system,
such as ‘State of the Environment Reporting’, which is yet to be developed in
Rwanda. This type of reporting is becoming part of the commitments under various
international conventions. In doing this environmental trends and sustainability can
be easily and consistently monitored. The results may profitably be used to guide
future planning efforts.
159 (274)
Watershed. Water is a critical issue in Rwanda. The present supply, although within
the internal renewable rate, will not be sufficient to meet the demands of intensified
agriculture and meet the individual human demand for water as stipulated as basic
needs by the United Nations. More focus on watershed management will need to be
put in place. This includes conservation and management of wetlands and forests.
Energy supply. The current reliance on fuel-wood for energy - and the way fuel-
wood is produced - is not sustainable, given the amount of land available for
growing trees and the demand for fuel-wood. Land needs to be set aside for efficient
plantations, while alternative energy sources are sourced as well (see also Section 5
on Forestry and Section 9 on Physical Infrastructure regarding energy).
7.14. Recommendations for Present Project

Geo-data base. There are from an ecological sustainability viewpoint important features that
should be included in a Project geo-data base for future trend analysis and mapping (Table
7.11, below).
Table 7.11 - Features for the National Land Use and Development Master Plan
Feature Data Classes Attributes
areas of National Park
special forest reserves according to GIS and
biodiversity Remote Sensing
importance Centre (NUR-GIS)
and MINIRENA
important bird areas according to
forthcoming
ACNR/REMA report
important wetland areas according to
forthcoming IMCE
data (REMA)
Endemic bird areas from Birdlife
International
eco regions Victoria Basin Forest Savannah mosaic (AT0721) Data from WWF/
Albertine Rift Montane Forests (AT0101) UNEP-GRID Geneva
Ruwenzori Rift Montane Forests (AT1013)
agro- according to GIS mapping done for the Schema
ecological d’Amenagement des marais, de protection des
zones (39) Bassins Versants et de la Conservation des Sols
(GoR 2002)
agroclimatic according to GIS mapping done for the Schema
zones (10) d’Amenagement des marais, de protection des
Bassins Versants et de la Conservation des Sols,
(GoR 2002)
indicator wetlands according to IMCE-
ecosystems REMA inventory
forests – divided into natural forest and according to Forestry
plantations Atlas
grasslands
croplands
grazing land
Urban
lakes and rivers
topography - 0-20 %
160 (274)
Feature Data Classes Attributes

slope 20-50%
>50 %
protected areas National Parks
Forest Reserves
designated Ramsar sites
sites of Man and Biosphere Reserves
international World Heritage Sites
biodiversity
importance
hydrological underground water
data
administrative Regions
boundaries Districts
settlements according to national statistics classification
tourism Lodges
establishments
other Volcanoes active
geographical extinct
features
fishing MINAGRI data
grounds
Red Data flora data not yet available
Listed species fauna
distribution
Source: Author.
Further GIS data. The following data needs to be included in the Master Plan GIS
database:
• Forest Atlas database and shape files (with NUR-GIS) from MINIRENA;
• land suitability mapping, agro-climatic and agro-ecological zone mapping,
and soil mapping database and shape files (ie, interactive land use map and
all available GIS mapping done for the Schema d’Amenagement des marais,
de protection des Bassins Versants et de la Conservation des Sols: Rapport
global definitive phase 1, GOR, 2002);
• Wetlands and critical ecosystems database and shape files from the from the
Integrated Management of Critical Ecosystems Project at REMA - to be
followed up with REMA;
• shape files for official boundaries for National Parks - to be followed up with
ORTPN); and,
• Important Bird Areas in Rwanda – any shape files available – to be followed
up with ANCR and REMA.
Land use and development planning to reconcile conflicting demands. Whereas it

is fundamental to include ecological considerations into the land use planning
process, given the competition for land in Rwanda there will need to be
compromises with other demands. In this context, it is important to recognise that
ecosystem degradation can rarely be reversed without actions that address one or
more of the following indirect drivers of change: population change - including
161 (274)
growth and migration; change in economic activity - including economic growth,

disparities in wealth and trade patterns; socio-political factors - including factors
ranging from the presence of conflict to public participation in decision-making;
cultural factors; and, technological change. Habitat restoration is difficult and can be
very costly. The cost of erosion and watershed deterioration is even greater. Extinct
species are gone forever. The ‘Precautionary Principle’ should, therefore, guide the
land use planning process. Address needed in Plan preparation. Ideally the national
Land Use and Development Master Plan preparation should include address to what
is discussed in paragraphs Box 7.14, below.
Box 7.14 - Ecologically important areas
Ecologically important areas. Areas of ecological key importance such as the National
Parks, the Important Bird Areas and the important wetland and forest areas need to be
clearly marked on the development planning map and not designated for development.
Buffer zones. It is recommended that all National Parks and other protected areas, such as
forest reserves, have a buffer zone and if possible a transition zone, as recommended by
the UNESCO Biosphere concept (Figure 7.5, below).
Wildlife corridors. Akagera, Nyngwe and Vulcano National Parks are all located along
the Rwandan borders. All three parks are linked to various types of conservation areas
across the border. Nyungwe National Park forms the largest block of forest in east Africa
together with Kibira National Park in Burundi, Volcanoes National Park linking with
Virunga National Park in the Democratic Republic of Congo, Mgahinga Gorilla National
Park in Uganda, and Akagera linking to game reserves in Tanzania. The three parks
represent very different ecosystems and as they are located at different corners of the
country there is no justification to create wildlife corridors to link them. Wildlife corridors
could theoretically be established to link Gishwati and Mukura forest reserves with
Nyungwe and Volcanos National Park, but in practice this is probably not feasible. The
delineation of these will require specialist input.
Land Suitability. Land suitability data from Ministry of Agriculture should guide the land
use and development planning process. Steep hills and other erosion prone areas should be
prevented from ploughing, and should if possible be kept under constant vegetation
cover.Important wetland areas should also be demarcated for non-development as the
present supply of water will not be sufficient to meet the demands of intensified
agriculture and individual water demands in the future.
Forest plantations. Areas should be designated for forest plantations, with new and
renewable energy sources should be promoted together with appropriate technologies
aimed at reducing the use of fire-wood.
Reforestation. Rehabilitatation and restoration of degraded forest areas, eg, Umutara,
Nyungw, Gishwati, and Mukura Forests, would be advantageous, but may not be realistic
on a larger scale.
Urban master plans to include sanitation and waste infrastructure. Urban plans, which
include planning for industrial use and infrastructure for sanitation and waste
management, are essential for the Land Use and Development Master Plan.
Environmental indicators. The inclusion of environmental indicators in the Land Use and
Development Master Plan GIS data base, will facilitate monitoring and establishment of
trends as well as facilitate reporting on these issues as part of national and international
‘State of the Environment Reporting’ requirements or Environmental Outlook reporting
(UNEP – State of the Environment Reporting).
162 (274)
Figure 7.5 – Conservation zoning
Source: Unesco.
Legal framework. The relevant legal instruments with regards to biodiversity have
been reviewed during this consultancy. However, it is not an in depth review and
there is a need for a legally trained person to review Rwanda’s legal framework to
ensure that planning decisions and recommendations comply with the legal
provisions.
Need for extensive consultation. To adequately incorporate ecological concerns into

the national Land Use and Development Master Plan will not be easy as many of the
ecological planning requirements may appear to clash with people’s perceptions of
short to medium term necessities for their livelihoods. To not address the ecological
concerns, however, will be costly for future generations. To get ‘buy-in’ for the plan
will require extensive consultation with all stakeholders. A list of environmental
stakeholders is found in Annex Appendix 3 to the Project report o data collection on
ecology.
Next steps for the Project. It is essential that the project obtains the outstanding GIS
data, listed above, and that this data is included in the Geo database. Ecological
sensitive areas can then start to be included in the mapping and planning process. At
a minimum the boundaries of the protected areas should not be reduced. If possible,
buffer zone should ideally be established around the protected areas. This will,
however, need to be done in a socially acceptable manner, and will require extensive
consultation. IBA (the unprotected sites) development and agriculture should be
limited Protection of water towers and forests is crucial for long-term water security.
To establish the appropriate boundaries of the important watershed forests will
require further study and involvement of hydrological expertise. Important forest
areas and mountain areas should thus be protected from development, as should the
key wetlands. Ideally lakes, rivers and wetlands should also be surrounded by a
buffer zone. Measures to limit soil erosion are essential and it is therefore important
163 (274)
to maintain permanent vegetation cover on steep hills and slopes. It will be

important to ensure, also in the context of ecology, that the Land Use and
Development Master Plan complies with all laws and regulations, and it, therefore,
recommended that the legal framework review takes cognisance of ecological
aspects.
Deforestation. Deforestation and conversion to agricultural land is a main problem,
especially in the western parts of Rwanda, where great areas of natural forest
(Gishwati) has recently been drastically reduced, adding pressure on the wildlife in the
area as their habitat is reduced. Of special concern are the Ape populations in these
areas and some of the globally threatened birds which can be found here. The western
part of Rwanda form part of the Albertine Rift Highland Forest eco-region, which is a
globally threatened system with a critical conservation status. Deforestation not only
reduces biodiversity, it also adds to the risk of erosion and loss of soil fertility. In
higher-elevation and mountainous areas, deforestation has played a key role in
decreasing the ability of watersheds to catch and restore water, which could have
serious long-term effects. Mountains are known as headwater catchment systems, that
is, rivers originate from them. In humid areas up to 60% while in semi-arid and arid
areas up to 95 % of the fresh water in watersheds are captured by mountains
(Mountains of the World, 1998). The same characteristics which enable mountains to
provide invaluable services to human and nature make them vulnerable or give rise to
vulnerable characteristics. High altitudes, large amounts of rainfall and often steep
slopes are the conditions which promote soil erosion. One natural measure that
reduces soil erosion rates in these vulnerable areas, however, is vegetation cover,
which not only dampen the impact of rainfall onto the soil but their root systems hold
the soil together and in place, preventing soil erosion and land slides and reduces
evaporation rates evaporation rates by providing shade to the bare earth. Mountain
catchments are also important in the role they play as upstream locations. Whatever
occurs upstream will have an effect downstream.
Erosion. Rwanda’s relief consists of high mountains, steep-sloped hills and
depressions, which together with the climate make it susceptible to physical erosion
and in some cases even landslides. Particularly fragile are the ecosystems of mountain
regions in the North and in the West. The intensity of land-use in this fertile part of the
country has led to all forests outside of the national parks being cleared for cultivation.
Whether by wind or by water, erosion ends up by causing a reduction of soil fertility
by removing the arable layer and, consequently, it contributes to the extinction of some
plant formations and to the loss of the fauna’s habitat; an estimated 11 tons of soil are
lost per hectare per year through erosion (Waller, 1996 cited in UNEP, 2004) and some
eroded areas are no longer suitable for agriculture. Deforestation, construction, over-
grazing and cultivation of steep hills all contributed to erosion. Farming without
replenishing nutrients also contributes to degrading of the soils, as does ploughing of
steep slopes, especially over 50 %. Ploughing is therefore not recommended on slopes
steeper than 50 % and should not be done more than twice a year in other sloping
areas. The map in Figure 7.1 has been adapted from the MINAGRI agro-ecological
mapping project, and shows risk of erosion by agro-ecological zone.
164 (274)
8 Social Infrastructure
8.1 Summary
Background. This section is based on a report which is the result of the year one
input into the Rwanda Land Use and Development Master Plan project by the
present Project Socio-Economist.
Core nature of socio-economic considerations in the land use planning
process. The land use and development master plan process is about promoting
Rwanda’s development and this must be first and foremost about development
for Rwanda’s people. Therefore, while there are many important sectoral aspects
to be considered, the issue of socio-economic well-being is critical to the whole
process.
Socio-economic aspects. Socio-economic aspects for consideration in the land
use and development master plan process include access to: roads; health and
education facilities; water and sanitation; housing – eg, types, quality and in
which settlement patterns; and livelihoods.
Structure of this section. This section introduces and contextualises the work
carried out under the Socio-Economist input during year one of the project. It
provides a summary of the methodology for the two main elements of the input,
familiarisation of existing data and fieldwork. Brief comments and
recommendations are made about the existing data from a socio-economic
methodological view point. Key findings from the fieldwork, implications for
National Parks, and recommendations for further studies are then set out. The
initial introduction section is the longest, as it focuses on the emerging issues
which provide the context and background to the entire inventory work.
8.2 Introduction
Review of existing socio-economic data as basis of Socio-Economist project
input. In an attempt to provide an inventory of the existing situation in Rwanda
regarding socio-economic data, as part of ‘Task 1’ in the Project Technical
Proposal, a familiarisation of available data on the existing status of socio-
economic aspects in Rwanda has been carried out through review of existing data
sources from a wide range of Ministries and Government institutions and through
additional fieldwork. This is intended to contribute to an overview of the socio-
economic situation in the country, and also to the overall inventory data
collection work of the Project in terms of crosscutting socio-economic aspects in
other sectors.
Four different elements of input. The Socio-Economist input included
establishing the overall socio-economic background and setting for the inventory,
focusing on emerging issues from prior work in the Rwandan land sector. A
substantive part of the work was the familiarisation and review of existing data.
Purpose-designed field visits in the country provided complimentary information
and illustrates a set of explicit or implicit socio-economic phenomena. Finally, a
major conference organised by the Rwandan Office of Tourism and National
Parks (ORTPN) was attended to help in highlighting what may be implications
for the National Parks. The latter two elements raised issues for ensuing in-depth
165 (274)
Project studies and analyses before, or in parallel with, work on the proposing of
alternative land use and development plan scenarios.
Context of the socio-economic input. The Ministry of Natural Resources
(MINIRENA) is already well informed about a number of socio-economic issues
of relevance to land use and management in Rwanda, following the local
authority and public field consultations carried out in 2006 under the auspices of
the National Land Tenure Reform Programme, (NLTRP). These emerging land
use issues set the background to the socio-economic inventory work, guided the
socio-economic fieldwork done by the present Project for the inventory report,
and in some cases require further investigation and analyses through more in-
depth socio-economic and other studies and/or possible issues-based pilot work.
Emerging contextual issues. These emerging issues are: Export crops and
change of use restrictions; Rental land use conditions; Land market and land use
strategising; Livestock issues; Lakeshore issues and fisheries; Marshlands and
small scale clay extraction; Soil erosion; Small scale mineral extraction;
Landholding patterns, including fragmentation and consolidation; Land sharing;
Informal settlement upgrading; Expropriation and change of use; and Imidugudu
and participatory planning. The following sub-sections provide more detail on
these issues by way of context and background to ‘Task 1’.
8.2.1 Prior consultations on emerging issues

Consultations on emerging issues. The National Land Tenure Reform
Programme (NLTRP) carried out extensive field consultations with local
authorities and the public during 2006 (see Box 8.1 below). The findings of these
field consultations (Results of Preparatory Field Consultations in Four Trial
Districts; March – October 2006: MINITERE et al. 2007), which were led by the
present Project Socio-Economist, have been drawn on to inform the discussion of
emerging land use issues here.
Box 8.1 – National Land Tenure Reform Programme 2006 field consultations
As part of the NLTRP, consultations were carried out in 2006 with more than 2500
people in four districts with differing land use characteristics – Gasabo (Kigali City),
Musanze (Northern Province), Kirehe (Eastern Province), and Karongi (Western
Province). Comprehensive interviews were carried out with all sector Agronomes in
these districts, to gather information on local land use patterns and livelihoods, and
229 focus group discussions were carried out with a wide range of land user and
sociological groups.
The NLTRP field consultations focused primarily on issues relating to land tenure and
the introduction a new land administration and registration system, but data was also
generated on the land-related problems and concerns of different groups of people.
They included: tea, coffee, pyrethrum and commercial food farmers, livestock farmers,
lakeshore and marshland farmers; large landowners; people renting farm land; urban
landowners; tenants in residential and commercial properties in formal and informal
settlements; refugees (new case and old case); and, people living in planned imidugudu
(villages).
8.2.2 Export crops and change of use restrictions

Tea, coffee and pyrethrum. Tea, coffee and pyrethrum are the most important
Rwandan export crops. Tea farms and factories are found in the Southern,
Western and Northern Provinces of Rwanda, for example around Nyungwe
166 (274)
National Park, on high altitude land in Karongi District and in high altitude
valleys along the road from Ruhengeri to Gisenyi. The main land use issue facing
Rwanda’s smallholder tea, coffee and pyrethrum farmers concerns change of use
restrictions (see Box 8.2, Box 8.3 and Box 8.4, below).
Box 8.2 –Tea and change of use
Tea. Some of the smallholder farmers growing thé villageois were given land by the
state in the 1970s on paysannat contracts and their rights to the land depend on a
certain proportion being kept under tea. In some areas soil conditions have since
changed, but the farmers are constrained to plant more suitable (and more profitable)
crops (MINITERE et al. 2007, pp.95-96).
Box 8.3 – C offee and change of use
Rwanda’s fastest-growing export crop is coffee and there are a large and increasing
number of both smallholder and large scale farmers growing coffee in Rwanda (Perry
2007). Many grow coffee on their own land but some rent-in land, or, less commonly,
coffee bushes. Change of use restrictions are an issue for these farmers, as removing
their coffee bushes requires official permission from local authorities.
Box 8.4 Pyrethrum and change of use
SOPYRWA farmers. Rwanda’s smallholder pyrethrum farmers are all based on a wide
belt of land around the Volcanoes National Park in Musanze District. The majority of
these farmers are using land that was given to them by the state in the 1960s on
paysannat contracts. 1.8 ha was given to each family on the condition that 40% (72
acres) would be used for growing pyrethrum to supply the then state-owned processing
factory. The factory was privatised in 2000, to a company called SOPYRWA, and the
tenure status of the farmers using the land has yet to be clarified; the total area affected
is 12000 ha, spread among some 16000 families (following subdivision on inheritance,
in breach of the paysannat contracts) (MINITERE et al. 2007, p.97).
Planting decisions. The pyrethrum farmers do not have the right to choose which part
of their land to plant with pyrethrum each year, as this is determined by factory
Agronomes on a yearly basis according to soil suitability; this clearly makes
investments in biennial and perennial crops on any of the land very difficult (Ibid).
8.2.3 Rental land use conditions

Official restrictions on marshlands and tree plantations. Especially around
Kigali, but also in other areas of the country, there are large numbers of farmers
growing food crops for local markets. Many rent-in land, including in the
marshlands/wetlands, and the rental agreements often stipulate what crops will be
grown (see Box 8.5, below). However, commercial farmers, in particular, appear
to dislike official instructions/advice on what crops to grow in rented marshlands
and restrictions on harvesting from tree plantations.
167 (274)
Land use conditions attached. In general, within the private land market, land
use conditions are frequently attached to rental agreements.
Box 8.5 – Renting-in land
Renting-in land is an important element of many farmers’ livelihood strategies in
Rwanda – it enables them to gain access to more fertile land, or to land which is
suitable for specific crops, or simply to access land for farming when they own none
of their own. Some groups of people, such as widows and vulnerable women (those
who are not legally married), are particularly reliant on renting-in for access to land.
From the other side, those who lack the resources to farm all the land they own, or
who live far away, gain income from renting it out and provide a supply of land to
those who need and want it – this includes genocide survivors who inherited large
holdings that they are physically unable to farm (whether through poverty, ill-health or
fear). Churches also commonly rent-out land in Rwanda; in many cases this benefits
poorer Church members who are able to rent land at below-market rates, but the
Churches too now appear to be moving towards formal rental agreements with specific
conditions about what crops will be grown, etc.
Seasonal crops only. In most cases, agricultural tenants are only allowed to plant
seasonal crops which will be harvested within the period of the rental agreement,
and in some cases landlords specify that maize and beans must be grown to
provide stubble for later use by the landlord (as fodder for their livestock). People
who rent-in grazing land are often told to erect fences. Some landlords include
stipulations about land use in rental agreements in order to prevent
mismanagement of their land. For example, the NLTRP found in Karongi
District that leases often included requirements to build terraces or plant reeds
and grasses to prevent soil erosion (MINITERE et al. 2007, pp.44-45) – this is in
line with the Organic Land Law, whose Articles 39 to 53 concern the rental of
agricultural land, and these kind of land use conditions to protect against soil
erosion appeared to be relatively acceptable to the public.
8.2.4 Land market and land use strategising

Opportunities in a thriving land market. There is a thriving land market in
Rwanda and in part it may be driven by the desire of purchasers to diversify
landholdings and gain access to different types of land, for example to invest in
livestock-keeping or acquire more fertile land or land in a different part of the
country. Similarly, not all sales are ‘distress sales’ and some people sell land to
buy land of a different type or quality. In this way, the land market can be seen as
enabling people to undertake their own land use strategising.
Strategic purchases. In Musanze District, the NLTRP heard reports of people
buying land to plant trees, which could then be used as collateral for bank loans
to develop off-farm livelihood activities.
Sales and building standards. Around Kigali, some people also sell land in
urban areas and move to more rural areas because they are unable to develop
their land in accordance with Kigali City building standards.
8.2.5 Livestock issues

Zero-grazing. The issues that emerged from the NLTRP’s consultations with
livestock farmers were almost exclusively related to land use, and especially to
the recent introduction of a zero-grazing policy. Livestock-farming has an
168 (274)
important cultural significance in Rwanda, and livestock are valuable sources of

manure, as well as meat and milk.
8.2.6 Lakeshore issues and fisheries

50 m protected zone. Government policy currently restricts farming on land
within 50 m of Rwanda’s lakes and 10 m from rivers (Article 86 in Organic Law
N° 04/2005 of 08/04/2005 determining the modalities of protection, conservation
and promotion of environment in Rwanda: GOR 2005b). The land still belongs to
the original landowners and they are being encouraged to plant trees which can
be harvested in due course. However, the limited number of lakeshore farmers
who were consulted by the NLTRP did not fully understand the policy and felt as
though they had lost their land because they are no longer allowed to farm it as
before. There also appeared to have been an impact on land prices from the
policy change; the land having previously been in great demand because of its
fertility (MINITERE et al. 2007, pp.101-102). These issues were taken up under
the present Project’s fieldwork but it would appear that further investigation is
still required on appropriate participatory and sustainable strategies to manage
the land adjoining Rwanda’s lakes and waterways, which will enable
environmental protection with minimal negative impact on the livelihoods of
affected landowners and land users.
Public rights access water. A further issue of relevance to those with land
bordering Rwanda’s lakes, rivers and streams, is the widely respected tradition of
public rights of way to enable people and animals to access water. However, this
causes some problems in conditions of land scarcity if animals trample on
people’s crops or otherwise encroach off footpaths and trespass onto land.
8.2.7 Marshlands and small scale clay extraction

Food supply insurance. Marshlands are found throughout Rwanda, although the
largest areas are probably to be found in the Eastern Province - with the large
numbers of lakes and rivers there - where they have provided a form of food
supply insurance in an otherwise relatively more arid region of the country.
Throughout the country, valley-bottoms and marshlands contain much of
Rwanda’s most fertile land.
Inconsistent protection. Marshlands are classified as private state land in
Rwanda, and any use of them for agriculture is meant to be sanctioned and
administered by Government. This appears not yet done systematically. Whereas
some sectors and districts were found by the NLTRP to be renting-out
marshlands themselves, mostly to farming associations, in other places people are
continuing to farm small marshland plots themselves as they have long done
(MINITERE et al. 2007, pp.100-101).
Ecology and biodiversity vs intensive agriculture for food security and exports.
Consideration is needed of how vulnerable groups such as widows and genocide
survivors could be given priority access to marshlands. However, the main
challenge is to design a sustainable land use management strategy that balances
the need to protect valuable wetland resources and biodiversity with the desire to
utilise the marshlands for intensive agriculture to improve food security and
develop exports. In some cases where marshlands have been closed to farming on
environmental grounds – and this has been enforced – such as in the Akagera
Marsh in Kirehe District, farmers’ livelihoods have been adversely affected, with
169 (274)
no alternatives yet put in place to compensate (MINITERE et al. 2007, pp.100-

101).
Impact on the livelihoods of the existing land-users. In the case of both
marshlands and livestock farmers, there may be ways to intensively, yet
sustainably, manage resources of marshlands and grazing lands that enable small
scale land users to continue their use, without necessarily tilting policy in favour
of large-scale investors – the impact on the livelihoods of the existing land-users
needs to considered, at least in the short to medium term until other livelihood
options have been developed in accordance with the Vision 2020 strategy.
Vulnerable groups. A vulnerable group to have been more critically affected by
land use conditions arising from recent environmental policies relating to the
marshlands are the Abasigajwe Inyuma n’Amateka or Abatwa. This group has
long suffered historical vulnerability and marginalisation in Rwanda, although
this is now recognised and efforts being made to counter it. Among this group is
a high incidence of landlessness. 90% of Abatwa are completely landless, and
many of those with land have very small plots, barely big enough to support a
basic tiny shelter for a family to sleep in (MINITERE et al. 2007, pp.115-116).
Restrictions on access to the clay in river valley bottoms and marshlands have
had a particularly severe impact on Abatwa communities, who have traditionally
depended on pottery production for their livelihoods. This may suggest a need for
the rapid development of sustainable land management strategies involving these
communities, and further investigation of issues such as the impact on
livelihoods of existing environmental policies through further in-depth socio-
economic studies under the present Project.
8.2.8 Soil erosion

Environmental problem with land dispute consequences. Government is very
concerned to limit the damage caused to Rwanda’s land by soil erosion -
evidence of this damage is visible in all Rwanda’s rivers and lakes every time it
rains. Soil erosion is a major problem in upland farming areas on steep terrain,
and gives rise to land disputes between those landowners and farmers who
mismanage their land and those down-hill from them who suffer the
consequences – e.g. in the marshlands, as just noted in the preceding text. Further
socio-economic studies offer scope for investigation of these issues and
appropriate management strategies here.
8.2.9 Small scale mineral extraction

Impact on livelihoods. Management strategies relating to small-scale mineral
extraction may also require further study. An example of such study is the impact
on local livelihoods of the closure small-scale gold mining sites around the
southern end of Nyungwe Forest, very close the National Park boundary.
8.2.10 Landholding patterns, including fragmentation and consolidation

