FUNCTIONAL ENGLISH

(ENGLISH – I)

COURSE PACK
2020

__________________________________________
ENGLISH LANGUAGE CENTRE
UNIVERSITY OF CENTRAL PUNJAB
KHAYABAN-E-JINNAH، ROAD، JOHAR TOWN, LAHORE
 FUNCTIONAL ENGLISH
(ENGLISH – I)

COURSE PACK
2020

COMPILED BY:
MUHAMMAD ASIF

__________________________________________
ENGLISH LANGUAGE CENTRE
UNIVERSITY OF CENTRAL PUNJAB
KHAYABAN-E-JINNAH، ROAD، JOHAR TOWN, LAHORE
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Expressing gratitude toward the Almighty Allah is obligatory upon every human in any venture

that is anticipated to benefit humanity, and this course pack intends nothing less, nothing more

than serving humankind in any capacity it may be viewed or exploited by the students, readers

or intellectuals for academic purposes.

This course pack is indebted to various individuals without whose guidance, contribution and

support, it may never have been completed. First among such gracious people is the Director,

English Language Centre (ELC), UCP – Ms Nadra Huma Quraishi – whose untiring efforts

and selfless guidance made this meticulous job extremely easy and doable. The next in the row

is the Assistant Director (Administration), ELC, UCP – Mr Muhammad Saeed – whose

continuous facilitation made the project attainable.

I truly appreciate the contribution and continued cooperation of the English-I faculty members

– Ms Hina Ehsan, Ms Noreen Akhtar, Mr Muhammad Ghabit Chishti, Ms Faiza Tanzeem, Ms

Shahzadi Mahjabeen, Ms Somia Saif, Ms Iram Nazir, Mr Abdul Aziz Mufti, and Ms Nadia

Noreen – whose sincere help, moral support and motivation to perform their part worked in the

accomplishment of this task.

MUHAMMAD ASIF
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 Table of Contents
Course Outline ................................................................................................................ ii
Parts of Speech ............................................................................................................... 2
Noun....................................................................................................................................... 3
Pronoun .................................................................................................................................. 6
Adjective .............................................................................................................................. 10
Adverb.................................................................................................................................. 13
Preposition ........................................................................................................................... 15
Article .................................................................................................................................. 20
Conjunction .......................................................................................................................... 24
Verb...................................................................................................................................... 27
References ............................................................................................................................ 30
Suggested Reading ............................................................................................................... 31
Tenses ........................................................................................................................... 33
Present Simple Tense ........................................................................................................... 34
Present Progressive .............................................................................................................. 37
Past Simple Tense ................................................................................................................ 40
Past Progressive ................................................................................................................... 41
Present Perfect ..................................................................................................................... 42
Past Perfect........................................................................................................................... 44
Future Simple Tense ............................................................................................................ 46
Future Progressive ............................................................................................................... 49
Future Perfect ....................................................................................................................... 49
References ............................................................................................................................ 54
Voice ............................................................................................................................. 56
Active voice ......................................................................................................................... 57
Passive voice ........................................................................................................................ 60
References ............................................................................................................................ 67
Capitalization and Punctuation ..................................................................................... 69
Capitalization ....................................................................................................................... 70
Punctuation .......................................................................................................................... 82
References ............................................................................................................................ 88
Sentence Structure ........................................................................................................ 90
Sentence ............................................................................................................................... 90
Clauses and phrases ............................................................................................................. 92
Four Types of Sentences ...................................................................................................... 94
 Review Exercise................................................................................................................. 104
References .......................................................................................................................... 105
Reading Comprehension ............................................................................................ 107
Comprehension: The Goal of Reading .............................................................................. 108
Reading Comprehension Strategies ................................................................................... 108
Detailed Reading ................................................................................................................ 116
Inferences ........................................................................................................................... 118
Reading to Deduce Meaning .............................................................................................. 122
Paragraph Writing ....................................................................................................... 146
Basic Paragraph Structure .................................................................................................. 146
Features of Paragraph ........................................................................................................ 156
How to Write a Good Paragraph:....................................................................................... 159
Types of paragraph ............................................................................................................. 161
Translation Skills ........................................................................................................ 181
Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 181
Importance and Application of Translation Skills ............................................................. 181
Tips to be a good Translator: ............................................................................................. 182
Application ......................................................................................................................... 184
Qualities commonly needed by all translators ................................................................... 184
Translation Strategies......................................................................................................... 185
Rules for Translation of Passages ...................................................................................... 185
Translate the following passage into Urdu ........................................................................ 186
Urdu to English Translation ............................................................................................... 188
References .......................................................................................................................... 190
Presentation Skills ...................................................................................................... 192
Student presentations might include: ................................................................................. 192
Different types of presentation........................................................................................... 193
What are effective presentations? ...................................................................................... 193
Following are the characteristics of an effective presentation: .......................................... 193
COURSE OUTLINE

i
 Course Outline

University of Central Punjab, Johar Town, Lahore

Course Title: English – I

Course Code: __________________
Semester: Fall 2020
Instructor: ____________________
Email: __________________________

COURSE DESCRIPTION
This course will equip the students with improved English language skills drawing upon a
number of activities related to basics of grammar, improving reading comprehension, enhancing
students’ discussion skills and listening comprehension along with structuring a paragraph
following a specific format. This will help them overcome their problems regarding generating
ideas and organizing incoherent thoughts for comprehensive writing.

The course includes a variety of reference materials from a number of renowned language
improvement resources of reputed universities as well as English language and grammar
publications. The students will be required to undertake intensive writing sessions to improve
their writing ability with a focus on Expository Writings. With the help of special writing tools
taught during the course, students will demonstrate knowledge to write coherently and
cohesively. This course also introduces the students to presentation skills and basics of
translation skills. All material caters to the blended learning approach.

COURSE OBJECTIVES
The objectives of the course are to:
 enhance language skills
 develop critical thinking
 equip students with a variety of organizing, planning, writing, team building and
communication skills necessary to manage and lead organizations in diverse and
dynamic environments effectively
 nurture problem analysis and decision-making skills required for handling challenges
faced by modern times
 cover each concept through all integrated language skills

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COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of the course, the students will have:
 improved paragraph writing ability
 enhanced listening and reading comprehension
 improved diction and spelling, punctuation and mechanics, and functional grammar
 learning out of the box through improved skills as critical readers
 enhanced presentation skills

ASSESSMENT STRUCTURE
Assessment Type Percentage
Quizzes 10
Assignments 10
Class Participation 05
Project/ Presentation 05
Mid-term Examination 30
Final-term Examination 40

Any specific teaching/ learning strategies:

The methodology will include lectures, interactive sessions, group presentations,
reading materials, write-shops, movies and group projects.

COURSE CONTENT AND DELIVERY PLAN

Week Topics Assignments / Quizzes
Orientation
1  Introduction to the course
 Ice-breaking
Parts of speech
2
 Noun, Pronoun, Adjective, Adverb
Parts of speech Quiz # 1
3  Preposition, Article, Conjunction (Noun, Pronoun, Adjective,
Adverb)
Parts of speech
 Verb, Types of verb Assignment # 1
4 [Main verb, auxiliary verb, modal verb; (Prepositions, Articles,
action and state verbs; and regular and Conjunctions)
irregular]

iii
COURSE CONTENT AND DELIVERY PLAN
Tense
 Present, Past, Future Quiz # 2
Aspect (Verb & its types)
 progressive and perfect
Voice
 Active and Passive

Capitalization Assignment # 2
6
Punctuation (Tenses, Voice)
Sentence structure
 Basic sentence elements
 Clauses – independent and dependent
Types of sentences
7
 Simple
 Compound
 Complex
 Compound-complex
Reading Comprehension
 Developing reading strategies
8
 Variety of reading materials
 Exercises from IELTS, TOEFL, APTIS etc.
9 MID-TERM
Paragraph Writing
 Structure of a paragraph
10  Introduction to Expository Writing
 How to deconstruct a paragraph

Paragraph Writing
 Types of Expository Paragraphs Quiz # 3
11
[Descriptive, Comparison & Contrast] (Structure &Types of
Sentences)
Paragraph Writing
12  Types of Expository Paragraphs Assignment # 3
[Problem & Solution, Cause & Effect] (Structure of a paragraph)

Translation Skills Quiz # 4

 Translating sentences and paragraph (Descriptive, Comparison
13
 English to Urdu & Contrast, Problem &
 Urdu to English Solution, Cause & Effect)

iv
 COURSE CONTENT AND DELIVERY PLAN
Presentation Skills
 Methods and strategies Assignment # 4
14  Create effective presentation (Expository Paragraphs)
 Use audio-visuals [ Problem & Solution,
 Reflection Cause & Effect)
15 Project Presentations

16 Course Revision

17 FINAL EXAM

1. Recommended Books
2.
 Swan, M. (2005). Practical English Usage. Oxford Univ. Press.
 Swan, M., & Walter, C. (2011). Oxford English grammar course. Oxford University
Press.
 Osmond, A. (2015). Academic writing and grammar for students. Sage.

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PARTS OF SPEECH

1
 Parts of Speech

Chapter Overview Learning Objectives

Learning Objectives

Parts of Speech Students will be able to:

 Noun
 Pronoun  understand how words relate to each other
 Adjective  enhance their knowledge of Parts of Speech and
their function in different contexts
 Adverb
 use word classes in their written expression
 Preposition
effectively
 Conjunction
 identify a grammatical problem in a sentence.
 Articles
 Verb
 References

Traditional grammar classifies words based on nine parts of speech: noun, pronoun, adjective, adverb,
preposition, article/determiner, conjunction, verb, and interjection. (Some sources include only eight
parts of speech and leave interjection in their own category.)

Each part of speech explains not what the word is, but how the word is used. In fact, the same word can
be a noun in one sentence and a verb or adjective in the next. The next few examples show how a word's
part of speech can change from one sentence to the next, and following them is a series of sections on
the individual parts of speech, followed by an exercise.

Books are made of ink, paper, and glue.

In this sentence, "books" is a noun, the subject of the sentence.

Michelle waits patiently while Johnson books the tickets.

Here "books" is a verb, and its subject is "Johnson."

We walk down the street.

In this sentence, "walk" is a verb, and its subject is the pronoun "we."

The mail carrier stood on the walk.

In this example, "walk" is a noun, which is part of a prepositional phrase describing where the mail
carrier stood.

The town decided to build a new jail.

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Here "jail" is a noun, which is the object of the infinitive phrase "to build."

The sheriff told us that if we did not leave town immediately he would jail us.

Here "jail" is part of the compound verb "would jail."

They heard high pitched cries in the middle of the night.

In this sentence, "cries" is a noun acting as the direct object of the verb "heard."

The baby cries all night long and all day long.

But here "cries" is a verb that describes the actions of the subject of the sentence, the baby. The next few
sections explain each of the parts of speech in detail.

Noun
A noun is a word that names something: either a person, place, or thing.
 person: man, woman, teacher, Abid, Amber
 place: home, office, town, countryside, Pakistan
 thing: table, car, banana, money, music, love, dog, monkey
 idea/ feeling/emotion/state: honesty, patriotism, suffocation, depression
In a sentence, nouns have certain functions and can play the role of subject, direct object, indirect
object, subject complement, object complement, appositive, or adjective.
For example,
 Subject of a verb: Doctors work hard.
 Object of the verb: He likes coffee.
 Subject and object of the verb: Teachers teach students.
Exercise

Identify the nouns and state their function in the following sentences.
The sun is shining and the birds are singing but Atif is still in bed. His mom comes in the room.
Atif jumps out of bed, brushes his teeth, gets into the bathtub and is ready.
Types of Noun

Nouns form a large proportion of English vocabulary and come in a wide variety of types.

Common Noun

Most nouns are common nouns. A common noun refers to people, place and thing in general
like chair or dog. Any noun that is not a name is a common noun.
Examples: teacher, car, music, danger, receipt
 Have you seen my dog?
 The books are on your desk.
 I bought a new car last month.

3
Proper Noun

Names of people, places or organizations are proper nouns. Your name is a proper noun. London is a
proper noun. United Nations is a proper noun.

Rule: Proper nouns always start with a capital letter.

Examples: Jane, Thailand, Sunday, James Bond, Einstein, Superman, Shakespeare

 Let me introduce you to Mary Smith
 The capital of Italy is Rome.
 He is the chairman of the British Broadcasting Corporation.
 I was born in April.

Pair Activity
One student will write a paragraph on a familiar topic which constitutes of common nouns, and the
other student would replace those common nouns with proper nouns.
Concrete Noun

A concrete noun is a noun that can be identified through one of the five senses (taste, touch, sight,
hearing, or smell). Consider the examples below:

Would someone please answer the phone?

In this sentence, the noun phone is a concrete noun: you can touch it, see it, and hear it.

Identify the concrete nouns from the given sentences.

 How many stars are there in the universe?
 Have you ever met James Bond?
 Pour the water down the drain.
Abstract Noun

An abstract noun is a noun that cannot be perceived using one of the five senses (i.e., taste, touch,
sight, hearing, and smelling). Look at the examples below:

Example: We can’t imagine the courage it took to do that.

Courage is an abstract noun because it cannot be seen, heard, tasted, touched, or smelled.
Other examples:
 He has great strength.
 Who killed President Kennedy is a real mystery.
 Their lives were full of sadness.

Activity

Write the qualities that belong to children who are;

 Lazy
 Cruel
4
  Brave
 Foolish
Form abstract nouns from the following common nouns.
King Beggar
Bankrupt Boy
Infant Hero
Friend Agent
Patriot Owner

Collective Noun

A collective noun is a noun that represents a collection of individuals, usually people, such as:
a team (for example: eleven football players)
a family (for example: mother, father and two children)
a crew (for example: 100 sailors)
As you see, collective nouns can consist of a few people or tens, hundreds or thousands of people:
Committee, jury, senate, company, audience, police, and army.
Rule: Collective nouns can be treated as singular or plural.
 His family lives in different countries.
 An average family consists of four people.
 The new company is the result of a merger.
 The board of directors will meet tomorrow.

Activity

Point out the nouns in the following sentences, and say whether they are Common, Proper,
Collective, or Abstract.
 Always speak the truth.
 A committee of five was appointed.
 We all love honesty.
 Our team is better than theirs.
 Solomon was famous for his wisdom.

Compound Noun

A compound noun contains two or more words that join together to make a single noun, like
"keyboard." A compound noun is a type of compound word that is used to designate a person, place, or
thing. Most compound nouns are [noun + noun] or [adjective + noun]. Each compound noun acts as a
single unit and can be modified by adjectives and other nouns.

Compound nouns have three different forms:

 open or spaced - space between words (bus stop)
 hyphenated - hyphen between words (mother-in-law)
 closed or solid - no space or hyphen between words (football)
Examples: cat food, blackboard, breakfast, full moon, washing machine, software
5
Identify compound nouns from the given sentences.
 Can we use the swimming pool?
 They stop work at sunset.
 Don't forget that check-out is at 12 noon.

Countable Noun
A countable noun refers to an item that can be counted, even if the number might be extraordinarily
high (like counting all the people in the world, for example). Countable nouns can be used with articles
such as a/an and the or quantifiers such as a few and many.
Look at the sentence below and pay particular attention to the countable noun:
Here is a cat.
Cat is singular and countable.
Here are a few cats.
Here are some cats.
Other examples of countable nouns include house, idea, hand, car, flower, and paper.

