KNE773 – Advanced Geotechnical Engineering

Project Phase II: Geohazard Assessment of Landslides in Tasmania

Harf J. Miranda
498296

Professor: Dr. Hong Liu

1. Introduction

A landslide is a down-slope movement of mass of rock, debris or earth under the direct influence of gravity.
It is the inability of the debris to hold together in the presence of gravity that causes sliding failure. Soil in
particular, derives its strength against sliding from intermolecular bonds between particles called cohesion
and internal friction between soil particles. It can be weakened by the presence of water or seepage.
According to Nikolic (2015), one of the main causes of landslides is water, especially in case of heavy
precipitation, but there are also other causes such as earthquakes, changed underground water levels, wave
influence, extra ballast slope, cut slope and others.

Geologic formation and properties such as topography, type of rocks or earth existing in a location defines
the susceptibility of landslide. The stability of a slope is influenced by a variety of time-independent and
time-dependent factors, which, when unfavorably aligned, can lead to landslide (McColl, 2015). This paper
provides overview of different factors that causes landslides in different parts of Tasmania. It also reviews
geomorphological characteristics of Tasmania that contributes to historical and potential landslides in the
state.

2. Geology of Tasmania
 Figure 1. General picture of Tasmanian geology.

3. General Causes of Tasmanian Landslide

3.1 Ground condition

Ground condition refers to the geological state of the ground that makes it susceptible to landslide. Soil
with weak properties such as clay content, plasticity, sensitivity and shear strength are more vulnerable to
mass wasting. North western coast of Tasmania is composed of tertiary basaltic terrain which contains
highly reactive montmorillonite clay with high plasticity index. This causes shallow failure of slope in
Lillico Beach and rotational landslide in Gawler River, Ulverstone. Deeply weathered basalt caused
rotational failure that occurred in Penguin. Cambrian rocks are also widely exposed in this area which most
are slightly deformed or fractured and deeply weathered.

Dolerite in Tamar valley may be described as fissured material as it contains planar breaks. The fractures
within the rocks allows the material to possess secondary porosity which allows water absorption hence the
term fractured rock aquifer. These fractures accelerate the weathering process that introduce stability issues.
Weathered dolerites are commonly sitting on old landscapes indicated by kernel textures in figure 2.

Figure 2. Kernel textures on weathered dolerite along West Tamar highway.

In most coastal settlement of Tasmania, groundwater flows through the interface between old and young
basalt units. The ground water discharges through the edge of the slope causing the covering clays to
transform into liquid state and flows along the slope. This process accumulates clay and weathered rock
materials at the bottom of the escarpment. Even when coastal processes have been removed, landslides are
still occurring in the same way. Figure 3 shows a schematic diagram of the process.
 Figure 3. Schematic diagram of coastal settlement process.

3.2 Geomorphology

Geomorphology is the study of the nature and origin of landforms which continually shape the earth.
Tasmanian landforms underwent different phases of natural weathering throughout its time until ultimately
forming what it is today. Deposits from volcanic activities shape the earth in general, and Tasmania is of
no exemption. Deposits in Tamar Valley in Launceston originates from Pleistocene tectonic uplift and
incision, and composed of tertiary basalt.

Assemblage of plant species in the ground has been known to increase stability of slope (Fattet et al., 2011).
Vegetation removal due to drought or forest fire increases the likelihood of landslide. Forest fire is common
in Tasmania during dry season thus causes vegetation clearance. In figure 4, shallow slope landslide in
Launceston group clay exemplifies the risk brought by soil surface cleared by vegetation.

Figure 4 shallow earth slide in Launceston group clay

Tasmania is composed of four main river systems: Derwent river, Gordon river, Huon river and the state’s
longest river, South Esk. River beds along these rivers and other bodies of water in the state are susceptible
to fluvial erosion. This type of erosion arises when the stress induced by water flow exceeds the capacity
of the material to sustain its attachment and stability. Tasmania is an island state, with coastline extending
nearly 5000 km (Geoscience Australia). The coastline exposed in open water is also vulnerable to wave
erosions which is similar to that of fluvial erosion. Some coastal landslides occur in Bell bay (figure 5)
which is caused by the energy of waves brought by the ocean current and profile of soil in the area. As can
be seen in figure 6, sand is underlain by clay which is prone to slope failure especially with the effects of
water current.

Figure 5. Yellow lines indicate coastal landslides in Bell bay.

Figure 6. Soil profile of Bell bay.