Average parcel small. The land registration trials run by the NLTRP should have
provided data on parcel sizes and landholding patterns, albeit in very small areas
of the country so far. The NLTRP’s report of the 2006 field consultations
contains some indications of average landholdings in Musanze, Karongi, Kirehe
and Gasabo districts, and of average numbers of parcels held by households in
170 (274)
Karongi District. The extract from that report in Box 8.6, below, presents the
picture in general terms.
Box 8.6 – Average size landholdings
“The most authoritative estimate of current average landholdings for Rwanda as a
whole is 0.76 ha (MINAGRI 2004). However, a more differentiated view of land
distribution in Rwanda using EICV1 data splits the total population of the country into
an urban group and three rural groups. Rural Group 1 comprises 36.5% of all
households in the country, all of whom have landholdings of less than 0.3 ha. Their
average landholding per household is 0.11 ha, equivalent to 0.02 ha per person, and
they cumulatively hold just 5.9 % of all agricultural land in Rwanda. This group
includes the 11.5 % of all households who own no land of their own at all – the
landless. Rural Group 2 comprises 29.5 % of all households in the country and all
households in this group have landholdings of between 0.3 ha and 1 ha. Cumulatively
they hold 25.2 % of all agricultural land in Rwanda. Their average landholding per
household is 0.58 ha, equivalent to 0.12 ha per person. Rural Group 3 comprises the
24.1 % of all households in the country who all have more than 1 ha of land. Their
average landholding per household is 1.94 ha, equivalent to 0.35 ha per person, and
between them they hold 68.9% of all agricultural land in Rwanda (Diao and Yu
2006).” (MINITERE et al. 2007, p.30).
Scattered multiple parcels. Multiple parcels are the norm throughout Rwanda,
albeit that average parcel sizes vary according to the population density. Parcels
are generally bigger in Eastern Province than the north-west, for example.
Throughout the country, land parcels are usually scattered, and people often have
to walk long distances between their fields. However, the benefit of this comes
through enabling people to gain access to land of different types and qualities
which can be used for different purposes as part of their livelihood strategies.
Landlessness. Classic landlessness – owning no land at all – appears to be
limited in Rwanda, with those who want land usually able to access it through the
rental market, as explained above. However, certain groups such as Abatwa and
some old case refugees face particular problems of landlessness – many of the
latter benefited from the Government’s land sharing and imidugudu policies (on
which see below), while others regained at least some of their former land, but
there are still some who are waiting to be given land and security concerns hinder
good land management on the part of some of those who regained their former
land.
Private state land. Dotted throughout the country are large areas of private state
owned land, including many areas of forest; this awaits an audit - through the
ICF-funded land registration project - to identify suitable areas for investment
and to identify those areas, especially in the marshlands, which need to be
protected.
Minimum parcel area and fragmentation. Both the Succession Law of 1999 and
the Organic Land Law specify a threshold of 1 ha, below which land is not
allowed to be partitioned. However, this contradicts traditional Rwandan
inheritance practices, whereby all male children received a share – umunani - of
the parents’ land. Following the legalisation of gender equality in inheritance
under the Succession Law, it is possible that the tendency to fragmentation of
landholdings will even increase. Land fragmentation is also an unavoidable result
of the implementation of the land sharing policy.
171 (274)
Land consolidation. Meanwhile, land consolidation is an objective of

Government policy and careful consideration is required as to how this can best
be encouraged. The desire for more efficient and productive land use and
management must be balanced by respect for the carefully balanced farming
strategies that multiple and fragmented landholdings currently support, especially
in the short to medium term while off-farm livelihood activities are being
developed in line with the Vision 2020 strategy. Consolidation of holdings may
prevent people from growing a wide variety of crops on different parcels of land
of differing levels of soil fertility. It will, therefore, need to be matched by
adequate development of rural food markets and other infrastructures - such as
transport and storage facilities and improved roads - so as not to have a negative
effect on household nutrition and food choice. Consolidation through a gradual
increase in association-based farming appeared from the NLTRP field
consultations to be a strategy worth pursuing (MINITERE et al. 2007, p.66). This
could involve pooling land and farming the same crops on a bigger area of
neighbouring parcels – allowing for greater degrees of mechanisation if the
terrain is not too steep – or renting-in through associations of specific land types
such as marshlands and grazing lands, as already happens.
8.2.11 Land sharing

Background. Land sharing took place across Eastern Province following the
mass return of new case refugees from Tanzania at the end of 1996 and
beginning of 1997. The result is larger average parcel sizes in that part of the
country, and clearly marked boundaries. Ten years on, the outcome of land
sharing appeared during the NLTRP field consultations to be generally accepted,
although legal guidelines and procedures are still needed to govern any future
land sharing. After the genocide, the returning old case refugees who had lived in
exile for many years since 1959 or had been born in exile settled on the land
vacated by the departing new case refugees. Land was then shared when the two
groups were both back inside Rwanda and both needed land. Population density
had been much lower in Eastern Province than elsewhere in the country - and still
is - and much land there had only been opened up to cultivation gradually since
the 1960s. In addition, a long strip of land was taken back from the Akagera
National Park.
Perception of land availability. One consequence of the relatively low
population density in Eastern Province is a widespread perception in other parts
of the country that land is still available there. As a result, residents of the
Province have expressed concerns about future land sharing and about in-
migration putting pressure on the land there. Whereas parcels are generally larger
and the topography is less steep - and less prone to run-off induced soil erosion -
much of the land is rocky and better suited to grazing than arable farming. The
climate is also drier so the land has less agricultural potential than in other parts
of the country.
8.2.12 Informal settlement upgrading

Background of residential neighbourhood mix. Kigali City contains a broad
mix of residential patterns – from informal, spontaneous, settlements to formal,
planned, settlements with high value housing. This mix is found in both older
settlement areas like Kiyovu and Kimihurura and the new housing areas such as
Gacuriro and Nyarutarama. Kigali also contains many mixed areas and some
172 (274)
places were there was ‘tent’, ‘temporary’ and ‘permanent’ housing development
following the genocide.
Mode of upgrading of predominant informal settlements. An informal estimate
from Kigali City Council (February 2007) is that 78 % of the City’s population
live in informal settlements – not all of which are illegal, but include a range of
tenure statuses and infrastructural conditions. Ways of upgrading such existing
settlements, be it in Kigali or elsewhere, within a participatory and sustainable
spatial planning framework is a key issue for the present Project. Matters to
resolve include:
• confusion about the boundaries of private state land in many areas of the
City of Kigali – ie protected areas such as marshlands - and individually
owned land where residential developments will be allowed;
• no testing to date of methods for combining land tenure reform with
participatory physical and infrastructural upgrading in urban areas; and,
• existing building regulations have caused problems for those without
means to build to the specified standards – status of recently approved
new regulations to be reviewed by present Project regarding their
enabling capacity.
8.2.13 Expropriation and change of use

Expropriation with compensation. Expropriation has been a big concern of
many people in Rwanda, because of the way it has been carried out in the past.
The Organic Land Law and the recent Expropriations Law should enable
expropriation to be carried out better in the future, as, in particular, it is now clear
that compensation must be based on the market-price of the land. Expropriation
is necessary as part of the process of settlement development, in Kigali City and
other urban and rural settlements. Some work has already been done on a
possible strategy for this, which would facilitate private development. It may be
based on ‘willing seller and willing buyer’, rather than what may labelled
‘market-led’ evictions within the overall context of a Government supported land
use or spatial planning framework (MINITERE et al. 2008; UNDP & UN-
HABITAT 2006).
8.2.14 Imidugudu and participatory planning

Background. The imidugudu policy originally began to be implemented, and was
designed, in response to the post-genocide housing problems in the country and
the need to provide security especially in the north-west. The policy was
launched in 1996 and legalised through a Ministerial Decree in 1997 (Jones
2000; RISD 1999; Hilhorst Mathijs van Leeuwen, 1999). In some areas
imidugudu were created for vulnerable groups such as genocide survivors, but in
the north-west and the east, areas affected most by continuing military instability,
large-scale refugee movements and land sharing, far greater numbers of people
were resettled into imidugudu.
Imidugudu motivation. The concept of focusing rural development on small
residential and commercial centres - imidugudu – has, apart from a general
Government emphasis (Vision 2020) on development of non-agricultural
livelihood activities, a twofold motivation:
173 (274)
• first, it is intended to free agricultural land from physical obstructions to

allow for consolidation of fragmented parcels to permit higher
productivity;
• second, it is an attempt to save on physical and social infrastructure costs
by densifying settlement development – densification may also provide
for economies of scale.
In support of the approach, be it from a different motivation, the NLTRP found
that young people who are frequently landless because of the limited availability
of land to inherit from their parents nowadays, nevertheless still aspire to own a
house-plot in an umudugudu (MINITERE et al. 2007, p.108, but see Box 8.7,
below, on some of the concerns also expressed to the NLTRP about imidugudu).
Vulnerable groups with particular needs. Carefully planned imidugudu also
offer benefits to vulnerable groups like the disabled, genocide survivors seeking
security - especially if located near their farms - and to Abatwa. Help with house
construction rather than just provision of serviced sites may be required for such
groups of people.
Box 8.7 - NLTRP raised imidugudu concerns
Lack of social infrastructure planning. Many imidugudu residents consulted by the

NLTRP raised concerns about the lack of planning for social infrastructures in many
imidugudu, leading to poor sanitation and hygiene, and the continuing poor quality of
many of the houses. At the current time, plots in imidugudu are generally considered of
inadequate size by residents (averaging 20vm by 30 m); complaints were voiced about the
lack of space to extend a house or build a latrine, and frequent encroachment on
neighbour’s plots by livestock. People living in imidugudu usually wanted to have large
enough plots to be able to farm some food and keep a few animals on their plot, as part of
a mixed livelihood strategy which includes off-farm activities (MINITERE et al. 2007,
pp.110-111). This all needs to be considered as part of designing a participatory planning
strategy for the extension of imidugudu across the country.
Resulting fragmentation. The land exchange process that has been used to implement
imidugudu was further criticised during the NLTRP consultations. This process entailed
the existing residents of selected settlement sites exchanging land for a house with an
incomer who would then give them a same-sized piece of farm land elsewhere. This has
contributed to land fragmentation and the dispersion of total household landholdings
across multiple scattered plots, while the incomers also often found themselves far from
their fields (Ibid). These problems echo those found in countries such as Tanzania, which
underwent systematic Villagisation in 1974. Over time, an efficiently functioning land
market will correct for these factors but the lessons from experience elsewhere nonetheless
clearly show the desirability of a finding a good approach to the establishment and
planning of imidugudu in the first place. Factors such as access to roads and ease of
infrastructure provision need to be balanced against an assessment of relative soil fertility
in the different parts of a community area, so that the settlement sites are wherever
possible not located on the best farm land.
Need for participatory upgrading. At the present time, there are relatively more
people living in imidugudu in the north-west of the country and in the Eastern
Province. The eastern imidugudu are layout-wise better than those of the north-
west. In the latter participatory upgrading and improved planning may be needed.
Comparative study. The present Project offers scope for a comparative study of
existing imidugudu requiring improvements and of those which have, for
174 (274)
instance, been better laid out. Lessons learned may be used in a broader design
approach for future imidugudu development, adaptable according to different
local contexts of, e.g., terrain and population densities, and one also considering
to a greater extent social infrastructure.
Assistance with model plan. Sida, the Swedish International Development
Cooperation Agency has agreed with MINIRENA to assist with an urban spatial
planning consultancy, which may prepare in participatory modalities a model for
physical planning of umudugudu settlements. Such model could be used in
carrying out rural settlement densification through umudugudu with local
adjustments in recognition of local differences in context.
8.3 Methodology
Systematic review of documents for extracting of Project relevant data.
Following visits to Ministries and Government Institutions by Rwanda Land Use
and Development Master Plan Project colleagues in the first part of 2008, a large
number of policy and other official documents were obtained. These provide
different levels of statistical data and background information on most of the
sectors of interest to the Project. For the purposes of preparing an inventory of
this existing data, which serves as the baseline from which future preparation of
the national Land Use and Development Master Plan will emerge, a large number
of these documents have been systematically reviewed by the project Socio-
Economist. Selected, page referenced extracts of the relevant raw data are, thus,
found in the main Socio-Economic report. Emphasis is on socio-economic and
livelihoods/development issues, but also on aspects of most of the other sectoral
issues involved in the Master Plan Project, particularly where these have
relevance to socio-economic and livelihoods and development issues.
Purpose-designed field study of land and sustainable livelihoods. During May
and June 2008, seven day-long field trips were made by the author of the present
report to different parts of Rwanda, representing different types of land use and
farming systems and different agro-ecological zones, including ecologically-
sensitive areas. The field study was purpose-designed by the Socio-Economist
for the present Project to enable first-hand exploration of emerging and identified
issues which had emerged though the Socio-Economist’s earlier collection of
data both with the NLTRP and through the inventory work on the present Project.
Seven key issues of focus for field study. The seven-fold set of broad issues on
which the field study has provided complimentary information concern the
following: First, Lake Shores and Fisheries – general issues of sustainable
fisheries and access to the shore line, impact of silting, from erosion, affecting
fish stocks and local farming, also tree-planting, farming constraints and tourism
development around lake shores. Second, Wetlands with Clay, Peat, Sand,
Gravel and Rock Extraction – general issues of sustainable extraction of raw
materials for house construction, pottery and fuel;. Third, Steep Slopes, Forests
and Farming – general issues of sustainable land use including terracing and tree-
planting. Fourth, Tea Plantations and Export Agriculture – general issues of
sustainable livelihoods and land management, including change of land use and
marketing issues on tea farms. Fifth, Imidugudu, Planning and Livelihoods –
general issues of participatory planning, especially with reference to how
sustainable livelihoods can be developed within ‘artificial’ communities such as
refugee resettlement areas. Sixth, National Parks of Akagera, Nyungwe,
175 (274)
Volcanoes – general issues of community management, tourism development,

human-wildlife issues such as animal encroachment and poaching, and
livelihoods and poverty issues. Seventh, Gishwati Forest – general issues of
forest depletion, cattle-keeping, appropriate land use and land management.
8.4 Assessment of Existing Data and Recommendations Arising

Limitations of the data. Extensive official documentary material was obtained
and reviewed, yet staff of many Ministries often did not know the full extent of
the data they had, and some documents and types of information that the present
Project was specifically looking for were not easily found. In some cases, one
document was referred to in another document within the same Ministry, yet the
document referred to turned out not to exist. Many policy and official documents
also poorly reference the sources of the data contained therein, or contain within
themselves contradictory figures, making it difficult to assess their reliability.
Need for systematic gathering, recording and updating of data. To an extent,
the sorts of data kept in different Ministries and made available to the present
Project relied on the particular interests and institutional knowledge-bases of the
ministerial staff. The main Socio-Economic report provides some counter to this
with its comprehensive bibliographies. However there is a clear need to
systematise the data and record it in a GIS that can be a central reference point
for all Ministries to store and update key data. Data on hospitals, health centres,
and primary and secondary schools is a case in point – this had to be manually
calculated by the present project Socio-Economist for every district and sector in
Rwanda from an administrative map provided by the Rwanda National Institute
of Statistics (NISR), to establish the current baseline situation with regard to
socio-economic infrastructure in the health and education sectors.
Lack of solid local level detailed data.. The JICA-MINIAGRI report of Bugesera
District was the most comprehensive document obtained and reviewed, and
extensive extracts from it appear in the main Socio-Economic report. Similarly
in-depth studies for all other districts, if available, would be of tremendous value
for both local decentralised planning and for national level coordination and
strategic planning. It is possible that such detailed reports have been generated by
the many NGOs operating throughout Rwanda. The present Project inventory
work focused on official data only, but it would be useful for Ministries and
NGOs to share data more systematically so that non-governmental data could be
made available to policy-makers and government planners.
Baselines for planning. The MINECOFIN document ‘Long Term Investment
Framework’ provides potentially the best set of Vision 2020 baselines (from
2006) for planning purposes, although many other baselines and census-related
statistics may be obtained from the EICV2 survey (2005/06). It is necessary now
to agree on a set of national indicators and baselines against which the land use
planning scenarios can be developed and subsequently implemented and
assessed. It is similarly necessary to agree on data fields for inclusion in a
national GIS, which districts and Ministries can then take responsibility for
keeping up to date. The data on hospitals, health centres, and primary and
secondary schools mentioned above should be the absolute minimum data sets
included in the GIS from a socio-economic viewpoint. Other data from District
Development Plans is less consistent but it is nevertheless possible to create
fields for extracted data which districts could then take responsibility for
176 (274)
updating. A meeting of all district planning officers could be a helpful way for
the present Project to establish agreement on the basic socio-economic data to be
included in the national land use planning GIS.
8.5 Key Findings of Field Study

This section provides a summary of some of the key findings of the field study.
The full account of the field study is contained in the main Socio-Economic
Report.
Problems arising from intensive use of land and environment. Land in Rwanda
is intensively used – very little land is not farmed or grazed on. Ecologically
sensitive areas are utilised by local people mainly out of necessity rather than
lack of understanding about environmental issues. People may have even been
sensitised to excess about the environment, as many interviewed during the field
study denied knowledge of any ‘illegal’ activities, even when the proof was
directly visible. This creates a problem – people know they should not do
something, but they still do it for very rational reasons, but if they do not admit to
doing it, then it is hard to identify the people who most need support from
possible programmes of livelihood diversification.
Land as insurance and continued dependence on land-related activities.
Regarding the importance of farming, every single person interviewed during the
field study was farming at least some land, even if it was only around their house
– either themselves or their family members or paid labourers. The most common
reaction to questions about livelihood diversification away from agriculture was
laughter. People could not see how they could survive without farming – even
some people who were doing well in other economic activities still saw their land
- and the possibility of farming - as a kind of insurance. This seems unlikely to
change in Rwanda in the short term.
Livelihood diversification and perceived start-up constraints. The main
constraints on livelihood diversification appear to be lack of capital and credit.
Banks are there in rural areas, but collateral is needed. A common phrase was ‘If
I could get money, I could…’. This manifested in predominantly negative
attitudes on people’s parts as regards their own possibilities of improving their
lives and livelihoods – some could see possibilities ‘maybe in the very long
term’, but no possibilities of short term change. This leads to the conclusion that
the development of some kind of mortgage-based credit system should be a
priority, as most Rwandans at least own a house.
Duplication and lack of specialisation. A further, universally common,
constraint on livelihood diversification appears to be duplication. If one person
takes an initiative and succeeds, it seemed quite common for others to think of
taking the same initiative rather than doing something different. People also had
limited conceptions of alternative economic activities. For example, where there
is a group of shops in a centre, they often all sell more or less exactly the same
things. There is very little specialisation. This keeps prices down for consumers
but it does not enable the local economy to grow beyond a certain basic level.
Creative thinking beyond the standard well-known non-agricultural activities –
such as shops, beer houses, hairdressing saloons, basket-making, tyre repairs and
bicycle transporters– is limited. Suggestions made to several groups of people
interviewed during the field study, as to how they could gradually try to expand
177 (274)
and diversify their activities, were often met with an attitude of ‘that would be
nice but…’.
Little starvation but potential vulnerability. With regard to poverty, many
people in Rwanda appear to be living from hand to mouth, with local economic
activities hardly developed beyond the immediate local community, as has
probably been the case for hundreds of years. Yet people are not all showing
signs of impoverishment – there is little visible starvation, for example, and most
people wear clean clothes and have shoes. However, there are also a great
number of people who seem to be managing, but who are nevertheless vulnerable
to slip into, or back into, greater poverty, should adverse circumstances or
economic shocks come their way. Apart from their land, few people appeared to
have much in the way of reserves or insurance. At the same time, even among
‘poor’ people in rural areas, mobile telephone penetration seems to be growing
all the time. Such technology has the ability to improve access to markets and
knowledge of price information, to encourage more efficient economic
development.
8.6 Implications for National Parks
Following attendance at ORTPN’s first ever Conservation Conference on 19 June
2008, the following three implications for the present Project in relation to
National Parks emerged.
Liaison and co-operation on research and information. First, in approaching
the required in-depth socio-economic and agro-ecological studies of areas and
communities neighbouring the National Parks, liaison and co-operation with
other Rwandan stakeholders will be very important. Some related research is
already being or has already been done, and there are a number of key
organisations including ORTPN and the World Conservation Society (WCS), as
well as some private sector tourism industry organisations, with information and
experience that will be of value to the present Project.
Consideration of trans-boundary issues. Second, in making future
recommendations in relation to the National Parks, the present Project needs also
to give consideration to trans-boundary issues and how any Rwandan land
management and land use framework or proposals will affect and be affected by
policies in neighbouring countries. This issue will need to be brought to the
careful attention of MINIRENA and the National Land Centre (NLC), as they
will have to consider how they would like to manage this issue in future
alongside other Rwandan stakeholders.
Need for integrated approach. Third, interest in the Volcanoes National Park is
massive, and in gorilla conservation, and gorilla tourism is a major revenue
source for Rwanda. Nyungwe National Park is possibly ahead on community
conservation, but way behind on tourism. In contrast, Akagera National Park
seems little researched and underdeveloped both in terms of conservation and
tourism. An upshot of this is that – at the present time – interest in tourism and
conservation in Rwanda is limited to or at least centred on the gorillas, and much
work will be needed to take a more integrated approach to Rwanda’s National
Parks and encourage tourism development beyond the gorillas so as to improve
livelihoods for more Rwandans.
178 (274)
8.7 Recommendations for Further Studies

In-depth study of national parks next. With the collected and reviewed basic
data, it is now meaningful – as of ‘Task 4’ in the Project Technical Proposal – to
engage into further socio-economic study, ie in-depth study, of areas bordering
Rwanda’s three National Parks. Comprising Volcanoes, Akagera and Nyungwe
forests, the study should seek to identify the particularities of the situation on the
ground in each place relevant to the formulation of alternative land use and
development master plan scenarios. The study methodology should utilise rapid
appraisal methods in the field, involving interviews and discussions with local
government officials, ORTPN staff and members of local communities. Existing
land management practices should be assessed and suggestions made, as
required, for sustainable and participatory strategies for more effective land
management and conservation in these areas. Lessons and best practice from
other countries should also be drawn on, and consideration should be given to the
implications from the ORTPN conservation conference set out in the preceding
section.
Studies of key land use issues requiring further investigation. Also under ‘Task
4’ in the Project Technical Proposal, more detailed socio-economic studies
should now be carried out on a number of other key land use issues - including in
sensitive ecological zones - to suggest possible strategies for dealing with them.
This will contribute broadly to the development of a sustainable, and evidence-
based, land use and development planning and management framework for
Rwanda especially in relation to: land adjoining Rwanda’s lakes and waterways,
which will enable environmental protection with minimal negative impact on the
livelihoods of the affected landowners and land users; sustainable development
of the fisheries sector; future development of imidugudu in different areas;
improvement and upgrading of existing imidugudu; sustainable development of
the small-scale mineral extraction sector - in the case of clay extraction, how can
this be married with the sustainable management and development of the
marshlands/wetlands, including biodiversity protection; and, areas characterised
by very steep slopes.
Groups meriting particular targeting. From the analysis of the various land use-
related issues as of the present Project objectives, identified in its Technical
Proposal, found at its inception and during subsequent work, including collection
of data on the existing situation, it is clear that some groups of land users might
merit special targeting in deepened socio-economic studies and possible pilot
work, for example:
• fishing communities;
• lakeshore landowners;
• communities adjoining the three National Parks - ‘ordinary farmers’, but
also tea farmers around Nyungwe and livestock farmers around Akagera;
and,
• farmers on steep slopes.
Pilot study with participation. It is also clear that participatory spatial planning
for residential and commercial development, in line with Vision 2020, is a key
issue to be addressed by the present Project. One possible pilot study might
involve the construction of two model imidugudu (one urban, one rural), to test
179 (274)
and demonstrate the feasibility of environmentally sustainable and low-cost

settlements following principles of participatory spatial planning. This could
possibly be incorporated with the Sida assistance on urban planning described
above.
180 (274)
9 Physical Infrastructure
9.1 Introduction
This report is commensurate with the requirement by the SWEDESURVEY
Project Team of the contribution of a Civil Engineer, in the area of Physical
Infrastructure to the Rwanda Land Use and Development Master Plan, currently
under preparation by the Team. The project schedule is at the stage of aerial
photography and collection of existing data for other relevant sectors. To this
respect, the general scope of the terms of reference was to collect information on
the prevailing situation, associated with the related data in different domains of
Physical infrastructure namely, transport (roads, railways, air, and water
transport), energy, water and sanitation, ICT and telecommunication and solid
waste.
The report therefore organizes and summarizes the data collected, makes
references of where to obtain the bulk data that could not be accommodated in
the report, and makes a mention in case the sought data related to a particular
domain was not available. The report also illustrative images in form of tables,
charts, maps, diagrams, and photos just to qualify as necessary some of the
information in the text.
The information was collected through physical visiting of different relevant

organizations, consulting different available documents, physical visit of places,
as well as visiting some relevant websites.
9.2 Transport
9.2.1 General
Vital development catalyst: Transport Infrastructure is undoubtedly among the
most vital catalysts of any country’s socio-economic development. The pace of
achievement of economic goals is a direct function of the quantitative and
qualitative level of accessibility and mobility of goods and persons within a
country, complemented with the operational levels of transport connections to the
neighbouring countries and worldwide. Improving transport systems and, thus,
accessibility promotes economic development in all respects, through the
following:
• facilitation of the accessibility to essential social services like health,
education, administration, markets, tourism and culture;
• widening of employment basin for the active population, contributing to
poverty reduction;
• alleviation of production costs;
• cheaper access to production facilities like supply of materials, manpower
and machineries;
• reduction of transportation time: wider choice to business specialization
like supply of perishables;
181 (274)
• easy accessibility to new inputs or to new technologies, thus

diversification and enhancement productivity level;
• enhanced propagation of information, enhanced community development;
and,
• facilitation of smooth trading of produces from the different production
sectors like agriculture, industries, mining, fisheries and forestry.
Inefficient transportation: In Rwanda, all the efforts endeavoured by
Government to improve transport notwithstanding, plenty is still to be desired as
regards transportation of products to local trading facilities or for export. A result
of an inefficient transportation system is minimisation of revenues, dissuasion of
entrepreneurs and investors, and impoverishment of the concerned geographical
area.
Landlocked urban areas: Also in urban areas, several zones are still
‘landlocked’ in terms of poor quality of local road network. In consequence,
transport cost becomes high against the purchasing power of the population,
leading to suppressed individual mobility and weak urban productivity.
Mitigation of these problems enhances the improvement of slums and low-
income urban zones.
9.2.2 Problems related to transportation