Uncountable Noun

An uncountable noun is a noun that comes in a state or quantity that is impossible to count; liquids are
uncountable, as are things that act like liquids (sand, air). Abstract ideas like creativity or courage are
also uncountable. An uncountable noun is always considered to be singular and can stand alone or be
used with some, any, a little, and much. See the example below for reference:
An I.Q. test measures intelligence.
Intelligence is an uncountable noun.
Rule: We never use uncountable nouns with the indefinite article (a/an). Uncountable nouns are
always singular.
Examples: water, happiness, cheese

Identify the uncountable nouns from the following sentences.

 Have you got some money?
 Air-conditioners use a lot of electricity.
 Do you have any work for me to do?
 Many Asians eat rice.

Pronoun
A pronoun is a word that replaces a noun in a sentence. Pronouns are used to avoid repeating the same
nouns over and over again.
Harry is absent because Harry is ill.
It is better to avoid the repetition of the Noun Harry, say--
Harry is absent because he is ill.
Common pronouns include I, me, mine, he, she, it, you, we, and us. There are many different types of
pronouns, each serving a different purpose.

6
Types of Pronoun

Personal Pronouns
A personal pronoun is a short word we use as a simple substitute for the proper name of a person. Each
of the English personal pronouns shows us the grammatical person, gender, number, and case of the
noun it replaces. I, we, you, they, he, she, it, me, us, them him and her are all personal pronouns.
There are two kinds: subjective and objective pronouns. Personal pronouns can be either subjects or
objects in a sentence. Subject pronouns are said to be in the nominative case, whereas object pronouns
are said to be in the objective case.

As the subject of the sentence, they are:

I, we, you, they, he, she, it

Identify the subjective pronouns from the following sentences.

 They went to the store.
 I don't want to leave.
 You can't leave, either.
 He runs a great shop in town.

As the object of the subject; they are:

me, us, you, them, him, her, it

Identify the objective pronouns from the following sentences.

 Please don't sit beside me.
 Go, talk to her.
 Mary put the gift under it.
 Don't look at them.

Write the correct form of the pronoun in the following.

1. We scored as many goals as ______________ (they, them)
2. Rama and _______________ were present (me, I)
3. He is as good as __________ (I, am)
4. Let you and ___________ try what we can do. (I, me)
5. It is not for such as __________ to dictate us. (they, them)

Possessive Pronouns

Possessive pronouns show that something belongs to someone. The possessive pronouns are:

my, our, your, his, her, its, and their.

 Is that my book?
 No, that's his book.
 That's its shelf.
 I'd like to see their bookshelves.
7
There’s also an “independent” form of each of these pronouns: mine, ours, yours, his, hers, its, and
theirs. Possessive pronouns are never spelt with apostrophes.
 That's mine.
 Wrong. It's ours.
 So, I suppose those clothes are yours?
 No, it's theirs.

Indefinite Pronouns

Indefinite pronouns do not point to particular nouns. We use them when an object does not need to be
specifically identified. They include:

few, everyone, all, some, anything, nobody

Identify the indefinite pronouns from the given sentences.

 Everyone is here already.
 I don't have any paper napkins. Can you bring some?
 He's nobody.

Relative Pronouns

Relative pronouns are used to connect a clause or phrase to a noun or pronoun. We often see them
when we need to add more information. They are:
who, whom, which, whoever, whomever, whichever, that
 The driver who ran the stop sign was careless.
 I don't know which pair of shoes you want.
 Take whichever ones you want.
 No, not that one.
Join together each of the following pairs of sentences using a connective.
1. This is the building. It was built in a month.
2. The letter reached me this morning. You sent the letter.
3. The boys clapped heartily. They were watching the match.
4. I know a man. The man has a wooden leg.
5. I heard some news. The news astonished me.

Intensive Pronouns

Intensive pronouns emphasize or intensify nouns and pronouns. Typically, we find them right after the
noun they're intensifying. These pronouns typically end in -self or -selves. They are:
myself, herself, himself, themselves, itself, yourself, yourselves, ourselves
 I myself like to travel.
 He himself is his worst critic.
 She approved the marriage herself.
 We went to hear W.B. Yeats himself speak.
8
Demonstrative Pronouns

Demonstrative pronouns take the place of a noun that's already been mentioned. They can be singular
or plural. There are five of them. They include:

this, that, these, those, such

Identify demonstrative pronouns from the given sentences.

 These are ugly.

 Those are lovely.
 Don't drink this.
 Such was his understanding.

Interrogative Pronouns

Interrogative pronouns pose a question. They are:

who, whom, which, what
 Who is going to arrive first?
 What are you bringing to the party?
 Which of these do you like better?
Use the correct interrogative pronouns from the following sentences.
1. __________ wishes to see you?
2. ____________ am I speaking to, please?
3. ____________ did he say?
4. ____________ is that for?
5. ____________ came here yesterday?

Reflexive Pronouns

Reflexive pronouns are similar to intensive pronouns. The difference between the two is that intensive
pronouns aren't essential to a sentence's meaning. Meanwhile, reflexive pronouns are. Also, they're used
when the subject and the object of a sentence refer to the same person or thing. These pronouns end in -
self or -selves. They are:

myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves

Identify the Reflexive pronouns from the following sentences.

 I told myself not to spend all my money on new shoes.

 You're going to have to drive yourself to the restaurant today.
 We gave ourselves plenty of extra time.
 They bought themselves a new car.

9
Adjective
An adjective is a word that describes or modifies another person or thing in the sentence.
 the tall professor
 a solid commitment
 a six-year-old child
 the unhappiest, richest man

Degrees of Adjective

Adjectives can express degrees of modification:

 Gladys is a rich woman, but Josie is richer than Gladys, and Sadie is the richest woman
in town.

The degrees of comparison are known as the positive, the comparative, and the superlative. We use
the comparative for comparing two things and the superlative for comparing three or more things. Notice
that the word than frequently accompanies the comparative and the word the precedes the superlative.
The inflected suffixes -er and -est suffice to form most comparatives and superlatives, although we
need -ier and -iest when a two-syllable adjective ends in y (happier and happiest); otherwise we
use more and most when an adjective has more than one syllable.
Certain adjectives have irregular forms in the comparative and superlative degrees:

Positive Comparative Superlative

rich richer richest
lovely lovelier loveliest
beautiful more beautiful most beautiful

Irregular Comparative and Superlative Forms

good better best
bad worse worst

little less least

much
many more most
some
far further furthest

10
There are certain adjectives which do not have a degree of comparison.

absolute impossible principal

adequate inevitable stationary
chief irrevocable sufficient
complete main unanimous
devoid manifest unavoidable
entire minor unbroken
fatal paramount unique
final perpetual universal
ideal preferable whole

Point out the Adjectives and name the degree of comparison of each.
1. The poor woman had seen happier days.
2. Make less noise.
3. No news is good news.
4. He thinks he is wiser than his father.
5. He has many influential friends.

Fill in the blanks.

1. The majority accepted the ________ proposal. (later, latter)
2. I prefer the _________ proposition to the former. (later, latter)
3. I have an ___________ sister. (elder, older)
4. Rama is _________ than Hari by two years. (older, elder)
5. Abdullah is the _________ of my uncle’s five sons. (oldest, eldest)
6. This is the ________ post office to my house. (nearest, next)
7. His house is _________ to me. (nearest/ next)
8. The _________ time I saw him, he was in high spirits. (last, latest)

The order of Adjective

The categories in the following table can be described as follows:
 Determiners (a, an, those, that, her, several, some)
 Observation (beautiful, expensive, gorgeous, ugly)
 Size and Shape (big, little, enormous)
 Age (old, antique, young)
 Colour (red, black, yellow, golden)
 Origin (Italian, Canadian, Thai)
 Material (silver, Silk, Wooden)
 Qualifier (basketball players, Hat boxes, hunting dogs)

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Types of Adjective

Adjective of Quality/ Descriptive Adjective

They show the kind or quality of a person or thing.

Indian Tea, Turkish Tobacco, French wine
Lahore is the largest city and historic cultural centre of the wider Punjab region.
Abid is an honest man.
The foolish old crow tried to sing.

Adjective of Quantity

They show how much of a thing is meant.

Identify the adjectives of quantity from the given sentences.

 I ate some rice
 He showed much patience.
 He has little intelligence.
 Take great care of your health.
 There has not been sufficient rain this year.

Adjective of Number/ Numeral Adjective

They show how many persons/ things are meant.

Identify the adjectives of number from the following sentences.

 The hand has five fingers.
 Few cats like cold water.
 There are no pictures in this book.
 All men must die.
 Most boys like cricket.

Demonstrative Adjective

They point out which person or thing is meant.

Identify the demonstrative adjectives from the following sentences.

 This boy is stronger than Hari.
 That boy is industrious.
 These mangoes are sour.
 Those rascals must be punished.

Interrogative Adjective

They pose a question.

 Whose book is this?
12
  Which way shall we go?

Exercise
Describe your favourite dine-in restaurant incorporating different types of adjectives you have studied.

Adverb
An adverb tells us the manner of an action / how an action has been taken. It can modify an Adjective
or another Adverb, for example, ‘He drove so nicely’ (so; Adv. of degree and nicely; Adverb of Manner).
Types of Adverb

1. Adverb of Degree
2. Adverb of Frequency
3. Adverb of Manner
4. Adverb of Place
5. Adverb of Time
Adverbs of Degree

Adverbs of degree answer “how much” or to “what extent”. For example, they usually modify action verbs,
adjectives or adverbs, making them stronger or weaker.

Adverbs can combine with other adverbs to put more emphasis on the verb. When you use ‘very’, ‘so’, ‘too’,
‘more’, ‘most’ and ‘least’, they can show degree/intensity when describing a verb/adjective.

Identify the adverbs of degree from the following sentences.

 He’s very good at playing the piano.

 She’s almost always late arriving at school.
 It’s pretty interesting to see the history of China.
 The English test was extremely difficult.
 When he wears his running shoes, he moves more quickly among everyone.
Adverbs of Frequency

Adverbs of frequency express “how often” something takes place. Adverbs of frequency are usually in this
form: Subject + adverb + verb.

Never, hardly ever, rarely, seldom, occasionally, sometimes, often, frequently, usually, always, daily,
weekly, monthly, yearly.

Identify the adverbs of frequency from the following sentences.

 I usually go to the gym on weekends.

 She always wakes up at 7:00 am.
 The family rarely eats brown rice for dinner.
 I never take sick days.

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Adverbs of Manner

Adverbs of manner express how something happens. In most cases for adverbs of manner, you can take an
adjective and simply add -ly to form an adverb of manner; however, not all adverbs of manner end with -ly.
For example, the words ‘fast’ and ‘well’ describe verbs but, do not end in -ly.
For example, accurately, beautifully, professionally, anxiously, greedily, carefully.

Identify the adverbs of manner from the following sentences.

 The cat runs quickly.
 She plays the violin terribly.
 The horse moved fast.
 She plays the piano well.

Adverbs of Place

Adverbs of place describe “where” action takes place. For example, “indoors”, “next week” and “still” all
describe where something happens. Again, we often find these adverbs of place after a verb in a sentence.

Identify the adverbs of place in the following sentences.

1. If you want to see the hot air balloon, you will have to go outside.
2. When she entered the classroom, she sat down.
3. I searched everywhere, but I couldn’t find him.
4. He walks downstairs to meet his father.

Adverbs of Time

For adverbs of time, they tell us when the action happened or will happen. For example, “afterwards”, “every
day” and “recently’ are adverbs of time and describe “when”.

Identify the adverbs of time from the following sentences.

 We’ll go to the festival tomorrow.

 Yesterday, we played in the basketball tournament.
 She’ll eventually finish studying and go to university.
 They ate popcorn and watched movies all day.

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Preposition
Prepositions form a small but very important word class. We use prepositions very frequently. In fact,
the prepositions to, of, in, for, on, with, at, by, from are all in the top 25 words in English. If you can
understand and correctly use prepositions, it will greatly improve your accuracy and fluency. There are
only 150 prepositions, and we only use about 70.
 A preposition is a word used to link nouns, pronouns, or phrases to other words within a
sentence.
 They act to connect the people, objects, time and locations of a sentence.
 Prepositions are usually short words, and they are normally placed directly in front of nouns.
 In some cases, you’ll find prepositions in front of gerund verbs such as of, to, for, with, on and
at, are prepositions.

A preposition must have an object

All prepositions have objects. If a "preposition" does not have an object, it is not a preposition—it's
probably an adverb. A preposition always has an object. An adverb never has an object. Look at these
example sentences:

 They are in the kitchen. (preposition in has object the kitchen)

Please come in. (adverb in has no object; it qualifies come)

 There was a doorway before me. (preposition before has object me)
I had never seen it before. (adverb before has no object; it qualifies seen)

 I will call after work. (preposition after has object work)

He called soon after. (adverb after has no object; it qualifies called)

Pre-position means place before

The name “preposition” indicates that a preposition (usually) comes before something (its object):
 I put it in the box.
But even when a preposition does not come before its object, it is still closely related to its object:
 Who did you talk to? / I talked to Jane.

A pronoun following a preposition should be in object form.

The noun or pronoun that follows a preposition forms a ‘prepositional object’. If it is a pronoun, it
should therefore be in the objective form (me, her, them), not subjective form (I, she, they):

 This is from my wife and me.

 That’s between him and her.
 Mary gave it to them.

Preposition form

Prepositions have no particular form. The majority of prepositions are one-word prepositions, but some
are two- or three-word phrases known as complex-prepositions:
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  one-word prepositions (before, into, on)
 complex prepositions (according to, but for, in spite of, on account of)

To preposition and to infinitive are not the same

Do not confuse the infinitive particle “to” (to sing, to live) with the preposition “to” (to London, to me).

to as preposition

 I look forward to lunch

I look forward to seeing you
I look forward to see you

 They are committed to the project.

They are committed to keeping the price down.
They are committed to keep the price down.

 I am used to cars.
I am used to driving.
I am used to drive.

to as infinitive particle
 They used to live in Moscow.
 They love to sing.

The golden preposition rule

There is one very simple rule about prepositions, and unlike most rules, this rule has no exceptions.

Rule: A preposition is followed by a "noun". It is never followed by a verb.

By "noun" we include:
 noun (dog, money, love)
 proper noun (name) (Bangkok, Mary)
 pronoun (you, him, us)
 noun group (my first job)
 gerund (swimming)

A preposition cannot be followed by a verb. If we want to follow a preposition by a verb, we must use
the "-ing" form which is really a gerund or verb in noun form.

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Quick Quiz

In the following sentences, why is the preposition “to” followed by a verb? That should be impossible,
according to the rule that you have just read.

 I would like to go now.

 She used to smoke.

The answer is that in “I would like to go now” and “She used to smoke”, the word “to” is not a
preposition. It is part of the infinitive (“to go”, “to smoke”)
Here are some examples:

subject + verb Preposition "noun" note

The food is on the table. noun

She lives in Japan. proper noun

Tara is looking for you. pronoun

The letter is under your blue book. noun group

English people.
Pascal is used to

She isn't used to working. gerund

I ate before coming.

Examples of Preposition

 I prefer to read in the library.

 He climbed up the ladder to get onto the roof.
 Please sign your name on the dotted line after you read the contract.
 Go down the stairs and through the door.
 He swam across the pool.

