CHAPTER 4

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR ANTENNA

APPLICATORS FOR MICROWAVE ABLATION

4.1 Introduction

Many advantages of microwave ablation over other ablative therapies have

driven researchers to develop innovative interstitial microwave antennas to effectively

treat deep seated, nonresectable hepatic tumors. Although different types of antennas

have been proposed for MWA, but, researcher have primarily focused on thin, coaxial-

feedline-based interstitial antennas. With recent improvements in the newly designed

antennas, their capability to deliver a large amount of electromagnetic power in more

localized patterns, and less backward heating have proven that, MWA antennas are

more suitable for various kind of thermal ablation treatments [140]. Physiological and

anatomical factors increase the complexity of achieving acceptable performance of

microwave applicators. Hence the design of antenna based upon, the dimensions of

antenna and penetration depth are of primary importance.

4.2 Design Requirements of Coaxial Based Antenna

It is desirable for the MWA antenna to satisfy the following performance

characteristics: i) The antenna applicator diameter (3.5 mm) should be small ii) The

inner conductor, outer conductor, dielectric, slots, choke, sleeve etc. must have optimum

coupling in between. iii) The antenna must be efficient in term of reflection coefficient

S11 (< −10 dB) over a wide frequency range.

The tradeoffs between antenna size, impedance matching and reflection

coefficient are of primary importance [91]. The transmission line theory explains the
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relationship between the impedances. The outer conductor, surrounding dielectric of the

catheter, and conductive tissue can be thought of as a lossy transmission line. Then,

using the knowledge that the input impedance of a transmission line is equal to

„A = …„; tan‡ℎ + …Θh (4.1)

where Z0 is the characteristic impedance of the segment, β is the wave number, and h is

segment length with the terminal function Θh=0 for an open-ended segment and for a

short-circuited segment, the impedance of the segments above and below the

gap/slot/choke can be determined. From this expression, the total impedance of a

coaxial-fed interstitial antenna having two segments (A and B) can be written as the

sum of the individual input impedances of segments A and B

„‰ = „AŠ + „A‹ (4.2)

where ZinA and ZinB correspond to the extensor region and insertion region and Zd is the

impedance seen at the gap. A symmetric segment lengths with respect to λeff yields

excellent matching to the 50 Ω feed line and good power transfer.

Antenna geometry parameters, the slot spacing, choke offset, choke length, floating

sleeve length, etc, are chosen based on the effective wavelength in bovine liver tissue at

2.45 GHz, calculated using equation [154]:

ŒŽŽ = ’m”
ƒ
/ √∈‘
(4.3)

where c is the speed of light in free space (m/s), f is the operating frequency of the

microwave generator (2.45 GHz), and εr = 43.03 is the relative permittivity of bovine

liver tissue at the operating frequency; this yielded the effective wavelength of

approximately 19 mm (18.6 mm). The Equation only provides a very crude

approximation for the design [20]. Generally slot spacing, choke offset, choke length,

floating sleeve length correspond to 0.25λeff, 0.5λeff, and λeff respectively, which are

chosen to achieve localized power deposition near the distal tip of the antenna.

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4.3 Currently Available Microwave Antenna Applicators

Based upon the physical features and radiative properties of coaxial-based

antennas, the microwave antennas can be classified as monopole, dipole and slot

antennas. In this section an overview of each of these fundamental antennas has been

presented. Further the features of more advanced interstitial antennas have also been

discussed.

4.3.1 Monopole Antennas

The basic configuration of monopole coaxial antenna consist of center conductor

of the coaxial cable extended further than the outer conductor of the coaxial cable, with

or without the dielectric extended together with the center conductor. The small size of

monopole antennas, makes them well-suited for cardiac arrhythmias, and hepatic MWA

[241-243].

Figure 4.1 shows the three most common configurations of the monopole antenna [241].

Figure 4.1 The three basic classifications of monopole antennas [241]

The most basic of these is the open-tip monopole (OTM), characterized by an

elongated inner conductor which is radially surrounded by dielectric material and open-

ended at the distal tip. Another variation is the dielectric-tip monopole (DTM), differs

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from the OTM in terms of electric material which surrounds the elongated inner

conductor both radially and at the antenna tip. The final variation is the metal-tip

monopole (MTM), which uses a metal cap at the distal end of an extended dielectric-

covered inner conductor in order to provide increased electric contact with tissue.

For all these three variations, excellent power deposition occurs if the length of

elongated conductor is λeff / 4, where λeff represents the effective wavelength in tissue.

However, the computational and experimental analysis of these variations has shown

that the MTM antenna is capable of yielding the greatest power deposition at the tip of

the antenna [241].