Challenging topography: The inefficient transportation system in Rwanda is, on
the one hand, an effect of the country’s particular geographic characteristics, and,
on the other, the generally poor economic situation. The latter was exacerbated
by the past years of war and genocide. The transportation setback in Rwanda is
typical of a country under negative effects of threefold ‘land lock’ constraints, ie
those concerning the country being landlocked:
• physically in the region;
• regarding rural areas; and,
• socially and economically.
Aggravating factors: These states of being landlocked have been aggravated by:
low operational efficiency on the part of the actors in the transport sector; low
level of economic development, a combination of the human and property
destruction caused by the genocide; low level of harnessing of natural resources;
and, absence of an audacious and voluntarism policy in the transport sector that
trailed for a considerable time leading to lack of organisation and to poor
productivity on the part of the operators of the sector.
Physical state of being landlocked: The geographical features of Rwanda are
one of the characteristics that affect the performance of the surface transportation
sector. Two major elements are noted: first, enclosure of the country at the sub-
regional level; and, second, the relief characteristics of Rwanda. The latter
illustrate the implication of spatial distribution in the configuration and
performance of a surface transportation network.
182 (274)
Figure 9.1- Rwanda sub-regionally landlocked
Source: MININFRA, Rapport sur la Politique du Transport, Document Sythése Vol 3,

2005 Nov:3.
In efficient international network for exports and imports: Lack of efficiency of
the international transport chain connecting with Rwanda has a direct impact on
cost of exports to outlets including ports, subjecting Rwandese products to less
competitiveness on the international market. Regarding imports, the high
transport cost has an impact on the purchasing cost for Rwandese consumers,
and, thus, contributes to high cost of living, constraining the endeavours of
poverty reduction.
Added costs: In terms of transport costs, the impact of the existing situation of
the international transport chain is triple, i.e.:
• immutable distance implies increase in cost of the operational variables:
fuel, tires, lubricants, salary of the drivers, etc;
• transit time increases the fixed costs - vehicle depreciation, insurances,
etc; and,
• legal, and in particular illegal, taxes have added up an appreciable
supplementary cost aspect.
Physical distance with disadvantage: The physical enclosure of Rwanda in the
sub-region has also an impact in terms of competitiveness of Rwandese
transportation companies. That the ports serving the country are located abroad in
Kenya and Tanzania, results in Rwandese transporters being subjected to
competition with transporters of those countries. This situation is aggravated by
the necessity to sometimes cross through other countries to access sea ports. This
adds to costs and competition.
Dependence: The enclosed situation also constitutes a potential threat in terms of
national independence and protection of the strategic interests of Rwanda. The
exportation of Rwandese products and the supply to the country of essential
goods depends on the organisation of the respective logistic transport chains. In
this strategic domain Rwandese transporters are not favoured (Table 9.1 below).
183 (274)
The more the regional differences in terms of technical norms, such as axial load,
disadvantage the Rwandese Transporters, due to the negative impacts in abiding
to the associated regulations.
Table 9.1 - Distances and times of transit towards ports
Corri Distance (km) Transit
dor duration
(days)
Road Rail Total Import Export
North (1)
Road 1690 - 1690 8 6
Rail/R 520 1333 1853 20 16
oad
Central (2)
Road 1380 - 1380 12 12
Rail/R 480 982 1462 14 12
oad
Notes: (1) via Malaba in Kenya; (2): via Isaka in Tanzania.
Source: MININFRA, 2007.
Internally landlocked. Rwanda, with a high population density, of which 80 % is
rural, would seem to require at least a concentrated network of roadways.
However, considering the country’s relief, endeavours to this respect are a
challenge. The difference in altitude sometimes attains several meters and, taking
into account the sub-equatorial climate, the road infrastructure is costly to
construct and maintain.
Low density road network and sprawled population: The state of being
internally landlocked through constraining topography, is also characterized by a
network of tracks, usable by motor transport, that is not sufficiently dense to
cater for a rural population so evenly distributed outside dense settlements - most
parts of dwelling and working places are, therefore, only accessible on foot or
other IMT. Moreover, the situation is pronounced by rare utilisation of animal
towed transport in Rwanda, argued due to poor purchasing capacity for tires and
other required materials, and to culture and traditional factors – the use of animal
towed carts as an intermediary means of transport was never a Rwandese culture.
Land locked urban zones. The following constraints apply to rural and urban
transport in Rwanda, and create isolated zones also in towns, particularly in
Kigali:
• when roads are in bad condition, motorised transport does not ply them;
• roads in bad condition elevate the running costs of vehicles as well as
tariffs applied by transporters, thus, constraining low-income population
categories; and,
• high costs associated with petroleum products and vehicle spare parts
exacerbate.
184 (274)
Economically and socially landlocked: It is the less advantaged of the

population who, as a rule, live a situation of physical enclosure, in isolated
villages or in ‘informal’ urban zones. Little served by public utilities, this
majority of the population are constrained by lack of access roads, be they
surfaced or not. Within such settings, where there exist transport services, the
condition of the road network is associated with very high operation costs, thus
prohibitive tariffs. The extreme poverty of the majority of the population,
therefore, excludes it from motorised transport - leaving it with the only option of
walking on foot often with luggage on their heads. Economic and social
enclosures, add up to the physical enclosure, thus, contributing to prevent a
majority from leaving impoverishment.
Few local international operators. Apart from its poor state of road
infrastructure, the transport sector in Rwanda suffers from lack of participation
on the part of its operators. On the international arena, there exist very few true
Rwandan transporters in possession of trucks to serve the demand for
transportation of heavy loads including those containerised.
MIT, ie by foot. In the local livelihood context, the common option of
Intermediary Means of Transport (MIT) means walking on foot, carrying luggage
on the head, especially by women, leading to:
• significant time wasted in the supplies and transport of farm produces;
• small or meagre quantities actually transported; and,
• fatigue of the transporters, especially women, who are also the producers.
Elevated costs. For access to markets and urban centres – efficiency of transport
is hampered by low capacity of transport units, the speed limited by poor roads,
poor roads network and the weak organisation of the trade. Costs are elevated for
the above reasons, on one part, and due to lack of competition, on the other.
Lack of targeted regulations. Concerning transportation of persons, as much in
towns as in the villages, lack of targeted regulations by the local authorities leads
to disorganised transport, characterised by:
• high concentration of service on certain road routes, which are
immediately profitable – ie, on bitumen roads and networks in good
condition with little competition; and,
• lack of concentration, or non-existence, of service on deteriorated road
routes, particularly in rural areas.
9.2.3 Roads as the principal sub-sector

Other sub-sectors small: Roads constitute the principal transport sub-sector in
Rwanda. It is, thus, mainly by roads that movement of goods and the majority of
people happen. Other sub-sectors - including air transportation, lake and water
carried - are yet at low levels of operation or development, albeit making some
contribution in alleviating the high transportation demand. The general
contribution to the Rwanda’s transportation demand by each sub-sector is
illustrated below (Table 9.2).
185 (274)
Table 9.2 – Transportation per sub-sector

No Transport System Approximate Contribution
(%)
1 Roads 88
2 Air 4
3 Lake 5
4 Water carried 1
5 Others 3
New sub-sector modes. The Ministry of Infrastructure (MININFRA), with inter

alia transport infrastructure within its attributions, is currently devising workable
programs and projects to revamp the Rwanda’s transport infrastructure - through
rehabilitation, improvement and development - to include other existing sub-
sectors, and also development of new systems including so far non-existing rail
road transport. In the four sub-sub-sections that follow, the existing situation of
road, air, water and railways transport in Rwanda, associated challenges and
related development plans envisaged by the Government are outlined.
9.3 Public Transport in Rwanda
9.3.1 Road Transport

Kigali hub. Transportation by road is the most common mode of public
transport. The routes radiate between the capital Kigali, other major towns and
corners of the country and with neighbouring countries (Table 9.3 below).
Table 9.3 - Major arteries used by public transport
No Start End Via Description
Main route to
Gatuna at
Kampala via Kabale
1 Kigali Uganda Byumba through
border
north of Rwanda
Newly resurfaced road

2 Kigali Kayonza Rwamagana
eastward from Kigali
Kagitumba Continuation of road

2a Kayonza at Uganda Nyagatare No 2, running north-
border eastward.
Rusumo at
Main route crossing
2b Kayonza Tanzania Kibungo
into Tanzania.
border
Fugi at Road resurfaced 5

Gitarama,
3 Kigali Burundi years ago links three
border Butare Rwandan Urban
centres as well as
186 (274)
Bujumbura.
Road crossing Congo-

Nile watershed was
3a Gitarama Kibuye recently reconstructed
and newly
bituminized.
Cyangugu Road running through

at heart of Nyungwe
3b Butare Gikongoro Forest, to shores of
DRC Lake Kivu, crossing to
border Bukavu in DRC.
Road runs along

southern edge of
Gisenyi at Virunga volcanic
4 Kigali DRC Ruhengeri mountain chain, to
border Gisenyi on Lake Kivu
and crosses to Goma
in Congo.
Road passing close to

Cyanika at
Mount Muhabura
4a Ruhengeri Uganda
from Ruhengeri to
border
Gisoro in Uganda.
Source: Wikipedia, 7 March, 2009.
There are two other important roads, ie:
• connecting the Western Province towns of Cyangugu, Kibuye and
Gisenyi, the road along shores of Lake Kivu programmed for
reconstruction; and,
• connecting to Burundi, the Kicukiro-Nyamata-Nemba road was recently
reconstructed near new airport site in Bugesera.
Major local transport companies. The major nationwide companies are:
ATRACO; Virunga; Volcano Express; SOTRA; Belvedere with minibuses; and,
ONATRACOM, which offers a big bus services. There are also ‘taxi minibus’
services serving major towns, and making frequent stopovers on the way.
Across borders. There are bus companies renowned for the across border
services namely: Jaguar Executive Coaches, which connect Kigali to Kampala
via Gatuna to Kayonza and Kagitumba; Regional Coach Services, which connect
with Kampala, Nairobi and Dar es Salaam; ONATRACOM Express, between
Kigali and Kampala; and, AMAHORO Couch Express, normally serving
between Bujumbura and Kampala via Kigali.
Transport in the Capital, Kigali City. Public transport within Kigali is
exclusively by “taxi minibus”, with a number of different routes, connecting the
main hubs: City centre, Nyabugogo, Kacyiru, Kimironko and Remera. The mini
buses frequently stop to pick up and drop off en route.
187 (274)
Figure 9.2 - Taxi-Mini Buses Figure 9.3 - Kigali City, Mount Kigali in background
Source: Wikipedia, 7 March, 2009. Source: Wikipedia, 7 March, 2009.

Other common means of transport in Kigali are the ‘motor cycle taxis’, mainly
used by the majority, and the ‘saloon car taxis’ that are only affordable to higher
income groups.
9.3.2 Air Transport

New airport to be located at Bugesera: Rwanda’s main air gateway is Kigali
International Airport, located at Kanombe, approximately 10 km from Kigali
City centre. The airport has international flights to Nairobi, Entebbe, Addis
Ababa, Bujumbura, Johannesburg and Brussels, and is the main airport for the
national carrier Rwanda Air Express. Plans to construct a new airport at
Bugesera, 40 km south-east of Kigali, are under way.
Figure 9.4 - Kigali International Airport: Figure 9.5 - National Flag Carrier
Source: Wikipedia, 7 March 2009 Source: Internet, 13 March 2009
9.4 Roads
9.4.1 General existing situation and jurisdiction

Mainly earth roads. The road network in Rwanda constitutes around 14000 km,
of which 5400 km constitute the main road network. According to studies
accomplished by MNINFRA in 2005-6, of the main network, only 1075 km are
paved. The remaining 4325 km are earth roads. The national and inter-urban
main road network is placed under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of
Infrastructure (MININFRA). This network connects the provinces among
188 (274)
themselves and Rwanda to neighbouring countries. The secondary road network

is under the responsibility of the districts.
Varying custodianship. The tracks within the National Parks belong to
MININFRA. ‘Project roads’ are under the responsibility of the project owners,
before they are adopted by ultimate clients. Ownership of tracks bordering plots
grouped in different areas and categories is adopted by the plot owners who are
entrusted to ensure their maintenance.
Lacking of road safety. Whereas - in spite of the relatively high density of road
network in Rwanda with about 0.5 km per km2 - motorised transport remains
small, the high population density entails intense pedestrian traffic and hand
pushed two-wheeled carts traffic on both earth and paved roads, often leading to
mixed traffic composition. This mix contributes to a high level of insecurity on
the road networks.
One third classified. Among the 14000 km, only 4790 km of the network
comprises classified roads as follows:
• National Tarmac Roads - 1075 km;
• National Earth Roads - 1875 km; and,
• District Roads (earth) - 1840 km.
The remaining 9210 km are unclassified roads.
Figure 9.6 - General Road Map of Rwanda.
Source: Swedesurvey Project base maps.
189 (274)
Need for attention. A large part of the network in Rwanda calls for
rehabilitation, extensive improvement, scheduled maintenance and development
of new roads.
9.4.2 General road inventory

On the way from ‘bad’. A comprehensive report on the geographical localisation
and condition survey conducted by the Ministry for the classified road network in
the year 2006 is available in the MININFRA Transport Coordination Unit. The
report indicates that there is still a great deal to be desired as regards the state of
roads in the country. A global representative score that may be assigned the roads
in Rwanda is ‘bad’. This depicts the inadequacy level of the road conditions. The
actual overall situation is likely to be worse as the inventory was only conducted
on classified roads, which constitute only around 35 % of the total network.
Nevertheless, the situation has improved to an extent over the period from 2006,
thanks to a number of road improvement and rehabilitation projects that have
been implemented. Many others are on-going. The state of roads and its network
are expected to highly improve in the coming years, given several future
investments in road improvement programs under consideration as part of the
EDPRS.
Useful new survey. BCEOM, a consulting company, providing technical
assistance with funding by the EU to MININFRA, is currently carrying on a road
condition and inventory survey that is intended to accomplish the following:
• renewed condition survey on the whole road network;
• traffic survey on paved road network; and,
• constitution of a database.
The survey is highly useful as it shall serve in collecting vital data for future
planning for maintenance, rehabilitation and other improvement measures of the
roads. The study is already completed for the tarmac roads and is on-going for
the earth roads.
9.4.3 Problems associated with road infrastructure

Transportation not enabling: Rwanda’s road network, thus, faces several
problems that suppress its serviceability - a consequence of which is an
unsatisfactory transportation service, in a situation where roads being the major
transport sub-sector. Main problems associated with road infrastructure are
summarised as follows:
• general poor state of existing roads, attributable to lack of maintenance
and improvement measures – resulting from enormous financial
investments required, that are not adequately attainable by the
Government;
• a few good roads in the network are highly overloaded and congested, as
there is always an imbalance of traffic distribution in favour of good
roads - this negatively affects the life spans of even the good roads, which
would otherwise have served longer;
• mix of different modes of transport within the few good roads, especially
in urban centres, with vehicles of different kinds, motorcycles, bicycles,
190 (274)
hand pulled or pushed carts, pedestrians, pedestrians with head luggage -

rendering roads insecure and leading to traffic accidents;
• the terrain of Rwanda is highly rolling, which entails cost of investments
for road development, rehabilitation and maintenance exorbitant - most of
the roads, as a result, stay in poor state for indeterminate periods;
• a majority of roads, particularly national earth roads and district roads, are
not geometrically designed and not provided with the necessary road
furniture, thus subjected to frequent accidents - given the fact that they
are structurally weak, they are prone to damage especially caused by
storm water and degradation that goes with lack of maintenance; and,
• most of the roads have been constructed without fully observing
applicable technical standards including geometrical and others, general
width, drainage facilities, pedestrian facilities, boundary blocks and curb
lines, bus bays and parking facilities including that for emergency, service
centres and road signs and markings - this leads to the following typical
associated problems:
Table 9.4 – Problems associated with sub-standard roads
Nature Reason
Traffic Narrow widths, especially problematic for heavy axle load
accidents trafficked roads and long vehicles are dangerous overtaking and
bypassing - eg Kigali-Kayonza road, with a carriageway width
of 6.0 m.
Absence of road signs, exacerbated by unpatriotic residents who
rampantly vandalise this road furniture especially on newly
constructed roads – eg the Gitarama-Kibuye Road.
Fainted, non reflective or lacking road markings - the negative
effect of which is more pronounced at night.
Inadequate super-elevations 34 especially at horisontal curves -
eg some curves on Kigali-Gitarama Road.
Lack of separated pedestrian side walks or cycle lanes - more
pronounced in urban areas.
Lack of parking bays, emergency parking facilities, thus
blockage of drive ways - common in most of the roads.
Edge damages Lack of boundary blocks and curb lines - eg Kicukiro-Nyamata-
of road Nemba Road.
pavements
Water stagnation Sub standard drainage arrangements, the design of which did
and clogging of not tally with hydraulic and hydrological factors of the area.
drains
Inadequate or lack of routine maintenance.
191 (274)
Environment unfriendly. The largest part of Rwanda’s road system - constituting

around 90 % - is unpaved and, therefore, environmentally unfriendly through
propagation of dust and mud, with uncomfortable navigation, etc.
Pollution problem. Anther problem associated with the country’s road network is
a high level of pollution from exhaust gases of vehicles. Especially aged vehicles
ascending steep grades common to the road network, or moving in low gears due
to bad roads, produce large volumes of fumes with highly pollutant constituents.
These are mainly the oxides of Carbon and Nitrogen. So far there are no
distinctive measures in the country to check this serious but apparently not
addressed problem. One reason for lack of address may be a combination of
unawareness by vehicle owners of health risks involved in using vehicles with
badly maintained engines and cost of spare parts.
Address for overall economic development. In view of accounted inadequacies
with Rwanda’s road system, it is imperative, that the discussed problems are
systematically addressed to promote efficiency of road transportation, as a vital
enabling and crosscutting sector to boosts economic sectors dependant on
transportation and the country’s national socio-economic development.
9.4.4 Plans and programmes

Generally on-going and envisaged. In addressing the problems associated with
the road network in Rwanda, several programs have been devised and
MININFRA has completed a number of projects while others are on-going.
Further and deeper analyses of other road itineraries are being continually
undertaken to identify other priority areas and intervention measures that are
designed to take into account the road condition, the generation and origin of
traffic, the data on accidents, the territorial development objectives and globally,
commensurate with our Millennium Development Goals (Tables 9.5).
Table 9.5 – On-going or completed works re paved road network
Project Budget Start End km Financier
(million)
Ngorolero-Mukamira USD 37 2008-09 2010-06 56 BADEA, OPEC,
FSD, KFAD, GOR
Kigali-Ruhengeri USD 38 2008-09 2010-09 83 WB
(Rehab)
Kigali-Gatuna EUR 40 2009 2011 77 EU
Butare-Cyangugu UC 74 2009 2011 15 -
0
Kayonza-Rusumo USD 40 - - 91 -
Source: MININFRA, 2008:8.
192 (274)
Table 9.6 - Projects in pipeline re paved road network

Project Budget Start End km Financier
(million)
Ngorolero- USD 37 2008-09 06-2010 56 BADEA, OPEC,
Mukamira FSD, KFAD, GOR
Kigali- USD 38 2008-09 09-2010 83 WB
Ruhengeri
Kigali-Gatuna EUR 40 2009 2011 77 EU
Butare- UC 74 2009 2011 150 -
Cyangugu
Kayonza- USD 40 - - 91 -
Rusumo
Table 9.7 - New Road constructions re paved road network
Project Budget (million) Start End km
Bujumbura-Ruhwa- 350 M USD 2009 2012 285

Ntendezi-Rubavu
Nyagatare-Byumba- - - - 130
Base
Kibungo-Nyanza - - - 130
Table 9.8– On-going maintenance contracts re rural gravel road network
Project Budget Start End km
(billion)
Nyanza-Kibuye 1.95 RWF 12-2007 02-2009 69
Mudasomwa-Gisovu 1.46 RWF 11-2007 11-2008 52.5
Butare-Kibeho-Muse 2.23 RWF 11-2007 01-2009 53
Nyankora-Nasho 1.17 RWF 01-2007 42
Kabarondo-Akagera- 1.66 RWF 05-2007 05-2008 36
Ihema
Urban roads, technical studies and bridges. Further detailed survey results - on
urban roads projects of different surface finishes, technical studies on gravel
roads and other activities including bridges reconstruction, rehabilitation and
maintenance – are found below.
193 (274)
Urban Roads. The following road projects have been recently finished or
towards completion:
• Kigali City - Nyarutarama-Kibagabaga-Remera Road – 4 km double
surfaced, dressed road, completed in 2007;
• Kinamba-Memorial-FAWE-Nyarutarama and Giporoso-Kabeza-Rubirizi
- 14 km bitumen double surface, dressed roads, now completed under
PIGU (Projet d’Infrastructres et de Gestion Urbaine);
• extension of stone paved roads - financing with RMF, ADB and
Community participation; and,
• 36 km Road rehabilitation project financed by Exim Bank.
Other urban entities. Construction and rehabilitation of paved roads.
• Huye, 4 km of new paved roads - PIGU Project;
• rehabilitation of paved roads in Butare, Muhanga, Musanze, Rubavu and
Rusizi - pre-financing arrangements negotiated with SNCPC and
STRABAG.
Studies re rural gravel road network. The following technical studies are about
to start:
• Kazabe-Gashubi – 54 km, National Earth Road;
• Byimana-Buhanda-Kitabi - 98 km, National Earth Road;
• Cyakabiri-Nyabikenke-Ndusu - 75 km, National Earth Road;
• Gashirabwoba-Nyamirundi - 30 km, District Road;
• Ngorolero-Vunga-Nyakinama - 45 km, unclassified road; and,
• Lake Muhazi Ring-Road - 98 km, District Road.
Other activities on road network. The following maintenance works are
prepared:
• routine maintenance for the national 1135 km paved road network: and,
• multi-year maintenance contracts on ‘renewal on performance’ basis to be
signed with national contractors.
Bridges. The following reconstruction, rehabilitation and maintenance are on-
going or are to be launched:
• Gashora II and III Bridges on Cyangugu-Bugarama Road - under
reconstruction;
• Rusumo Bridge on Kgali-Kibungo-Rusumo Road - maintenance works
taking place since 2008; and,
• Rusizi Bridges on Burundi and DRC borders on Rusizi-Bugarama and
Bugarama Rukwa Roads - rehabilitation study to be launched;
A more detailed investment situation of the projects and programs, current and
future, including mega projects planned for large scale regional context destined
to lower transportation costs, especially for Rwanda, envisaged within the
EDPRS period 2008-12 are elaborated in details in the MININFRA Transport
Sector Programme Document (Aug 2008), available in the Transport Sector
Coordination Unit of MININFRA. In accordance with the document, value of the
total investment is estimated at USD 996000000.
194 (274)
9.5 Railways
9.5.1 Background
Need for rail port connection. Rwanda is a landlocked country far from seaports;
the nearest port of Dar-es-Salaam is about 1400 km away. The country’s highly
rolling terrain and its state of being landlocked pose a major obstacle in its socio-
economic development efforts. The major strategic options for Rwanda in the
area of poverty reduction are based on enhanced security, revival of socio-
economic activities and opening up of the country by developing its
infrastructure, to promote local as well as foreign investors. To this respect,
among the solutions being conceived is the railway project to connect Rwanda
and its neighbouring countries namely Tanzania, Burundi and later the DRC.
9.5.2 First stage objectives

First part of railway connection with Tanzania. The two neighbouring states of
East Africa, the United Republic of Tanzania and the Republic of Rwanda share
a common border of about 195 km. These two countries nurture socio-economic
and cultural ties owing to the permanent intermixing of their peoples. The main
objective is to construct the first part of a railway line system for Rwanda
between Isaka in Tanzania and Kigali in Rwanda. The rail line envisaged is about
450 km long, of which 175 km will be on the Rwandese territory and the rest on
the Tanzanian soil. The project is at the stage of feasibility study, which has just
been completed.
Railway study on first part. Specifically, the railway study under MININFRA
(Ref: Feasibility Study for the Isaka-Kigali Railway Project, by DB International,
2007) aims at finding an optimal solution to the construction of the Isaka-Kigali
railway line on a ‘central corridor’, to especially open up Rwanda to the ports of
the east African coast on the Indian Ocean. To this end, areas of high mining,
industrial and agricultural production potential of Rwanda would be rail
connected with the Kagera and Shinyanga Regions in Tanzania, Burundi and the
Eastern Provinces of the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC).
195 (274)
Figure 9.7 - Schematic view of the proposed railway alignment
Kigali
Rusumo Falls
Proposed New Line
Bujumbura
Isaka
BURUNDI
TANZANIA
Source: MININFRA, 2007:3
The rail line shall complement transport in the Lakes Kivu and Tanganyika and
the New Bugesera Airport shall be an alternative for trucks - eg, between coastal
ports to Kigali and Bujumbura - and support to economic activities like
agriculture, mining, tourism, industry and general trade along its line.
Later objectives of sub-regional connections. The sector goal of the

project is to contribute to the implementation of an efficient and economical
community transport program. It is intended to foster regional economic
integration and the development.
196 (274)
Figure 9.8- Schematic presentation of part of the proposed railway towards Kigali and
environs, in relation to other transport infrastructure
Section of km 400+000 – km 480+000
Kigali
Upper Road
Corridor
Lac Mugesera
Proposed
Airport
Lac Sake

Figure 9.9 - Schematic presentation of part of the proposed railway: Link to Burundi
Section: km 320+000 – km 400+000

Rusomo Falls
Lac Rweru
Link to Burundi
Map 9.5.1.3-Schematic presentation of part of the

proposed railway: Link to Burundi
Source: MININFRA, MININFRA, Presentation of the
Feasibility Study Report by DB
International GmbH Consulting
200 10
9.5.3 Future regional connection