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There are a few interesting linguistic facts about preposition.
 First, they are a closed class of words which means no new preposition gets added to the
language. We use a fixed set of prepositions.
 Second, prepositions do not have any other form. They cannot be plural, possessive, inflection,
or anything else.
 Third, most of the prepositions have many different contextual and natural uses. So, it is easy to
be confused about preposition.
 Fourth, sometimes a preposition works as nouns, adjectives, and adverbs.

Prepositions can be of one, two, three, or even more words. Prepositions with two or more words are
called phrasal prepositions. For example: because of, in case of, instead of, on behalf of, on account of,
in care of, in spite of, on the side of, etc.

Types of Preposition

There are four types of prepositions

1. Prepositions of Time
2. Prepositions of Place and Direction
3. Prepositions of Agents or Things
4. Phrasal Prepositions

Prepositions of time

Prepositions of time show the relationship of time between the nouns to the other parts of a sentence.
On, at, in, from, to, for, since, ago, before, till/until, by, etc. are the most common preposition of time.
Example
 He started working at 10 AM.
 The company called meeting on 25 October.
 There is a holiday in December.
 He has been ill since Monday.

Preposition of Place and Direction

Prepositions of place and direction show the relationship of place and direction between the nouns to
the other parts of a sentence. On, at, in, by, from, to, towards, up, down, across, between, among,
through, in front of, behind, above, over, under, below, etc. are the most common prepositions of
place/direction.

Example
 He is at home.
 He came from England.
 The police broke into the house.
 I live across the river.

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Preposition of Agent or Thing

Prepositions of agents or things indicate a causal relationship between nouns and other parts of the
sentence. Of, for, by, with, about, etc. are the most used and common prepositions of agents or things.
Example
 This article is about smartphones.
 Most of the guests have already left.
 I will always be here for you.
 He is playing with his brothers.
Phrasal Preposition

A phrasal preposition is not a prepositional phrase, but they are a combination of two or more words
which functions as a preposition. Along with, apart from, because of, by means of, according to, in
front of, contrary to, in spite of, on account of, in reference to, in addition to, in regard to, instead of,
on top of, out of, with regard to, etc. are the most common phrasal prepositions.
Example
 They along with their children went to Atlanta.
 According to the new rules, you are not right.
 In spite of being a good player, he was not selected.
 I’m going out of the city.

Choose the correct preposition.

1. He died ____________ his country.
a. by c. for
b. of d. at
2. You must ask apology______________ him _______ your rudeness.
a. to, of c. to, for
b. of, for d. none of these
3. On the night before the exam, she was seen pouring ____________ the books.
a. into c. over
b. through d. none of these
4. Which method of organizing content points you did feel more comfortable?
a. with c. among
b. between d. no word is missing
5. What is the time _____________ you watch?
a. by c. on
b. at d. of
6. Let’s discuss _______________ the ways of improving the basic skills of English.
a. about c. of
b. On d. no preposition needed
7. The chief guest of the seminar spoke to the audience concerning career.
a. no preposition needed c. their
b. with d. about
8. Cyber-attacks are much easier to carry out than to defend________.
a. against c. at
b. after d. down

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Article
Articles are words that define a noun as specific or unspecific. Consider the following examples:
After the long day, the cup of tea tasted particularly good.
By using the article ‘the’, we’ve shown that it was one specific day that was long and one specific cup
of tea that tasted good.
After a long day, a cup of tea tastes particularly good.
By using the article ‘a’, we’ve created a general statement, implying that any cup of tea would taste good
after any long day.
English has two types of articles: definite and indefinite. Let’s discuss them now in more detail.
The Definite Article

The definite article is the word the. It limits the meaning of a noun to one particular thing. For example,
your friend might ask, “Are you going to the party this weekend?” The definite article tells you that your
friend is referring to a specific party that both of you know about. The definite article can be used with
singular, plural, or uncountable nouns. Below are some examples of the definite article the used in
context:
Please give me the hammer.
Please give me the red hammer; the blue one is too small.
Please give me the nail.
Please give me the large nail; it’s the only one strong enough to hold this painting.
Please give me the hammer and the nail.
The Indefinite Article

The indefinite article takes two forms. It’s the word a when it precedes a word that begins with a
consonant. It’s the word an when it precedes a word that begins with a vowel. The indefinite article
indicates that a noun refers to a general idea rather than a particular thing. For example, you might ask
your friend, “Should I bring a gift to the party?” Your friend will understand that you are not asking
about a specific type of gift or a specific item. “I am going to bring an apple pie,” your friend tells you.
Again, the indefinite article indicates that she is not talking about a specific apple pie. Your friend
probably doesn’t even have any pie yet. The indefinite article only appears with singular nouns. Consider
the following examples of indefinite articles used in context:
Please hand me a book; any book will do.
Please hand me an autobiography; any autobiography will do.

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Form and meaning

1. The is used when the listener/reader knows which person or thing we are talking about. This may
be because:
 we have mentioned this person/thing before and so there is shared knowledge between
speaker/writer and listener/reader.
 it is clear from the context which person or thing we are talking about.
 there is only one of a particular person or things.

2. A or an is used when the listener/reader doesn’t know which person or thing we are talking about.
 She took a glass of water and started to drink.
 She took the glass of water in front of her.
 She took the glass of water and started to drink.
 Can you turn on the TV?
 I need to see a doctor.
 I have to see the doctor tomorrow.
 How many people have walked on the moon?
 The best film I’ve ever seen is Top Gun.
 The carrots in my garden are almost ready.

3. Zero article is used when talking about people or things in general.

 Carrots are good to eat.
 English people drink a lot of tea.
 The English people in this hotel are very nice.

4. A or an is used to say what kind of person or thing it is (often with an adjective, or to say it
belongs to a particular group).
 A cat is an animal and a bus is a vehicle.
 You have a nice house.
 That’s a very expensive car!

5. With school, university, prison, hospital, church, bed, work and home we use the when we are
talking about a particular one, and zero article when we are talking about the idea of school,
university.
 The church on our street was built in the 17th Century.
 I go to church every Sunday.
 My friend works at the prison outside the city centre.
 My husband is in prison.
 The work isn’t finished yet.
 I was feeling sick yesterday so I didn’t go to work.
 The new bed is bigger than the old one.

6. The is used with singular countable nouns to talk about a type of thing.
 The computer was invented in the 20th Century.
 The computer in my office is broken.
 The crocodile is very dangerous.
 The crocodile in the river is very big.
 She plays the piano.
 The piano she is playing is very old.
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7. The + adjective is used to talk about a group of people (including nationalities).
 I always give money to the homeless.
 The unemployed receive money from the government.
 The French produce good wine.

8. A or an is used to talk about someone’s job.

 My wife is an optician.
 She works as a mechanic.

9. Zero article is used with continents, countries, regions, cities, streets, mountains, lakes and parks.
 Asia, Italy, California, Bristol, Main St., Mount Everest, Lake Geneva, Central Park

10. The is used if the country contains Kingdom, Republic, State or Union.
 The United Kingdom

11. The is used with plural names of people and places.

 The Smiths, The Netherlands, The United States, The Bahamas, The Alps
(also The Caribbean)

12. The is used with oceans, seas, rivers and canals.

 The Atlantic Ocean, The Red Sea, The Nile, The Panama Canal

13. The is used with north, south, east and west to talk about the location of a place within another
place.
 Greece is in the south of Europe.

14. The is normally used with buildings, except if the first word is the name of a place.
 The White House, The Sheraton Hotel.
 Oxford University, Buckingham Palace.

Pronunciation Activity

See the phonemic chart for IPA symbols used below.

1. The is usually pronounced as / ð ə / , but is often pronounced as/ ð i / before words beginning with
vowel sounds or to add emphasis.
2. a is usually pronounced as / ə / .
3. an can be pronounced as / æ n / but in fast connected speech is usually pronounced as / ə n / .

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Complete the following sentences with “a”, “an”, “the” or “- “if no article is needed.

1. Paris is ………. capital of France. I’d like to visit it one day.

2. Bruce is the only boy at school who can speak ……. Chinese.
3. My grandmother has been playing ………. tennis since she was 12.
4. Alice loves walking in ………rain. She likes rainy days rather than sunny ones.
5. Ted is listening to ……. news on ……...radio. He looks worried.
6. Peter is blind and has got ……. guide dog that goes with him everywhere. ……...dog is a
collie. He couldn’t live without it.
7. When we were in Madrid, we stayed at ……. Ritz, which is …. very expensive hotel.
8. Stella drove ………. children to ………town centre last Monday.
9. It’s very hot today and Ben has turned on ……...fan to get some fresh air.
10. Granny always makes ……dinner on Thanksgiving Day. She is …...excellent cook.
11. Anna’s cat is sitting on ……...window ledge looking at ……...moon.
12. Yesterday John and Larry went to ……zoo.
13. Kent goes to ….... bed late when he has …...…exam.
14. David always has ………breakfast in ……kitchen.
15. .......... little boy fell off............... bicycle.

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Conjunction

We can consider conjunctions from three perspectives.

1. What do conjunctions do?

Conjunctions have two essential functions:

 Coordinating conjunctions are used to join two parts of a sentence that are grammatically equal.
The two parts may be single words or clauses, for example:

- Jack and Jill went up the hill.

- The water was warm, but I didn't go swimming.

 Subordinating conjunctions are used to join a subordinate dependent clause to the main clause,
for example
- I went swimming, although it was cold.

Here are some example conjunctions:

Coordinating conjunctions Subordinating conjunctions

and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so although, because, since, unless

Exercise

Choose the correct option.

1. We need two hundred dollars _________________ this to pay for everything.

a. as well c. beside
b. also d. besides
2. ____________ glass is, for all practical purposes, a solid, its molecular structure is that of a
liquid.
a. Because c. Although
b. Since d. If
3. Give her a telephone number to ring __________ she gets lost.
a. whether c. unless
b. in case d. perhaps
4. How long did they wait?
a. Till lunch time. c. Until six o’clock.
b. Till he came. d. Since this morning.
5. Which of the following is correct?
a. He neither speaks English nor French. c. He speaks neither English nor French
b. He speaks English nor French. d. Neither he speaks English nor French

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2. What do conjunctions look like?

Conjunctions have three basic formats:

a. single word
for example: and, but, because, although
b. compound (often ending with as or that)
for example: provided that, as long as, in order that
c. correlative (surrounding an adverb or adjective)
for example: so...that

3. Where do conjunctions go?

 Coordinating conjunctions always come between the words or clauses that they join.
 Subordinating conjunctions usually come at the beginning of the subordinate clause.

Coordinating conjunctions

A coordinating conjunction joins parts of a sentence (for example words or independent clauses) that
are grammatically equal or similar. A coordinating conjunction shows that the elements it joins are
similar in importance and structure:
There are seven coordinating conjunctions (FANBOYS), and they are all short words of only two or
three letters:

F A N B O Y S

For and Nor but or yet so

Look at these examples - the two elements that the coordinating conjunction joins are shown in square
brackets [ ]:
 I like [tea] and [coffee].
 [Atif likes tea], but [Akif likes coffee].

Coordinating conjunctions always come between the words or clauses that they join.

When a coordinating conjunction joins independent clauses, it is always correct to place a comma
before the conjunction:
I want to work as an interpreter in the future, so I am studying Russian at the university.

However, if the independent clauses are short and well-balanced, a comma is not really essential:
She is kind so she helps people.
When "and" is used with the last word of a list, a comma is optional:
He plays cricket, hockey, snooker and basketball.

25
Subordinating conjunctions

A subordinating conjunction joins a subordinate (dependent) clause to a main (independent) clause:

Here are some common subordinating conjunctions:

 after, although, as, because, before, how, if, once, since, than, that, though, till, until, when,
where, whether, while

Look at this example.

main or subordinate or
independent clause dependent clause

Rehman went swimming although it was raining.

subordinating
conjunction

A subordinating conjunction always comes at the beginning of a subordinate clause. It "introduces" a

subordinate clause. However, a subordinate clause can come after or before a main clause. Thus, two
structures are possible:
Rehman went swimming, although it was raining.
Although it was raining, Rehman went swimming.

Exercise

1. The main job of a conjunction is to _____ two parts of a sentence.

a) invert
b) compare
c) join
2. Which type of conjunction joins two parts of a sentence that are grammatically equal?
a) balancing
b) subordinating
c) coordinating
3. Coordinating conjunctions always come _____ the words or clauses that they join.
a) after
b) between
c) before
4. The words "and", "but" and "so" are often classified as _____ conjunctions.
a) coordinating
b) subordinating
c) dependent
5. The words "although", "since" and "unless" are examples of common _____ conjunctions.
a) subordinating
b) coordinating

26
Verb

Verbs tell you what the subject of a sentence or clause is doing (or being). Verbs are conjugated according to
person, number, gender, tense, aspect, mood, or voice.

Verbs are at the heart of sentences and clauses; they are indispensable to the formation of a complete
thought. A verb can express a thought by itself (with the subject implied) and be understood.

Example: Run!
Example: Believe!

Basic uses of verb

There are six basic uses of verbs. These uses are as follows:

1. Base Form: Children play in the field.

2. Infinitive: Tell them not to play.
3. Past Tense: They played football yesterday.
4. Past Participle: I have eaten a burger.
5. Present Participle: I saw them playing with him today.
6. Gerund: Swimming is the best exercise.

Types of verb

Main/ Action Verb

They are words that express an action (give, eat, walk, etc.) or possession (have, own, keep , etc.). They
express specific actions (physical or mental) and are used any time you want to show an action or discuss
someone doing something.

Physical Verb

Physical Verbs are action verbs. They describe specific physical actions. If you can create motion with
your body or use a tool to complete an action, the word you use to describe it is most likely a physical
verb.

For example,
1. Professor John sat in her chair.
2. Should we vote in the election?
3. I hear the train coming.
4. Call me when you’re finished with class.

Even when the action isn’t very active, if the action is done by the body or a tool, consider it a physical
verb.

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 Mental Verb

Mental Verbs have meanings that are related to mental actions such as discovering, understanding,
thinking, or planning. In general, a mental verb refers to a cognitive state.
1. I know the answer.
2. She recognized me from across the room.
3. Do you believe everything people tell you?

Helping Verb

A helping verb (also known as an auxiliary verb) is used with a main verb to help express the main
verb's tense, mood, or voice.

List of Helping Verbs

Helping verbs all its forms

To be am, are, is, was, were, be, been

To have have, has, had

To do do, does, did

Types of helping verb

There are two types of words within the helping verbs list
 Auxiliaries
 Modal verbs
Both auxiliaries and modal verbs add more meaning to the main action. They can also describe the
period of an action taking place. They can also add emphasis to your sentences and indicate an event
happening. Auxiliaries extend the main verb and help show time, tense or possibility.
Examples of auxiliary verbs:
Mukhtar is going out for lunch.
I have finished my homework.

Modals indicate possibility, ability or expectation.

Examples of modal verbs:

Russell may want to talk to you again.
Jane must go to school today.

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 Auxiliary Verb
They are also known as helping verbs and are used together with a main verb to show the verb’s tense
or to form a question or negative. Common examples of auxiliary verbs include have, might, will. These
auxiliary verbs give some context to the main verb, for example, letting the reader know when the action
took place. Would, should, do, can, did, could, may
I will go home after football practice.

The auxiliary verb ‘will’ is telling us that the action of the main verb go is going to take place in the
future – after football practice has ended. If the auxiliary verb ‘will’ was removed, we get the sentence:
I go home after football practice.
Other examples:
 I may dance with you later.
 We did consider Bryan’s feelings.
 Jenny has spoken her final words.