Figure 4.2 (a) shows the plots of SAR patterns of normalized SAR contours of

monopole antennas. Figure 4.2 (b) shows that MTM not only provides the increased

electric contact, but also shifts the antenna’s resonant frequency. Figure 4.2 (c) shows

the corresponding measurements of antenna frequency responses, which shows that the

metal-tip helps to move the antenna resonant frequency lower. The monopole antennas

are very easy to fabricate, but the performance of monopole antennas are not desirable

for MWA [244]. The SAR patterns of monopole antennas have long tails, which

contribute to backward heating, although OTM antenna resonance frequency is at the

desired working frequency of MWA at 2.45 GHz or 915 MHz.

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 (a)

(b)

(c)
Figure 4.2 (a) Comparison of coaxial-based open-tip monopole (OTM) and
metal-tip monopole (MTM) antennas. (b) 2D Normalized SAR
profile.(c) Return loss. The OTM is represented by the solid line; the
MTM is represented by the dashed line. The metal cap shifts the
resonant frequency of the MTM antenna [244]

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4.3.2 Dipole Antenna

Figure 4.3(a) shows the schematic for one of the dipole antenna used in MWA

and microwave hyperthermia applications. Its remarkable structure is antenna slot and

the antenna termination tip, which is an enlarged metal structure of the coaxial center

conductor [245]. The dipole antenna is usually constructed from thin, semi rigid coaxial

cable, with its design focusing on three regions. The first region is often referred to as

the slot of the antenna, which acts as the effective source of microwaves propagation.

This region is usually designed to be much less than a wavelength so that the gap can be

approximated as an infinitesimal dipole. Basically coaxial dipole antenna is an

unbalanced dipole structure, the tip of antenna is one pole and the outer conductor of the

coaxial cable is the second pole.

Figure 4.3 Schematic diagram of dipole antenna [245]

Figure 4.4 Plot of the SAR pattern for the dipole antenna. SAR contours are in
dB scale, normalized to maximal SAR value of the EM field [245]

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 (a)

(b)

(c)
Figure 4.5 Normalized specific absorption rate (SAR) patterns for a
conventional interstitial dipole antenna at insertion depths of (a) 75
mm, (b) 95 mm, (c) 115 mm. [245]

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 The length of the tip is short but the outer conductor tail of the antenna is much

longer. Thus the unequal lengths of both the poles make the EM fields of the antenna

unbalanced between the two poles. The plot of the SAR pattern for the dipole antenna,

in dB scale, normalized to maximal SAR value of the EM field is shown in Figure 4.4.

The dipole antenna has very low power reflection, when, immersed in liver tissue at a

frequency of 2.45 GHz. The SAR pattern shows that it does not do a good job to

minimize the backward heating, as the SAR pattern has the tail towards the insertion

point of the antenna.

Another major problem with both the dipole antenna and the monopole antenna

is that their SAR patterns depend upon the insertion depth of antenna. Hurter [245]

described this problem in 1991, demonstration of the problem has been shown in

Figure 4.5. Three SAR patterns from computer simulations for different antenna

insertion depths are shown in Figure 4.5 (a), (b) and (c), where measurements were

performed in a brain tissue phantom.

4.3.3 Slot antenna

Coaxial slot antennas are the most popular antennas in MWA. Figure 4.6 shows

the general structure of one of the most popular designs for hepatic MWA, the coaxial-

fed interstitial slot antenna [246]. The physical construction of the slot antenna is

straightforward, the outer conductor and the center conductor are soldered at the end of

the antenna tip and a ring of metal is cut off the antenna outer conductor to be the

antenna slot. The slot antennas are easy to fabricate, a thin, semirigid coaxial cable in

which a small ring slot of width is cut through the outer conductor close to the short-

circuited distal tip of the antenna to allow electromagnetic wave propagation into the

tissue. Looking from outside of the antenna, a slot antenna is actually very similar to a

dipole antenna, but the tip of the dipole antenna is a whole piece of metal, while the

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inside of the tip of a slot antenna is still the dielectric of the coaxial cable. Like all other

antennas, a slot antenna is usually sealed in its catheter to be used in a MWA procedure.

Figure 4.6 Schematic of the slot coaxial antenna [246]

Figure 4.7 SAR pattern of the slot coaxial antenna. SAR contours are in dB
scale, normalized to maximal SAR value of the EM field [246]

At the frequency of 2.45 GHz, a slot antenna works very similarly to a dipole

antenna. It has very low power reflection and it has a tail on its SAR pattern. Due to

such a long tail, a slot antenna has the problem of backward heating, moreover its SAR

patterns also depend on the antenna insertion depth as depicted in Figure 4.7.