EAC Railways master plan. The East African Community (EAC) countries have
agreed to prepare and launch the EAC Railways Development Master Plan,
which is now at the procurement stage A vast network of new railway lines
within East Africa and others linking the region to neighbouring Ethiopia, South
197 (274)
Sudan and the Democratic Republic of Congo are planned in the Master Plan.
Consultants have, thus, been commissioned by the EAC Secretariat to study the
possibility of constructing 15 new lines under the Master Plan. A new rail line
connecting with Isaka and the eventual accomplishment of the full network of the
Railway Development Master Plan total connection of Rwanda to the greater
region would be realised, thus fully making use of the three transport corridors,
as well as connection to other countries outside the EAC, like Ethiopia, Sudan,
DRC, etc (Wikipedia, 7 March, 2009).
9.5.4 Isaka Dry Port

Two rail corridors. A land locked country with significant remoteness to ports;
this constitutes a major handicap in the Rwanda’s efforts towards socio-economic
development. For the regional and external exchanges, the country makes use of
the ‘Northern Corridor’ that connects Kigali to the port of Mombassa in Kenya,
at a distance of about 1800 km, and the ‘Central Corridor’, running from Kigali
to the port of Dar es Salaam in Tanzania, at a distance of about 1400 km (Ref.
Terms of Reference for updating of the Technical and Feasibility studies for the
construction of a Dry Port at Isaka, 2007:1).
Preferred corridor with terminal: To give much more importance to the services
of the Tanzania railway network, the Isaka terminal was upgraded to the status of
a ‘dry port’ to facilitate rail traffic with destination to or originating from
Rwanda, Burundi, the east of the DRC and the east of Uganda. After construction
of a modern container terminal in the port of Dar es Salaam, the improvement of
some Tanzanian railroads and putting at the disposal of Rwanda of a storage
space in Isaka - intended to play the role of a dry port in the future days - the
interest of Rwanda to use the latter corridor is more pronounced (Ref. Terms of
Reference for updating of the Technical and Feasibility studies for the
construction of a Dry Port at Isaka, 2007:1-2).
Box 9.1 – Dry port history
Intent. The Government of Rwanda, determined to reduce the transportation costs of
goods to this respect acquired a land of 17 ha 50 Ares at Isaka 35 . The land is intended
for the construction of transfer facilities to and from the railroad of goods passing the
port of Dar es Salaam originating or destined to Rwanda, Burundi or the East of the
democratic Republic of Congo. All efforts by the Government of Rwanda to develop
the dry port terminal, including acquiring a grant of EUR 9 million were blocked in
1990 when war broke out in Rwanda. In December 2003 the Government of Rwanda
revived the intention to develop the port as one of its priorities to set in motion a
policy to cut down transportation costs of goods, and particularly to decrease the cost
of the transportation by vehicles by at least 40 %. The dry port terminal, at around 450
km from Kigali, is to be facilitated with container storage areas, covered warehouses,
depots for petroleum products, administrative buildings and fire fighting facilities. The
Governments of Tanzania and Rwanda are in the process of joining their efforts to
facilitate all the initiatives for construction of the port.
Dry port progress. The contract for a dry port feasibility study was signed in July
2008 between MININFRA and Consultants for a study period of seven months.
A first progress report was submitted, amended and approved at the end of 2008.
A second Progress report was submitted in January 2009, and is still under
scrutiny.
35
Plot nº 75724, Isaka, April 6th 1984
198 (274)
9.6 Air Transport
9.6.1 Overview
High transportation costs. Rwanda is the most densely populated countries in
Africa and one of the most worldwide. Agriculture has been, and is still is, its
strongest sector as over 90 % of the population relies on subsistence agriculture.
The country has embarked on a transition towards restructuring the economic
sectors based on public sector and market reforms. In pursuit of these objectives,
there is remarkable progress with respect to macro-economic stability, increase in
food production, rehabilitation of industrial sector, rehabilitation of core
infrastructure and in education and public health. The business environment,
however, faces constraints because of the lack of human capital and even though
remarkable gains have been made in ICT, there are still structural bottlenecks
including high transportation and energy costs.
Development of core infrastructure. As a landlocked country, currently with no
sufficient energy resources and difficult terrain, Rwanda faces problems in terms
of addressing the identified structural bottlenecks. One of the themes underlying
Vision 2020 is, thus, the refurbishment and development of the core
infrastructure. In parallel with projected population growth and increase in GDP
per capita, it is intended to enhance more socio-economic and trade activities
including generation of more trips of persons and more import and export
volumes of goods and products.
Figure 9.10 - Kigali City in relation to the location of new airport
Source: NININFRA, 2007:7

General situation of air transport in Rwanda. Rwanda air transport is still
limited to two International Airports, namely Kigali International Airport and
Kamembe Airport, and five aerodromes at Butare Town, Gisenyi, Ruhengeri,
Nemba and Gabiro. Additional information concerning these airports and
aerodromes is presented below (Table 9.9).
199 (274)
Table 9.9 - Rwanda Airports and Aerodromes

ICAO IATA Runway Runway
Town Name Code Code Use Customs Type (m)
Kigali
International
Kigali Airport HRYR KGL Civ Yes Paved 4800
Butare Butare HRYI BTQ Priv No Paved 930
Gabiro Gabiro HRYO - Priv No Unpaved 800
Gisenyi Gisenyi HRYG GYI Civ No Paved 1070
Kamembe Kamembe HRZA KME Civ No Paved 1630
Nemba Nemba HRYN - Civ No Unpaved 1200
Ruhengeri Ruhengeri HRYU RHG Civ No Unpaved 1600
Source: Google website, Feb. 2009.
9.6.2 Kigali airport

Existing Kigali airport. Kigali International Airport (KIA) is Rwanda’s serving
principal air carrier airport and a key point of entry for international travellers. It
is managed and operated by the Rwanda Airports Authority (RAR). The airport
is located approximately 11 kilometres north-east of Kigali City Centre.
New airport. Moves to construct a new international airport are on-going. The
planned site for the new airport is in the Bugesera area, around 26 kilometres
south-east of the City. It is envisaged that the new airport shall be a full
replacement for the existing airport for all scheduled passenger services and for
all cargo operations.
Air transport vital role. The airport shall have a vital role in Rwanda’s air
transportation network. Air transportation is seen as an important component of
restoring Rwandan economic growth, particularly accommodating higher-value
exports, business travellers and tourism. Transportation within Rwanda and
internationally is still constrained by the country relief and by currently limited,
poorly maintained land and water transportation facilities.
Choice of the new airport site. The choice of the site was done after ensuring the
feasibility of the following key planning issues: Runway and taxiway layout;
obstacle limitation surfaces; site constraints; terminal concept; apron layout; road
and rail access; aircraft servicing installations; location of support facilities;
security; and, environmental considerations.
Justifications to opt for a new airport: Air transport is currently one of the
structural bottlenecks to economic development for Rwanda, as the existing
international airport lacks the infrastructure to be fully International Civil
Aviation Organization (ICAO) compliant and to provide the space to develop
export opportunities through cargo development. The objectives of the
Government of Rwanda for the new airports are threefold, to:
• assist the development of international air transport;
• enhance Rwanda’s integration into the regional economy; and,
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• make the airport a regional transport hub and part of a proposed export-
processing zone.
Justification for new airport. With respect to exports, Rwanda produces

premium tea and coffee, the production of which is now being boosted by the
introduction of high yield varieties. There is also scope for the non-traditional
crops such as fresh cut flowers and fine fruits to be developed and exported
through an airport with the appropriate facilities and connections to the desirable
international destinations. As the service and other business sectors develop,
particularly, banking, insurance and tourism, a boom in the passenger traffic,
especially international passengers that the current airport could not be expanded
to handle, is envisaged. As exports and business develop, they will need and be
enhanced with the new airport. The new facility shall be a springing board to
increased exports and regional inter-connectivity to ensure Rwanda’s
development as a regional service centre.
Box 9.2 – Existing airport limitations
Need for new airport. The location of the existing airport poses several physical
restrictions to any further expansion, another compelling reason to look for a convenient
site. The airside of the airport is composed of a single runway with a right angle taxiway
to the terminal apron that serves all flights. The airside is deficient as it does not meet
many of the ICAO standards. The site is severely restricted, and falls off steeply on all
sides of the runway. The current apron was expanded during UN relief efforts in the late
1990s and early 2000s. It is small, has no nose-in aircraft parking, and is surrounded by
blast fences to prevent jet blast from interfering with terminal operations. The apron area
cannot be expanded due to terrain limitations. The site is being encroached upon by
urban development, and expansion is not feasible given the current site constraints.
Kigali City Centre is also a prohibited airspace - 1 nautical square mile to 11000 f.
Above Sea Level (ASL) - and this presents some problems to the design of a missed
approach for the current runway, as the city centre is directly in the path of any missed
approach. As well owing to the nature of the site, if Kanombe is closed for any reason,
there is no other airstrip in the area that could be used to service flights. In terms of air
navigation facilities, the existing airport has sub-standard equipment including the
control tower, radar that is not suitable for air traffic control purposes, and low intensity
runway lights. Given the above analysis of the current airport site, there is need to
consider a future international airport serving Kigali that is not developmentally
restricted to growth as the economy of the country grows.
Current progress. The preliminary studies were completed in the mid 2008 and
approved. Technical design study commenced immediately, and is ongoing. The
accomplishment of the study is envisaged by within this 2009. According to the
‘New Airport Master Plan Report’ by a team of Consultants, led by OZ
Architecture of US in 2007, the development of the new airport is envisaged in
three phases:
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Box 9.3 - Proposed Implementation phasing

First phase: The first phase development is predicted on the current passenger forecasts,
which indicate that the airport will grow to approximately 1.3 million passengers by
2025. This phase is, thus, designed to handle up to 1.3 million passengers per year and
180 aircraft movements in the peak hour. To serve this passenger volume only one
runway is required along with facilities for the processing of passengers and cargo, and
fuel depot to serve the aircrafts. Notwithstanding this, the site is expected to grow
rapidly as the current forecast cannot account for the economic impacts anticipated in
Rwanda’s Millennium Development Goals. Thus, several evolutionary stages of the
airport are envisaged as its growth materializes.
Intermediate phase one: The first plan of the intermediate phase is designed to serve up
to 21 aircraft movements per hour and a passenger throughput of approximately 2.5
million passengers. It includes completion of the main access road from the “new”
Kigali City centre and completion of the site access road to serve the southern area of the
site. The completion of this access road is required to allow development of new cargo
areas and some light industrial development along the western periphery of the site.
Intermediate phase two: The second plan of the intermediary phase considers future
development of the site to accommodate increasing growth, estimated at 42 aircraft
movements per hour and a passenger throughput of approximately 10-12 million
passengers per year. A major expansion of the passenger terminal, addition of a parallel
taxiway and expansion of utilities are planned in this phase.
Doubling capacity including rail access: The long-term phase of development envisions
complete development of the site: Provision of a parallel runway and inter-connecting
taxiway system, major expansion of the passenger terminal building, major expansion of
utilities and the further development of light industrial and commercial areas, and cargo
and aircraft servicing areas. It also sees the completion of the perimeter road system to
provide an eastern entry to the site and to allow development to the east of the runway.
This development shall allow for the processing of 82 aircraft movements in the peak
hour and annual passenger throughput of 50-60 million passengers. During this phase,
also development of major accesses to the airport site is planned. This is intended to
include roads and a rail system that will provide access for cargo as well as the fuel
supply for the airport and passenger transfer from Kigali and other points in the country.
Two options of the rail connection are considered (Figure 9.11 below). Depending on the
implementation of the main development orientations of Rwanda, which are intended to
enhance the rate of socio-economic growth, the capacity demand of the new airport
might be appreciably higher than the situation forecast for each phase of the airport
development. The new airport has, thus, several evolutionary stages for development,
which are purpose-designed for actual growth.
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Figure 9.11 – Major long-term accesses to the new airport site
9.6.3 Plan to improve other airports and aerodromes

Improvement plan for the existing airports and aerodromes exist (RCCA Action
Plan, 2008:3-9). Long-term plans are elaborated in details in the ‘Transport
Sector Programme’ document, available in the Transport Sector Coordination
Unit of MININFRA. These improvements are imperative for the profitable
maximisation of this transport sub-sector.
9.7 Water Transport
9.7.1 Akagera River Navigability Study

Preparing for multi-modal transport. According to the information obtained
from the MININFRA Transport Sector Coordination Unit, plans are underway to
conduct a feasibility and engineering study of the navigability of the Akagera
River waterway, to permit multi-modal transport, ie rail/water/road, connections.
The study is to be funded by the World Bank under the East African Trade and
Transport Facilitation Project (EATTFP). The project is at the procurement stage
for the studies, which are expected to commence early 2009 with final report
availed by August 2009. Positive results of the study shall permit establishment
of several multi-modal transport connections.
9.7.2 Construction of seven quays on Lake Kivu

Overview: The transport project on Lake Kivu is a new initiative by the
Government of Rwanda to develop public transport and tourism. It is an effort to
find a solution to a critical transport problem, which has faced the landlocked
Western Province for many years due to lack of a road network to link the
Rubavu-Karongi-Rusizi zone. It is also an effort to enhance transport connections
between Rwandan towns on Lake Kivu and those on the other side of Lake Kivu
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in the Eastern DRC. Another vision is that the project shall in future ensure
coherence of the transport multi-modal connections in this zone taking account of
the planned railway line from Isaka with a Branch to the DRC.
Box 9.4 – Project aspects
Quays, ship building and management . The procurement process is ongoing for the
selection of a consultant to conduct the feasibility and engineering study that is
intended to accomplish the following main aspects to lead to the execution of the
project: identification of sites for seven quays, necessary infrastructure and facilities
for the quays and also for ship and boat building and associated detailed design;
reassessment of characteristics of Lake Kivu with recommendations for suitable type
of ship; preparation of all required design documents, proposal for origin of
construction materials and equipment and estimation of cost of investment and
execution period; proposal for most adequate project management method; projection
of revenues and expenditures and proposal for a project business plan; and, Analysis
of risks for this type of project with assessment of its environmental impact and
proposal for attenuation measures for any identified problems.
The Government of Rwanda shall construct the quays, whereas building of ships
shall be confided to the private sector. The intention is to construct two ships, the
capacity in terms of passengers and cargo of which shall be determined by the
study.
9.8 Policies and legal framework on transport

Towards streamlining. After 1994, the Government envisaged transportation in
the country as one of the factors affecting economic development. Different
policies laws and regulatory documents have therefore all along been developed
to streamline the transport sector.
9.8.1 National Transport Policy
Background. The Ministry of Infrastructure, MININFRA, developed a National
Transport Policy in 2005-6, a document that was elaborated by a consultant,
CIMA International. The objective of the policy was to furnish Government with
useful information for:
• adoption of pertinent strategies for development of the transport sector;
• implementation of necessary mechanisms and tools for putting in place of
the adopted policy;
• co-ordination and monitoring of the sector; and,
• mobilisation of necessary resources to accomplish activities in the
implementation action plan.
Policy objectives. The 13 major objectives contained in the National Transport

Policy are as follows. First, to define and put in place strategic transport network:
• identify principal production sectors and the flux of transportation of
persons and goods; and,
• identify transport modes and most adequate transport lines to be
rehabilitated or developed.
Second, develop an efficient transport network the following was considered
necessary, to:
• develop and rehabilitate a road network of national interest - internal
and international;
• develop and improve the rural road network;
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• develop and improve urban road network;

• improve market accessibility and accesses to essential services;
• increase capacity of international and national airports;
• ensure control of air transport and efficiency of Civil Aviation Office;
• evaluate technical and economic feasibility of extension of transport
lines with neighbouring countries like Tanzania; and,
• evaluate economic feasibility of extending pipeline originating from
Mombassa to Kampala and finally to Rwanda.
Third, ensure complementarities between transport services offered by the public
and that offered by private sector to ensure a maximum service for the public
interest. Forth, develop a professional and technical expertise so as to strengthen
the involvement of the private sector in the transportation of persons and goods.
Fifth, develop expertise of Rwandese private enterprises in the domains related to
the transport industry - construction, maintenance, design of infrastructure and
transport systems. Sixth, develop and put in place intermediary level means of
transport especially for the rural areas. Seventh, promote more responsible
behaviours in respecting the driving and navigation regulations through:
• introduction of regulatory dissuasive measures; and,
• devising and put in place sensitization campaigns that are accessible to
all.
Eight, provide safer infrastructure through:
• identification of and correction of problematic areas:
• developing infrastructure that advantages a shared environment amongst
users; and,
• bringing about required regulatory and legislative modifications. .
Ninth, improve safety of vehicles and transport facilities though:
• putting in place permanent programs for inspection and maintenance of
vehicles; and,
• harmonising technical norms through consultation with neighbouring
countries.
Tenth, clarify duties and responsibilities of different stakeholders in domain
through:
• finalising and put in place the institutional framework through
consultation with all stakeholders;
• strengthening capacity of human resources;
• developing and putting in place, operational support structures to Ministry
Operational Agencies; and,
• developing information and communication technologies (ICT) in the
domain of Transport.
Eleventh, ensure economical use of energy and reduction of pollution through:
• promotion of use of intermediary transport systems and more performing
vehicles in terms of environmental arena; and,
• establishment of regulatory and finable measures against polluting
emissions of vehicles.
Twelfth, reduce impact against natural and dwelling environments through:
• establishment of measures that focus the attenuation of environmental
impacts of projects; and,
• informing and encouraging population to participate in environmental
management in transport sector.
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Thirteenth, develop, in conformity with prevailing policy, a legislative and

regulative framework adoptable in present and future contexts through:
• review of existing texts, and updating of them as may be necessary; and,
• elaboration of regulatory list underlying transport policy.
Box 9.5 - Inspiration

MDG, Vision 2020 and EDPRS. The National Transport Policy is inspired by
Rwanda planning tools, MDG, Vision 2020, EDPRS, National Investment Strategy
and Sector Strategy of MININFRA. It is also influenced by aspirations in national and
international documents policy documents on good governance and decentralisation,
crosscutting issues such as gender equality, environmental protection and management
and fight against HIV/AIDS. Moreover it takes cognisance of the action plan of the
Sub-Saharan Africa Transport Policy (SSATP). Adopted by the end of 2008,
Rwanda’s Transport Sector Policy is available in the relevant Government bodies, eg
MININFRA.
9.8.2 Transport Master Plan

25 and 50 year timeframes: The Government of Rwanda, through MININFRA,
intends to develop a National Transport Sector Strategic Plan, and to undertake a
medium-long term transport Infrastructure Master Plan Study. Formulation and
implementation of a National Transport Strategic Master Plan is deemed
necessary, to operationalize the National Transport Policy. The strategy is
supposed to translate the broad policy aspirations into time bound measurable
activities. The study will be carried out in two phases: first, preparation of the
National Transport Sector Strategic Plan adapted to the EDPRS objectives; and,
second, the carrying out of the Transport Infrastructure Master Plan Study for
Rwanda that shall entail transport demand and supply forecasts for a 25 and a 50
year time-frame, respectively, which takes into account the effects of anticipated
future economic development and transport growth demand in the Rwanda. The
execution of the study is at procurement level in the Ministry of Infrastructure.
9.8.3 Road Agency

To execute road transport policy: MININFRA is at an advanced stage in the
establishment of a Rwanda Road Agency, a technical execution agency that shall
be particularly charged with the implementation of the road transport
programmes. It is to play a key role in the execution of the road transport policy
in synergy with the other agencies and offices of the sector. It is to be created in
conformity with Rwandan laws governing creation of public establishments. The
Agency shall operate as a semi-autonomous body under the Ministry of
Infrastructure, and shall be bound by a performance contract with the Ministry.
9.8.4 Road Maintenance Strategy

The Ministry has also elaborated and approved a document that puts in place a
Road Maintenance Strategy (RMSD) whose goals are to:
• provide a policy framework to guide MININFRA Road Agency staff in
maintenance programming, planning and execution of appropriate type of
maintenance, be it emergency, routine, recurrent or periodic maintenance,
or rehabilitation;
• ensure that investments in road infrastructure development are protected
and rendered to deliver their maximum benefit; and,
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• allow all stakeholders to understand the investment decisions taken by

MININFRA Road Agency.
This strategy will be modified and updated as changing economic and social
circumstance dictate.
9.8.5 Road Classification

A Draft Presidential Decree relating to regulation of the national road network
and determining its reserve and its classification is in place and awaiting
enactment. In the draft decree, the classification of the public road network in
Rwanda is in principal done in accordance with their destinations and their
significances. According to the decree, among about 14 000 km constituting the
national network, only 4790 km constitutes classified roads as follows:
• National Tarmac Roads - 1075 km;
• National Earth Roads - 1875 km; and,
• District Roads (earth) - 1840 km.
The remaining 9210 km are unclassified roads. However the classification
process should be dynamic so that the rest of the network is handled in the
process.
9.8.6 The National Transport Development Board

MININFRA plans to introduce in 2009 a National Transport Development
Board, to co-ordinate both sectors and promote dialogue between the private and
public sectors. The Board will encompass road, railway, water and air
transportation. The establishment of this kind of single window institution is
intended to handle better, services given to the public. The merging of
government parastatals shall harmonise activities to improve the quality and
ensure quick and timely public transport service delivery in the country for
assured profitability and innovations.
9.8.7 Other issues envisaged by MININFRA
MININFRA envisage the following regulatory attention:

• enforcement of appropriate standards and norms for construction and
maintenance of transport infrastructure;
• axle load control started, to be extended to the entire paved network:
overloaded vehicles to be avoided;
• weighbridges at border posts – software acquisition in process;
• dissuasive regulatory measures - driving regulations being reviewed;
• Vehicles Technical Inspection Centre operational;
• transport safety policy and action plan to be prepared by 2009;
• road safety education and sensitisation campaigns - media campaigns on
road safety issues; and,
• transport database establishment – on-going activity.
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9.8.8 New Partnership for African Development (NEPAD)
Africa’s renewal. The New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD) is a

Vision and Strategic Framework for Africa’s Renewal. Its Strategic Framework
Document arises from a mandate given to the five initiating Heads of State from
Algeria, Egypt, Nigeria, Senegal, and South Africa by the Organisation of
African Unity (OAU) to develop an integrated socio-economic development
framework for Africa.
The 37th Summit of the OAU in July 2001 formally adopted the strategic
framework document. NEPAD is designed to address the current challenges
facing the African continent. Issues such as the escalating poverty levels,
underdevelopment and the continued marginalisation of Africa needed a new
radical intervention, spearheaded by African leaders, to develop a new vision that
would guarantee Africa’s renewal. NEPAD, therefore, intervenes in all sectors of
socio-economic development. Rwanda is a member of NEPAD, and benefits
from the following transport projects:
• Isaka–Kigali Railway line, which is supported by the African
Development Bank (ADB) and the Belgian Government;
• two road corridors connected to Rwanda corridors, ie Corridor 1,
connecting Mombasa–Malaba–Gatuna–Kigali–Goma in DRC and
Corridor 2 connecting Dar es salaam–Rusumo–Kigali–Kanyaru, Burundi.
and,
• great lakes railway project.
9.8.9 The Sub-Saharan Africa Transport Policy Program (SSATP)
Rwanda is a member of the Sub Saharan Africa Transport Policy Program

(SSATP). SSATP is a unique partnership of: 35 African countries, eight regional
economic communities; three African institutions, AU, NEPAD and UNECA;
and, national and regional organizations as well as international development
partners. All subscribing to the goal of ensuring that transport plays its full part in
achieving the developmental objectives of Sub-Saharan Africa, ie, poverty
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reduction, ‘pro-poor’ growth, and regional integration. The Program is currently

funded by the European Commission, Denmark, France, Ireland, Norway,
Sweden, United Kingdom, the Islamic Development Bank, the African
Development Bank and The World Bank.
9.9 Issues related to transportation

9.9.1 Roads
Classification with all roads. A larger part of the road network in Rwanda,
constituting around 66 % is unclassified. Yet these are among those that enable
mobility from the main roads and other classified roads to the disadvantaged
majority where vital activities and services are lacking. There are those of high
economic and social importance that lead to mining, tourist, agricultural
activities, light industries, and to social services. It is, thus, important that road
classification is amended to include all roads to facilitate planning for their
improvement. To this end, the national Land Use Master Plan may map roads
with high economic and social importance in this category. Classification in
accordance with the administrative status of roads (Article 6 of the Draft Road
Classification Presidential Decree) - National Roads, District Roads, Rural
Feeder Roads, Specific Roads and Urban Roads - brings more clarity.
Surfacing of earth roads. 92 % of our network constitutes earth roads, most of

which are in bad state. An extensive plan to tarmac these roads should be
recommended by present project with prioritisation that takes account of roads
with highest social and economic value, and those of important connections with
sub-regional countries.
Inadequate road standards. The geometrical design of most of roads is

inadequate, resulting among other sub-standard features lie narrow widths. It is
envisaged that, given the Government’s commitment to implement national
development strategies, these roads shall no longer be adequate to accommodate
the qualitative and quantitative expected growth in traffic in 10-15 years. They
are unlikely, therefore, no longer to be commensurate with the pace of projected
economic advancement, especially in the context of the East African Federation
and the Regional Integration development visions.
Highways if environmentally feasible to compliment rail transport. Opening up
standard highways in Rwanda should be planned to adopt to all types of traffic
load and volume and to the desirable vehicle speeds. It would be highly
uneconomical to construct internal highways with ‘culs de sac’ within the
country. It is recommendable rather to adopt the philosophy of highways that
connect sub-regionally and, in turn, regionally, especially in coherence with the
‘Corridor’ roads. Through economic co-operation with the regional neighbours, it
may be economically feasible to realise highways - as a compliment to rail
transport - with harmonised structural and geometrical design for routes like
Kigali-Kampala-Nairobi-Mombassa, Kigali-Bujumbura, Kigali-Dar es Salaam,
Kigali-Goma and Kigali-Bukavu. A proviso for such a vision is that it is
compatible with increasingly more stringent environmental requirements to curb
greenhouse gases and global warming – a perspective that already makes rail
transport increasingly more attractive and economically viable. Government may
test the feasibility of concession of highways - provided environment friendly
transport may not found for them - through the philosophy of Public Private
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Partnership (PPP). The latter, which works well in other countries, may be
studied and adopted.
Road Maintenance. Long lasting programs for the improvement and regular
maintenance for feeder roads should be recommended by the Master Plan project.
The maintenance of such roads should be decentralised responsibilities of the
districts, with advisory and control from a technically competent organ like the
National Road Agency. Maintenance of all other roads should continue to be
assured by MININFRA, the City of Kigali and the Districts, respectively, for the
National, City and District roads through partnership with Private Sector.
Urban vehicular, pedestrian and cyclist traffic. As urbanisation is one of the

priority development elements of Rwanda, the present project should include
proposals of development strategies for an efficient urban road network that is
capable to enhance smooth urban mobility, especially for public transport
purposes. A larger part of the existing urban road network is concentrated to
Kigali City where, although possible, it is difficult and expensive to re-plan and
implement better road systems due to the city’s high proportion unplanned and
uncontrolled urban sprawl. Boundaries of other townships may be redefined by
the Master Plan; and planning and implementation of road infrastructure
programs shall be easier due to comparative low urbanisation level. A system of
main arteries consisting of ring roads and radial roads should be adopted, as
much as the topography shall allow. Vehicular bypasses both within the urban
and sub-urban zones needs to be created - in combination with other means like
car tolls, tax incentives/disincentives and improved public transport - to control
nature and flows of traffic. Strength should be put in the separation of pedestrian,
cyclist and vehicular traffic by planning safe pedestrian and cyclist facilities,
including pedestrian and cyclist bridges and tunnels, pedestrian side walks and
cyclist paths, pedestrian waiting platforms. At bus and taxi terminals, bays with
pedestrian shades, etc, need to be provided.
Harmonisation of axial loads. The design and the service axial loads for
Rwanda roads are 13 and 8 tonnes, respectively, whereas those for our regional
neighbours are 10.2 tonnes and 8 tonnes. There is, thus, need to harmonise the
design standards to synchronise the regional monitoring and control of traffic
loads and serviceability of the roads.
9.9.2 Intermediary Means of Transport (IMT)