Modal Verb

Modal verbs are auxiliary verbs, (also called helping verbs) like can, will, could, shall, must, would,
might, and should, which are used to express abilities, possibilities, permissions and obligations. After
a modal verb, the root form of a verb is generally used. The word to should not appear after a modal
verb. An exception is the phrase ought to, which is considered a modal verb.

Identify the modal verbs from the following sentences.

 I should go home.
 You must not delay.
 Sally would not recommend the sushi.
 David may be late.

Regular Verb

A regular verb is one that conforms to the usual rule for forming its simple past tense and its past
participle.

In English, the "usual" rule is to add "-ed" or "-d" to the base form of the verb to create the past forms.

Add "ed" to most verbs:

jump > jumped
paint > painted

Irregular Verb

A verb in which the past tense is not formed by adding the usual -ed ending. Examples of irregular verbs
are sing (past tense sang); feel (felt); and go (went). There are hundreds of irregular verbs in the English
language.
Some of the most common irregular verbs:
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 say, make, go, take, come, know and see
Example sentences:
 I take my time when I go to the shops.
 I took my time when I went to the shops.
 Julie makes a cake for the classroom.
 Julie made a cake for the classroom.
 She sees a silhouette shaped like a man in the window.

You should also remember that auxiliary verbs ‘do’ and ‘have’ are also irregular verbs:
 I do agree.
 He does it often.
 We have done our homework early.
 They do their homework on Fridays.
 I have a suspicion about Fran.

Exercises
Fill in the blanks with the correct form (V1, V2, V3) of the given verb in the bracket.
 He _______ (want) to become an IAS officer.
 Kashif _______ (go) to market yesterday.
 Lateef _______ (weep) bitterly on her father’s death.
 I have ______ (complete) my homework just now.
 Fatima _______ (be) a student.

Fill the blank spaces with the appropriate irregular verb.

1. My dog jumped out of the swimming pool and _____________ himself, causing water to spray
everywhere. (shake, shook, shaken)
2. You should have ______________ Trish’s face when she got her surprise. (saw, had seen, seen)
3. We _____________ the whole day lounging on the beach. (spend, spent, had spent)
4. Let’s _____________ a hike on Saturday. (take, took, taken)
5. My brother Mike ______________ his stinky socks on the coffee table. (leave, left, leaving)

Can you figure out which word is the auxiliary in the examples below?
 Kiran’s mother is cooking breakfast for us tomorrow.
 I was late for school yesterday.
 He was planning to meet the doctor.
 Hollywood actors are famous.
 They were winners last year.
References
https://www.englishclub.com/grammar/nouns-types.htm

https://grammar.yourdictionary.com/parts-of-speech/pronouns/types-of-pronouns.html

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http://guidetogrammar.org/grammar/adjectives.htm

https://www.learngrammar.net/english-grammar/verb

https://www.gingersoftware.com/content/grammar-rules/verbs/

https://www.theidioms.com/verbs/#action-verbs

https://www.learngrammar.net/english-grammar/linking-verbs-definition-examples-lists

https://blog.prepscholar.com/verbs-list

https://examplanning.com/verbs-exercises-with-answers-worksheet/

https://allesl.com/types-of-adverbs-degree-frequency-manner-place-time/

httc, s://www.gingersoftware.com/conte.nt/grammar-rules/preposition/

https://www.learngrammar.net/english-grammar/preposition

https://www.learngrammar.net/practice/21/exercises-on-preposition-advance-with-explanation

https://www.learngrammar.net/practice/20/exercises-on-preposition-with-explanation

https://www.englishclub.com/grammar/prepositions-rule.htm

https://www.eslbase.com/grammar/articles

https://inglespilarsantamaria.files.wordpress.com/2010/06/articles11.pdf

Suggested Reading
https://wps.pearsoncustom.com/wps/media/objects/3359/3439971/chapter_pdfs/ch07.pdf

https://www.esl-lounge.com/student/toefl/toefl-070-grammar-pronouns.php

https://examples.yourdictionary.com/examples-of-adjectives.html

31
TENSES

32
 Tenses

LearningOverview
Chapter Objectives Learning Objectives
 Tenses: Students will be able to:
 Present Simple Tense  expand their basic understanding of
the present, past and future tenses and
 Past Simple Tense perfect and progressive aspects.
 Future Simple Tense  use present, past, and
 Tense Aspects future tenses with appropriate time
markers.
 Progressive (Present, Past, Future)
 differentiate and distinguish between
Perfect (Present, Past, Future)
tenses and their aspects.
References  self-edit and formulate their oral and
written production.

Every language has ways of talking about time. In most languages, there is a variety of expressions
that can be used to show when something happened or will happen. These may include temporal
adverbs (soon, later, then), prepositional phrases (in the morning, after the election), noun phrases
(last year, that week, the next day), auxiliary verbs (will, has, did), affixes on the verb, etc. The term
tense is used only for time reference which is marked grammatically – that is, by purely grammatical
elements such as affixes, auxiliaries, or particles. Tense defines the location of an event in time.
Aspect, on the other hand, defines the shape, distribution, or “internal organization” (Bybee 1985)
of the event in time.

33
Present Simple Tense
READ the article about Doctor Bugs. Notice the words in bold.
Doctor Bugs
Most people don’t like bugs, but Doctor Mark Moffett loves them! In fact, his nickname
is Doctor Bugs. He’s a photographer and an entomologist. An entomologist studies bug.
Doctor Moffett’s favourite bug is the ant. He goes all over the world to study ants. He
watches them as they eat, work, rest, sleep, and fight. He takes photographs of the ants.
He lies on the ground with his camera and waits for the right moment. The ants and other
bugs often bite him, but that doesn’t stop Doctor Bugs. He has an interesting and unusual
job, and he loves it!

The present simple tense (also called the simple present) is used to express habits or routines,
schedules, and facts.
For example:
1. I exercise every day. (Habit or routine)
2. She starts work at 8 am. (Schedule)
3. It rains a lot in July. (Fact)
Activity 1: Roleplay

Classmate Interviews
Have students get to know each other while they practise using the present tense. Have pairs of students
ask questions about the hobbies and interests of their partner. Then, have each person introduce their
partner to the rest of the class. Students can talk about general facts and opinions as well.
Use of Present Simple Tense

Use of Present Simple Tense Illustrations

 They speak English.
To state a general fact  She knows several languages.
 He does not believe in hard work.

 The earth moves round the sun.

To state eternal truths
To express that something occurs on a
regular basis (regular actions/habits)
To refer to events in the near future
(schedules/time tables)
In special exclamatory sentences (with initial
adverbials)
34
 Water freezes at zero degrees Celsius.
 Water consists of hydrogen and oxygen.
 I play hockey every week.
 Do you play in the evening?
 I work on Mondays.
 The bus arrives in two hours.
 The train leaves at 9:30 tomorrow morning.
 The meeting starts at 3 pm.
 Here comes the winner!
 In performatives (e.g. advice, thank,  We thank you for your recent inquiry.
request, etc.):
 I advise you to withdraw. I apologize.
I request you to attend the party.

Structures of the present simple tense

 Affirmative: verb/verb + (e)s He plays tennis.
 Question: do/does ... + verb? Do you play tennis?
 Negative: do/does not + verb She doesn’t play tennis.

With the verb “be”

The linking verb ‘be’ has three different conjugations for the grammatical person in the present tense:
am (first-person singular); are (first-person plural, second-person, and third-person plural); and is (third-
person singular). Be does not need require ‘do’ when making questions or negative statements in the
present simple tense.
 Affirmative: “I am from Pakistan.”
 Question: “Is he Canadian?”
 Negative: “They are not British.”

Activity 2: Role play

The Situation
UHS (University Health Service) staff members have a meeting about increasing the show-rate for
medical appointments.
According to a recent investigation, only 33% of students showed up for their appointments during
the last semester. The staff members brainstorm potential solutions to improve the show-rate.
Imagine you are the director of UHS and are attending the meeting.
Director (You): How can we increase the show-rate for medical appointments?
Staff 1: Make reminder calls before each appointment.
Staff 2: How about giving incentives to students when they attend their appointment on time?
What would you say next in response to the two staff members?
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

Your response may have looked something like this: Maybe we could use a point system and give
priority for future appointments to the students who regularly keep their appointments.
Techniques and rules used:
Do not criticize or evaluate ideas.
Rule: Quantity is wanted - every idea is accepted and recorded. The more ideas, the more to choose
from and the more likely ideas will spark new ideas.

35
Build upon the ideas of other group members.
Rule: Combination and improvement are sought. Ideas spark more ideas. Encourage everyone to
participate and to build upon the ideas of others in the group.
Speaking Activity (Debate)
Give your students a chance to share some of their culture as your class studies the simple present. Have
them finish this sentence: People in my country… This is also a good chance to introduce
some adverbs like ‘usually’, ‘typically’ or ‘often’. You can also practise negative sentences or negative
adverbs (never, rarely, infrequently) with this activity.
Note: Some state verbs can be used in the continuous form when the meaning is temporary.
Write & Speak. List three activities you do often. Share your sentences with a partner.
Then tell the class about your partner.
Student A: I study. I play games. I talk with my friends….
Student B: Maria studies. She plays games. She talks with her friends….
Exercise
Circle the correct form of the verb to complete each sentence.
1. Doctor Moffett love / loves his job.
2. He study / studies ants.
3. A salesperson sell / sells products for a company.
4. You and Alia work / works on weekends.
5. Nurses help / helps people.
6. We write / writes science books.
7. Our office close / closes at 7:00 p.m.
8. She take / takes classes at the business school.
9. You walk / walks to work every day.
10. I start / starts work at 8:00 a.m. every morning.
Exercise
Write each verb with the correct -s, -es, or -ies ending.
1. study ___________ 6. help___________
2. fish _____________ 7. miss___________
3. pass ____________ 8. fly__________
4. worry___________ 9. fix____________
5. explore__________ 10. watch_________

36
 11. bite _____________ 13. like___________
12. buy _____________ 14. pay_____________
Exercise
Complete the following passage using correct form of verb.
Ahsan and his wife (1) have (have) a busy lifestyle. Ahsan is a doctor at a hospital. He works at night,
so he (2)_________ (go) to work at 7:00 p.m. and comes home at 7:00 a.m. His wife Sarah works at a
bank. She (3) _________(go) to work at 8:00 a.m. and comes home at 6:00 p.m. They don’t see each
other a lot during the week. They also (4)________ (have) two children, Mina and Hadi. Every morning
they all (5)______ (have) breakfast together at 7:30. Then, Mina and Hadi (6)_______(go) to school,
and Ahsan (7) ________(go) to work. Sarah (8) (do) the dishes, and then (9)_______ (go) to bed. Mina
usually (10)________ (do)her homework at a friend’s house in the afternoon, and Hadi
(11)_________(have) soccer practice. Ahsan gets up at 4:00 p.m. At 6:00 p.m., he (12)________ (have)
dinner with Sarah, Mina, and Hadi. After dinner, he (13)_______ (go) to work. Ahsan and Sarah
(14)_________ (have) a busy schedule during the week, but on weekends they relax.

Present Progressive
As its name suggests, the present progressive (also sometimes called the durative or continuous aspect)
indicates a happening in progress at the moment of speaking; it describes something that is happening
in the present moment and also for expressing future arrangements.
Structures of the present Progressive

 Affirmative: am/is/are + verb + -ing ……He’s living in Thailand.

 Question: am/is/are ... + verb + -ing? Are they living in Thailand?
 Negative: am is/are not + verb + -ing …. I’m not living in Thailand.
Present progressive can only be used with action verbs.
Compare
Simple Present: Zohaib sings well.
Present Progressive: Zohaib is singing well.
These two sentences have the same tense but different aspects. Notice the difference this makes to the
meaning: Zohaib sings well refers to Zohaib’s competence as a singer (that he has a good voice—a
relatively permanent quality); Zohaib is singing well refers to his performance on a particular occasion
or during a particular season.
Use of Present Progressive

Use of Present Progressive Illustrations

 I'm studying really hard for my
to talk about temporary situations: exams.

37
  My cousin is living in Thailand at
the moment. (= he doesn’t
normally live there)
Words like at the moment, currently, now,
this week/month/year are often used in
this case.
to talk about actions happening at the  I'm waiting for my friends.
moment of speaking:
 The internet is making it easier for
to talk about trends or changing people to stay in touch with each
situations: other.
 The price of petrol is rising
dramatically.

The present progressive is not normally used with state verbs because the meaning of the verb itself is a
general truth rather than something temporary.
 I assume you’re too busy to play computer games.
 Do you mind if I ask you a few questions?
 I love music.
 This pudding smells delicious.
To talk about something happening now we use can:
 I can smell something burning.
You look like your mother. (= a permanent situation, not a temporary one)
Some state verbs can be used in the continuous form when the meaning is temporary.
Compare
What are you thinking about? (now)
I think you should tell her exactly what happened, (my opinion, so not temporary)
Exercise : Fill in the gaps with the present simple or progressive form of the verbs in brackets.
1. I’m busy right now. I ……………… (fill in) an application form for a new job.
2. My tutor …………………… (see) me for a tutorial every Monday at two o’clock.
3. Shariq ……………… (not/study) very hard at the moment. I ………… (not/think) he’ll pass his
exams.
4. ‘What ………………. (he/do)?’ ‘He ………………… (try) to fix the television aerial.’
5. Animals……………. (breathe in) oxygen and ………………. (give out) carbon dioxide.
6. Be quiet! I ……………. (want) to hear the news.
7. In my country we ……………… (drive) on the right-hand side of the road.
8. My friend Atif’s parents …………………… (travel) round the world this summer, and probably
won’t be back for a couple of months.
9. The college ……………. (run) the same course every year.
10. Numbers of wild butterflies…………………. (fall) as a result of changes in farming methods.

38
Exercise : Choose the best endings for the following sentences.
1. Sara is watching television a) because her favourite film star is on.
b) when she has time, at one o’clock
every day.

2. I’m having my lunch a) early today as I have an appointment.

b) at the same time every week.

3. I do the shopping a) because we’re having a party at

lunchtime.
b) to get the concert ready for next week.

4. The company’s financial a) now that it has a new chief executive

situation is improving b) when there is greater demand for its
products.

5. Shariq is thinking of retiring early a) because he isn’t happy at work

anymore.
b) every time something bad happens at
work.
Exercise

Make questions for the pictures 1- 4. Use the

words in brackets.

[Why/computer/not/work] [Why/birds/ die]

_________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________

[Why/fire alarm/ring] [Why/oil/leak]

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
39
Past Simple Tense
The simple past is a verb tense that is used to talk about things that happened or existed before now.
Imagine someone asks what your brother Wolfgang did while he was in town last weekend.

Structures of the Past simple tense

 Affirmative: verb + -ed (or -d) He worked for the police.