4.3.4 Choke Antenna

To eliminate the problem of backward heating of interstitial antennas, a

modified dipole was developed, a thin metallic choke usually λeff / 4 in length was

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added to the antenna’s outer conductor to block axial current flow and localized power

deposition near the distal tip of the antenna [247-248], referred as choke antenna .

As a result, properly designed choked antennas were capable of achieving high

localized SAR patterns which are less dependent on insertion depth, although such

antennas are usually more invasive due to their slightly increased diameter. Chokes

have also aided in impedance matching and tissue coupling during MWA [249-250].

Figure 4.8 (a) shows one of modified design of choke antenna named as the cap-

choke slot antenna [251-253]. In addition to its effectively implemented choke, this

innovative design uses an annular cap as other antennas, but it provides excellent

localization of power at the distal end of the antenna. It is short-circuited across the

inner and outer conductors of the coaxial cable and extends radially from the antenna to

increase capacitance and improve radiation from the tip of the antenna. Although the

cap-choke is not as minimally invasive

Figure 4.8 (b) depicts the axial SAR pattern of this antenna which is definitely

more localized. In addition, the figure also indicates that lesions produced using this

antenna is much more independent of insertion depth, and as a conclusion it has been

confirmed through independent experimental findings. Although the antenna has been

designed for operation at both 915 MHz and 2.45 GHz, 915 MHz is usually preferred

since it can yield a deeper power deposition [250].

Figure 4.9 shows a recent modification of the cap-choke antenna, in which the

choke is extended over and a second slot is added to produce more uniform SAR near

the applicator tip in a brain equivalent phantom The major advantage of this design is

that the diameter of the antenna is reduced to make it more invasive. Through numerical

techniques, it has been demonstrated that this modified cap-choke double slot antenna is

capable of ablating tumors up to 2 cm in radius [254].

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 (a)

(b)
Figure 4.8 Cap-choke antenna for microwave ablation, designed for operation
at 2.45 GHz: (a) Basic structure and (b) Comparison of simulated
and measured normalized axial SAR at different radial distances
[252]

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 (a)

(b)
Figure 4.9 Modified cap-choke antenna for microwave ablation for operation at
2.45 GHz: (a) Basic structure and (b) SAR profile [253]

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 Figure 4.10. (a) Cross section of a conventional choked coaxial antenna of the
asymmetric dipole type. (b) Cross section of a prototype of choked
applicator (c) Equivalent circuit [254]

Longo et al. developed another innovative monopole design, an OTM with

adjustable choke that allows for the real-time adjustment of antenna impedance for

better matching [249]. This antenna uses a modified biopsy needle to guide the antenna

into tissue while simultaneously serving as an adjustable choke. Figure 4.10 shows the

cross section of a conventional choked coaxial antenna of the asymmetric dipole type.

The description of the figure 4.10 (a), (b) and (c) are as follows, EC=CC =

external/central coaxial conductor (copper), I = insulator (P.T.F.E.), PC = plastic

catheter (e.g., silicone), CS = choke section, F = antenna feed, T = antenna tip, DT =

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dielectric tip. Legend 10 (b): BN = biopsy needle, C = copper collar, S = solder, PT =

plastic tubing (P.T.F.E.), L = length of CS, L = distance between CS input and T, L =

distance between CS input and F, L = length of DT; Legend 10 (c): AA = reference

plane at CS input, BB = reference plane at feeding point, LS = localized feeding source

at the BB section, G = feeding generator, SS = subsection of the antenna having an

impedance equal to that of the choke at AA, and BC = bulk conductor.

Figure 4.11 Numerically computed power density distribution (dB_W/m)

produced by the (a) Choked and (b) Unchoked applicator radiating
in a homogeneous medium [254]

Figure 4.11 (a) and (b) directly compare the calculated spatial distribution of the

power density produced, respectively, by the choked applicator and its unchoked

replica; the calculations were performed assuming the medium surrounding the antenna

to be homogeneous. A more pronounced bending of the iso-power lines (corresponding

to iso-SAR lines) clearly shows close to the feed section when the choke is present. The

core of the SAR pattern produced by the choked antenna extends for the most part

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between the feed and the tip of the antenna, indicating the effectiveness of the choke in

blocking backward RF currents.

Figure 4.12 Comparison between measured and numerically calculated SAR

for both choked and unchoked applicators [254]

Figure 4.12 depicts the comparison between measured and numerically

calculated SAR for choked, unchoked antennas; each set of data is normalized to its

peak value. The experimental data have been obtained by sending pulses of up to 50 W

for 2 s of duration to antennas and by measuring the corresponding temperature increase

2 mm apart from the antenna axis. These measurements were done on an antenna with a

fixed choke length of λeff/4, although this was found to have a minimal effect on

performance. Here it can be concluded that a cap-choke antenna can provide a better

localized and less insertion depth dependent SAR pattern.