As sited in the National Transport Policy Document (MININFRA, 2007:10), the
common IMT in Rwanda is on foot and carrying luggage on the head. Mainly in
the rural environment where the population is not much gender sensitive, the
most affected by this mode of transport are women (Figure 9.12, below).
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Figure 9.12 - Common Intermediary Means of Transport

Another common means is the bicycle, which is also a difficult mode as only a
limited load is possible given the hilly terrain in Rwanda. In several other African
countries, animals of burden, like donkeys, camels and oxen, have proven to be
an excellent alternative. A two-donkey or oxen pulled cart, for example, carries
up to one to one and a half tones - depending on the terrain and the route
roughness - a bicycle may carry up to 100 kg on a horizontal plane. A human
head transports 20-50 kg depending on the strength of a person and the distance.
In Umutara in the Eastern Province, a program to use oxen pulled carts in
transporting agricultural produces and ploughing is in the making. An extensive
program to make use animals of burden would make life easier to small-scale
farmers in the rural areas to transport their goods - even human beings - along
reasonable itinerary distances such as to market and wholesale places, from
production to storage places, etc. This would only demand small improvements
of some feeder roads and tracks to make them conveniently usable by this
particular means of transport.
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Figure 9.13 - Illustrations of use of animals of burden as an IMT
9.9.3 Railways
Safe and efficient. Railway transport is the most economic and safe mode of
transport, given its capability of massive transportation of both goods and
passengers, less maintenance expenses and less accidents as compared to road
transport. A train may be less environmentally pollutant as compared with a
number of trucks, for example, of the same haul capacity. Execution of the
Rwandan railway project will highly contribute to the long term solution for
country’s transportation problems, albeit the magnitude of the entailed initial
investment. Several multi-modal transport connection options needs to be
available for Rwanda - instead of the current inefficient only road option - to
support envisaged necessary economic activities. In the regional context,
transport may be highly facilitated along the ‘Central Corridor’. This new rail
system and other rail line projects under conception in other EAC countries,
especially Tanzania, Kenya and Uganda, included in the EAC Railways
Development Master Plan shall be an alternative for trucks. Subsequently,
Rwanda expects to significantly reduce high import and export transport cost,
which is currently rated at 40 % the value of the import or export goods.
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9.9.4 Airports
Short and long term improvement plans. In the New Airport Land Use Plan
(MININFRA, 2007:7), it is stated that “Air transport is currently one of the structural
bottlenecks to economic development within the country as the existing airport lacks the
infrastructure to be fully ICAO compliant and to provide the space to develop export
opportunities”. Thus, the development and improvement plan for Rwanda air transport
system is imperative in consideration of domestic, regional and international needs. Part
of it the implementation of the new International Airport program intended to allow for
Rwanda to become the air transport hub of the sub-region. According to the Rwanda
Civil Aviation Authority (RCAA) of 14th April 2008, plans are underway for 2008-9 to
improve aviation safety, security, passenger facilitation, modernization and
beautification for Kigali International Airport (KIA), Kamembe International Airport
and Gisenyi Airport, and also capacity building for the RCAA. Parallel facelifts of other
aerodromes to complement the above improvements, are meant to enhance other
economic sectors especially mining and tourism industries.
9.9.5 Water Transport

Economic and social benefits and inter-connectivity with other forms of
transport. Strengthening of Lake Kivu transport is planned though a strategy for
construction of appropriate quays - in both quantity and quality - and deploying
ships of appropriate make capacity and safety. Its realisation is intended to
provide economic and social benefits to Rwanda locally and sub-regionally. The
current pace of development in tourism and industry amongst local towns
situated on the shores of the lake is to be enhanced. Another envisaged benefit is
the eventual inter-connections with other transport modes including those in
DRC.
9.10 Energy
9.10.1 Background
Government from provider to facilitator: The energy sector in Rwanda entered
into a phase of reform in 1994. Whereas the role of the Government is to change
from provider to that of policy formulator and facilitator, it still remains involved
in the implementation of power projects. The objective is, however, to
progressively move towards the establishment of a liberalized energy market, and
to create a favorable environment for private sector investments in the energy
sector. Among the mechanisms put in place to this end, was to set up the Rwanda
Utilities Regulatory Agency (RURA) in 2001 as the organ for the regulation of
the sector through the issuing of licences and the setting of tariffs. This meant to
provide an adequate regulatory and legal framework for the energy sector. Since
2004 efforts have been made towards the elaboration of laws on electricity and
gas. Both of them have already been passed by parliament.
Revoked government monopoly. It is in the context of the sub-sector’s
restructuring, that the monopoly status of ELECTROGAZ - the main actor in
electricity generation, transmission and distribution - was revoked in 1999 36 .
Today several independent power producers are involved in the Rwandan energy
sector. In 2003, ELECTROGAZ management was entrusted to a private operator,
who was meant to improve the enterprise’s technical, commercial and financial
36
Law No18/99 of 30/08/1999.
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situation. The contract was suspended, however, at the end of 2005 when
management reverted to Government again.
Box 9.6 – Stand-by diesel generators
Rented. In 2004 the electricity sector experienced an unprecedented crisis. This was
due to a prolonged lack of investments in the sub-sector, i.e. the over-exploitation of
the existing hydroelectric power plants and low rainfall. The crisis resulted in load-
shedding 37 throughout the country. It compelled Government to acquire and rent diesel
generation units, as an emergency solution to attenuate the impact of the energy crisis
on the national economy. Today power supply is stable without load shedding.
Main source biomass. Biomass energy is still the main source of energy in
Rwanda, accounting for about 90% of the national energy balance. Currently
Government is working towards diversifying its energy sources and reducing the
use of biomass. This also includes the promotion of renewable energy sources
like solar, geothermal and wind energy or biogas and the development of the
methane gas resources in Lake Kivu for power generation.
9.10.2 Sub-sector profiles

Rwanda has multiple energy resources. Energy projects that are currently focused
on include:
• hydro energy;
• bio energy;
• fossil fuel, ie thermal energy;
• natural gas;
• solar energy;
• aeolian energy; and,
• geothermal energy.
9.10.3 Overview
Unsustainable over-dependence on Biomass: According to the national energy

mix, 90% of energy sources emanates from biomass, whereas 7 % is from
hydrocarbons and 3% is principally sourced from electric power. Biomass is in
turn sourced from firewood, charcoal or agricultural residues mainly for
household cooking purposes. This strong reliance on biomass is predicted to lead
to devastation of forest resources and accelerated land degradation if appropriate
and sustainable management measures are not employed (Section 7 Ecology).
Hydrocarbons in Rwanda are mainly used in the transport sector, and also for the
production of electricity through diesel generators. 42 % of the electricity
produced in Rwanda is produced by diesel generators (Figure 9.14 below).
214 (274)
Figure 9.14- Energy consumption in Rwanda
Energy consumption in Rwanda
7% 3%
Biomass
Petroleum Products
Electricity
90%
9.10.4 Current national energy constitution

Biomass. Consumption of biomass is estimated at 6.8 million tones per year.
Oil products. Consumption of oil products is estimated at 170350 tones per year
(MININFRA, 2008:4). The disaggregated figures in tones are:
• gasoil – 80000;
• petrol - 51000;
• kerosene - 20000;
• heavy fuel Oil (HFO) – 19000;
• liquid petroleum Gas (LPG) – 350; and,
• total – 170350.
Electricity from several source. Sourced from local hydro generation and
imported hydro-power, local thermal and rental thermal power, micro-hydro and
solar power at electricity constitutes 54.5 MW per year. 55 % of the national
electric energy is produced from hydro-power resources, equalling an installed
capacity of 42.8 MW. Out of this Rwanda is importing around 12 MW from
SINELAC as regional tripartite power producer, involving parties from Burundi
and DRC. The national hydro-power plants have been rehabilitated since 2006,
and water level management has improved to reach almost the maximum
production capacity. Efforts have been geared up to accelerate the methane gas
into electric power projects. Heavy fuel oil based generation is also increasing
because the generation cost per MW is substantially lower compared to diesel
based generation, although fuel consumption for thermal power is in general
extremely high, at 265 litre/MWh.
High tariffs and production cost of electricity. Electricity supply is currently
stable without load shedding, and is sold at RWF 112 to the end retail consumers,
and RWF 105 for industrial consumers. However, these tariffs are very high
compared with those in the sub-region (Figure 9.15), thus constituting one of the
215 (274)
hindrances to people accessing electricity. The main cause for high tariffs is the
high production cost of electricity in Rwanda, especially thermal, on which the
country is still largely dependent, accounting for 45% of the total electricity
production. A comparative view of the production cost of electricity by source of
energy shows that the production cost of electricity from thermal energy is about
two times the cost from other sources (Table 9.10, below).
Small part of population with electricity: By the end of 2007 ELECTROGAZ
supplied power to around 92000 customers, constituting 5 % of the population,
mostly in urban centers with two thirds in Kigali and less than 1 % in rural areas.
Figure 9.15 - Trend of electricity tariffs in Rwanda
Electricity tariffs 1990-2007

120
100
80
Rwf
60
40
20
0
1990 1992 1994 2004 2006 2007b
1991 1993 1997 2005 2007a
Years
Sub-regionally high costs: Rwanda has one of the highest energy costs in the
sub-region (except Uganda: Ref. Table 9.11). A unit cost of electricity generation
in Rwanda per KWh (0.22 USD) is at average two and a half times higher than in
neighbouring countries - Burundi, Kenya, and Tanzania (from 0.08 to 0.10 USD).
Table 9.10 - Production costs of electricity in Rwanda by source
Source of electricity Production cost in
USD Cents/KWh
Macro hydro power 3–7
Micro hydro power 7–9
Fossil fuel 25
Methane gas 6–10
Wind Around 9
Waste >10
Geothermal 9–10
Solar panel >10
216 (274)
Table 9.11 - Household consumption of electricity in some neighbouring countries

Country GDP Level Tariffs HH Consumption
GDP/cap HH tariff (USD kWh/mont kWh/year
Cent/kWh) h
PPP Rural Urban Rural Urban Rural Urban
Rwanda 899 21.5 21.5 21 102 250 1220
Ethiopia 806 3.3 4.3 77 924
Uganda 939 24.8 24.8 42 110 504 1320
Tanzania 1256 10.1 162 1944
Kenya 1699 4.0 7.6 169 2028
Malawi 785 6.4 3.4 22 250 264 3000
Lesotho 1285 8.0 293 3516
Cambodia 1806 >60 13 150
Note: PPP: Purchasing Power Parity.
Kigali dominates electivity consumption. 70 % of the nationally purchased

energy is consumed in Kigali. Specific strategic interventions are currently being
developed to increase access to electricity through extension of other national
grid and through the establishment of isolated grids from micro-hydro plants and
through decentralised energy sources such as solar energy for electrification of
remote public institutions and households.
9.10.5 Vision 2020 and EDPRS initiatives
Planned increase of electivity. Through Vision 2020 the Government envisages

that 35 % of the population will have access to electricity network by 2020, and
that by then Rwanda should have found ways to reduce the use of biomass
energy down to 50 %. To achieve this, Government has earmarked the energy
sector as a priority in EDPRS 2008-12. The objective of the five-year programme
is to ensure that the energy sector significantly contributes to the long term socio-
economic development and the reduction of poverty in Rwanda. Heavy
investment in the energy sector is aimed at providing security in energy supply at
a low cost. This is meant to be achieved through:
• increased energy supply capacity from 54.5 MW to 130 MW by 2012,
mainly through generation of 50 MW more hydroelectric power and at
least 25 MW from methane gas;
• strengthening of the transmission and distribution network by extension
from 3300 km to 5000 km of high, medium and low voltage network and
ensuring maintenance and sustainability of infrastructure and equipment;
• rise of electricity access rate to 350000 households to be connected by
2012 compared to 97000 households currently, plus connections to
industries and public institutions - power to be supplied to all
administrative centres and service delivery points, 50% of all schools and
all health centres; and,
• revision of electricity tariff downwards by diversifying the local sources
of energy, reducing technical and commercial losses of energy through
ELECTROGAZ network - from 23 % to 15 % and 12 % to 5 %
217 (274)
respectively, and popularising energy saving equipment such as improved

stoves, energy saving bulbs, solar water heating systems and inverters
(800000 energy saving bulbs to be distributed by 2012 to save 30 MW
per year).
National Energy Development Agency: Implementation of a legal, facilitating,
framework will start with the implementation of new electricity and gas laws.
There is a plan for strengthening of the institutional and technical capacity of
Rwanda by creating a National Energy Development Agency (NEDA) to
implement national policy on energy, strengthening human resource capacity of
institutions operating in the sector, and decentralisation of funding, planning,
development and management of projects and programmes throughout provinces
and districts. The implementation of the framework will entail:
• greater involvement of the private sector and decentralised entities;
• local community participation particularly in infrastructure maintenance;
• promotion of joint regional initiatives in the context of regional
integration; and,
• enhancement of capacity and sector co-ordination mechanisms.
9.10.6 Electricity Transmission and distribution
Transmission figures: The electricity transmission network, which is under the

mandate of ELECTROGAZ, has a two axis grid: Byumba-Kigali-Cyangugu and
Gisenyi-Kigali-Kibungo. It consists of some 285 kilometres of 110 kilovolt lines
and 64 kilometres of 70 kilovolt lines. The distribution system consists of both
medium voltage, i.e. 30 kilovolt, 15 kilovolt, and 6.6 kilovolt, and low-voltage, ie
380 volt three-phase and 220 volt single phase, networks, with a significant
proportion being located in Kigali and much of that is underground. The low
voltage connection does not go further than 5 km from the grid in rural areas.
Distribution figures: For the distribution network, there are two customer
categories in the Rwandan power system – medium voltage (15-30 kV) and low
voltage (380/220 V). The consumption was equally split between these two
classes of consumers in 2004. 80 % of the low voltage consumers use prepaid
meters, which is an advantage for the sector.
State of transmission and distribution in need: The transmission and
distribution system is generally in a poor state, with substations in seriously
lacking conditions. Distribution lines lack protection. Spare parts are scarce.
There is outdated and incomplete information on the whereabouts of
underground cables in Kigali that has resulted in frequent accidental damage. All
those factors produce a serious deleterious effect on supply quality and
reliability. Overall system losses are estimated to be approximately 35 %, with
technical losses contributing about 23 % with commercial losses stand at 12 %.
This rate of system loss is high by both international and African standards.
218 (274)
Box 9.7 – Measures to improve transmission and distribution

Project to increase nnetwork coverage: In April 2008, ELECTROGAZ signed a co-
operation agreement with the Tunisian power utility STEG to assist Rwanda in
intensifying the electricity network at least cost. Tunisia has network coverage of 99, 5
%, whereas Rwanda has 5% as of 2008. This co-operation targets network coverage of
16 % by 2012.
Electricity network master plan to inter-connect across border: Currently, a master
plan for the electricity network is being drafted and a National Electrification
Prospectus is being developed with a necessary Investment Plan to be finalised by
December 2008. The transmission network is to be extended to inter-connect Rwanda
with its neighbouring countries. It will allow - through regional projects - the sharing
of electricity within the East African Community and the Community of the Great
Lakes Region countries.
Means to reduce costs for rural connections: So far, the electricity network is not
well developed in rural areas. One of the reasons for high connection costs is that the
population is living in a scattered settlement pattern. Short or longer term solutions to
needs for rural area electrification may be either solar panels or a system of individual
batteries chargeable at a main electricity station. The on-going collecting homesteads
in imidugudu settlements should provide for better scale of economy and contribute to
reduction of rural electrification costs.
Private sector involvement: Individual household connections and the distribution
network are to some extent already outsourced to the private sector in Rwanda. A
Number of private investors have also shown interest to power generation projects,
mainly through the exploitation of Lake Kivu methane gas reserves. Other potential
projects for private investment are in developing wind, geothermal and solar energy
and prospecting for fossil fuel.
9.10.7 Summary of distributed electricity in Rwanda

In house Hydro-electricity:
• Ntaruka - installed capacity 11.75 MW, available capacity 6 MW;
• Mukungwa - installed capacity 12.50 MW, available capacity 11 MW;
• Gihira - installed capacity 1.8 MW, available capacity 1.8 MW;
• Gisenyi - installed capacity 1.2 MW, available capacity 1.2 MW;
Imported Hydroelectricity.
• Rusizi1 (SNEL) - Installed capacity 3.5 MW, available capacity 3.5 MW;
• Rusizi2 (SNELAC) - Installed capacity 12 MW, available capacity 8
MW.
In house Thermal Electricity.
• Jabana - 7.8 MW.
Rental Thermal Electricity.
• Aggreko 1 (Gikondo) - 10 MW; and,
• Aggreko 2 (Mukungwa) - 5 MW.
Others.
• Nyamyotsi 1 micro hydro power - 75 Kw,
219 (274)
• Kigali solar - 250 kW.
9.10.8 Potential electric energy principal sources

The following are the potential electric energy sources on which the MININFRA
Action Plan (2008) shall mainly base on towards the achievement of the EDPRS
targets.
• Methane Gas Lake Kivu (350 MW;
• Geothermal Resources (170- 320 MW);
• Nyabarongo Hydro Site (27.5 MW);
• Rukarara (9.5 MW) Hydro site;
• Rusumo (81 MW) Hydro site; and,
• Rusizi III (205 MW) Hydro site.
Figure 9.16 – Potential Energy Sources
Potential of Energy
Energy Principal
Principal Sources
Sources
METHANE GAS
LAKE KIVU
(350 MW) GEOTHERMAL
RESOURCES
(170- 320 MW)
NYABARONGO
HYDRO SITE RUSUMO (81 MW)
(27.5 MW) HYDRO SITE
RUKARARA (9.5MW)
HYDRO SITE
RUSIZI III (205MW)

HDYRO SITE
1
220 (274)
9.10.9 Micro-hydro electricity

Atlas and on-going projects. MININFRA has developed a Micro Hydro Atlas
that has identified all potential sites for small hydro power plants. 333 such sites
are identified with a capacity between 2-10 KW each. Studies and construction
works for some of these sites have been undertaken and are at different stages of
implementation.
Box 9.8 – Micro-hydro sites and plants
Sites. Eight micro-hydro power plants, financed by GOR - expected to produce 6.35
MW - will be finalised by end 2009. They are (District in brackets): Ruhwa (Rusizi);
Nyabahanga (Rutsiro); Nshili I (Nyaruguru); Rugezi (Burera); Mukungwa II (Musanze);
Janja (Gakenke); Nyirabuhombo (Nyamasheke); and, Gashashi (Rutsiro).
PPP plants. Five micro-hydro power plants, developed under a Public Private
Partnership scheme, partly financed by the Dutch government and with assistance of
GTZ, that are intended to produce 1,6 MW in total and to be finalised by mid 2009 -
studies underway.
Other plants. Five micro-hydro power plants with a total capacity of 5.15 MW, financed
by Belgian technical co-operation are expected to start by end of 2008. Micro-hydro
power plants of 600 kW are expected to start operating in 2008 are co-financed by
UNIDO: Nyamyotsi I&II at 200 kW, completed and operational); and, Agatobwe at 200
kW, power available in June 2008; and, Mutobo at200 kW, commissioned in June 2008.
The European Union is to finance micro-hydro projects with a total capacity of 3 MW
with construction to start in 2009.
PPP plants. Five micro-hydro power plants, developed under a Public Private
Partnership scheme, partly financed by the Dutch government and with
assistance of GTZ, that are intended to produce 1,6 MW in total and to be
finalised by mid 2009 -studies underway.
Other plants: Works for five micro-hydro power plants with a total capacity of
5.15 MW, financed by Belgian technical co-operation are in the procurement
stage. Micro-hydro power plants of 600 kW co-financed by UNIDO started
operating in 2008: Nyamyotsi I&II at 200 kW (completed and operational); and,
Agatobwe at 200 kW (power was available in June 2008); and, Mutobo at 200
kW (commissioned in June 2008). The European Union is to finance micro-
hydro projects with a total capacity of 3 MW; construction scheduled to start in
2009.
9.10.10. Methane gas from Lake Kivu
Renewable resource: Lake Kivu has an estimated 55 billion cubic meters of

exploitable methane gas reserves usable as a domestic energy resource. The
methane gas is dissolved at the bottom of the lake at a depth of 250-350 m. The
rate of methane gas reproduction is estimated at 150 to 350 million cubic meters
per year, assumed to be through decomposition of organic matter. The methane
gas resources are shared between Rwanda and the Democratic Republic of
Congo (Figures 9.17).
221 (274)
Figure 9.17 - View of Lake Kivu
Source: Internet, March 2009.

Figure 9.18 - Map of Lake Kivu
Figure 9.19 – Kivu methane gas extraction rig
Source of both immediately above figures: 2008..
222 (274)
Gas-to-power pilot projects. The gas extraction technology is being tested in two
pilot projects of gas extraction and electricity production on Lake Kivu:
a 4.5 MW project financed by Government started gas extraction in May 2008 - 2
MW is already being produced and connected to the National Grid - the plant is
being constructed by Israeli, Ludan Overseas, in
Gisenyi; and, a 3.6 MW project is on-going on lake Kivu with financial support
of Rwanda Investment Group.
Gas-to-power pilot projects. The gas extraction technology is being tested in two
pilot projects of gas extraction and electricity production on Lake Kivu:
a 4.5 MW project financed by Government started gas extraction in May 2008 - 2
MW is already being produced and connected to the National Grid - the plant is
being constructed by Israeli, Ludan Overseas, in
Gisenyi; and, a 3.6 MW project is on-going on lake Kivu with financial support
of Rwanda Investment Group.
Further concession negotiations on-going. Moreover, Government is now

negotiating gas-to-power concessions with three other investors. First, USA
based, Contour Global, is negotiating a 100 MW concession that is to be
implemented in two phases starting with 20 MW. The concession was signed in
September 2008. The project site is in Karongi District. Second, a consortium
constituting the Government of Rwanda, Rwanda Investment Group (RIG) and
Industrial Promotion Services (IPS) is equally negotiating for a 100 MW
concession. Third, a European Investment Consortium, Global Energy
Management, is negotiating a 50 MW concession.
In the ‘pipe-line. Other medium and long term projects are under study, i.e.
liquid fuel, liquefied gas or fertilisers from methane gas. A share of a 50 MW
equivalent of gas has been set aside for this purpose. Evaluation of proposals
received by the government is underway. Exploiting methane gas is expected to
eventually increase electricity production in Rwanda by 250 MW from 60 MW
peak capacities today. Surplus electricity may be exported to our regional
neighbours.
9.10.11 Solar energy

Solar potential. Close to the equator, Rwanda enjoys a solar potential of 4-6
KWh/m²/day throughout the year. However the prevailing high cost of solar
equipment suppresses the development of the sub sector. The solar energy sub-
sector is divided into two categories, i.e. photovoltaic (PV) for electricity
generation and solar thermal for heating purposes.
Photovoltaic Solar. PV solar panels are made from amorphous, crystalline,
silicon. Amorphous panels do not convert as much sunlight into electricity as
crystalline panels, but they are cheaper to make. Photovoltaic installations are
available in two systems: the stand alone solar panel and the large grid
connection system. The solar plant mounted at the peak of Mount Jali with
installed capacity of 250 KW is rated the largest PV project in Africa. Power
produced by the plant has been connected to the national grid. The solar system
is jointly owned by a German utility company, Stadtwerke Mainz and the City of
223 (274)
Kigali. The Ministry of infrastructure is looking into using solar system solutions
for public institutions like schools, health centres and local administration offices
in areas far from the electricity grid.
Box 9.9 – Costly panels hamper market growth
Potential. Generally the high cost of solar panels has hampered the growth in the PV
market. Nevertheless in rural areas, solar energy has great potential for use in
government institutions and household electrification. This seems to be the optimum
option due to the remoteness from the national grid lines. Currently, more than 90% of
the rural population is not connected to the national electricity grid.
9.10.12 Thermal Solar

