CHAP.

9] VAPOR POWER CYCLES 223

A final word about efficiency. We calculate the efficiency of a cycle using the turbine work output as
the desired output and consider the rejected heat from the condenser as lost energy. There are special
situations where a power plant can be located strategically so that the rejected steam can be utilized to
heat or cool buildings or the steam can be used in various industrial processes. This is often referred to as
cogeneration. Often one-half of the rejected heat can be effectively used, almost doubling the ‘‘efficiency’’
of a power plant. Steam or hot water cannot be transported very far; thus, the power plant must be
located close to an industrial area or a densely populated area. A university campus is an obvious
candidate for cogeneration, as are most large industrial concerns.

EXAMPLE 9.6 The high-temperature situation of Example 9.3 is to be modified by inserting an open feedwater
heater such that the extraction pressure is 200 kPa. Determine the percentage increase in thermal efficiency.
Solution: Refer to the T-s diagram of Fig. 9-7b and to Fig. 9-8. We have from Example 9.3 and the steam
tables
h1 ’ h2 = 192 kJ=kg h6 ’ h7 = 505 kJ=kg h3 = 3690 kJ=kg h4 = 2442 kJ=kg
Now, locate state 5. Using s5 = s3 = 7:7032 kJ=kgK, we interpolate and find, at 200 kPa,
 
7:7032 − 7:5074
h5 = ð2971 − 2870Þ + 2870 = 2968 kJ=kg
7:7094 − 7:5074
We now apply conservation of mass and the first law to a control volume surrounding the feedwater heater. We
have, using m6 = 1 kg, since we are only interested in efficiency [see (9.8)],
505 − 192
m5 = = 0:1128 kg and m2 = 0:8872 kg
2968 − 192
The work output from the turbine is
wT = h3 − h5 + ðh5 − h4 Þm2 = 3690 − 2968 + ð2968 − 2442Þð0:8872Þ = 1189 kJ=kg
The energy input to the boiler is qB = h3 − h7 = 3690 − 505 = 3185 kJ=kg. The thermal efficiency is calculated
to be
1189
= = 0:3733
3185
The increase in efficiency is
 
0:3733 − 0:3568
% increase = ð100Þ = 4:62%
0:3568

EXAMPLE 9.7 An open feedwater heater is added to the reheat cycle of Example 9.5. Steam is extracted where
the reheater interrupts the turbine flow. Determine the efficiency of this reheat/regeneration cycle.
Solution: A T-s diagram (Fig. 9-12a) is sketched to aid in the calculations. From the steam tables or from
Example 9.5,
h1 ’ h2 = 94 Btu=lbm 7 ’ h8 = 236 Btu=lbm h3 = 1518 Btu=lbm
h5 = 1333 Btu=lbm h6 = 1082 Btu=lbm h4 = 1200 Btu=lbm
Continuity and the first law applied to the heater give [see (9.8)]
h8 − h2 236 − 94
m4 = = = 0:128 lbm and m2 = 0:872 lbm
h4 − h2 1200 − 94
The turbine work output is then
wT = h3 − h4 + ðh5 − h6 Þm2 = 1518 − 1200 + ð1333 − 1082Þð0:872Þ = 537 Btu=lbm
224 VAPOR POWER CYCLES [CHAP. 9

The energy input is qB = h3 − h8 = 1518 − 236 = 1282 Btu=lbm. The efficiency is calculated to be
537
= = 0:419 or 41:9%
1282
Note the substantial improvement in cycle efficiency.

Fig. 9-12

9.6 THE SUPERCRITICAL RANKINE CYCLE

The Rankine cycle and variations of the Rankine cycle presented thus far have involved heat
addition during the vaporization process; this heat transfer process occurs at a relatively low tempera-
ture, say 250  C, at a pressure of 4 MPa, yet the hot gases surrounding the boiler after combustion are
around 2500  C. This large temperature difference makes the heat transfer process quite irreversible;
recall that to approach reversibility the heat transfer process must occur over a small temperature
difference. Hence, to improve the plant efficiency it is desirable to increase the temperature at which
the heat transfer takes place. This will, of course, also improve the cycle efficiency since the area
representing work will be increased. To get closer to the Carnot cycle efficiency, the temperature of
the working fluid should be as near the temperature of the hot gases as possible. The supercritical
Rankine cycle accomplishes this, as sketched on the T-s diagram in Fig. 9.13a. Note that the quality

Fig. 9-13 Supercritical Rankine cycles.