 Negative: did not + verb She didn’t work for the police.
 Question: did ... + verb? Did they work for the police?
Use of Past Simple

Use of Past Simple Illustrations

to talk about single past completed actions.  A few weeks ago, a woman called
Often the time is mentioned but no time to report a robbery at her house.
reference is necessary if it is already known:  How did the burglar break in
without anybody hearing him?
to give a series of actions in the order that  The burglar came in through the
they happened: front door, picked up the woman’s
handbag, emptied it out and stole her
purse.
 When her son got older, he often
to talk about past repeated actions: went out to visit his friends after
school.
Notice that ‘used to’ and ‘would’ can also
be used

Activity: Look at the underlined verbs in these sentences. Match the sentences (1-3) to the
explanations (a-c).
1. The researchers allowed various prey spiders to spin webs in the laboratory and then introduced
Portia spiders.
2. Portia spiders moved more when the webs were shaking than when they were still.
3. They noticed that the spiders would sometimes shake their quarry’s web violently.
Explanations
a. a series of single past completed actions
b. a repeated action in the past
c. a background scene and an action

40
Past Progressive
The past progressive means that at a time in the past, we were in the middle of an action.
Structures of the Past Progressive

 Affirmative: was/were + verb + -ing ……… She was watching the news.
 Question: was/were ... + verb + -ing?........ Were you watching the news?
 Negative: was/were not + verb + -ing……. They weren’t watching the news.
Use of Past Progressive
Use of Past Progressive Illustrations
 It happened at five in the afternoon while
to provide the background scene to an she was watching the news on TV.
action or event (usually in the past  He was doing his homework in his
simple). We often use words like bedroom when the burglar came into the
when, while and as: house.
It is possible to have more than one background
scene happening at the same time:
 He was listening to music and working
on his computer.
when we want to emphasize the activity Compare:
without focusing on its completion:  For a while last year, I was working at the
cinema, studying for my degree and
uniting a column for the local newspaper,
(we don’t know if the actions were
completed or not, or whether they
happened at the same time)


Last year I worked at the cinema, studied
for my degree and wrote a column for the
local newspaper, (suggests all of the jobs
are now complete, and probably
happened in that order)
Exercise : Fill in the gaps with the past simple or past progressive form of the verbs in brackets.
In which gaps could you use ‘used to’?
I…………… (have) a wonderful biology teacher, Mrs. Nosheen. She …………… (make) us excited
about the subject because she was so interested herself. I remember one lesson in particular; we
…………. (study) different types of plants, and Mrs. Nosheen ………. (describe) the different parts of
the flower. She ………. (pick up) a purple flower, I can’t remember exactly what it was, and then
suddenly we…………. (notice) that she ……………. (cry)! She …………. (apologize) and
……………. (say) that sometimes nature was so beautiful it just made her cry! We…………. (not/know)
what to do at first, but it certainly ………. (make) us think. Something similar ………… (happen) while
she………… (show) us how to work the microscope. She …………. (examine) a slide of some plant
tissue and she ……. (smile) all over her face. She suddenly…………. (get) excited and ………… (say),
‘Isn’t it wonderful?’ Somehow her enthusiasm …………. (inspire) me, and I………. (start) to like
biology.

41
Present Perfect
We use the present perfect when we want to show a link between the present and the past.
Structures of the Present Perfect

 Affirmative: have/has + past participle …… She has started the assignment.

 Negative: have/has not + past participle …. I haven't started the assignment.
 Question: have/has ... + past participle?........ Have you started the assignment?
Use of Past Progressive

Use of Present Perfect Illustrations

 I’ve written a rough plan this
to talk about a time period that is not morning, (it is still morning)
finished (e.g. today, this week):

to show that something happened at  I’ve collected plenty of information.

some point in the past before now. We (at some point before now and 1 will
don’t state when it happened: use it to write my essay)
The following time expressions are often
used: ever, never, before, up to now, still, so
far.
If we state when something happened, we
must use the simple past:
 I wasted a lot of time last week, (not /
have wasted a lot of time last week)
 I’ve worked really hard for the last
to talk about a present situation which two weeks. (I’ve worked hard till
started in the past, usually with now)
for/since:  We use for with a length of time (e.g.
for two hours, for three days, for six
months) and since with a point in time
(e.g. since 2001, since Monday, since
ten o’clock, since I was four, since I
started the course).
The following time expressions are often
used: recently, just, already, ever and yet with
negatives or questions.
 I’ve just got up.
 Have you ever been to Japan?

42
Activity (classmate Interviews)
a) Answer the following questions.
Example: Have you ever been to the United States?
No, I haven't been to the USA/No I haven't.
1. How long have you known your best friend?
2. Has your company/school/university made any links with foreign companies?
3. Has your family owned a business?
4. How long have you lived in your present house?
5. Have you worked for any native company?
6. Have you studied for a Master Degree in Business Administration (MBA)?
b) Transfer
Now ask a friend questions about travel/work/studies/etc. like the ones above. Write down the
answers.
He/she........
Compare the use of the Present Perfect with the Past Simple:
Present Perfect Past Simple

links the past with the present: only talks about the past:

I’ve made quite a lot of notes, (at some point I made notes on the most important things.
before now and I may make more notes) (when I did the reading and I’ve finished
making notes)

does not talk about a specific time in the past: states a specific past time, or the time is
Have you read the leaflet? (at some time understood: I read the leaflets when I was in
before now) the library. (I’ m not in the library now and
the reading is finished)

uses time expressions that show the time uses time expressions that show the time is
period is unfinished: I’ve read six articles this finished: I read five books last week, (last
week, (the week isn’t finished) week has finished)

43
Past Perfect

We use the Past Perfect Simple when we are talking about the past and want to mention something
that happened earlier:

Structures of the Past Perfect

 Affirmative: had+ past participle …… He had enjoyed the party.

 Negative: had not + past participle …. I hadn’t finished my breakfast when the phone rang.
 Question: had... + past participle?........ Had the manager made the contract?

Use of Past Perfect

Use of Past Perfect Illustrations

to talk about time up to a certain point in
the past.
 She'd published her first poem by
the time she was eight.
 We'd finished all the water before
we were halfway up the mountain.
 Had the parcel arrived when you
called yesterday?

to show the order of two past events.
The past perfect shows the earlier action
and the past simple shows the later
action.
 I felt better by the summer, but the
As well as actions, we can use the past
perfect to talk about states.
 I’ve collected plenty of information.
When the police arrived, the thief
had escaped.
 I went to the box office at lunch-
time, but they had already sold all
the tickets.
doctor warned me not to do too
much. I'd been very ill. The news
came as no surprise to me. I'd known
for some time that the factory was
likely to close.

Compare these examples (Present Perfect and Past Perfect):

Present Perfect (before now) Past Perfect (before then)

My wallet isn't here. I've left it behind. My wallet wasn't there. I'd left it behind.

The match is over. United have won. The match was over. United had won.

That man looks familiar. I've seen him The man looked familiar. I'd seen him
somewhere before. somewhere before.

44
Exercise
Use the words below to make sentences. Include a past perfect tense contrasted with a simple past
tense. Use positive (+), negative (-) and question forms (?].
1. The company/test/new products/before/launch/on the market
The company had tested the new products before it launched them on the market. (+)
The company hadn't tested the new products before it launched them on the market. (-)
Had the company tested the new products before it launched them on the market? (?)
2. The engineers/visit/the plant/before/the accident/happen
__________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
3. The company/publish/the sales results/before/the share price fall
__________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
4. The research team /complete/the report/the management/cut/investment
__________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
5. When/the deadline/come//she/finish/the report
__________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
Exercise
Ali has problems with a photocopier. Complete the dialogue.
Iqram: What happened?
Ali: Before the machine broke down, I ________ (made)100 copies.
Iqram: Then what?
Ali: When I _____________________ (done) 100, the paper jammed.
Iqram: What did you do?
Ali: When I __________(clear) the paper, I pressed the start button.
Iqram: Then?
Ali: I thought I______________ (solve) I the problem. But I __________________
(not/notice) another problem.
Smoke was coming out of the back.
Iqram: So then, what happened?
Ali: After I _____________(see) the smoke, I telephoned you.
45
Future Simple Tense
Read this paragraph from Sara’s letter to her aunt and uncle.
This is my last year at college, so I'll be leaving in June. And I've already got a job! In September
I'm starting work at a bank in Lahore. So, I'll be free for most of the summer. I'm going to spend
six weeks travelling around the northern areas. My friend Hira is coming with me. (She finishes
college at the same time as me.) We're really looking forward to the trip. We might go to Islamabad
too. Hira has friends in Islamabad.
When we talk about the present or the past, we use verb forms to say what is happening now, what
happened yesterday, and so on. Hira has friends in Islamabad. We know about things in the present and
in the past because they are already real. But talking about the future is more of a problem. There is no
single form in English that we can always use for the future. There are many different ways of talking
about the future, depending on how we see a future event. It may be something that is fairly sure to
happen, but on the other hand, it may be just a plan or an intention, or it may be something that you think
will happen, but you can't be sure about.
Structures of the Future Simple

With ‘will’
 Affirmative: will +verb …….
 Negative: will not (won’t) + verb….
 Question: will ... + verb?..........

With ‘going to’

 Affirmative: am/is/are + going to + verb ……We’re going to hire a bus.
 Negative: am/is/are not + going to + verb ……. They are not going to hire a bus.
 Question: am/is/are ... + going to + verb? ….. Are they going to hire a bus?
Use of Future Simple tense
Use of Future Simple tense Illustrations

We use will:  I think it'll be extremely hot there.

to make predictions, usually
based on our opinions or our
past experience:

to talk about future facts:  Prices will rise by 3.3% next

month, [not: will to rise}
 When will the product be
available in stores?
 The company said it won't
perform tests on animals.

to talk about future events, we  We'll probably stay in some sort of

haven’t arranged yet: mountain lodge there.

46
  The best player on the tour will
to talk about future events or get a special trophy'.
facts that are not personal  The prime minister will open the
debate in parliament tomorrow.

to talk about something, we  Tell me all about it and I'll pass

decide to do at the time of on the information to the rest of
speaking: the team.

We often use will to make  Don’t worry; I’ll let everyone

offers, promises or know. (a promise)
suggestions:

We use ‘going to’  We're going to hire a bus. (we

to talk about events in the intend to go, but we haven’t
future, we have already made the arrangements yet)
thought about and intend to
do (intensions)

to make predictions when there  Well, we're certainly going to

is present evidence: have a varied trip. (I am judging
this from what I know about the
plan.)
Going to and will can follow words like
think, doubt, expect, believe, probably,
certainly, definitely.

Compare these examples, Present Progressive and Future going to:

Present Progressive Future going to
(Present progressive acting as future
(things happening now) arrangements)

 We're having a party

We're having a party at the moment. tomorrow. (We have made the
arrangements.)

 We’re going to have a party

next week. (We intend / We
have decided to have one.)

Here the phrase of time shows whether

we mean the present or the future.

47
Activity:
Below is part of a presentation by Mr. Asad, from Packages Ltd, a food manufacturer. He is describing
the day’s programme to a group of visitors from France. Put the sentences in the correct order.
Underline any uses of will or shall. The first has been marked (1) for you.
a. We’ll have lunch in a local restaurant at about 1 o'clock.
b. We’ll finish at about 4 o’clock.
c. After this introduction, we’ll have a short tour of the plant.
d. So, shall we begin the tour?
e. Then before coffee we’ll show you a film about our distribution system.
f. We’ll have coffee at 11, then we’ll have a meeting with Mr.Ahsan, our Product Manager.
g. Right, now I’ll explain the programme for the day. (1)
h. After lunch, we’ll discuss future plans.
Activity
Complete the questionnaire below with a partner or by yourself. Add 2 of your own questions. If the
answer is “yes”, ask “Why? or “How”. If the answer is “No”, ask “Why Not?” and note down the
answers.
Are you going to…… yes Why? / how? No Why not?

get good grades this year

improve your online skills

travel around the world

move somewhere else to live

save money

buy a car

48
Future Progressive
We can use the future Progressive (will/won't be + -ing form) to talk about future actions
The short form of ‘will not’ is ‘won’t’.
Structures of the Future Progressive

 Affirmative: Will + base form of be + present participle of the main verb+-ing…I will be writing
a report.
 Negative: will not be + present participle of the main verb+-ing He will not be listening to the
music.
 Question: Will+ be+ present participle?........ Will he be taking his exams?

Use of Future Progressive

Use of Future Progressive Illustrations

to talk about future actions that:
will be in progress at a specific time in
the future:
 When you come out of school
tomorrow, I'll be boarding a plane.
 Try to call before 8 o'clock. After
that, we'll be watching the match.
 You can visit us during the first week
of July. I won't be working then.

 Today we're taking the bus, but next

we see as new, different or temporary:
week we'll be taking the train.
 He'll be staying with his parents for
several months while his father is in
recovery.
 Will you be starting work earlier with
your new job?

Future Perfect
We use the future perfect simple to talk about something that will be completed before a specific time
in the future.
Structures of the Future Progressive
 Affirmative: will have + past participle ….. I’ll have done it by then.
 Negative: will not (won’t) have + past participle ….We won’t have done it by then,
 Question: will ... + have + past participle? ….Will you have done it by then.’?

49
Use of Future Perfect

Use of Future Perfect Illustrations

 By the end of the year, I will have
to talk about a future event that will given the same talk at six
finish before a specified time in the conferences!
future, often with before, by + fixed
 I’ll have finished it by next Friday.
time, or in + amount of time:
 In a week, I’ll have written the
report.
 The guests are coming at 8 p.m. I'll
have finished cooking by then.
 Will you have gone to bed when I get
back?
 By the time we arrive, the kids will
have gone to bed.

We can use phrases like by or by the time (meaning 'at some point before') and in or in a day / in two
months / in five years etc. (meaning 'at the end of this period') to give the time in which the action will
be completed.
Exercise
Complete the sentences with the future perfect (will have done) or the future progressive (will be
doing) and the verbs in the box.
disappear, arrive, cook, watch, replace, move, finish, fly, teach, listen
1. When we reach Naran, we ........................................................ our journey.
2. When I drive my car I ................................................ to the new CD.
3. In a twenty years' time thousands of species ....................................................... from
this planet.
4. In a few hours' time we ........................................... on the plane.
5. I'll meet you at four o'clock. - At four? I'm afraid I ................................................
English.
6. We ............................................................... the wheels before you come back from the
shop.
7. Shall I buy a pizza? - There's no need. I ........................................... as usual.
8. I'm sorry, we can't come tonight. We ........................................... the new documentary
on TV.
9. My new PC ............................................................ by the end of this week.
10. Our neighbours......................................................... in their new house by Eid ul Fitr.

50
Suggested Activities
Present and past tenses (A-F)
Read about each situation and then tick the right answer.
When we were talking, Tom left the room.
Which took longer, a) our conversation, or b) Tom's departure?
1. Mark has been a member of the golf club for two years.
a) He joined the club two years ago and is still a member.
b) He was a member of the club for two years but is not a member now.
2. Vicky is watching the weather forecast.
The weather forecast a) hasn't started yet, b) has started but not finished, or c) is over.
3. I've switched off the burglar alarm.
Do I think that the alarm a) is off, b) is on, or c) may be on or off?
4. I've been studying all afternoon, and I've got a headache.
Am I thinking of a) how much I have learned, or b) the action going on for a long time?
5. We had already travelled some distance when the sun rose.
Did our journey start a) before sunrise, b) at sunrise, or c) after sunrise?
6. I'm going to work by bus this week.
I always go to work by bus. b) My routine is different for this week.
Write a paragraph about a friend’s or family member’s job. Do not write the name of his or her job.
Use the model to help you.
Example A
My cousin Maliha has an interesting job. She gets up early in the morning. Then, she goes to
the gym and exercises for an hour. She usually comes back at 8 o’ clock and gets ready to
interact with a huge audience. She faces the camera for about 2 hours and has a huge fan
following. She is usually free on the weekends.
B: Work with a partner. Exchange paragraphs and try to guess the person’s job.
Bingo
Brainstorm a list of get to know you questions with your class.
Include questions such as these: Do you like to cook? Do you speak Spanish? Do you drive a
car? Write the questions on the board, and give each student a five by five grid. The center
square is free; students should randomly put a question in each of the other squares. On your
signal, students mingle asking each classmate one question and then moving on to another. If
someone answers ‘yes’ to a question in the grid, he writes his name in the square. The first person
with five squares in a row wins.
Weekend Party:
What do your students do on the weekend? Find out by asking everyone to share his or her favourite
weekend activities with the class. If you like, have students write a paragraph about their ideal weekend.