Compulsory for urban construction: Solar water heaters have been introduced in
the Rwanda, but on a very limited scale. They would enable the country to save
electric energy to heat water. Moreover the return on investment for individual
users is recovered only in about 4 year’s time. Government is currently working
on a cabinet paper to make solar water heating installations compulsory on all
new urban constructions, and has removed import duties on solar energy products
as an incentive for investors and consumers. The solar energy sector is open to
investors for example in setting up an assembly plants for solar energy panels
and related accessories.
Government has envisaged solar projects. Different donors have pledged to
donate solar electricity to a number of health centres, hospital and school
institutions, especially in remote areas of Rwanda far from the national grid lines
(Table 9.12, below).
Table 9.12 - Quantitative presentation of institutions earmarked for solar power installation
No Donor Beneficiary Institution
1 AP/Columbia 4 hospitals and 9 health centres
2 Belgian Technical 84 health centres - 2 started as pilot
Cooperation projects
3 USAID 34 health centres
4 Global Fund 37 health centres
5 European 100 health centres, 100 schools, 150
Commission sector offices
9.10.13 Biomass
Fire wood. In Rwanda biomass is an important source of energy for the majority
of the population. It represents 90 % of all the energy sources in the country
mostly for domestic use for cooking. Consumption of biomass is estimated at 6.8
million tones per year. Wood energy is mostly used in the form of wood or
charcoal. Use of other sources like peat or papyrus is still need to be developed.
224 (274)
Figure 9.20 - Gisovu tea factory firewood Figure 9.21 - Domestic use firewood
Source: Picture by author March 2009 Source: MININFRA, 2008:1.
Serious deforestation and soil degradation. With the high rate of wood
consumption at 1.2 kg/person/day in rural areas in the early 2000s, there is a
serious negative impact against the forest resources in Rwanda. Deforestation has
become rampant, leading to accelerated land degradation.
Box 9.10- Government measures
Reduction of forest biomass energy. Extensive land protection and restoration
programmes, including land terracing, use of fertilisers and one cow per one family,
among other measures against land degradation have, however, been devised by
Government. The target is to reduce the consumption of biomass energy in the country
from the current 90% to 50% of national energy consumption by 2020.
Box 9.11 – Alternative biomass sources

Peat. Today, Rwanda has an estimated 155 million tons of peat reserves, which could
also be used as a domestic energy resource and for electricity generation as well. Up to
1/3 of the peat deposit in Rwanda is exploitable. CIMERWA, the Rwandan Cement
factory is considering the use of peat energy in its extended plant to be executed soon.
Papyrus. There is also an option of briquette production from papyrus. It is estimated
that 75 000 tonnes of oil equivalent (toe) of papyrus briquettes could be produced at a
cost competitive to charcoal with an estimated yield of 16t/ha.
‘Waste’. Another potential energy source for the country is the use of waste to produce
electricity or liquid fuel. The solid waste from municipalities and agricultural activities
could be used through a landfill gas plant, through incineration or a biogas plant to
produce electricity. Currently, Kigali produces 350 tons of waste per day with 70 %
organic matter.
Improved charcoaling: Research by KIST is currently under way to increase the
efficiency of biomass energy production, through improving charcoaling processes
and the production of briquettes by IRST. Efficiency will also be increased through the
use of improved cook stoves, different designs of which are already in use in Rwanda.
Currently, 60% of the households use improved cook stoves. The EDPRS target is
100% by 2012.
225 (274)
9.10.14 Biogas
Programme. A National Domestic Biogas Program is in place, aiming at
construction of 15, 000 biogas digesters by 2011, with support from the
Netherlands Government through GTZ. The beneficiaries shall be households
with at least two cows. Gas for cooking and lighting is to be produced. Two Pilot
Projects - both meant to be implemented in the year 2008 - are in place, ie,
construction of:
• 100 masonry digesters in Rulindo, Durango, Gasabo and Muhanga
districts; and,
• 100 pre cast fiber glass digesters from China in different districts.
MINEDUC in collaboration with MININFRA is also looking into the viability of

generating biogas from school toilets to be used for cooking and other purposes.
9.10.15 Wind Energy

Wind atlas to establish potential. Since the demand for electricity is growing, it
is imperative to diversify power source as much as possible. The Government is
thus currently exploring the county’s wind power potential. A wind atlas is being
developed. It will measure the wind regime over the period of one year in
promising sites and the estimated exploitable wind energy capacity. The project
is financed by the Belgian Government. The next steps shall include a pilot
operation of setting up two or three wind turbines of 100 kW to 300 kW through
funding of the European Commission.
Box 9.12 - Untapped African potential

RSA, Egypt, Morocco and Tunisia. A turbine of 300 kW could be sufficient to supply
more than 1000 households with electricity. Wind power would be a great solution for
remote areas far from the national grid. Wind energy is economically much more viable
than solar PV. In Africa only a few countries have so far been able to establish consistent
exploitation of wind energy, namely South Africa, Egypt, Morocco and Tunisia, where a
total capacity of 1000 MW has been installed to date.
9.10.16 Geo-thermal energy

Hot spring. Another possible source of energy in Rwanda is geo-thermal.
Rwanda possesses geo-thermal resources in the form of hot springs along the
Belt of Lake Kivu - Cyangugu, Kibuye and Gisenyi. Preliminary studies
conducted by Chevron in 2006 estimates the country’s geothermal potential to be
around 200 MW, ie between 170-320 MW.
Box 9.13 – Clean source of energy
No fossil fuel burning. Several attributes make geo-thermal good source of energy. It is
clean because it can be extracted without burning fossil fuels, reducing dependence on
the energy sourced from the same. It is environmentally friendly because it produces just
one sixth of the carbon dioxide that a relatively clean natural gas fueled power plant
produces.
Exploration studies on-going. Three sites with underground temperatures
averaging to 150 °C in Cyangugu, Kibuye and Gisenyi are estimated to be
potentially favorable for a medium to large geothermal power plant. The
consultant Ken Gen is currently carrying out more detailed geo-physical and geo-
chemical studies for exploitation. Exploratory drilling is expected to commence
226 (274)
in 2009. The Government of Rwanda is very interested in attracting private

investment into geothermal energy exploitation.
9.10.17 Inter-connections to import and export electricity

Regional electivity grid inter-connections are planned to allow Rwanda to share
power with the rest of Africa (Figure 9.22).
Figure 9.22- Regional interconnections of electric power
• 1000 MW from Ethiopia;

• Electricity from Zambia;
• Export from Lake Kivu:

Other extensions. The following line extensions are envisaged:
• Mbarara-Birembo;
• Kigoma–Rwegura;
• Goma–Gisenyi–Mukungwa;
• Bujumbura-Mururu-Goma - outer Kivu ring; and,
• Mururu-Karongi-Gisenyi-Goma - inner Kivu ring.
9.10.18 The Kampala–Kigali oil pipeline project

Current vulnerability and high cost. Petroleum products for the Rwanda market
are imported almost exclusively through the northern road corridor. From the
Kenyan port of Mombassa the petroleum is transported in a pipeline that runs
through Kenya’s mainland to Eldoret, from where it distributed by truck tankers
to Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi and eastern parts of the DRC. The long distance
227 (274)
from Mombassa increases petroleum product costs, as well as vulnerability and

dependence on Kenya. The latter was badly felt during the crisis in the last two
months of 2008 when the only route was through Tanzania.
Pipeline extension project. To increase supply reliability and minimise transport
cost of imported petroleum, the Government of Rwanda has joined Kenya and
Uganda in the East African oil pipeline project. Extension of the existing pipeline
from Eldoret to Kampala was in March 2008, awarded to Tamoil Africa
Holdings Ltd, through a concession contract, on a build-own and operate model.
Rwanda is expecting to benefit from further extension of the pipeline from
Kampala to Kigali (about 600 km). Discussions to extend the pipeline to
Bujumbura are ongoing. Tamoil Africa holdings Ltd shall also soon start a
techno-feasibility study on a Kampala-Kigali pipeline. A market survey by
Science Applications International Cooperation (SAIC), by financial support
from the US Trade Development Agency, confirmed the project’s commercial
viability where the cost of current trucking shall be lowered from USD 56.89 to
about USD 42.44 per cubic meter, hence easing the oil tariff structure. In the
meantime a project to increase the current storage capacity of petroleum products
in Rwanda of 175,500 m3 is under implementation.
9.10.19 Prospects for oil exploration in Rwanda

Oil in Rift Valley. Rwanda has recently registered an increased interest in oil
exploration - especially in the western Rift Valley in the country. The motivation
is the recent oil discovery in the northern part of the Rift Valley in Uganda.
Possible indications of oil below Lake Kivu. The presence of methane gas
dissolved in the deep waters of Kivu, which originates partly from the earth crust,
is interpreted by some experts as an indication of probable oil presence below the
Lake sediments. A area under preliminary survey is the western part of Rwanda
along Lake Kivu, covering 1631 km2 in area. After study of existing literature,
the consultant Van Gold embarked on a satellite study of the lake that suggests
that there are a number of oil seeps on the surface of Lake Kivu. The indications
were positive enough to embark further on an airborne magnetic and gravity
survey of the exploration area, which was undertaken in September 2008. 2086
km of airborne survey were recorded, and the data was analysed to indicate the
size and nature of the sediment base under and around Lake Kivu. The results of
the survey to be availed this early 2009. If all the indications for petroleum
potential remain positive, Van Gold in co-operation with other partners will
embark on a seismic survey within this 2009.
9.10.20 Bio-fuels
Two avenues. There are basically two main bio-fuel avenues, which are currently
pursued in other countries:
• ethanol, which can be used as a substitute for petrol or as a means of
‘extending’, imported petrol - it may be derived from sugar or sugar-
related by products among other sources; and,
• bio-diesel which is produced from waste oils or from oil-rich crops such
as oil palm, jatropha and pongamia.
Cautious approach: For landlocked Rwanda, the possibility of producing bio-
fuels is worth exploring. However, the associated costs and benefits would also
need to be scrupulously analysed. In countries where there is significant
production of bio-fuels, it is normally supported with government subsidies or
228 (274)
mandated production requirements that artificially enhance price. In a country

like Rwanda, which cannot afford such measures - and where population density
is relatively high and agricultural land is already intensively cultivated for other
essential needs - further research will be needed before bio-fuels can be
embraced as a significant element of policy and strategy. At this stage, therefore,
the following rather cautious statement has been included in the Government’s
Energy Policy Document to capture the national bio-fuels policy: “Encourage
careful research to be conducted into the potential of large-scale bio fuel
production in Rwanda taking into account not just the direct costs and benefits,
but indirect opportunity costs particularly in respect of potential reductions in
food crops and import substitution or export cash crops, the implications for use
of water resources and the environment, net employment implications and a
detailed risk analysis.” (MININFRA, 2008:15).
On-going bio-diesel research. The Institute of Scientific and Technological
Research (IRST) has been taking the lead on bio-diesel research.
The Government should continue to support and encourage both public and
private sector entities to conduct research and process development work in the
field of bio-fuels.
Box 9.14 - Ethical issue?

Question. In many other countries the raw materially used for the bio-fuels are food
crops like sugar cane and corn. However, the fuel output is not proportionate with the
used crop raw materials in terms of food value. In South America there is an outcry from
the population against production of bio-fuels from crops. From 280 kg of maize for
example only 50 l of bio diesel are produced. It is claimed that such production is not
acceptable as the 280 kg could feed a child for the whole year (Recent Radio Rwanda
emission).
9.10.21 Conversion of Methane Gas

Promisin. In a bid to reduce dependency on conventional oil imports, new
concepts to produce hydrocarbons locally are under discussion by MININFRA in
partnership with the private sector. Proposals have been received from a number
of investors. One promising endeavour is the conversion of methane gas from
Lake Kivu into either liquid petroleum gas (LPG) or even diesel, which could be
used to drive ordinary cars or other engines.
9.11 Water and Sanitation
9.11.1 Overview
Divided responsibility. The water and sanitation sector has been undergoing
reforms to streamline better results oriented practices. The water and sanitation
policy document of October 2004 provides more information on water and water
supply than on sanitation. Clearly, the sanitation sector is under-documented. The
policy proposes a program based strategy for sector activities to provide more
resources and results, notably the role of the private sector, citizenry and local
government in providing services related to the sector. The management of
sanitation sub-sector policy is currently the responsibility of the Ministry of
Natural Resources (MINIRENA) and the service development and provision was
recently transferred to the Ministry of Infrastructure (MININFRA).
229 (274)
Newly adopted water and sanitation authority. A national water and sanitation
authority, with a mission of distribution of potable water and installation and
management of sanitation infrastructure has just been adopted by Government.
This authority resulted from a proposal by the national provider of water and
electricity to separate water and energy services. Other ministerial, major
partners include: MINECOFIN, MINISANTE, MINEDUC, MIGEPROF,
MININFRA and MINALOC. Public parastatals of ELECTROGAZ, RBS,
REMA and RURA, decentralised entities, NGOs and development partners
operate also in development of the water and sanitation sector. Environmental
health, however, is under the responsibility of MINISANTE with the
implementation framework defined under REMA.
Local government role. Waste water and solid waste management in urban areas
is handled by particular local authorities, whereas the overall, supervisory,
national role is with MINIRENA.
Conflict to resolve. There is a conflict of responsibility in the implementing
structures, and laws have to be harmonised rectify this.
9.11.2 Water supply facilitation
Urban areas. The public enterprise ELECTROGAZ is in charge of urban water
supply in urban areas, including the capital Kigali and 10 other towns. There are
847 piped rural water systems in Rwanda and 19300 protected springs. Most of
the piped water systems are pumped systems, as opposed to gravity systems,
since in Rwanda many settlements are at higher altitude than the water sources
serving them. Many systems serve a large number of villages: The largest ones
serve up to 120000 people living in villages, many kilometers apart. Almost all
users are served through water sales points where water is sold or given away for
free by the bucket.
Rural areas. Services in rural areas are provided by community-based
organizations (about 650 systems), by private operators under contract with
district governments (about 140 systems) and privately owned systems (about
60), most of which have been privately owned since 2000. House connections are
rare in rural areas. Investments in rural water supply and sanitation increased
from USD 3.5 million in 2002 to USD 32 million in 2006.
9.11.3 Sources of water

Spring water sources mainly apply in rural areas of Rwanda. Other supplies
piped from lake, river or borehole sources (Table 9.13 below).
230 (274)
Table 9.13 - Piped water sources in Rwanda

Name of the Year of Installed Current
water installation capacity production
treatment and (m3/day) (m3/day)
plant extension
Yanze and Wells 1981-88 30000 26106
Nyabarongo 2003 3500 3000
Karenge 1976-2008 3000-12000 4000
Kadahokwa 1982-2005 4450 1790
Gihira 1987 7400 4024
Mutobo 1987 12500 2162
Gihuma 1987 1930 639
Muhazi 1986-2004 1200 898
Cyunyu 1987 1320 1208
Mpanga 1984-2006 1100 800
Nyamabuye 1988 850 792
Rwasaburo 1986 760 529
Kanyabusage 1986 420 477
Gisuma 1987/2005 576 531
Gihengeri, 1997-2000 3900 419
Gatoki
Total production 66166 39845
Source: ELECROGAZ website 8 March 2009.
9.11.4 Expansion and Strategic Plans

The following projects are in pipeline to improve the production capacity of
water in Rwanda:
• extraction of Nyabarongo underground water estimated at 40000m3/day
to insure enough drinking water in Kigali and neighbouring areas;
• extension of Karenge water treatment plant to enhance water production
to 40000 cubic meters per day;
• water catchment at Nyabugogo to solve problem of water interruption in
Kigali by supporting Kimisigira water treatment plant to achieve water
production of 21000 cubic meter per day;
• Cyuga and Gihogwe project to supply drinking water to inhabitants of
Gihogwe and Karuruma;
• Byimana Project to supply water to the area of Kicukiro;
• Nyarukombe project to supply water to the area of Kicukiro;
• Kagara project to suppy water to the area of Remera;
• Cyizanye project to supply water to the areas of Nyamirambo;
• Binunga Project to supply water to Kibagabaga Hospital;
231 (274)
• Increasing water supply in Huye town;

• Project of water supply in Kabarondo;
• Project to increase water production in Nyanza Town;
• Upgrading Muhazi water treatment Plant to supply Kabarondo;
• Upgrading the network of the lava region;
• Rehabilitation of water supply for seven secondary cities that include
Muhanga, Rubavu, Gicumbi, Ngoma, Rwamagana, Karongi and Rusizi;
and,
• a water supply project from springs of Ruhengeri to supply enough
drinking water to Ruhengeri, Kigali, Bugesera and Runda areas.
9.11.5 Water treatment and distribution

International standards in urban areas. ELECROGAZ provides drinking water
to Kigali city and all urban centres of Rwanda. The water supplied by
ELECROGAZ is treated according to international standards. The total
distribution of water covers 79 % residents in Kigali and 62 % of residents in
urban areas nationwide. Provision is to increase according to strategic plans. For
the piped water, treatment is done in the respective plants for every water source
(Table 9.13 above), whereas spring water - especially in the rural areas -
treatment is done through normal chlorination. Thre are no data as to what extent
international standards are observed.
9.11.6 Rain water harvesting initiatives
To ameliorate current harm to springs: Rwanda has abundant rainfall and water
resources, totaling five billion cubic meters per year, however, deforestation,
erosion and untapped surface runoff affect the productivity of springs, which are
the main source of water supply in rural areas. Government has embarked on rain
water harvesting as one of the measures to attenuate surface runoff effects and
save a significant quantity of piped water. There is therefore already a regulation
from institutions down to individuals to capture and conserve rain water from
roofs of buildings. No data were available as to the quantitative achievement of
this programme.
9.11.7 Toilet ‘waste’

Problem.The forms of toilet ‘waste’ management in Rwanda ranges from public
toilets of different kinds to selected area based water borne toilet ’waste’
arrangements connected to individual plot-localised septic tanks or common
sewerage management plants. The technology employed, thus, varies from site to
site, depending on terrain, age of neighbourhood, level of urbanisation, among
others. The concept of providing public toilets, especially in commercial or
public areas, is highly under-developed, and posses a hygienic challenge.
MINIRENA has adopted fast-track measures to address this situation, and Eco-
san systems are being piloted in selected urban areas to provide public toilets.
Kigali City. The capital Kigali, with a population of about one million people
during the day, has the highest demand of pubic toilets in the country. However
the situation is totally inadequate; there are no or limited public toilets in the city
areas, and the City district mayors have this issue high on the agenda, to propose
approaches to provide this facility. In October 2008, Nyarugenge district
managed to put up a few public toilets in selected areas in this part of the City.
232 (274)
One of the toilets is erected near the City main roundabout. The toilets are
constructed and operated in partnership with private sector.
Rural areas. In the rural areas, district development plans plan (DDP) address
needs for construction of public toilets to improve hygiene and sanitation.
9.11.8 Toilet wastes

Pit latrines predominant. Pit latrines are the most common sanitary facilities
both in urban and rural environments. Statistics of the year 2005 revealed that at
least 92 % of urban households had access to pit latrines or of toilets. Recent
statistics revealed by MINIRENA show that more than 99 % of Rwandese
population have access to pit latrine or different types of toilets.
Table 9.14 - Indication of access to toilet facilities 2005-6
Sanitary Facility Rural (%) Urban (%) National (%)
Enclosed pit latrine 72 45.6 67
Open pit latrine 26 48 28
Flush toilet 0.2 6.4 4
No toilet facilities 1.8 N/A 1
Source: MINIRENA, 2006.
Septic tank. Until 1994 water closets, connected to a septic tank system, was the
prevailing method used in high-medium cost plot development in urban areas,
especially planned neighbourhoods for toilet ‘waste’ management. To acquire a
building permit, the design documents of a septic tank was mandatory along with
architectural drawings of the main building. Septic tanks are still widely used in
spite of the national urgency to provide zone based waste water treatment
systems, which are increasingly becoming prominent in emerging housing estate
development. Emptying and dislodging septic tanks contents when they are full is
the responsibility of every individual household. Respective house owners
employ private companies with specialised vehicles for the emptying and
dislodging at a fee. Some septic tanks are, however, often not accessible by the
vehicles and manual methods are employed.
Central sewerage system. There are no central sewerage plants installed in
Rwanda even in urban areas where they are critically required. Nevertheless,
emerging requirement is to encourage real estate developers to provide localised
sewerage systems for their housing estates, and some are abiding to this directive.
Vision 2020 Estate developers at Gaculiro in Gasabo District, Kigali, have put up
a ‘Rotor Disc’ type treatment plant for the estate and in Nyarutarama Estate,
again in Gasabo District, a central waste water treatment in form of ‘stabilization
ponds’ is in place.
Milles Collines, CHUK and King Faisal show one way forward. Community
facilities at places like hospitals, hotels and universities have also been directed
by the authorities to install central sewerage treatment plants. Serena Hotel and
Hotel de Milles Collines in Kigali, CHUK and King Faisal Hospitals possess
these facilities, where the end products are: water with morbidity characteristics
that allow direct discharge into storm water drainage system; and, sludge fit for
use as fertilisers that is easily collected and used.
233 (274)
9.11.9 Eco-sanitation
Unknown entity: Eco-sanitation practices are not yet very much grasped in
Rwanda. The system of ecological treatment of human end products of urine and
faecal matter, is especially useful in rural areas where neither conventional nor
modern ways of waste treatment are common, and where the treatment by
products could be directly used a fertiliser.
Valuable products. It has been proven by scientists that urine when separated
from faecal materials and diluted with the right proportion of water, results into
impeccable fertiliser. Likewise the faecal materials if separated from urine - after
separation it does not even smell - dries up quickly and may be safely composted
with the right proportion of soil materials or other organic compost makes a
fertiliser that is more efficient as compared with commercial ones. If processing
of these end products is done correctly, the end products are hygienically safe to
use. It does not require water and does not need a pit to be dug. Eco-Sanitation
has been very much in use in other countries like China, and is today an
alternative in many applications in rural Sweden.
Need for mind set change. For people to accept eco-san approach, it useful for
them to first be sensitised about its virtues. is They may then they adopt this
cyclic system, which returns the nutrients to the land where they originally came
from. It does not pollute the aquifer or drinking water sources, and, thus, prevents
diseases resulting from the effects of poor sanitation like diahorea, cholera and
dysentery. A mind set change is, however, likely to be necessary for people to
accept that human end products are a useful fertilizer resource (present report
editor’ note).
9.11.10 Management of human end products in urban areas
Lack of awareness of problem: Excreta collection in septic tanks and communal
latrines discharged or disposed of – without much attention to where and how,
with resulting environmental and health problems - by means of specialised
vehicles or manual means. Most of the pit latrines are not lined, which results in
serious environmental consequences of seepages from the latrines that ultimately
contaminate natural water courses and ground water tables. The effect on health
from poor sanitation, polluting the aquifer, is serious, and reduces productivity of
people, especially women who tend to look after sick children.
Detriment to environment and health. There is absence of treatment
infrastructure at the ‘final’ disposal sites of waste from the septic tanks. The
untreated sludge is just pored on dugout open grounds – the practice of reference
to Kigali City. This result in detrimental environmental pollution and health
hazards to the population through propagation of the waste by storm water,
seepage into the ground, flow on the ground, bad odours, breeding ground for
disease vectors, etc. In many cases, untreated waste water from overflowing
latrines and septic tanks and soak pits is directly discharged in storm water
sewers and natural water channels with direct contamination and destruction of
the ecosystem in rivers and flood plains. Algae growth observed at outfall points
of streams flowing into River Nyabarongo is a testimony to this fact.
234 (274)
Urgent address needed in urban and rural areas. Urgent measures and legal and
legislative framework to address the problem of sanitation management in
Rwanda urban centres in is a matter of urgency. For rural areas, there is no
available information on methods of liquid waste treatment in rural areas. It is
likely, however, that the situation warrants attention there also.
9.11.11 Industrial effluent

Lack of information, There has been no data available regarding production,
treatment of industrial effluent. However, the danger is that industries in Rwanda
may be releasing their waste water in natural water courses and rivers with no
prior appropriate treatment. Much more information needs to be sought regarding
this matter.
9.12 Solid ‘waste’
9.12.1 Production
Urban area ‘wastes’. The range of solid waste produced in urban areas is much
greater as compared to the rural environment due to high concentration of
producers and diversification of activities. The constitution of urban solid waste
is thus also diversified, principally composed of: a mixture of assorted organic
materials, paper, rubber, plastics, fabric, leather, wood, coal ash, glass, metal,
ceramics, and, clayey and concrete debris. Additionally hazardous wastes -
corrosive, chemically or biologically reactive, or inflammable - are often
produced especially in form of industrial wastes.
Burning of wastes. For urban areas other than Kigali City, the information
available is that localised dumping sites are used, - sometimes with burning of
the wastes, be the produced gases toxic or not.
Rural area ‘wastes’. In the rural areas, on the contrary, the solid waste produced
is almost wholly composed of organic, ie decomposable, materials. Currently, the
household wastes are normally dumped in dug pits, backfilled when full, and,
sometimes used as compost. The district development plans are emphasising that
each household should have a ‘well managed dumpsite’ by 2012, which is the
end of EDPRS period.
9.12.2 Collection and dumping

No at sourse sorting. Solid wastes are normally collected in collaboration with
the private sector. Contracted vehicle owners make house-to-house collection of
domestic wastes at an agreed fee payable by each household. The wastes are
dumped in a site, which is already overrun, at Nyanza, at a fee depending on the
weight. Although there were some efforts to land fill at the site, the excess wastes
still make it a sanitary danger, posing serious risks to human health and the
environment, sometimes bursting into serious fires due biogas produced,
propagation by wind or storm water and production of leacheate that flows into
and contaminates watercourses.
235 (274)
Figure 9.23 - Overrun Kigali City dumpsite at Nyanza
Note: Land filled part seen in foreground. Excess waste

visible in far background.
Figure 9.24 - Burning due to biogas formation
Note: Slid waste often burst into blazing fire due to bio-
gas produced.
Kigali City is currently investing in studies to propose a landfill site elsewhere
that shall meet all engineering and sanitary requirements.
9.12.3 Separating
Separation for different reason. More than 75 % of solid waste collected in
Kigali City constitutes decomposable organic matter, which could be composted
or compressed to make bio-waste fuel briquettes. The rest constitute non-
decomposable and non-compressible matter like plastics, metal, glass and
ceramics. An unorganised separation is done at the dumpsite, mainly by persons
236 (274)
looking for pieces of reusable things like metal and plastics. It is not done for the
actual purpose of recycling.
Purpose-separation. However, a project is in place, funded by the
USAID/Rwanda that separates the organic matter, ie more than 75%, from the
rest of the waste, and processes it into bio-waste fuel briquettes.
Figure 9.25 – Separation of organic matter, compressing and briquettes
..
Note: Separation of organic matter from rest of the waste, machine compresses organic
matter into bio-waste fuel briquettes and finished bio-waste fuel briquettes ready for use,
respectively from left to right.
Source (all 3 figures): Wikipedia, 7 March, 2009.
Box 9.15 - Biogas from ‘waste’ could bring change