3.3 Physical processes

Tasmania has a cool temperate climate with a highly differentiated rainfall pattern. Western Tasmania
receives the highest average annual precipitation. Perhaps the most obvious physical process that triggers
soil erosion or landslide is rainfall. Rainfall saturates the soil, weakening its strength parameters and
integrates seepage into the system. Fractured vertical dolerites sitting on weaker soil bed may topple as
triggered by rainfall. Water seepage may occur through internal fractures into the underlying soil bed may
cause potential dolerite collapse (figure 7). This type of failure may usually occur on higher altitude settings.

Figure 7. Conceptual model of a large rock topple-block slide failure on a dolerite scarp.
(source: Kiernan, 1990)

3.4 Man-made processes

Landslides can also be artificial or caused directly or indirectly by human activities. Since the European
settlement in 1800s, urban development has been slowly initiated. In the modern times, with growing
population and tourists, requirements for basic necessities and services has also increased. For example,
construction of roads and highways throughout the island allows efficient of transport of goods and people.
However, construction of highways requires earth materials and land use. This influences landslides such
as in Constitution Hill. The excavation for road embankments typically situated at the toe of the hills which
triggers debris slides.
 Figure 8. Colluvial soils flowing at the sides of the cutting highway

Structures on the slope such as residential houses could also trigger landslides as they increase the pressure
to be resisted by the shear capacity of the underlying soil. If construction proceeds without prior soil
investigation on the slope, failure may occur that may cause property damage and casualties. Some
examples of these in Tasmania are shown in figures 9 and 10 in Lawrence Vale.

Figure 9. Concrete wall at abandoned house in Lawrence Vale Landslide.

Figure 10. Head scarp of the Lawrence Vale Landslide, 2007

As discussed in section 3.2, vegetation removal can dramatically decrease the capacity of slope against
failure. Besides geomorphological process, vegetation may also be intentionally cleared to pave way for
urbanization. The increase in urbanization also increases the likelihood of landslide points. Combined with
road constructions and other necessities such as installation of water supply lines, it can be seen from figures
11 and 12 that urbanized suburbs such as Hobart and Launceston have relatively higher concentration of
landslide points.

Figure 10. Landslide points in southern and south-eastern part of Tasmania.

(source: http://www.mrt.tas.gov.au)

Figure 11. Landslide points in north and north-western part of Tasmania.

(source: http://www.mrt.tas.gov.au)

4. Major types of Tasmanian Landslides

4.1 Translational and Rotational Landslides

Rotational landslide is a type of landslide which has a curved slip plane causing simultaneous downward
and outward movement of the mass. Rotational landslide is one of the common types of Tasmanian
landslides as observed in Gawler river, Ulverstone and Penguin. The slip plane in this type of landslide it
typically deep and can be single, multiple or successive. The rotational landslide in Ulverstone has single
but large failure plane as eroded materials travel to the Gawler river (figure 12). The rotational landslide in
Penguin ranges 2 km across with multiple failure plane which triggers parasitic flows at the toe of the slope
(figure 13).

Figure 12. Cross-section of rotational failure in Ulverstone.

Figure 13. Penguin landslide 1969.

4.2 Earth Flow

Earth flow is a downslope viscous flow of fine-grained materials such as clay that have been saturated with
water and moves under the pull of gravity (Easterbook, 1999). This type of landslide is typically seen in
coastal areas of Tasmania. As described in figure 3, fine grained materials are saturated and transported by
ground water flowing through the boundaries of Tertiary basalts. Since the fine-grained soils are highly
saturated, the water content exceeds the liquid limit causing it to be in viscous liquid state. At this state, the
soil is weak thus allowing it to flow along the slope easily.
 Figure 14. Typical earth flow erosion triggered by fluvial system

4.3 Topple

Toppling is the forward rotation out of the slope of a mass of soil or rock about a point or axis below
the center of gravity of the displaced mass. Toppling is sometimes driven by gravity exerted by material
upslope of the displaced mass and sometimes by water or ice in cracks in the mass (Highland and
Bobrowsky, 2008). In Tasmanian setting, vertical dolerite columns are prone to topple type landslide.
Weathering and rainfall can weaken the bottom of dolerite columns causing it to collapse.

4.4 Spread-type Landslide

This type of landslide contains multiple slip planes simultaneously failing in a wide shallow mechanism.
One example is the landslide in Wynyard extending 600 m horizontally (figure 15).
 Figure 15. Wynyard spread-type landslide.