51
Answer the following questions about your work. Use a form of will or going to.
a. What do you plan to do tomorrow?
b.What about getting a big pay rise next year?
c. Where are you going on Saturday?
d.What’ll you talk about tomorrow?
e. Who won’t you see this evening?
f. If the company has problems, will you lose your job?
Write a short report about your or your partner’s goals and future plans. (Next year, I’m going
to…..because……….)
The present continuous (A)
Read the conversation and say if the verb refers to the present or the future.
Mark: (►) What are you reading, Claire?
Claire: Oh, it's a guidebook to Brazil. (1) I'm going there next month. (2) My sister and I
are having a holiday there. (3) I’m really looking forward to it. (4) We're spending three
weeks in Rio. (5) So
I'm finding out about all the things we can do there.
3 Present and future (A-D)
Read each pair of sentences and then answer the question about them.
a) I'll see you on Thursday. b) I saw you on Thursday.
Which sentence is about the future?
a) I'm going to Manchester. I'm waiting for a connecting train.
b) I'm going to get a train to Manchester, changing at Birmingham.
Which is spoken during the journey? ...................
a) We'll know the results of the tests next week.
b) We might know the results of the tests next week.
Which sentence is more certain? ..................
a) I'm doing two exams this year.
b) I'm doing some work at the moment.
In which sentence has the action already started?
a) What time do we arrive in Swansea?
b) What time will we arrive in Swansea?

Which question is more likely if you are travelling by car?

a) I'm eating at the Thai restaurant tonight.
b) I'll eat at the Thai restaurant tonight.
Which would you say if you've booked a table?

52
Write the correct answer in each space.
► This isn't my first visit to London. I've been here before.
a) I'm b) I've been c) I was
1 I've got my key. I found it when ............................... for something else.
a) I looked b) I've looked c) I was looking
2 Sorry, I can't stop now..........................................to an important meeting.
a) I go b) I'm going c) I've gone
3 I can't get Sara on the phone......................................... all afternoon.
a) I'm trying b) I try c) I've been trying
4 The bank told me last week there was no money in my account. it all.
a) I'd spent b) I spent c) I was spending
5 There's a new road to the motorway.......................................... it yesterday.
c) They'd opened b) They opened c) They've opened.

Write a second sentence so that it has a similar meaning to the first. Begin with the word in
brackets.
 Our trip to Africa was in October. (We ...) We went to Africa in October.
 We've had ten hours of rain. (It...)
 It's the right thing to do in my opinion. (I ...)
 Our sofa is in a different place now. (We ...)
 It was breakfast-time when Susan rang. (I ...)
 Their game of badminton is always on Tuesday. (They ...)

53
References

Brieger, N., & Sweeney, S. (2014). Collins Business Grammar & Practice (Pre-Intermediate).
Tp. Hồ Chí Minh: Tổng hợp Tp. Hồ Chí Minh; Công ty Nhân Trí Việt.

Kroeger, P. R. (2005). Analyzing grammar: An introduction. Cambridge University Press.

Hopkins, D., & Cullen, P. (2007). Cambridge Grammar for IELTS with Answers: Self-study
Grammar; Reference and Practice. Ernst Klett Sprachen.

Swan, M. (2005). Practical english usage. Oxford Univ. Press.

Eastwood, J. (1994). Oxford guide to English grammar. Oxford University Press.

http://tutorials.istudy.psu.edu/brainstorming/brainstorming4.html
https://busyteacher.org/13628-seven-simple-activities-for-teaching-the-simple.html
https://ngl.cengage.com/assets /grex_pro0000000538/grex1_su3.pdf
https://www.vocabineer.com/oxford-practice-grammar
https://www.harpercollins.com
https://www.e-grammar.org /future-perfect-future-continuous-exercise-1.pdf

54
VOICE

55
 Voice

Chapter Overview
Learning Objectives

 Voice Students will be able to:

 Active Voice  expand their basic understanding of active

and passive voice.
 When to use Active Voice
 understand why active or passive voice is
 Passive Voice appropriate to use in certain contexts.
 When to use Passive Voice  differentiate and distinguish between active
and passive voice
 Practice Exercises
 self-edit and formulate their oral and written
 References production

Voice refers to the form of a verb that indicates

when a grammatical subject (also known as the agent) performs the action or is the receiver of the
action. More specifically, the voice describes how the verb is expressed or written in relation to the
agent.

Types: There are two main types of voice: Active voice and Passive voice.

Examples

• She has written a novel. (active voice)

• A novel has been written by her. (passive voice)

When a sentence is written in the active voice, the subject performs the action; in the passive voice, the
subject receives the action. In academic writing, it is generally preferred to choose an active verb and
pair it with a subject that names the person or thing doing or performing the action. Active verbs are
stronger and usually more emphatic than forms of the verb “be” or verbs in the passive voice.

Active: The award-winning chef prepares each meal with loving care.

Passive: Each meal is prepared with loving care by the award-winning chef.

In the above example of an active sentence, the simple subject is “chef” and “prepares” is the verb: the
chef prepares “each meal with loving care.” In the passive sentence, “meal” is the simple subject and “is
prepared” is the verb: each meal is prepared “by the award-winning chef.” In effect, the object of the
56
active sentence becomes the subject in the passive sentence. Although both sentences have the same
basic components, their structure makes them different from each other.

Active sentences are about what people (or things) do, while passive sentences are about what
happens to people (or things).

Active voice
A verb is in the active voice when the agent of the verb (the person or thing that performs the action
specified by the verb) is also the subject of the sentence. The active voice is the most common type of
voice in both spoken and written English and is generally considered to be the default voice. Not all
active-voice verbs are required to take an object. Any object present, however, must come after the verb
(which always comes after the agent).

For example:

• The boy sang a song.

• I am watching a movie.
• Sarah sings well.

Activity: Read the given passage. Compare the voice.

My sister and I grew up and went to school in Lahore. We were educated according to the British system.
In 2010, we were given the opportunity to visit the United States. We decided to finish high school
before leaving our own country. We were concerned that education in the United States might be even
more challenging as the one we had in our own country, and we wanted to improve our English too.

Active Voice Structure

The active voice is a type of grammatical voice in which the subject of a sentence is also the agent of
the verb—that is, it performs the action expressed by the verb. In active voice sentences, the agent always
comes before the verb.

Examples

• My friend bought a new car.

• She enjoys watching movies.
• Rabeel is talking to his sister.

A direct object is not always required for active voice verbs. When an object is included, however, it
must come directly after the verb.

Examples

• I am taking some tea.

• The boy hid his report card from his parents.
• Dr. Ali will speak at the convention. When to use the Active Voice

57
Typically, the active voice is preferable than the passive voice, as it requires fewer words and expresses
a clearer relationship between the verb and its agent. The following sections contain situations in which
you should always try to use the active voice over the passive voice.

When there is no direct object

Because passive voice sentences require direct objects (which are turned into subjects when converted
from active to passive voice), sentences without direct objects must be active.

Examples

 “That man has painted for more than 40 years.”

 “We departed immediately after the grand finale.”
 “The kids chatted for several minutes.”
 We can analyse how these sentences cannot be put in the passive voice, because there is
no direct object to become the subject. Take, for instance, the first sentence:
 “For more than 40 years, has been painted by the man.” (What has been painted?)

It no longer makes any sense when structured in the passive voice, so it must remain active.

When the agent is important

The active voice is commonly used to emphasize the importance of an agent in a sentence. By using
the active voice, we can highlight an agent’s responsibility for or involvement with a particular action.
The examples below demonstrate the differences between an important agent (active voice) and an
unimportant agent (passive voice):

• The employees drink lots of coffee before work every day.

(Active voice—describes the employees in relation to the act of drinking coffee)
• Lots of coffee is drunk by the employees before work every day.
(Passive voice—describes the act of drinking coffee in relation to the employees)
• Sir Isaac Newton discovered gravity more than 300 years ago.
(Active voice—emphasizes Newton’s responsibility for the discovery of gravity)
• Gravity was discovered by Sir Isaac Newton more than 300 years ago.
(Passive voice—emphasizes the discovery of gravity over Newton’s involvement)

When the agent is known or relevant

You should always use the active voice if an agent is identifiable or contains information that is relevant
to the rest of the sentence.

Examples

• Shahzaib stole a menu from the restaurant.

• A veterinarian found an abandoned kitten by the road.

58
 • Dr. Atif Abid opened the hospital in 2000.

On the other hand, when an agent is unknown or irrelevant, we usually switch to the passive voice and
eliminate the agent.

Compare these sentences.

• A menu was stolen from the restaurant.

• An abandoned kitten was found by the road.
• The hospital was opened in 2000.

When expressing an authoritative tone

The active voice may also be used to stress the authority of an agent. This authoritative tone is a strategy
commonly used in copywriting, advertising, and marketing in order to convince consumers of the
beneficial effects of a product or service. It may also be used to establish a command or to more strongly
emphasize an agent’s responsibility for an action.

Compare these sentences.

• Brushing your teeth at least twice a day is recommended by dentists.

• Dentists recommend brushing your teeth at least twice a day.

• All of your broccoli must be eaten by you before dessert is served.

• You must eat all of your broccoli before dessert is served.

Exercise

1. In the following active voice sentence, which word is the agent of the verb?
Danyal built a bookshelf with his own two hands.
a) bookshelf
b) Danyal
c) hands
2. Which of the following active voice sentences does not contain a direct object?
a) She reads a chapter from her book before bed every night.
b) The tornado caused severe damage to the neighbourhood.
c) Tomorrow night I will be dining with my friends.
3. In which of the following cases should you always use the active voice?
a) When the agent is known or relevant
b) When the agent is an ongoing topic
c) When there is no direct object
4. Which of the following sentences uses the active voice?
a) The town was founded over 400 years ago.
b) The father surprised his children by bringing home a kitten.
c) I will be visited by my grandfather tomorrow.

59
Passive voice
Passive voice sentences are structurally opposite to active voice sentences, with the object (now the
subject of the sentence) coming before the verb and the verb coming before the agent of the action. A
passive voice verb is used in the past participle form preceded by the auxiliary verb be, and the
preposition by is inserted before the agent to form a prepositional phrase.

For example

Amber will perform a famous piano piece tomorrow night. (Active voice)
A famous piano piece will be performed by Amber tomorrow night. (Passive voice)

Thousands of people have already read his new book. (Active voice)
His new book has already been read by thousands of people. (Passive voice)

Note: When converting a sentence from active to passive, the original object becomes the new subject
due to its position at the beginning of the sentence. At the same time, the agent changes into the object
of a prepositional phrase.

Unlike active voice, passive voice sentences do not require agents. If an agent is unknown or irrelevant,
you may eliminate the prepositional phrase containing the agent.

Example

• The light bulb was patented by Thomas Edison in 1880.

• The light bulb was patented in 1880.

• The wedding venue has been decided on by the bride and groom.
• The wedding venue has been decided on.

Exercise

1. Which of the following voices is typically regarded as the default voice?

a) passive voice
b) active voice
c) none of the above

2. Which of the following choices contains the correct word order for an active voice sentence?
a) agent – verb – object
b) verb – agent – object
c) agent – verb – reflexive pronoun
d) subject – verb – prepositional phrase

3. Which of the following choices contains the correct word order for a passive voice sentence?
a) agent – verb – object
b) verb – agent – object
c) agent – verb – reflexive pronoun
d) subject – verb – prepositional phrase

60
Passive Voice Structure (Converting Active into Passive)

The passive voice is a type of grammatical voice in which the subject is acted upon by the verb. In
passive voice sentences, the subject is the receiver of the action (i.e., what would be the direct object in
an active voice sentence).

Example

• The concert was attended by many young people.

• The necklace is being made by a child.

The passive voice is thus formed by using a form of the auxiliary verb “be” (be, am, is, are, was, were,
being, been) followed by the past participle of the main verb. While the receiver of the action comes
before the verb, the person or thing performing the action (known as the agent) comes after the verb and
is preceded by the preposition ‘by’ to form a prepositional phrase.

Compare these examples:

• The lights were turned off by the house keeper.

• Final exams will be taken by students on Friday.

You may only convert a sentence from the active voice into the passive voice if there is a direct object.
As we’ve seen, this direct object becomes the subject in the passive voice.

Compare these examples:

• A high school track and field star won the race. (active voice)
• The race was won by a high school track and field star. (passive voice)
• Local businesses are handing out pamphlets near the mall. (active voice)
• Pamphlets are being handed out by local businesses near the mall. (passive
• voice)

If an active voice sentence does not contain a direct object, it cannot be converted into the passive voice,
as the sentence will lack coherency without a subject.

Compare these examples:

• The kids are playing outside.

*• Is being played by the kids outside.

When to use the Passive Voice

The passive voice is less commonly used than the active voice because it is wordy and often lacks clarity;
however, there are several cases in which using the passive voice may be necessary or preferable.

The following sections contain various situations in which you might wish to use the passive voice
instead of the active voice.

61
When the receiver of the action is important

The passive voice may be used to emphasize the importance of the receiver of the action. (In contrast,
the active voice typically emphasizes the importance of the agent.)

Compare these examples:

• The annual school exhibition will be organized by the science teachers this year.
• The science teachers will organize the annual school exhibition this year.
• She is always being praised by her parents.
• Her parents are always praising her*.

When the agent is unknown, irrelevant, or implied

Occasionally, the agent of action may be unknown or irrelevant to the rest of a sentence, or it may already
be heavily implied through the action or receiver of the action. In these cases, the agent may be
eliminated altogether (which can only be done with the passive voice—not the active voice).

Compare these examples:

• My missing wallet was returned to a lost-and-found.

• A popular play is being performed at the local theatre.
• Bathing suits are usually sold in the summer months.

When softening an authoritative tone

Because the passive voice places less emphasis on the responsibility of the agent and more emphasis on
the receiver of the action, we can use the passive voice to express commands in a softer, less authoritative
tone than those expressed through the active voice.

Compare these examples:

• Inexperienced mountaineers should not attempt Mount Everest.

• Mount Everest should not be attempted by inexperienced mountaineers.
• If the agent is clearly implied, it may be eliminated for the sake of conciseness:
• You need to finish this project by tomorrow.
• This project needs to be finished by you by tomorrow.
• This project needs to be finished by tomorrow.

When expressing a professional, neutral, or objective tone

Various forms of writing, including scientific reports and instruction manuals, use the passive voice to
express a professional, neutral, or objective tone. Typically, the receiver of the action functions as the
primary topic throughout the text. The agent is usually removed due to irrelevance or to avoid a sense of
subjectivity.
Examples
• The experiment was conducted over the course of two weeks.
• Once Part A has been inserted into Part B, tighten the screws with a screwdriver.
• Adverse reactions to the medication should be assessed and treated by a medical professional.