It is recommended at this juncture that further studies to be conducted by the City
Authorities for the design of a new landfill site should ensure addressing inter alia, the
biogas that is generated in the land filled waste, by including a component to tap it. This
could be an alternative source of energy. Other countries (an example of Belgium) profit
a lot much from this area.
Job creation. Every process is done by hand except the compression of the waste
done by a special machine. The project is run by community based organisations,
associations and non-governmental organisations. It has been a good source of
job creation, especially for the low income population of the City. The intended
goals are to produce and sell of about 17855 tonnes of bio-waste fuel briquettes
per year, creating 6360 jobs. The activity would save 95000 m3 of fuel wood,
which is about 2.5 % of the current demand. The project is expected to save the
City of Kigali 45550 tonnes in waste that has otherwise to be carried to the over-
used dumpsite. This would save up to RWF 706 million (USD 1.50 million) in
collection, transport and dump site costs. The project is a valuable mitigation to
the environmental degradation and reduction of the leacheate contamination of
local water supplies.
9.13 Information and communication Technology (ICT)
9.13.1 Overview
Transform subsistence economy. As early as 1998 the Government of Rwanda
initiated its ICT blueprint dubbed ‘An Integrated Framework for Socio-Economic
and ICT Policy and Plan Development and Implementation for Rwanda’. After a
series of consultative encounters with stakeholders and the general public, this
document was fine-tuned and adopted in 2000. ICT was identified as a tool “…to
transform a subsistence economy into an information-rich, knowledge-based one,
and accelerate economic growth.”
237 (274)
Enabling growth. Rwanda can make use of its people’s work capacity combined
with new technologies to improve the efficiency at which its available resources
are used, thereby achieving rapid growth. ICTs promote growth and development
through attracting national and foreign direct investment and global business.
Rwanda is implementing its National Information and Communication
Infrastructure (NICI) Plan I and II, based on eight major areas that have been
identified for strategic action:
• human resource development;
• infrastructure;
• e-government;
• community access;
• e-education;
• foreign direct investment;
• regulatory and legal issues; and,
• private sector facilitation.
Producers and consumers of ICT. A major focus of the ICT policy is to develop
a critical mass of local producers and consumers of ICT products as a means of
fusing it into the core of national economic activities. The policy also seeks to
widen access to learning opportunities to a larger segment of society while
striking a balance between global competitiveness and locally relevant education
and training. The government is also extending its ICT portfolio in a bid to
improve the core functions performed by its agencies and local government
decision-making processes through facilitation of information management and
sharing. Hence the establishments by an Act of the Parliament, in October 2002,
of the Rwanda Information Technology Authority (RITA) as the agency charged
with the responsibility to articulate, catalyse and facilitate the implementation of
national and sectoral ICT programmes outlined in the NICI Policy and Plan.
Evidence of rapid growth. Substantial progress has been recorded during the past
years in the area of Rwandan ICT, though imperfect and irregular. Although the
ICT sub-sector is embryonic and still accounting for a relatively small share of
the economy’s output, there is evidence of rapid growth. The Government’s push
for ICT development resulted in the connection of 27 government buildings in
Kigali to the fiber optic network backbone. The backbone is currently being
expanded to other towns.
9.13.2 A Mile Stones in ICT Evolution

OECD level. Through its national priorities on ICT, Rwanda already stands at the
same level as the OECD states, high above the African average. Recently, the
country broke fresh ground with regard to e-government and video conferencing
to shorten travel expenses and to improve communication among and with
District authorities. Another goal to be achieved in the near future is the
introduction of new ICT related technologies such as Voice over IP and high
bandwidth connectivity.
9.12.3 National ICT human resources

1000 students to Bangalore. The education sector is the key resource for human
capacity building development in ICT. More than one thousand students were
sent to Bangalore, in India, and the Kigali Institute of Science and Technology
(KIST) was created in 1997 to fill the gap in professional IT Staff. The National
238 (274)
University of Rwanda (NUR) in Butare has launched a Masters Degree program

in ICT, and the first intake graduated in September 2007. Currently, all Higher
Learning Institutions in Rwanda are providing a Bachelor Degree in Computer
Science. Several vocational schools, which offer certificates in secretarial studies
based on basic IT courses are now in place all over the country.
9.13.4 Telecommunication
Increased mobile phone penetration. Mobile subscribers as percentage of all
telephone subscribers have risen from 68.9 % in 2000 to 90.9 % in 2006. The
mobile phone is becoming more and more the most used communication tool.
From 2000-6, the number of mobile subscribers grew by more than six times.
Both Rwanda Cell and Rwanda Tel are developing Internet wireless technology
using GPRS and Wi-Max for the former and CDMA for the later (Tables 9.14,
9.15, 9.16 and 9.17 below).
9.13.5 Various indicators in ICT evolution
Table 9.15 - Indicators of ICT infrastructure development
Source. NISR, 2006.

Figure 9.26 - Subscribers of mobile, fixed telephones and internet development
Source: NISR, 2006.
239 (274)
Table 9.16 - Estimated level of computers usage by staff per sector
Source: NISR, 2006.

Table 9.17 - Estimated level of internet usage by staff per sector
Source: NISR, 2006.

Figure 9.27 - Percentage of educational institution with internet, website and teachers using
PC at home
Source: NISR, 2006.

Figure 9.28 - Percentage of health institutions with PC, internet and website
240 (274)
Source: NISR, 2006.

Figure 9.29 - Percentage of ICT indicators urban vs Rural
Source: NISR, 2006.
Some figures. Extracted from statistics (Figure and tables in the above sub-sub-
section), the following may be observed regarding ICT users in Rwanda:
• UN System reports the highest level of ICT intensive usage with 85 % -
NGO sector comes in second position with 68 %;
• public sector is performing more than the private sector with an intensive
usage rate of 59 % versus 50 %;
• UN System reports the highest level of Internet intensive usage with by
100% - NGO sector comes in second position with 45%, public sector
third with 26% and 23% for the private sector;
• private schools and institutions have better access to internet with 38%
versus 26% to public sector schools and institutions;
• public schools have a better rate of 18 % regarding web presence versus
13 % for private schools;
• public institutions in health sector have a better penetration rate of PC
with 100 % versus 65 % to private sector;
• private sector in health institutions performs better than public sector
regarding health sector internet access with a rate of 42 % versus 22 % for
the public sector; and,
• urban rate for ICT indications on radio, phones and PC is much higher at
61 %, 14 % and 0.8 %, respectively, than the rural side with respectively
40 %, 0.6 % and 0, 01 % - this gap is due to access facilities like
electricity and mobile network coverage with a higher density in urban
then in rural.
241 (274)
Box 9.16 - ICT Specific Projects

Karisimbi Communication Tower Project. The overall objective of the project, which
is located at one of the highest mountain summits in Rwanda at Karisimbi, is to
enhance electronic communications and broadcasting capabilities in Rwanda and the
neighbouring countries. It intends to provide low cost, high-capacity communications
capability for both rural and urban areas, and to expand coverage for mobile phones,
internet, and TV/FM radio and access to beneficiaries. The project also seeks to
provide sky safety and surveillance capability through a Communication Navigation
Surveillance - Air Traffic Management (CNS-ATM), already endorsed by the
Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA).
Halving of communications costs. Electrification at the summit and preliminary
demonstration tests for digital broadcasting (DVB-T and DVB-H) are already
accomplished. One major achievement of the project is the lowering of the cost of
international bandwidth from about USD 3500 per MB/month to USD 1,500 per
MB/month. A number of selected rural schools and hospitals have been connected
with DVB-T/H and Broadband Internet services through Karisimbi. Once fully
operational, it is expected that the cost of communications in Rwanda will come down
on average by a factor of about 50 %. Once the proof-of-concept phase is through, the
project intends to offer various e-application services on its network, among them:
virtual tourism, e-learning, e-health, e-commerce, e-government, and tracking and
surveillance of goods on transit. Emergence of Broadband Fibre Optical and wireless
technologies in Rwanda offer Karisimbi a unique opportunity.
Objectives of Karisimbi Project. The main objectives of the Karisimbi Project is
to enhance broadcasting capabilities in Rwanda and the region, including digital
broadcasting with activities to:
• provide high-capacity, low cost communication capability for both urban
and rural areas;
• expand mobile phone coverage and TV/radio receivership (including
national TV and FM radio coverage);
• provide a backbone for multi-connections hub for Internet services,
including WiMax and cell-phone-based Internet capabilities, eg through
CDMA, GPRS/EDGE, etc;
• take advantage of the leap in telecommunication industry;
• promote Sky Safety Vision and Communication Navigation Surveillance
- Air Traffic Management; and,
• support various e-applications (eg, virtual tourism, e-learning, e-health, e-
commerce, e-government, tracking and surveillance of goods on transit,
etc.
9.13.6 The ICT Bus Project

Mobile telecentre. The ICT Bus Project - an initiative being implemented by the
Rwanda Information Technology Authority (RITA) through the e-Rwanda
Project – is to act as a mobile telecentre to help bridge the digital divide affecting
the rural populations of Rwanda. It is intended to be a mobile computer lab that
will benefit farmers, traders, students, women, youth groups, entrepreneurs and
other rural based Rwandans. The project is to be managed by RITA in close
242 (274)
collaboration with the Private Sector Federation - an umbrella organization that

stands for the private sector in Rwanda.
BDS and ICT facilities. By moving from one area to another, where BDS and
Telecentres are not available, the ICT Bus is to provide ICT and business
development services and solutions similar to what Telecentres and BDS centres
provide. The ICT bus will be a mobile telecentre as well as a mobile BDS with
ICT facilities. The Project will be of great importance in that the distance to
service delivery, digital divide and lack of access to ICT will be highly reduced.
It will also enable the provision of training to rural people including school
children and teachers and will provide wider access to information and encourage
usage of ICT as a tool for innovation, competitiveness, productivity and
efficiency of SMEs, farmers and entrepreneurs in rural areas.
Figure 9.30 – Interior of ICT bus
Source: NISR, 2006b:20.

Some figures. Extracted from statistics (Figure and Tables in the above sub-sub-
section), the following may be observed regarding ICT users in Rwanda:
• UN System reports the highest level of ICT intensive usage with 85 % -
NGO sector comes in second position with 68 %;
• public sector is performing more than the private sector with an intensive
usage rate of 59 % versus 50 %;
• UN System reports the highest level of Internet intensive usage with by
100% - NGO sector comes in second position with 45%, public sector
third with 26% and 23% for the private sector;
• private schools and institutions have better access to internet with 38 %
versus 26% to public sector schools and institutions;
• public schools have a better rate of 18 % regarding web presence versus
13 % for private schools;
• public institutions in health sector have a better penetration rate of PC
with 100 % versus 65 % to private sector;
• private sector in health institutions performs better than public sector
regarding health sector internet access with a rate of 42 % versus 22 % for
the public sector;
243 (274)
• urban rate for ICT indications on radio, phones and PC is much higher at
61 %, 14 % and 0.8 %, respectively, than the rural side with respectively
40 %, 0.6 % and 0, 01 % - this gap is due to access facilities like
electricity and mobile network coverage with a higher density in urban
then in rural.
244 (274)
10 Land Use and Development Planning

10.1 Introduction
Focus on urbanisation. This section accounts for the current situation of land
management in Rwanda, which include land administration and institutional
framework together with laws and regulations that govern the use of land. It focuses
on urbanisation. It is viewed as population growth in urban areas with their effects,
accepting that there would be no sustainable development without sustainable
urbanisation. The section also addresses current housing situation with major
emphasis on recent government strategy of establishing human settlements that meet
criteria of environmental viability through the reorganisation of national space to
accommodate appropriate land use systems for agriculture and other economic
activities. Also put into consideration is urban and rural infrastructure, which
facilitates both social and economic development, and spatial planning, which refers
to physical organisation of space through distribution of people and activities.
10.2 Land Use Management
10.2.1 Vision 2020

Organisation of land of vital importance. Land use management is a fundamental
tool in development according to Vision 2020. As Rwanda is characterised by acute
land shortage, land use and development planning is of vital importance to ensure
land use and development planning ensures optimal land utilisation in both urban and
rural settings. Currently, the country’s land resources are utilised in an inefficient and
unsustainable manner. To address this, appropriate land legislation to provide for
security of tenure, among other important land related rights and issues are to be
instituted (Vision 2020, 2000:14).
10.2.2 EDPRS
Priorities in the area of land management include establishing land institutions, land
registration mechanisms and land use planning, through a land use and management
master plan. Procedures will be developed and documented to manage existing land
folders and the land database that will facilitate the nationwide implementation of
land tenure regularisation. Women’s rights to land and other properties will be
recognised and strengthened, regardless of their civil status, that is, whether they are
single, married, divorced or widowed (MINECOFIN, 2007e:96).
245 (274)
Table 10.1 - Projected land use planning

Sector 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
l land use master land use master existing land and institutional
plans developed plans developed rights secured adminiLstratio framework
and operational and operational through land n simplified to established
to guide land use to guide land use tenure protect land and
management management regularisation for rights and operationalised
decisions at decisions at effective land facilitate
national level decentralised administration investments in
levels and land use land
management
Source: MINECOFIN: 2007.e
10.2.3 Urbanisation Policy

Improved land management. Urban land management tools and mechanisms are to
be adopted in a programme with the aim of improving and rationalising urban land
management through:
• most precise possible assessment of needs in building plots;
• exhaustive inventory of public land reserves;
• systematic census and monitoring of any building plots allocated but not
developed within required deadlines and their reallocation; and,
• strictest collection of rent on land and establishment of some penalty tax
system in order to incite people to develop their building plots.
This programme will also aim at ensuring the security of land tenure through
systematic registration of plots allocated in urban areas. It will also be used as a
framework for the development and implementation of simple urban management
tools and mechanisms adapted to the needs of urban centres (MININFRA, 2007:16).
10.2.4 Land policy, laws and regulations

Land central. Given that the Rwandan economy is primarily agrarian, land has a
central position at the highest level of policy in the country. Article 29 of the national
constitution reiterates every individual’s right to private property that inviolable, only
to be interfered with in the public interest, subject to circumstances and procedures
determined by law.
Land policy. Within the framework provided by the constitution a national land
policy was developed and promulgated in 2004. The key principles underpinning the
national land policy are premised on a conception that:
• land is a common heritage for past, present and future generations;
• all Rwandans enjoy the same land access rights without any discrimination
whatsoever;
• land tenure and land administration should guarantee security of landholders
with title deeds and should ensure optimum development of land;
246 (274)
• determination of the real purpose of land and information about land are a pre-
requisite to good management and rational use of land, which is the basic
element of development and source of life; and,
• protection of existing fragile zones that are of national interest;
Necessary land management in Rwanda needs to entail a purpose-designed,
comprehensive, land use planning system, including organisation of human
settlement and consolidation of small plots for more economic and productive use of
land. A strong and well-defined legal institutional framework is, thus, an absolute
pre-requisite for successful implementation of a national land policy.
Legal and administrative instruments in support. To aid operationalising of the
national land policy, a number of legal and administrative instruments have been
developed among which is the Organic law No.8/2005. This law, entitled Organic
law determining the use and management of land in Rwanda, aims to improve
security, aid national unity and reconciliation efforts, and facilitate the development
of an equitable land market in the country. Prior to the enactment of this organic law,
the overwhelming majority of landholders were presumed to hold land under some
form of customary system or informally – a small minority having what would
constitute a legal interest in their land holdings by virtue of possessing a land title
issued under the civil code introduced during the colonial era. In essence, the new
organic law will seek to harmonise and unify land tenure systems in the country so
that all Rwandans may hold land under the same legal framework. This way written
land law will be extended to the hitherto excluded customary and informal land
holders. What this new dispensation implies is a need to ensure access to land titles
by all landholders and this is planned to be effected through a mandatory nationwide
systematic registration of land.
Three forms of land tenure. The Organic land law recognises three forms of land
tenure: private or individual land; state land; and, municipalities/town/district land.
Private or individual land. Private or individual land, includes both land acquired
through customary channels and that held under written law, ie the civil code. All
those with verifiable customary rights to land shall be issued with ‘emphyteutic’
leases once registered, with land under agricultural use receiving over 99 year leases
and shorter for other land uses. Land currently held under written law under existing
absolute titles will be upheld by the organic land law. Under the law, there will be
continued issuance of absolute titles, depending on the nature of developments or set
investment criteria. Importantly the law makes it mandatory to register title to land
and all title transfers.
Public and private state land. Whereas state land generally refers to land held by the
state, two categories are distinguished, ie public state land and private state land.
Public land, on the one hand, is land held by the state, but reserved for public
purposes and environmental conservation. This land shall have no commercial
properties, and can only be made available for other uses by an act of Parliament or
Order of the Prime Minister. Private state land, on the other hand, is also owned by
the state but the nature of holding is similar to individual land ownership. This land
includes any vacant land and land expropriated for public purposes or land bought or
received as a gift by the state. Unlike public state land, private state land can be
247 (274)
leased to private individuals and transferred to absolute title as provided for by the
new land law.
District, town and municipal land. District, town and municipal land is in many ways
similar to state land, only that it is held by sub-national state organs. Like state land,
district/town/municipal land is divided into public and private domains. The public
domain includes land reserved for public activities, buildings, infrastructure and
collective settlements, whereas any other local authority land falls under the private
domain.
Box 10.1 – Organic land Law provisions.
Minimum size sub-division to prevent fragmentation. The organic land law makes wide
ranging provisions on the administration and management of land in Rwanda, and to get it
operational will require several orders and supplementary legislation on aspects such as
land consolidation, expropriation, use and management of wetlands and informal
settlements. The National Land Reform Project, funded by DfID, has been assisting with
drafting some of these. One of the issues the organic land law seeks to address is the
rampant fragmentation of land, mainly borne out of increased population and inheritance
practices prevalent in Rwanda’s countryside. The law prohibits subdivision of agricultural
land parcels to less than a hectare, and subdivision below five hectares requires permission.
Generally it is government policy to discourage further fragmentation of land and instead
promote consolidation.
Land sharing programme. It is only in the Eastern province where well-to-do individuals
hold significantly large chunks of land, most of which are largely underutilised.
Spearheaded by the President of Rwanda, there has been a land sharing programme since
the beginning of 2008 to try and redistribute the land that was hitherto in the hands of a
minority. In principle the programme sought to take away some of the land from those
holding more than 25 ha and allocating to the many landless households. Stringent criteria
for the exercise were drawn up and the exercise is being led by a specially created taskforce
assisted by local government institutions in the areas concerned.
10.2.5 Land administration structures

Decentralisation. Like in other sectors, the Government has sought to decentralise
land management functions in the land sector to the lowest administrative echelons.
The main policy making functions, co-ordination and strategic guidance remains with
the Ministry of Natural Resources (MINIRENA) at the national level, whereas
delivery of land-related services have been decentralised to the district and lower
levels of administration. The Organic Land Law provides for the various land
management institutions (Box 10.2, below).
248 (274)
Box 10.2 – Land management institutions

The ministry with land in its attribution. The ministry with land in its attributions, which is
currently the Ministry of Natural Resources (MINIRENA), is responsible for policy matters,
exercising its authority through ministerial orders that spell out regulations and procedures in
various facets of land management and administration. The ministry will maintain political
responsibility over the National Land Centre, providing political accountability to parliament
and Cabinet on behalf of the Centre, and channelling the Centre’s budget through the
approval process set out by law.
The National Land Commission. The Land Commission at the national level shoulders the
primary responsibility for overseeing the implementation of the Organic Land Law and
promoting, through consultation and advocacy, the national land policy. The National Land
Commission is also responsible for overseeing the National Land Centre, district land
commissions and district land bureaus besides promote At sub-national level, land
commissions also exist at the district while the Sector and Cell have land committees.
The National Land Centre (NLC). NLC is a newly created institution, not only to act as the
technical arm of the ministry in charge of lands, but also oversee service delivery related to
spatial planning, survey and land administration. The National Land Centre also has the
overall responsibility over land registration across the country. The centre is expected to set
standards for land administration in the country, advise and support the district land bureaus,
prepare national land use maps and offer guidelines for land use planning across the country.
The Centre is headed by a Director General, who is also the Registrar of Land Titles. As
Registrar of Land Titles, the Director General of the NLC is deputised by five Deputy
Registers, each for the four provinces and the city of Kigali. While the Director General is
responsible for the day-to-day administration of the Centre, the National Land Commission is
charged with providing strategic stewardship and oversight over the organisation.
The District Land Bureaux. The functions of the National Land Centre are decentralised to
the district level through district land bureaux. Provided for by the Organic Land Law and
established by Ministerial Order, district land bureaus are at the forefront of delivering land
use planning and land administration at the town, municipality and district levels. The district
land bureaux is headed by the District Land officer, who acts as the public notary for land by
certifying applications for land, maintaining the cadastral index maps and recording all land
to be registered on behalf of the Office of Registrar of Land Titles. Like the parent National
Land Centre, district land bureaus are under the oversight of District Land
Commission. The district land commissions are answerable to the district council on
administrative matters and to the national land commission on technical issues. The
presidential order putting in place land commissions also makes provision for sector
and cell land committees to assist the commissions. These committees will mainly
collect information, undertake public sensitisation on policies and laws related to
land, witness land transactions in their areas of jurisdiction, and channel public views
on spatial development plans and planning applications.
249 (274)
Figure 10.1 - Diagram of land administration organisation

National Land Commission
NLC Director General and Registrar of Land Titles
The Deputy
Deputy Deputy Deputy Deputy Deputy
Director
Registrar Registrar Registrar Registrar Registrar
General
Zonal Office Zonal Office Zonal Office Zonal Office Zonal Office
(Technical)
Kigali East West South North
Land Management & Finance and

Planning Unit Land Information, Mapping Internal Resource
and Survey Unit
District Land Commission
District Land Bureaux
Sector Land Committee
Cell Land Committees
10.2 Development Planning
10.3.1 Introduction
Competing land uses. Development Planning is a method that makes the
implementation of spatial plans, visions and projects the central consideration. It
involves the management of the competing uses for space, and the making of places
that are valued and have identity. These activities focus on the location and quality of
social, economic and environmental change, it is concerned with promoting
sustainable forms of development, understanding rapid urbanisation and encouraging
innovation in the policy, planning and management responses to the economic, social
and environmental development of cities and regions.
Purpose of development planning. The objective of development planning is to allow

initiatives by the public, companies, community organisations and authorities to be
carried out more often and in a better way. This is achievable by making earlier
allowance during planning for the actual implementation of the plans. It also means
giving centre stage to the opportunities that exist in an area rather than making rules
and procedures the dominant consideration. Development planning is necessary to
improve entire areas and ensure that complex projects may be carried out. It plays an
important role in spatial plans and projects and, for that reason, it is important for
plans and projects to be carried out in a way that respects those values.
10.3.2 Urbanisation
Natural phenomenon. Urbanisation, though often viewed as a negative trend, occurs
naturally from individual and corporate efforts to reduce expense in commuting and
transportation in parallel with improving opportunities for jobs, education, housing,
and transportation. Living in urban settlements permits individuals and families to
take advantage of the opportunities of proximity, diversity, and marketplace
competition, and it attributes to growth of cities.
250 (274)
Figure 10.2 – Examples of urban morphology
Source: MININFRA Website.
10.3.3 Context
Towards middle-income. Vision 2020 is a result of a national consultative process
that took place AT Village Urugwiro in 1998-9. There was broad consensus on the
necessity for Rwandans to clearly define the future of the country. A major aspiration
of Vision 2020 is to transform Rwanda’s economy into that of a middle income
country with per capita income of about USD 900 per year, from USD 290 at the time
of the consultations. This would require an annual growth rate of at least 7 %, and
would require that the current subsistence agriculture economy is transformed to a
knowledge-based society – a society with high levels of savings and private
investment, thereby reducing its dependence on external aid.
Box 10.3 - Population growth
Highest population density in Africa. The Rwandan population was estimated in 2006 at 8.2
million people with the highest population density in Africa at 340 inhabitants/km2 and a high
population growth rate at 3.2 % per annum. The population is now estimated at 9.06 million,
and expected to double to around 16 million by 2020. This demographic trend is one of the
major causes of the depletion of natural resources with resulting poverty and hunger. The
demographic dynamic is the result of a number of factors such as the high fertility rate of
women and a pro-birth culture.
Pressure on environment. With rapid urbanisation and dramatic growth of population in
urban areas, Rwanda is experiencing increased pressures on its natural resources that
contribute to the degradation of the environment and lack of housing and other basic services.
These problems highlight the need for rational and efficient management of urban and rural
resources as well as the restoration of functions that will help these urban areas implement
sustainable development strategies to cope with the consequences of rapid population growth.
Note: Mid 2006, the following figure applied: population at 9058392; population density per
km2 at 344; under 5-years-olds at 16.3 % of the total population; under-15year-olds at42.1 %
of the total population; 15-64-year-olds at 55.2 % of the total population; population of 65-
years and over at 2.7 % of the total population. Source: NISR, 2006.
10.3.4 Urban development

Accelerating urbanisation. According to Vision 2020, Rwanda is characterised by
low but accelerating urbanisation. This has happened in a rapid and un-co-ordinated
manner, meaning that social services and employment opportunities are lagging
behind. From now until 2010, each town will need to have regularly updated urban
master plans and specific land management plans. The country will also need to
develop basic infrastructure in urban centres and in other development poles, enabling
the decongestion of agricultural zones. The proportion of those living in towns and
cities is projected to increase from 12 % to 30%, ie from 5% in 1995. The income
251 (274)
differential between towns and rural areas should remain within reasonable
proportions, due to the decentralization of economic activities to the country (Vision
2020:15-6).
Economy of scale advantage. Urbanisation and the creation of development centres
is one way forward to achieve economies of scale through concentration of
infrastructures and proximity of services and enterprises. This would allow the
mechanisation of agricultural exploitation, the development of processing and
services sectors, which can more easily, increase output compared to the primary
sector and which reduces the demographic pressure on agricultural employment. The
current unplanned space of urban centres in Rwanda is result from absence of a clear
and respected urban orientation with no national policy of urban development and
housing to guide the development has been in place. All these result in the existence
of spontaneous suburbs, of accelerated degradation of the environment and of the
deterioration in the living conditions of the urban populations.
10.3.5 EDPRS
Urban in-migration. The continued rapid population growth is resulting from an
increase in fertility combined with a decline in infant mortality.The ensuing rise in
population density has put pressure on the physical environment and induced labour
in-migration from rural areas as well as from the countryside to the towns in Rwanda.
A recent study found that the parts of the country that are increasing their share of the
population are those that previously had a lower population density. Umutara and
Kibungo, now in Eastern Province, had the smallest number of people per square
kilometre at the time of the national census (2002), and have experienced the greatest
increase in population share; conversely, Ruhengeri, now largely in Northern
Province, and the city of Kigali had high population density in 2002, but are now
seeing a reduction in their share of the overall population (NISR, 2006). There is a
correlation between population density and poverty in Rwanda (Figure 10.3, below).
Figure 10.3 – Positive association between population density and poverty incidence
Source: MINECOFIN, 2007:9.
252 (274)
High population growth is, thus, a major challenge facing Rwanda. Slowing down
population growth requires innovative measures, including the strengthening of
reproductive health services and family planning, and ensuring free access to
information, education and contraceptive services.
Table 10.2 - Progress towards Vision 2020 targets by Millennium Development Goals
MDG Vision 2020 and Base Base Base Vision 2020 Progress to
Area MDG Indicators line line line Targets Vision 2020
1990 2000 2006 Target Target Targets
2010 2020
urban population 10 17 20 30 Green
(% of total
population)
Rwandan 7.7 9.1 10.0 13.0 Red
population
(million)
population 2.9 2.6 2.4 2.0 Yellow
growth rate
(%)
urban population 10 17 20 30 Green
(% of total
population)
Source: MINECOFIN, 2007:30-3.
Table 10.3 – Envisaged projection by EDPRS on infrastructure, habitat and urbanisation

Sector 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
Infrastructure National Policy Continuation of Continuation Continuation of Continuation
- habitat and on urbanization the Adoption of of adoption of adoption of of adoption of
urbanisation and master plan cities master cities master cities master cities master
to support plans and plans and plans and plans and
implementation implementation implementatio implementation implementatio
of imidugudu of Imidugudu. n of of Imidugudu. n of
Imidugudu. Imidugudu.
Source: MINECOFIN 2007:147-9.
253 (274)
Figure 10.4 - EDPRS planning linkages to achieve its objectives
Rwanda
Rwanda
Vision
Vision 2020
2020
Government
GovernmentPolicies
Policies EDPRS
EDPRS
Sector
SectorStrategic
StrategicPlan
Plan District
DistrictDevelopment
DevelopmentPlan
Plan
Government
GovernmentAgenda
Agenda
Strategic
StrategicIssues
IssuesPaper
Paper(SIP)
(SIP) District
DistrictSIP
SIP
Agenda Based
3-year 33--year
yearRolling
RollingDistrict
DistrictMTEF
3-year Rolling
Rolling MTEF
MTEF MTEF
Line
LineAgency
AgencyStrategy
Strategy “Vision2020
“Vision 2020 Umurenge
Umurenge ”” Strategy
Strategy
Strategic
StrategicIssues
IssuesPaper
Paper(SIP)
(SIP)
33--year
yearRolling
RollingDistrict
DistrictMTEF
MTEF
3-year
3-year Rolling
Rolling MTEF
MTEF Poverty
PovertyEradication
Eradication Plan
Plan
Function Based Area Based
Source: GOR, 2007:5.