CHAP. 9] VAPOR POWER CYCLES 225

region is never entered during the heat-addition process. At these high pressures the pipes and associated
fluid handling equipment must be quite massive, capable of resisting the large pressure forces. The added
cost of this more massive structure must be justified by the increase in efficiency and power output.
If the high-pressure superheated steam is expanded isentropically (insulated and without losses)
through the turbine to a relatively low condenser pressure, it is obvious that a Rankine cycle will result
in too high a moisture content in the low-pressure portion of the turbine. To eliminate this problem two
reheat stages may be employed, and to maximize the cycle efficiency several regenerative stages may be
utilized. Figure 9-13b shows six regenerative stages and two reheat stages. Example 9.8 illustrates a cycle
with two reheat and two regenerative stages.

EXAMPLE 9.8 A supercritical reheat/regeneration cycle is proposed to operate as shown in the T-s diagram in
Fig. 9-14, with two reheat stages and two open feedwater heaters. Determine the maximum possible cycle
efficiency.
Solution: The enthalpies are found from the steam tables to be
h1 ’ h2 = 192 kJ=kg h4 ffi h5 = 1087 kJ=kg h8 = 3674 kJ=kg
h3 = 505 kJ=kg h6 = 3444 kJ=kg h10 = 3174 kJ=kg
 
6:2339 − 6:0709
s6 = s7 = 6:2339 ∴ h7 = ð2961 − 2801Þ + 2801 = 2891 kJ=kg
6:3622 − 6:0709
s8 = s9 = 7:3696
 
7:3696 − 7:2803
∴ h9 = ð2870 − 2769Þ + 2769 = 2809 kJ=kg
7:5074 − 7:2803
s10 = s11 = 8:0636 kJ=kgK
8:0636 − 0:6491
∴ x11 = = 0:9883
7:5019
∴ h11 = 192 + ð0:9883Þð2393Þ = 2557 kJ=kg
Next, we apply the first law to each of the two heaters. Assume that m_ = 1 kg=s. The other mass fluxes are
shown on the T-s diagram in Fig. 9-15. We find, from the first law applied to the high-pressure heater,

h5 − h3 1087 − 505
h5 = h7 m_ 7 + ð1 − m_ 7 Þh3 ∴ m_ 7 = = = 0:2439 kg=s
h7 − h3 2891 − 505

From the first law applied to the low-pressure heater, we find

ð1 − m_ 7 Þh3 = m_ 9 h9 + ð1 − m_ 7 − m_ 9 Þh2
ð1 − m_ 7 Þh3 − h2 + m_ 7 h2
∴ m_ 9 =
h9 − h2
ð1 − 0:2439Þð505Þ − 192 + ð0:2434Þð192Þ
= = 0:0904 kg=s
2809 − 192
The power from the turbine is calculated to be
W_ T = ð1Þðh6 − h7 Þ + ð1 − m_ 7 Þðh8 − h9 Þ + ð1 − m_ 7 − m_ 9 Þðh10 − h11 Þ
= 3444 − 2891 + ð0:7561Þð3674 − 2809Þ + ð0:6657Þð3174 − 2557Þ = 1609 kW
The boiler energy input is
Q_ B = ð1Þðh6 − h5 Þ + ð1 − m_ 7 Þðh8 − h7 Þ + ð1 − m_ 7 − m_ 9 Þðh10 − h9 Þ
= 3444 − 1087 + ð0:7561Þð3674 − 2891Þ + ð0:6657Þð3174 − 2809Þ = 3192 kW
The cycle efficiency is fairly high at
1609
= = 0:504 or 50:4%
3192
226 VAPOR POWER CYCLES [CHAP. 9

This higher efficiency results from the extremely high pressure of 30 MPa during the heat addition process. The
associated savings must justify the increased costs of the massive equipment needed in a high-pressure system.
Note: The fact that state 11 is in the quality region is not of concern since x11 is quite close to unity. As the next
section demonstrates, losses will increase the entropy of state 11, with the result that state 11 will actually be in
the superheated region.