4.3.5 Triaxial antenna

Brace proposed the triaxial antenna design in 2004 [255]. Figure 4.13 shows an

open tip monopole coaxial antenna inserted through an 18-gauge biopsy needle. The

needle is placed 1/4 wavelength from the antenna base. The monopole antenna and the

biopsy needle together form a triaxial structure.

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 Figure 4.13 Demonstration of the structure of the triaxial antenna [255]

The triaxial antenna does not work better than other antennas for most aspects of

antenna performance. It does not solve the backward heating problem, and it does not

create larger lesions. Nevertheless, this antenna is very easy to use in real clinical

operations, especially for percutaneous treatments. The biopsy needle with introducer

can be easily inserted and placed into the liver tissue. The introducer is then redrawn

and the monopole antenna is inserted into the needle and advanced to the desired

position. Figure 4.14 shows the variations of electric field of the antenna.

Figure 4.14 Normalized electric field magnitude of the antenna [255]

4.3.6 Floating Sleeve Antenna

Figure 4.15 shows the design of the floating sleeve antenna. The floating sleeve

antenna differs from existing laboratory and clinical devices (such as the cap-choke

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antenna) in that the sleeve is electrically isolated from the outer conductor of the coaxial

feedline [130]. This floating sleeve is similar to the open sleeve antenna which also uses

a floating sleeve. However the floating sleeve of the open sleeve antenna is quite long.

Figure 4.15 (a) Schematic of the floating sleeve antenna and (b) Cross section of
the antenna at the sleeve. [130]

Figure 4.16 Plot of normalized SAR on dB scale [130]

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 Figure 4.17 Input reflection coefficient (S11) for the floating sleeve antenna
versus frequency [130]

The SAR values are normalized to the maximum in the simulation region as

shown in Figure 4.16. For reference, the probe tip is at 0 mm, the slot is centered at 12

mm, and the sleeve begins at 22 mm and extends to 41 mm. The region of the simulated

liver tissue is from –23 to 83 mm horizontally and 0 to 60 mm vertically. The boundary

of the region of the liver tissue is however not shown in the figure so that SAR pattern

near the antenna slot can be observed with better details. The antenna is inserted 70 mm

deep into the liver, from the center of the antenna slot at z = 23 mm towards liver tissue.

Figure 4.17 shows both the measured and computed results of reflection coefficient S11.

The figure shows that the antenna’s minimum reflection is near 2 GHz, off from the

desired frequency of 2.45 GHz. Though the antenna was not designed to minimize the

reflected power, but a good SAR pattern has been obtained with a value of 19-20 dB at

2.45 GHz. Further optimization of the antenna could reduce this reflection further and

permit tuning the null to 2.45 GHz.

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4.3.7 Antenna Array

An array of antennas could be used simultaneously in order to create larger

thermal lesions for large tumors. Through multiple treatments with one antenna are

possible, but such treatments will take long time to finish.

Brace described the utility of array antennas to create larger thermal lesions for

large tumors [256]. A liver tumor could be as large as 10 cm in diameter. A single

antenna is not likely able to treat such a large tumor in one pass. Figure 4.18 shows that

simultaneous treatment by an antenna array could generate larger thermal lesions than

sequential multiple treatments. Although multiple antennas may be able to create

sufficiently larger zones, to overcome the heat sink effect, however special care must be

taken to prevent the blood vessels, as this may affect the blood supply to other part of

the organs.

Figure 4.18 Demonstration of MWA with antenna array. (a) MWA lesion with
one antenna, 40 W for 10 min (b) MWA lesion of sequential
treatments with 3 parallel antennas, antennas are separated by 1.1
cm (c) Simultaneous treatment by 3 antennas, separated by 1.6 cm.
[256]

4.4 Conclusions

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 Great progress has been made in the last fifteen years, in the development of

interstitial antennas for microwave ablation, capable to produce highly localized heat

patterns with low power reflection coefficient and minimum backward heating. Many

researchers have implemented different designs, such as those using monopole, dipole,

multiple slots, choke and floating sleeve antennas, which can achieve similar levels of

antenna performance, although all have not been mentioned in this chapter. Researchers

have also shown that arrays of multiple antennas can generate large lesions for the

treatment of abnormally large or geometrically unique tumors, but major blood vessels

has to be taken care of, because if any blood vessel gets damaged, it can hinder the

blood supply to the other organs, which can lead to critical situation. Hence it is demand

of the modern time to design new antennas, which can generate larger lesions in

spherical shape which deliver high localized power to the targeted liver tumor single

handedly.

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