4.5 Rockfall

This type of failure is simply detached fragments of rock that falls freely from vertical or semi-vertical
cliffs. Multiple factors cause the block of rocks to detach, few of which are weathering, fractures in rock
mass, freeze-thaw effect and groundwater effect. It is one type of landslide common to Tasmania since it
features wide range of rocky landscape such as Tertiary dolerites.

4.6 Creep

Creep is the very slow downhill movement of rock and soil. It can even occur on gentle slopes. Creep often
results from the freezing and thawing of water in cracked layers of rock beneath the soil. This type of
landslide is difficult to notice without measuring device but occurs throughout Tasmania. One example is
the Taroona school landslide in figure 17.

Figure 16. Recent rockfall in Table Cape.

5. Major Geological Units Relevant to Tasmanian Landslides

5.1 Tertiary clays and basalts in the Tamar Valley

Basaltic materials in Tamar Valley contain clays. Clays are typically unstable and can be responsible for
landslides especially when saturated by rainfall or water systems such as rivers. Landslides in Tamar valley
are greatly influenced by the effect of coastal and fluvial system to the clay materials in the site.

5.2 Tertiary Basalts in the NW Coast

Similar to Tamar valley, geological deposit of north-west coast is comprised by tertiary basalts. Landslide
in this area is triggered by fluvial system and coastal waves.

5.3 Colluvial Deposits Associated with Jurassic Dolerite and Parmeenar Mountains

Colluvial soil is a loose, unconsolidated soil that is typically found at the bottom of a slope. It is usually
composed of rock sediments with wide range of particle size distribution. Colluvial deposits covering a
rocky mountain such as those with dolerites could easily flow and slide over when conditions allow such
as rainfall. In higher altitudes of mountainous area of Tasmania, freeze-thaw also influences the landslide
of these materials.

6. Introduction to Taroona School Creek Landslide

Mineral Resources Tasmania (MRT) monitors an active slow-moving landslide, the School Creek
Landslide, in Taroona. Ongoing monitoring consists of a near-real-time monitoring system measuring
horizontal displacement, rainfall and groundwater pressure. A network of inclinometers and ground control
points are periodically measured to determine ground displacement over a larger area. The earliest known
activity for this site is on 1946 and has been recently active.

Attention to this landslide is significant to public health, safety and serves as a critical foundation for risk
management. Figure 17 depicts the magnitude and direction of creep and shear movement of the ground in
Taroona school. Shear movement is concentrated at the middle part of the region, where the Taroona school
is located, with maximum magnitude of 37 mm. Minor creep movements can be observed at the edge of
the landslide. It is categorized as discrete landslide with earth translational slide.
 Figure 17. Taroona monitoring (Source: http://www.mrt.tas.gov.au)

Reference:

[1] Nikolic T. (2015) Direct and Indirect Impact of Landslide on Environment. In: Lollino G., Manconi A.,
Guzzetti F., Culshaw M., Bobrowsky P., Luino F. (eds) Engineering Geology for Society and Territory -
Volume 5. Springer, Cham

[2] Sloane, D.J., 1991. Some physical properties of dolerite. Report of the Division of Mines and Mineral
Resources—report, (1991/22).
[3] Spry, A., 1955. The tertiary volcanic rocks of lower Sandy Bay, Hobart. In Papers and Proceedings of
the Royal Society of Tasmania (Vol. 89, pp. 153-169).

[4] N Farmer: Geological Survey Explanatory Report Geological Atlas 1:250,000 series sheet SK55/8
Hobart

[5] Leaman, D., 2002. Engineering geology in Tasmania: a review. Australian Geomechanics: Journal
and News of the Australian Geomechanics Society, 37(4), p.1.

[6] Fattet, M., Fu, Y., Ghestem, M., Ma, W., Foulonneau, M., Nespoulous, J., Le Bissonnais, Y. and
Stokes, A., 2011. Effects of vegetation type on soil resistance to erosion: Relationship between aggregate
stability and shear strength. Catena, 87(1), pp.60-69.

[7] McColl, Samuel T. "Landslide causes and triggers." In Landslide Hazards, Risks and Disasters, pp.
17-42. Academic Press, 2015.

[8] Easterbrook, D: “Surface Processes and Landforms”, page 78-79. Prentice-Hall, Inc, 1999

[9] Highland, L. and Bobrowsky, P.T., 2008. The landslide handbook: a guide to understanding
landslides (p. 129). Reston: US Geological Survey.

[10] Mineral Resources Tasmania, Department of State Growth, accessed 10 April 2019, <
http://www.mrt.tas.gov.au>