Fig. 9-14 Fig. 9-15

9.7 EFFECT OF LOSSES ON POWER CYCLE EFFICIENCY

The preceding sections dealt with ideal cycles assuming no pressure drop through the pipes in the
boiler, no losses as the superheated steam passes over the blades in the turbine, no subcooling of the water
leaving the condenser, and no pump losses during the compression process. The losses in the combustion
process and the inefficiencies in the subsequent heat transfer to the fluid in the pipes of the boiler are not
included here; those losses, which are in the neighborhood of 15 percent of the input energy in the coal or
oil, would be included in the overall plant efficiency.
There is actually only one substantial loss that must be accounted for when we calculate the actual
cycle efficiency: the loss that occurs when the steam is expanded through the rows of turbine blades in the
turbine. As the steam passes over a turbine blade, there is friction on the blade and the steam may
separate from the rear portion of the blade. In addition, heat transfer from the turbine may occur,
although this is usually quite small. These losses result in a turbine efficiency of 80 to 89 percent. Turbine
efficiency is defined as
w
T = a ð9:9Þ
ws
where wa is the actual work and ws is the isentropic work.
The definition of pump efficiency, with pump work taken into account, is
w
P = s ð9:10Þ
wa
where the isentropic work input is obviously less than the actual input.
There is a substantial loss in pressure, probably 10 to 20 percent, as the fluid flows from the pump
exit through the boiler to the turbine inlet. The loss can be overcome by simply increasing the exit
pressure from the pump. This does require more pump work, but the pump work is still less than
1 percent of the turbine output and is thus negligible. Consequently, we ignore the boiler pipe losses.
The condenser can be designed to operate such that the exiting water is very close to the saturated
liquid condition. This will minimize the condenser losses so that they can also be neglected. The resulting
CHAP. 9] VAPOR POWER CYCLES 227

Fig. 9-16 The Rankine cycle with turbine losses.

actual Rankine cycle is shown on the T-s diagram in Fig. 9-16; the only significant loss is the turbine loss.
Note the increase in entropy of state 4 as compared to state 3. Also, note the desirable effect of the
decreased moisture content of state 4; in fact, state 4 may even move into the superheated region, as shown.

EXAMPLE 9.9 A Rankine cycle operates between pressures of 2 MPa and 10 kPa with a maximum tempera-
ture of 600  C. If the insulated turbine has an efficiency of 80 percent, calculate the cycle efficiency and the
temperature of steam at the turbine outlet.
Solution: From the steam tables we find h1 ’ h2 = 192 kJ=kg, h3 = 3690 kJ=kg, and s3 = 7:7032 kJ=kgK.
Setting s40 = s3 we find the quality and enthalpy of state 40 (see Fig. 9-16) to be
7:7032 − 0:6491
x40 = = 0:9403 ∴ h40 = 192 + ð0:9403Þð2393Þ = 2442 kJ=kg
7:5019
From the definition of turbine efficiency,
wa
0:8 = wa = 998 kJ=kg
3690 − 2442
The cycle efficiency is then
wa 998
= = = 0:285 or 28:5%
qB 3690 − 192
Note the substantial reduction from the ideal cycle efficiency of 35.7 percent as calculated in Example 9.3.
If we neglect kinetic and potential energy changes, the adiabatic process from state 3 to state 4 allows us to write
wa = h3 − h4 998 = 3690 − h4 h4 = 2692 kJ=kg
At 10 kPa we find that state 4 is in the superheated region. The temperature is interpolated to be
 
2692 − 2688
T4 = ð150 − 100Þ + 100 = 102  C
2783 − 2688
Obviously, the moisture problem has been eliminated by the losses in the turbine; the losses tend to act as a small
reheater.

9.8 THE COMBINED BRAYTON-RANKINE CYCLE

The Brayton cycle efficiency is quite low primarily because a substantial amount of the energy input
is exhausted to the surroundings. This exhausted energy is usually at a relatively high temperature and