62
Exercise

1. In the following passive voice sentence, which group of words is the receiver of the action?

“The large monument was erected by the construction crew last spring”.

a) the large monument

b) by the construction crew
c) last spring

2. Which of the following passive voice sentences does not contain an agent of the verb?

a) The homework assignment was completed last Thursday.

b) Her poem will be read aloud by her teacher.
c) This desk was assembled by my aunt.

3. Which choice correctly converts the following active voice sentence into the passive voice?

“You should congratulate your sister on her academic achievement.”

a) Your sister should be congratulated on her academic achievement.

b) Your sister should congratulate on her academic achievement by you.
c) Your sister on her academic achievement should be congratulated.

4. In which of the following cases should you use the passive voice?

a) When softening an authoritative tone

b) When the agent is important
c) When expressing a neutral or professional tone

5. Which of the following sentences uses the passive voice?

a) The elementary school is by the park.

b) I learned Korean by watching dramas.
c) This scarf was crocheted by my friend.

63
Activity: Passive Voice

Egad! Some grammatical vandal has converted E. B. White's active voice sentences into passive voice
structure. Rescue his writing! Convert the passage to active voice, and compare the two.

“One summer, along about 1904, a camp was rented by my father on a lake in Maine, and we were taken
there for the month of August. Ringworm was gotten from some kittens, and Pond's Extract had to be
rubbed on our arms and legs night and morning, and a canoe was rolled over in by my father with all his
clothes on; outside of that the vacation was thought to be a success, and from then on it was thought that
there was no place like that lake in Maine. It was returned to summer after summer--always on the first
of August for one month. Since then a saltwater man has been made out of me, but sometimes in summer
I am made to wish for the placidity of a lake in the woods by the restlessness of the tides and the fearful
cold of the sea water in the afternoon and evening, which is blown across by the incessant wind. A few
weeks ago this feeling was experienced by me so strongly that a couple of bass hooks and a spinner were
bought and the lake that used to be visited by us was returned to by me for a week's fishing to be done
and for old haunts to be revisited.”

Adapted from "Once More to the Lake," by E. B. White.

Activity: Relay Tennis Game

An easy to set up activity that’s a lot of fun and can be used with a variety of tenses. Set the class up into
2 teams and have them in lines facing each other. Give a vocabulary prompt to start, such as “rice” and
students have to create a passive voice sentence using the patterns from your lesson. The game works
by having a student at the front of the line create a sentence, then the person opposite them in the other
team must say something else. Work your way up the line back and forth until someone either repeats
what has already been said or can’t think of anything new. The opposing team gets awarded a point when
you restart the game with a new prompt from where it left off.

Examples

With “rice” could be:

It’s grown in Thailand > It’s eaten all over the World > It’s sold in bags > It’s used in many
dishes

You can vary the tenses used, depending on your lesson:

It has been sold in… It will be used…. It’s being……….

You can also vary the type of start prompts:

Animals that are found in Africa (Example “Lions are found in Africa” ….). Things that are made in
(Germany) (Example “Cars are made in Germany” ….). Languages that are spoken in (Europe)
(Example “French is spoken in Europe” ….).

64
Compare Active Voice and Passive Voice in tenses and their aspects

Tense /Aspect Active Voice Passive: be + Past Participle

Simple Present He lights the candle. The candle is lighted by him.

Present Progressive I am driving a car. A car is being driven by me.

Present Perfect She has stolen my book. My book has been stolen by
her.

Simple Past The president announced the The winner’s name was
winner’s name. announced by the president.

Past Progressive He was revising his lessons. His lessons were being revised
by him.

Past Perfect I had completed the The assignment had been

assignment. completed by me.

Simple Future My elder brother will pay my My hostel dues will be paid by
hostel dues. my elder brother.

Exercise: Complete these sentences with the verbs in brackets. Use passive forms of the present simple
or progressive.

• German ........................................... in Germany, Austria and Switzerland. (speak)

• In most countries, cigarettes ............................................ to anyone under 18. (not sell)
• Two films ............................................. at the cinema at the moment. (show)
• Every year millions of people ................................................. for cancer. (treat)
• Don't switch off the computer. New updates .................................................. . (install)
• GPS: Wait a moment. Your new route ....................................................... . (calculate)
• It ........................................................ to take photos inside. (forbid)
• Your room will be available at 10 o'clock. It ............................................. now. (tidy)
• Look at the car in front of us. It ..................................................... by the police. (stop)
• Bangladesh ............................. to be facing the worst floods in over 100 years. (think)

65
Review Exercise 1: Rewrite the following sentences into the passive voice.

1. Many college students in the United States consider their social life far more important than
their academic life.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

2. Native American Indians of the Plain States ate buffalo meat as their primary food source.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

3. The atomic bomb completely decimated Hiroshima and Nagasaki at the end of World War
II. _________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

4. After months of study, Min Ju finally passed the Bar Exam.

_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

5. Most tobacconist regard Cuban cigars as the best in the world.

_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

Review Exercise 2: Rewrite the following sentences into the active voice.

1. The cat was chased by the dog across the yard.

________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

2. Cookies are made by my mother every Saturday afternoon.

________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

3. The touchdown was scored by the quarterback with three seconds left on the clock.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

4. The final World Series game was won by the Arizona Diamondbacks.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

5. The five-page report due at the end of the semester was assigned by the teacher.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

66
References

Brieger, N., & Sweeney, S. (2014). Collins Business Grammar & Practice (Pre-Intermediate).

Kroeger, P. R. (2005). Analyzing grammar: An introduction. Cambridge University Press.

Hopkins, D., & Cullen, P. (2007). Cambridge Grammar for IELTS with Answers: Self-study
Grammar; Reference and Practice. Ernst Klett Sprachen.

Swan, M. (2005). Practical english usage. Oxford Univ. Press.

Eastwood, J. (1994). Oxford guide to English grammar. Oxford University Press.

https://www.academia.edu/Active_and_passive_voice_worksheets_rules_examples_PDF_

http://www.hunter.cuny.edu/rwc/repository/files/grammar-and-mechanics/verb-system/Active-
and-Passive-Voice.pdf

https://www.pdfdrive.com/a-comprehensive-grammar-of-the-english-language-html

https://www.teflcourse.net/blog/7-activities-for-teaching-passive-voice-in-the-esl-classroom

http://www.e, grammar.org/mixed tenses passive

67
CAPITALIZATION
AND
PUNCTUATION

68
 Capitalization and Punctuation

Chapter Overview

Capitalization and Punctuation

 Introduction
 Capitalization Rules
 Important Punctuation Marks
 Usage of Common Punctuation
 Command of conventions of Standard English capitalization, punctuation, and
spelling when writing.
 References

Learning Objectives

Students will be able to:

 learn the basic and the most common rules of capitalization.

 identify common capitalization errors.
 identify proper and improper capitalization in their own and peer writing.
 create their own sentences using proper capitalization.
 differentiate between common punctuation marks.
 demonstrate an understanding of punctuation through correct usage.
 identify when each punctuation mark (period, exclamation point, question mark,
comma and quotation marks) is needed.
 identify and properly use standard punctuation.

69
Capitalization
Capitalization adds some order and clarity to your writing. Even though people often drop capital
letters in their texts and tweets, proper capitalization will make your writing look more professional.

What’s wrong with the given statements?

the president will address congress.
the james brothers were notorious robbers.
What?
Capitalization is the writing of a word with its first letter in uppercase and the remaining letters in
lowercase. Experienced writers are stingy with capitals. It is best not to use them if there is any doubt.

Here are certain rules to follow:

Capitalization Rules

1. The first word of a sentence

Example

How would you correct this sentence?

the weather was beautiful. it was sunny all day.

2. Proper nouns
Names of relatives (to indicate family relationship) when used with a name
Example

70
Names of relatives when used or referred to a proper name.
Example

Titles
A. Preceding a name
Example

Exception - Do not capitalize titles that follow names.

Exception - Do not capitalize titles used as general words.

71
B. When used in direct address

Additional Notes for Titles

Capitalize very high ranking government officials' titles even when not followed by a name or used in
the direct address when a specific individual is referred to.
Examples

If no specific individual is referred to, do not capitalize titles of even very high ranking government
officials.
Example

72
Capitalize important words in compound titles used with names, but do not capitalize prefixes or
suffixes added to the titles.
Examples

3. Major words in titles of books, articles, and songs

Example

Exception - Do not capitalize short prepositions, conjunctions, or articles unless they are the first
word of the title
Examples

73
4. Names of God, specific deities, religious figures, and holy books
Examples

Exception - Do not capitalize the non-specific use of the word "god."

5. Directions that are name, such as North, South, East, and West when used as sections of the
country
Example

Exception: Do not capitalize directions when used as compass directions

74
6. Days of the week, months of the year, and holidays
Examples

7. Seasons, when used in a title

Example
Exception - Do not capitalize the names of seasons if they are used generally.

8. Countries, nationalities, and specific languages

Examples

75
9. Periods and events
Examples

Exception - Do not capitalize century numbers

10. Names of national, political, racial, social, civic, and athletic groups
Examples

11. Trademarks
Examples

12. The first word in a sentence that is a direct quote, even if the direct quote comes in the
middle of a sentence
Example

76
13. The first word of a sentence following a colon
Example

Exception - Do not capitalize the first word of a list following a colon if the list is not a complete
sentence.

14. The first word in each line of most poetry

Example

15. The single-letter word, the first-person pronoun I.

Example

77
16. Salutations and closings in letters – the first word only unless the proper name is used
Examples

17. Initials, initialisms, and acronyms

Examples

18. Names of the planets

Examples

NOTE - Experts disagree about whether to capitalize earth, sun, and moon. For consistency, the author
suggests capitalizing them when they are used to designate celestial bodies.

Let’s watch this video.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oNDUM6hJv08
Usage

 Brand names
 Companies
 Days of the week and months of the year
 Governmental matters
Congress (but congressional), the U.S. Constitution (but constitutional), the Electoral College,
Department of Agriculture.

78
Note: Many authorities do not capitalize federal or state unless it is part of the official title: State
Water Resources Control Board, but state water board; Federal Communications Commission,
but federal regulations.

 Historical episodes and eras

the Inquisition, the American Revolutionary War, the Great Depression
 Holidays
 Institutions
Oxford College, the Juilliard School of Music
 Manmade structures
the Empire State Building, the Eiffel Tower, the Titanic
 Manmade territories
Berlin, Montana, Cook County
 Natural and manmade landmarks
Mount Everest, the Hoover Dam
 Nicknames and epithets
Andrew "Old Hickory" Jackson; Babe Ruth, the Sultan of Swat
 Organizations
American Centre for Law and Justice, Norwegian Ministry of the Environment
 Planets
Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, but policies vary on
capitalizing earth, and it is usually not capitalized unless it is being discussed specifically as a
planet: We learned that Earth travels through space at 66,700 miles per hour.
 Races, nationalities, and tribes
Eskimo, Navajo, East Indian, Caucasian, African American (Note: white and black in reference
to race are lowercase)
 Religions and names of deities
Note: Capitalize the Bible (but biblical). Do not capitalize heaven, hell, the devil, satanic.
 Special occasions
the Olympic Games, the Cannes Film Festival

Lowercase Reference List

Here is a list of categories not capitalized unless an item contains a proper noun or proper adjective (or,
sometimes, a trademark). In such cases, only the proper noun or adjective is capitalized.

 Animals
antelope, black bear, Bengal tiger, yellow-bellied sapsucker, German shepherd
 Elements
Always lowercase, even when the name is derived from a proper noun: einsteinium, nobelium,
californium
 Foods
Lowercase except for brand names, proper nouns and adjectives, or custom-named
recipes: Tabasco sauce, Russian dressing, pepper crusted bluefin tuna, Mandy's Bluefin
Surprise
 Heavenly bodies besides planets
never capitalize the moon or the sun.

79
  Medical conditions
Epstein-Barr syndrome, tuberculosis, Parkinson's disease
 Minerals
 Plants, vegetables, and fruits
poinsettia, Douglas fir, Jerusalem artichoke, organic celery, Golden Delicious apples
 Seasons and seasonal data
spring, summertime, the winter solstice, the autumnal equinox, daylight saving time

Exercises

A. Put an X if the sentence is capitalized incorrectly and a C if it is capitalized correctly.

1. _____ Big Ben of London is a clock.

2. _____ I drove east to the city and turned north.
3. _____ My family supports the American cancer society.
4. _____ Yellowstone National Park is a great Park.
5. _____ I work for the New York Times.
6. _____ She is a republican and proud of it.
7. _____ The Emancipation proclamation was issued in 1862.
8. _____ Buddhists have been around a very long time.
9. _____ The Sidney Opera House is a Gorgeous Building.
10. _____ The Bronze Age lasted for several thousand years.

B. Circle all the words that need to be capitalized. There are 25.

i have the coolest book called encyclopedia of the world. it shows pictures of africans, asians,
animals, and architecture. it explains how the coliseum in greece was built and why the leaning
tower of pisa leans. my dad likes reading about the war of the roses and the russian revolution. it
also explains about different groups of people, like catholics, protestants, and jews. Also included
is information about zoos, including the san diego zoo.

C. Circle the words in the following sentences that need a capital letter. There are 25.

1. my favorite books are green eggs and ham and horton hears a who.
2. on sunday, i will see the movie star wars and eat at taco bell.
3. terry and louis went to central park last july.
4. she has a friend from london, england.
5. did you know that abraham lincoln was the sixteenth president?

D. Write the following sentences correctly.

1. every december, i can hardly wait for santa claus.

2. friday is the best day because we order pizza from domino's.
3. the best television shows are spongebob and ed, edd, and eddie.
4. my favorite song is we will rock you.
5. king arthur ruled over camelot.

80
E. Correct each sentence by writing it with the correct words capitalized.

1. emus and wallabies are two unusual animals found in australia.

2. my next door neighbor, mrs. brown, has a very large garden.
3. Sadly, i dropped my ice cream on the ground before i could eat it.
4. my favorite book is charlotte’s web.
5. did you know that sally was born on march 11th, 1989?
6. My pet rabbit ran all the way down mulberry street.
7. dr. martin luther king jr. worked hard for the cause of equal rights.

References

http://www.mpsaz.org/rmre/grades/grade5/homework_help/files/capitalization_and_punctuatio
n_rules.pdf

https://www.grammarbook.com/punctuation/capital.asp

https://webapps.towson.edu/ows/capitalization_rules.html

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oNDUM6hJv08 (video)

https://www.ereadingworksheets.com/free-grammar-worksheets/capitalization-lesson.mp4
(video)

https://grammar.yourdictionary.com/for-teachers/capitalization-practice.html

pdf4pro.com › cdn › 8-rules-for-capitalization-41b945 (Exercise)

Online Quizzes

https://www.ereadingworksheets.com/free-grammar-worksheets/capitalization-practice-1/

81
Punctuation

o Shawn is a clever smart boy

o All of the cats dishes were empty.
o The cats dish is empty.
o I know answered Mary

Are these sentences correct?

So,

You may possess good language skills and know how to express yourself in the language but without
the knowledge of punctuation marks, your skills, especially written, is incomplete. A piece of writing
which does include punctuation marks is difficult to read as compared to a piece of writing which
carries proper punctuation marks at the right places. To make an impact on the examiner, it is
important for you to take care of these little marks, to come across as a serious and professional writer.
This module discusses the commonly used punctuation marks, their significance and their
implementation.

Punctuation is the use of conventional characters (e.g., commas, semicolons) to improve clarity. In
general, punctuation aids comprehension by showing a reader which words are grouped and where to
pause.