Figure 10.5 - Planning and reporting tools for implementing EDPRS
“Planning Path”
Vision Central
2020 government
Sector Imihigo
EDPRS Strategy/ Annual Action
District Plan
MTEF
development (incl Individual
Plan Annual Imihigo
EDPRS Unit
Annual
Budget) Level
Progress Report Work Individual
Plans Work
Budget Execution Report Plans
Joint Sector Reviews, PERs
Report on Implementation
“Reporting Path” of AAP
Staff Appraisals
Source: MINECOFIN, 2007.
254 (274)
10.4 Urbanisation Policy
10.4.1 Introduction
Definition. Urbanisation is defined within the ambit from a Presidential Order upon a
proposal by District Councils followed by advice from the Minister in charge of town
planning. According urban policy statement requirements, urbanisation means putting
in place urbanisation tools - urbanisation and management master plan, local master
plans and particular areas’ management plans - availing basic infrastructure for built
areas, restructuring under-serviced, informal or spontaneous, parts of settlements. It
includes all public interventions meant to enhance and to frame the urbanisation
process for the Rwandan people, to structure the urban network both at national and
provincial levels, to improve town management and to manage both towns’ and urban
areas’ development and field extensions, especially through simple and efficient
planning tools. The policy is meant to set Government orientations and priorities in
harmony with its goals as found in Vision 2020, the poverty reduction programme
and the national investment strategy. Implementing this policy will amount to
supporting the said process, coordinating all the activities to be undertaken and caring
for their follow up and assessment (MININFRA, 2007).
Integrated process. Urban development as results from any urbanisation process is
neither limited to physical infrastructure nor to housing estates. It also hinges on
economic, political, social and institutional factors. Urban development requires to
avail - also at local level - suitable planning and regulatory tools, to build capacity
and to mobilise both for public and private sector involvement the required financial
means and resources to plan and to improve urban and rural settlements - this towards
improving people’s living conditions including those of the less advantaged majority.
It is also indicated that directed, planned and controlled urbanisation should be
considered as an opportunity and a driving force for development - each town is to be
given a specific objective, eg tourism, industry and culture), and its architectural
designs will take such objectives into account (ibid:3-4).
10.4.2 Population evolution

Five fold increase in seven decades. In slightly more than 70 years, Rwanda’s
population has increased more than five times, from 1595500 in 1934, to 9344399
persons in 2007. Today the urbanisation index is 18.7 %, ie, roughly 1747403 people
against 9344399 for the whole country. Following the 1978 and 1991 censuses, urban
population increased on average by 5.5 % per year. The urban demographic mass is
concentrated to Kigali City with some 800000 persons. This spontaneous or
uncontrolled urbanisation has led to a twofold process of increased density and
degradation of areas found near urban centres and of dispersed peri-urban habitat - all
which bring about expensive outreach service and infrastructure (MININFRA, 2007).
10.4.3 Urban Population Distribution

High urbanisation rate of capital. Kigali City has mostly contributed to increasing
the urban population with 236000 people in 1991 and 800000 in 2007, ie at an annual
average growth rate of 9 %. This has resulted in an urban population concentration in
the capital of 44 % of the whole of Rwanda’s urban population. This situation tends
to confirm the urban ‘monocephalism’ phenomenon, and underlines the imbalance
existing between Kigali and other urban centres in the country (MININFRA, 2007).
255 (274)
Secondary centres in competition with favoured capital. These secondary urban

centres, to date, can not avail any solid base for service and/or employment for their
populations, due to inadequate public and private investments. The demographic
imbalance between the capital and other urban centres is compounded with the
economic and service activities imbalance. This has concentrated these activities
mostly in Kigali with more than 70 % of industrial activities, more than 50 % of
wholesale trade, 70 % of bank deposits etc. This will consequently require putting in
place incentives so as to attract investors to secondary centres, which after being
revitalised may reduce people’s fleeing to the city. (ibid:5-6).
10.4.4 Regional and International Context

On the one hand, Rwanda’s current urbanisation ranks among the lowest worldwide
and even in Africa. Worldwide, the average rate is 50 % with 84 % in North America,
75 % in Latin America and Caribbean Islands and 37% in Africa and Asia. On the
other hand, the annual urban growth of 9 % per year is far higher than the average, in
Africa at 4 %. Africa (MININFRA, 2007:8).
Capacitating institutionally and financially. The policy on urban planning puts
special emphasis on planning and servicing of plots to ensure sustainable urban
development. Building institutional and financial capacities for local communities
allows them to fulfil their duty in urban planning and development.
10.5 Major challenges
10.5.1 Lack of plots and basic infrastructure

Land and housing supply by the formal economic sector has so far only slightly, and
with limited means, met the needs of the great majority of city dwellers, mainly for
lack of adequacy between demand and supply.
Low density development for the elite. Kigali and the minor towns have given no
priority to the development of housing areas for its majority population category, ie
low-income earners. Programmes carried out or planned to date are mainly oriented
towards middle-income and high-income categories. Large agricultural areas located
within urban perimeters were, thus, assigned to middle and high cost, low density,
single-family housing development. This is only partially occupied. The urgent needs,
however, relate to low-income housing development, which has been given no
priority or attention. As a result, only informal settlement is the housing development
deficit countered
10.5.2 Lack of basic urban data

Problem for all settlements and overview. All towns and urban centres in Rwanda
lack basic data to help in decision making, notably on: statement of public land
property, registered plots, statement of the land and real property market, needs for
building plots for housing and economic activities, housing needs, needs for
restructuring and infrastructure for settlement areas, projected estimated cost for
expropriation, etc. There is also lack of spatial basic data on urban and rural
settlements, ie, their: functions and activities and economic potential; location in
national and regional space and hierarchical structuring role; inter- and intra-
networking; relations environment; and, general exchange flows.
256 (274)
10.5.3 Inappropriate urbanisation and construction norms and standards

Unattainable planning and building norms. The only type of housing currently,
formally, recognised in Rwanda is planned housing both in urban and rural areas, as
opposed to spontaneous or scattered housing. The National Housing Policy (2004)
recalls that in urban areas, existence of a development plan is a prerequisite for any
form of development. Further, housing development is subject to a whole set of urban
planning and construction norms corresponding to imported standards by which the
majority of households must abide. Given their limited contribution capacity, more
particularly due to lack of long term credit and within a context whereby the majority
of the working people are employed in the informal sector - in 1999-2000, it
accounted for 79.80 % of jobs in various sectors of the economy in the City of Kigali
– the majority cannot abide. For affected families, this situation, thus, results
impossibility to get access to planned programmes and to have their plot registered
due to the constraint put on them to develop it in accordance with established norms.
Therefore, the only option for them is to settle in undeveloped and under-serviced
informal areas.
10.5.4 Low percentage of registered land tenure

New facilitating law. In all towns of the country, the percentage of households with
registered plots of land is still low. In towns where the majority of households live
below poverty line, going through established formalities to access plots is not an
easy task. New legislation, however, provides for systematic registration of all land
properties.
10.5.5 Lack of financial resources for people with expropriated land

Allowances not meeting new costs. As towns lack the resources required to provide
new sites with adequate utility services in urban extension areas, relocation of
households displaced as part of restructuring operations of ‘irregular areas’ is not
currently or only partially conducted in Kigali and other towns. In cases where sites
are identified to host newly people from expropriated land, the size of plots, the fees
related to their concession, the amount of rent and the norms and deadlines imposed
for their development are, however, far higher than the ‘allowances’ given to
displaced households. In this context, the only resort for these households is to seek
refuge through informal or irregular channels, either in urban area or in neighbouring
rural areas.
10.5.6 Lack of appropriate planning and urban management tools

Two towns with development plans. So far, only two towns in formal sense have an
Urban Development Master Plan. Kibuye’ plan was implemented in 2003 and
Cyangugu’s was updated in 2005. Kigali City and Rwamagana master plans are being
updated. Other towns do not have updated documents necessary for urban
development and management options. Other local and private town development
plans and urbanisation plans are inexistent. Lack of planning documents is a
challenge that should be addressed to safeguard efficient development of urban space
in face of rapid urbanisation. Developing and updating urban development master
plans for all urban centres is a another challenge, given the time needed to prepare
them and to get them approved.
257 (274)
10.6 Basic principles
10.6.1 Balanced and sustainable development

Commitment. Government is committed to support balanced and sustainable
development for human settlement both in rural and town areas, which are
economically accessible and socially integrated. The rights of each individual would,
thus, be recognised, in particular the rights of women, children, the disabled, people
living in poverty and those belonging to vulnerable and socially disadvantaged
groups.
10.6.2 Urbanisation process

Urbanisation process and urban development should be done as part of a sustainable
development approach allowing to address people’s needs while contributing to their
social and economic development, and also restricting negative impacts on
environment. This process will also involve, as a result, environmental aspects. Urban
development will rely on rational land management.
10.6.4 Development planning

Urbanisation is regarded as a driving force for economic development. Urbanisation
process and urban development should not be imposed but rather controlled, planned,
oriented with the development of processing sectors and services. Urbanisation
further contributes to increasing food demand in urban centres as basic conditions for
development and intended modernisation of Rwandan agriculture because they are
determining factors in poverty reduction (MININFRA, 2007:13-4).
10.6.5 Policy vision, objective and strategies

In the prospect of realising Vision 2020, 30 % of the whole Rwandan population will
be living in well-planned towns equipped with basic facilities necessary for
sustainable development. The overall objective of the urbanization and urban
development policy is to improve the living conditions of urban dwellers through
mastered and controlled development of urban centres. The following strategies are to
be adopted to achieve harmonious and balanced urbanisation of Rwanda:
• promotion of economic and social development of secondary urban centres to
enable them to accommodate an ever increasing number of people who
usually leave the rural area in big numbers to settle in Kigali;
• preparation of building plots meeting people’s requirements and of which
prices are affordable to different categories of beneficiaries, including people
with low and very low income;
• restructuring and equipping makeshift areas;
• systematic registration of all immovable assets to secularise occupations and
land tenure in spontaneous suburbs; and,
• to support, through sensitization and training, the institutional capacity
building process of various actors involved in urban planning and
management and of local communities in particular (MININFRA, 2007:16).
258 (274)
10.7 Housing
10.7.1 Introduction
National human settlement policy. The 1994 genocide was a striking event in the
history of Rwanda, which had considerable impact on human settlement. The
aftermath challenges in terms of housing were great; there was need to house a big
number of returnees, both in urban and rural areas. The problem of resettling a big
number of families, the scarcity of land linked with structural poverty of households
led the Government to adopt, in December 1996, a national human settlement policy
which focuses on regrouping settlements (imidugudu) in the rural area with a view of
encouraging the development of rural centres. It also deals with the restructuring of
unplanned residential areas in urban areas in order to improve the urban living
conditions of the population.
Vision 2020 on settlement. According to vision 2020, Rwanda will pursue a
harmonious policy of grouped settlements based on economic activity. Rural
settlements, organised into active development centres, will be equipped with basic
infrastructure and services. This system of settlement will serve as an entry point into
the development of non-agricultural income generating activities. Land will be
reorganised and consolidated so as to create adequate space for modern and viable
farming. Whereas Vision 2020 does not per se address residential land use in context
of grouped settlements, EDPRS makes reference to residential zones.
10.7.2 EDPRS
Integrated settlement plans. According to EDPRS, it is envisaged that 70 % of the
population will be living in rural grouped settlements (Imidugudu) by 2020 and that
the remaining 30 % will reside in urban areas. The strategy habitat sub-sector
contains a strategy for restructuring the country’s settlement patterns, consistent with
the contemplated rural and urban land use and environment protection schemes. This
entails the development of ‘master’ plans for new urban residential zones and
Imidugudu settlement sites. Such plans may also – to depict their character – are often
referred to as integrated or comprehensive development plans.
Residential development as part of overall plans. The use of planning tools for
restructuring the Rwanda’s rural and urban settlement pattern will play a pivotal role
(MINECOFIN, 2007:62). Master plans for the rural grouped imidugudu settlements
and urban and rural residential and associated zones will need to be developed as part
of overall settlement schemes. The zones will need to planned, surveyed and
demarcated into residential, commercial, civic and community, industrial, other and
mixed land use plots, and provided with relevant infrastructural services. The process
will also involve address to upgrading of under-serviced, unplanned, settlement areas.
In this regard partnerships between government and the private sector will be of
essence.
In the area of habitat and public assets management, emphasis is to be put on the
planning and development of improved rural and urban human settlements consistent
with the contemplated sustainable land use and environment protection schemes.
Eighteen city master plans are to be prepared, 5700 imidugudu sites prepared and
constructed and 10000 hectares of land provide - all with services for housing. Seven
districts with the worst living conditions are to be revisited for their inhabitants to be
better housed with basic services. Government institutions are intended to be
259 (274)
provided with adequate back-up, in line with the need for delivering quick and high
quality services (MINECOFIN, 2007).
10.7.3 National Human Settlement Policy

Recognition of right to housing. The Government of Rwanda recognises the
fundamental right to housing for every citizen as specified in international
instruments to which Rwanda subscribes, including the Istanbul Declaration and the
Programme for Human Settlements (1996), the Millennium Development Goals
(2002), the World Summit on Sustainable Development (2002). To this end, it is to
provide the population with access to ‘decent’ housing and to protect and improve the
conditions of housing and residential areas. In its efforts to ensure decent housing to
all Rwandans, and to make human settlements more secure, salubrious, viable,
equitable, sustainable and productive, Government is guided by the following
principles, congruous with major national policies, United Nations’ Charter and the
objectives of the United Nations’ Commission for Human Settlements.
Recognition of need to address to human settlement conditions. Access by
everybody to basic goods, infrastructure and services and to collective amenities is a
determining element for the quality of life in settlement sites both in urban and rural
areas. In particular, the expansion and development of unplanned residential areas
should be checked and restructured. In Rwanda, the development of human
settlement should enhance economic development, employment and social progress.
Thus, the improvement of the conditions of human settlement has been recognised as
an essential component in the National Programme for Poverty Reduction.
MININFRA, 2004:10)
High housing demand and informal settlement. Basing upon measured or estimated
urban growth rates, annual housing requirements in Rwanda are estimated at 8500-
10000 units and at 15000 units, housing requirements for the whole country’s towns
out of Kigali. In 2002-3, it was estimated that both formal public and private channels
for availing land and accommodation satisfied the demand at only 10 %, mainly for
upper and middle income categories. This situation has not improved since. Majority
households have no other choice, but to use informal channels for land occupation in
unplanned and un-serviced areas.
Box 10.4 – Rapid urban population growth
Huge housing needs. Figures released from the general population and human settlement
census (August 2002) show that the resident urban population increased rapidly from
391194 in 1991 to 1362312 inhabitants in 2002, representing an increase from 5.5 % to
16.7 % of the total population of Rwanda. This demographic explosion has created huge
housing needs. The absence of reliable and accurate statistics makes housing needs
estimates difficult. Annual housing needs are estimated at 25000 housing units. The city of
Kigali alone, in the context of its current growth, needs 10000 housing units on average
each year on top of its existing real estate meet the needs of the current natural population
growth. Though indicative, these figures give an idea of the extent of the needs.
260 (274)
Figure 10.6 – Upgrading or bulldozing?

Absolute majority in informal settlements. So called spontaneous settlements,
utujagari, develops fast because of its demand. It does so without recourse to any
formal planning process, which may or may not have medium or longer term plans
for residential or other development. The currently informal and, thus, formally
unplanned habitat sector, accounts for 80-90 % of the accommodation needs of
Rwanda’s major urban centres. Furthermore, findings from the (2002) habitat census,
shows that nearly 90 % of Kigali’s housing units were built in ‘non-permanent’
materials, ie, outside walls in adobe bricks or in wood/murram with cement or not - a
situation which is likely to indicate how limited the financial means are of the people
concerned.
10.7.4 National Grouped Settlement Policy

Advantages of grouped settlement. The policy was passed in the year 2005 with
major aim of poverty reduction in rural areas. The grouped settlements have
advantages of: efficient use of land - making social and physical infrastructural
facilities, including, in the former category, schools and hospitals, accessible to the
population; and, economies of scale. They may also assist in providing for security of
in habitants and social interaction of inhabitants.
Settlement location selection by cell. Implementation of this policy will require:
common understanding of its aim and objectives within different administrative
authorities; general mobilisation and sensitisation of people to accept the advantages
of the approach; and, clear criteria of selecting locations and managing them when
developing. The selection is to be a responsibility at the cell administrative level with
the following criteria: proximity to existing or future infrastructure services; farming
area at least in not more than 5 km away; topography not steep and not in wetland;
and, soil in the area should not be suitable for agriculture.
Maximum neighbourhood size of 20 plots. All residential plots are set to be of an
area of between 400 and 600 m2, and should all have access to roads in block layout
of not more than 20 plots. It is envisaged that all cells with up to 100 inhabitants shall
be in grouped settlement (umudugudu). In case inhabitants are less, two cells shall be
combined to raise the number (MININFRA 2004:11)
261 (274)
Figure 10.7 – Exising umugududu neighbourhood

Figure 10.8 – Layout of unugududu
Source: GOR, 2007.
10.7.5 Urban and rural infrastructure
EDPRS on roads and energy. As envisaged in EDPRS, much needs to be done to

improve rural roads and energy to support growth. This is corroborated by the
Ubudehe survey, where the quality of roads and their road network were identified as
a top infrastructure priority. It is indicated that the proportion of roads in good
condition has only risen from 4.7 % to 6.4% and from 1.7 % to 5 %, respectively,
implying that large sections of the population face transportation obstacles to access
markets and more generally integrate into the national economy. The share of public
expenditure for infrastructure is lower than in neighbouring countries. Moreover,
energy remains very expensive in Rwanda, accounting for an average of 14 % of all
non-food expenditure. The proportion is, not surprisingly, higher for poorer
households. The high cost of energy results in almost 80 % of the value of fuel being
obtained from biomass sources, such as firewood.
262 (274)
National Grouped Settlement Policy. The National Grouped Settlement Policy states
envisaged minimum standards regarding physical and social infrastructure services.
Included are standards for public recreational space including that for social activities
and sports. It also outlines requirements for ‘waste’ collection (Tables 10.-4, below).
Table 10.4 – Roads and network
No Type of the road Width (m)
1 connecting districts 15-20

2 connecting grouped villages 12
3 connecting homes/families 8-10
Table 10.5 – School, health and market

No Type of infrastructure Size of the infrastructure (m2)
1 schools 25000 (2.5 ha)

2 health facilities 15000 (1.5 ha)
3 markets 40000 (4 ha)
Inadequate urban infrastructure and complementary facilities. Human settlement

becomes decent only with good quality neighbourhood infrastructure. In Rwanda:
surfaced roads are scarce; earth roads do not have storm water drainage structures;
water supply is inadequate; power cuts are frequent; and, there is lacking sanitation,
be it thorugh conventional water borne or eco-san types. The public transport system
is poorly organised. Inadequate, complementary, settlement facilities such as access
roads, foot and cycle paths, community amenities, trading and parking facilities,
pedestrians pavements, markets, recreational parks, water fountains, trees, etc,
compromise social life.
Figure 10.9 – Medium density housing in Kigali
263 (274)
Taskforce. According to the Minister of Local Government at a news conference,

January 2009, his ministry and other line ministries had formed a taskforce to ensure
the implementation of the policy in the shortest possible time. The Minister revealed
that since the adoption of the policy in1996, only 22 % of the population had been
resettled in Imidugudu, whereas the target was to have at least 70 % in these
settlements by the year 2020 with the remaining 30 % of population expected to
reside in cities.
In spite efforts. Despite the huge efforts put in the development of infrastructural
facilities and the provision of basic services – ie, roads, water, electricity, schools,
hospitals, banks, telephones and other socio-economic amenities - rural households,
on the whole, are still far apart from one another. In the Imidugudu villages, which
were established to ameliorate this situation, there are also differences in terms of
access to infrastructure and social services for the people who live there. The distance
between houses and water supply points is still hindering.
264 (274)
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Appendix 1
See separate volume.
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RW2-4-5

Preparation of Rwanda Land Use and Development Master Plan

2.5.5 The issues......................................................................................................... 62

4.7 Way forward...................................................................................................97

7.6 Climate Change............................................................................................130

8.2.9 Small scale mineral extraction ....................................................................... 170

9.9.3 Railways......................................................................................................... 212

10.2.1 Vision 2020.................................................................................................... 245

Table 9.12 - Quantitative presentation of institutions earmarked for solar power

Figure 9.23 - Overrun Kigali City dumpsite at Nyanza................................................ 236

Box 10.2 – Land management institutions.................................................................... 249

Abbreviations and Acronyms

KRC Karisoke Research Centre

USAID United States Agency for International Development

situation is accounted for with general population statistics, temporal demographic

socio-economic implications for the National parks. Concluding, suggestions for

1.2 Purpose of Report

1.3 Project Background

Ministry of Lands, Environment, Forest, Water and Mines (MINITERE), constituted

1.4 Project Description

1.4.1 Project aims and objectives

• preparation of alternative land use and development master plan proposals

1.4.3 Project methodology

1.4.4 Capacity building

Figure 1.1 Participatory training and monitoring cycle

Botswana. The second study visit concerned Botswana, involving MINIRENA

1.5.2 Collection of secondary data

1.5.3 National geodetic system

1.5.4 Aerial photography and changes to TOR

2.2 Rwanda’s Political Origins and Evolution

Ethnic conflict supported by colonial administration. Like for most African

2.2.1 Post 1994 political reconstitution and governance reforms

progressively stable environment that creates confidence for Rwandans as well as

2.2.2 National unity, justice and reconciliation

training programmes for several categories of the population, including local

• strengthening the efficiency of service delivery.

Source: MINALOC website.

2.2.4 Local government

Source: MINALOC website.

2.3 The Economy

2.3.1 Vision 2020

people and returning refugees, and effecting basic reconstruction of essential

2.3.2 Economic Development and Poverty Reduction Strategy (EDPRS) Paper

2.3.3 Economic performance

Source: NISR, 2006.

Table 2.3 - Wellbeing self-ranking or categorisation

2.4 Physical Geography

Figure 2.4 – Map showing Rwanda relief distribution

2.4.2 Soils and subsoil

Figure 2.5 – Carte pédologique du Rwanda

strongly decomposed organic material or with soil showing vertic properties,

Source: MINAGRI Website

Figure 2.7 - Soil depth classes of dominant soil units in Rwanda

Source: MINAGRI Website

Source: MINAGRI Website (http://www.minagri.gov.rw).

2.4.3 Weather and climate

1994 (pre-genocide) 2002

Temperate, continental, tropical climate. As a general description, despite located

Figure 2.11 - Rainfall distribution in Rwanda

Source: MINAGRI Website.

2.4.5 Land cover

2.5.2 Population statistics

2.5.3 Temporal demographic trends

Table 2.6 – Ever used any method of contraception (% of method)