82
Main punctuation marks in English grammar:

 Periods (full stops) (.)

 Apostrophes (')
 Parentheses (round) ( ( ) )
 Parentheses (square) ( [ ] )
 Colons (:)
 Commas (,)
 Dashes (–, —)
 Ellipsis (...)
 Exclamation mark (!)
 Hyphen (-)
 Question marks (?)
 Quotation marks("")
 Semicolons (;)

Watch this video

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9In5lUUCzAA

Full Stop/Period (.)

 At the end of a declarative sentence (i.e., a sentence that makes statement).

For example:

 Lee likes pies.

 At the end of an imperative sentence (i.e., an order) that is not forceful enough for an
exclamation mark. For example:

 Please keep off the grass.

 In an abbreviation (including initialisms and contractions).

 The story is on every major news channel, e.g., C.N.N. and B.B.C.

83
Exercise

Write out the following passage. Think about where each sentence starts and finishes. Put in the
capital letters and full stops.

jane sat down to do her homework the phone rang she jumped up rushed down the stairs and
picked up the receiver it was a friend wanting some advice about how to do the assignment
their english teacher had handed out the piece was due in the next day jane chatted for a while
then she returned to her room to finish her homework

Comma (,)

A comma is used:
 After setting the scene at the start of a sentence (e.g., Now, I'm older, I understand. )
 After transitional phrases like, however, consequently, or as a result (e.g. As a result, I
now understand. )
 After an interjection (e.g., Jeepers, now I understand. )
 Before a conjunction joining two independent clauses (e.g., I like cake, and I like cheese.
)
 As parentheses (e.g., Janet and John Baxter, who live next door, adore cakes. )
 To separate list items (e.g., bread, milk, and cheese ( ) / bread, milk and cheese (
) – more on this below.)
 After a long subject if it helps the reader (e.g., A, B, C, and D, are required to bake this
cake. )
 In numbers (e.g., 3,213 )
 With the vocative case (e.g., I know your auntie, John. )
84
Exercise
Add commas as needed in the sentences below. On the line to the left of each sentence, write the
number of the appropriate comma rule.

a. _____ He left the scene of the accident and tried to forget that it had happened.
b. _____ Oil which is lighter than water rises to the surface.
c. _____ Madame de Stael was an attractive gracious lady.
d. _____ Nice is a word with many meanings and some of them are contradictory.
e. _____ The contractor testified that the house was completed and that the work had been done
properly.

Apostrophe

When to use apostrophes

Apostrophes are used:
 to show possession (e.g., one dog's kennel , two dogs' kennel )
 in time expressions (e.g., a day's pay , two weeks' holiday )
 in contractions (e.g., can't , isn't , don't )

Apostrophes are not used:

 to show plurals (e.g., three cat's , two video's )
 randomly before the letter s (e.g., He like's pies. )

Exercise

Punctuate the following sentences with apostrophes according to the rules for using the
apostrophe.

a. Whos the partys candidate for vice president this year?

b. The fox had its right foreleg caught securely in the traps jaws.
c. Our neighbours car is an old Chrysler, and I told him the other day that its just about to fall
apart.
d. In three weeks time well have to begin school again.
e. Didnt you hear that theyre leaving tomorrow?

85
Semicolon (;)

Semicolons are used:

 In lists when the list items contain commas.
(e.g., Brian, the officer in charge; Mark, the chef; and Ollie, my dog )
 To create a smoother transition between sentences, particularly when the second starts
with a phrase like however or as a result.
(e.g., It was freezing; however, we still enjoyed it. )
 Before conjunction that merges two sentences containing commas.
(e.g., Yesterday, it was, to our surprise, sunny; but today, as expected, it's dull. )
Semicolons are not used:
 For introductions.
(e.g., I would blame one thing for my divorce; beer. )
(It should be a colon.)

Colon (:)

Colons are used:

 to extend a sentence to expand on something previously mentioned in the sentence (e.g.,

I'm looking for just one personal trait: discipline. )
 after an introduction (e.g., I've seen the following: ants, a cockroach, and a rat. )
 in references, times, and titles (e.g., Read Genesis 1:1 before 07:30. )
 with quotations (e.g., He said: "Curiosity killed the cat, but for a while, I was a
suspect." )
Exercise

Directions: Fill in the missing colons.

a. I gave you the spray bottles for one reason to clean the windows.
b. You will need the following ingredients milk, sugar, flour, and eggs.
c. Johann set the alarm clock for 6 00.
d. My father ended every conversation the same way “Don’t give up.”
e. Dear Mr. Kurasu of the Kiragowa Corporation

Dash (-)

The dash is used to make an abrupt stop or change of thought.

For example, If my husband were alive – but why lament the past?
He has-you may not believe it-failed.

86
Exclamation Mark (!)

The exclamation mark is used after interjections and after phrases and sentences expressing sudden
emotion or wish.
For example, Alas! Oh, dear!

Inverted commas (")

Quotation marks (or speech marks as they're also called) are used:
 to show the exact words spoken or written.
 for the names of things like ships, books, and plays.
 to express the idea of alleged or so-called.

The three big questions with quotation marks are:

 What punctuation should I use before my quotation marks?
 Where should I put the punctuation that follows my quotation marks, i.e., inside or outside?
 Should I use double or single quotation marks?

Inverted Commas are used to enclose the exact words of a speaker, or a quotation.
For example, "I would rather die," he exclaimed, "than join the oppressors of my country."

Question Mark (?)

Question Mark is used, instead of the Full Stop, after a direct question.
For example, Have you finished writing?

Test Yourself/ Punctuate the Sentences.

Punctuate the following sentences.

1. i like playing with my friends sandy sunny sameer

2. we went through the smoky mountains, near shimla on our way to leh
3. my favourite soap is pears and my favourite toothpaste is pepsodent
4. i’m a catholic and that’s why i go to st.joseph’s school
5. my friend priya speaks german and she is teaching me some words
6. he was honest sincere hard working
7. hindusmuslims Sikhs christians live together in India
8. long ago in a town in Switzerland there lived a famous man called William
9. i akbar the greatest of the mughal emperors ruled wisely
10. tanya said to alia rahul is a nice guy

87
References

https://www.mbarendezvous.com/punctuation/

http://www.mpsaz.org/rmre/grades/grade5/homework_help/files/capitalization_and_punctuation_rules.
pdf

grammar-monster.com/glossary/punctuation.htm

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9In5lUUCzAA (video)

https://www.google.com/search?q=punctuation+rules+video&rlz=1C1GCs

88
SENTENCE STRUCTURE

89
 Sentence Structure

Chapter Overview
Parts of Speech Learning Objectives

Sentence Structure
Students will be able to:
Phrase
 explain why correct sentence structure is
Clause
important
 Dependent Clause
 Independent Clause  identify different types of sentences
 follow steps to improve sentence structure
Types of Sentence
 Simple sentence  use a variety of sentence structures in
 Complex Sentence composition
 Compound Sentence
 Compound-Complex
Sentence
References

Sentence

A sentence is a group of words, which expresses a complete thought. When we make a

sentence, we name some person/thing and say something about it.

Parts of a Sentence: Subject and Predicate

The part, which names the person/ thing we are speaking about, is called the subject of the sentence.
The part, which tells something about the subject, is called the predicate of the sentence.

For example, in the sentence, the dog ran after the cat, the dog is the subject of the sentence because
it is telling something about the dog. The sentence says that the dog ran. So in this example, the
dog is the subject while the rest of the sentence ran after the cat is the predicate of the sentence.

Sentences provide us with a framework for the clear written expression of our ideas. The aim of
writing is always to write in complete sentences, which are correctly punctuated. Sentences always
begin with a capital letter and end in a full stop, exclamation or question mark. A complete sentence
always contains a verb, expresses a complete idea and makes sense standing alone. For example,

Andy reads quickly.

90
This is a complete sentence as it contains a verb (reads), expresses a complete idea, and it does not need
any further information for the reader to understand the sentence.

E.g. When Andy reads is an incomplete sentence. It contains a verb, but the opening word when tells us
that something happens when Andy reads; we need more information to complete the idea.

When Andy reads, he reads quickly. This is now a complete sentence, as the whole idea of the sentence
has been expressed.

The following examples show the incomplete sentences in italics:

Wrong: There is another theory. Which should not be ignored.
Correct: There is another theory, which should not be ignored.

Wrong: The proposal was finally rejected. Although they considered it.
Correct: Although they considered the proposal, it was finally rejected.

Exercise

1. Put the words in the correct order and write the statements.

a. For my brother/made/the tailor/a suit

b. Football/likes/Tom.
c. An accident/David/had
d. Bought/two years ago/we/this car
e. A tall woman/Harriot/is
f. Sat/on the floor/everyone
g. Gave/some help/Mike’s friends/him

2. In the following sentences, identify the subject and the predicate.

a. The boy stood on the deck.

b. Miss Kitty was rude that day.
c. He has a good memory
d. Borrowed garments never fit well.
e. On the top of the hill lives the hermit.

3. Following is a list of incomplete sentences. Some of the sentences have a missing subject while the
others have a missing predicate. Try filling out the following blanks with missing subjects and
predicates.

Add the missing subjects to the following group of words.

a. ___________heard a loud noise.

b. ___________spoke to the crowd.
c. ___________moved into their new house.
d. ___________made dinner.
e. ___________worked together.

91
Add missing predicate to the following group of words.

a. The horses
b. The baseball team
c. The scientist
d. The dog
e. My friends and I

Activity

Prepare 120 chits in total; think of 60 subjects (name of persons, animals, places or things) and 60
predicates (something telling about the subject).

Pick out a chit having a subject written on it and a chit on which the rest of the sentence is written.
Make 100 sentences joining both the chits and come up with grammatically correct sentences.

Example:

My glasses / fell in the butter

he rabbit/ likes to drink coffee.

Mary/ was picking the flowers from the garden.

Clauses and phrases

Sentences are made up of clauses and phrases. All sentences must have at least one independent clause.
Clauses

A clause is a group of words which has:

 a subject, i.e., the focus of the clause, or someone or thing which does something in
the clause
and
 a complete finite verb, i.e., a verb which has a subject and a sense of time

For example, Subject Verb

The lecture finished at 3 pm

Pollution causes cancer

New Zealand is in the south Pacific

There are two kinds of clauses: independent (or main) clauses and dependent (or subordinate) clauses.

92
Independent

An independent clause expresses a complete thought and can stand on its own as a sentence.
For example,

Learning a new language is often frustrating.

Dependent

A dependent clause does not express a complete thought and needs to be joined to an independent
clause to become a sentence. It usually begins with a word such as although, while, because, who,
which, if, etc. For example,

Although learning a new language is often frustrating

Practice

Find the subject and the verb in the following clauses. Then decide if each clause is dependent or
independent.

1. Dairying is concentrated in districts with reliable summer grass.

2. Although it started out with a similar fauna and flora to New Caledonia and Australia.

3. Scarcity creates the need for a system to allocate the available resource among some of its
potential users.

4. Banks, insurance companies, and investment companies can now enter one another’s
markets.

5. When layoffs become inevitable.

6. These obvious contamination problems have long been known.

Phrases

A phrase is a group of words which either does not have a subject

e.g., walks to work every day

or does not have a finite verb,

e.g., The reason being their good design

Practice
Identify the following as phrases or clauses.
1. Trying to build up breeding herd numbers.
2. The relationship between predator and prey.
3. The development of technology allowed people to speed up evolutionary change.
4. Because humans are long-lived and reproduce slowly.
93
Four Types of Sentences

Simple Sentence

A simple sentence contains only one independent clause. An independent clause is a group of words
that has both a subject and a verb and expresses a complete thought.

Examples

I kicked the ball.

I like coffee.
Mary did not go to the party.
The baby cried for food.

The above sentences comprising a subject and a verb express a complete thought.

Professor Maple’s intelligent students completed and turned in their homework.

A simple sentence does not necessarily have to be short. In this case, there are two verbs completed and
turned in. However, the sentence expresses one complete thought and therefore is a simple sentence.

Megan and Ron ate too much and felt sick.

Although there are two subjects and two verbs, it is still a simple sentence, because both the verbs share
the same subjects and express one complete thought.

Reading Passage

Henry Ford was the first to mass-produce motor cars on an assembly line. He did this with the popular
Ford Model T car between 1908 and 1927. The car was both cheap to buy and run.
For example,
Henry Ford was the first to mass-produce motor cars on an assembly line.
This is a simple sentence.

Exercises

1. Complete the following passage by writing simple sentences in the blanks provided.

One day Phil and Leon went to the canal. They were going fishing. ___________________. They
chose the best place. They started to get out the rods. Then there was a loud
splash.________________________. Phil and Leon looked up. They saw something moving in
the water.______________________________. Someone had fallen in the water.

94
2. Choose the simple sentences from the following.

a. Tiny sharks, grey and hungry, chased our boat.

b. Tiny grey sharks chased our boat; they looked really hungry.

a. Inspector DeRay looked for fingerprints.

b. Inspector DeRay looked around, but he couldn’t find any fingerprints.

a. The aliens collected wheat, and they also collected corn.

b. The aliens collected wheat and corn.

Activity

Instructions

Write at least five simple sentences about your everyday routine. Work in pairs and discuss it with your
partners.

Compound Sentence

A compound sentence has two independent clauses. An independent clause is a part of a sentence
that can stand alone because it contains a subject and a verb and expresses a complete thought.
These clauses are joined by coordinating conjunction or a semicolon.

Examples

I kicked the ball (independent clause)

and (conjunction)
it hit Tom. (independent clause)

I like coffee (independent clause)

and (conjunction)
Mary likes tea (independent clause)
Our car broke down; we came last.

A compound sentence contains two simple sentences which are joined by a coordinating conjunction
(for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so).

The shoplifter had stolen clothes, so he ran once he saw the police.

The sentence, the shoplifter had stolen clothes can stand-alone and so can he ran once he saw the police.
Therefore, this is a compound sentence.

They spoke to him in Spanish, but he responded in English.

This is also a compound sentence that uses a conjunction to separate two individual clauses.

95
Reading Passage: A cyclone is a devastating tropical storm. Cyclones begin as a typical thunderstorm
but rapidly develop into monster storms with winds of over 100 kilometres per hour. Cyclones are driven
by the heat offered from warm ocean currents and need this warmth to fuel their power. Cyclones cannot
form over land or continue over land for very long.

For example, Cyclones cannot form over land, or continue over land for very long.

This is a compound sentence.

Coordinating Conjunctions in Compound Sentences:

FANBOYS

For: expresses a relationship of effect-cause. The idea in the first sentence is the effect. The idea in the
second sentence is the cause.

And: expresses a relationship of addition. The idea in the first sentence is added to the idea in the second
sentence.

Nor: expresses a relationship of negative addition. The idea in the first sentence is negative, and it is
added to a negative idea in the second sentence.

But: expresses a relationship of opposition. The idea in the first sentence is in opposition to the idea in
the second sentence.

Or: expresses a relationship of alternatives. The idea in the first sentence is one option. The idea in the
second sentence is another option.

Yet: expresses a relationship of opposition. The idea in the first sentence is in opposition to the idea in
the second sentence.

So: expresses a relationship of cause-effect. The idea in the first sentence causes the idea in the second
sentence.

The clauses can be joined in three ways:

1. With a coordinating conjunction

i.e., and, but, or, for, nor, yet, so

e.g., Diversity has become a strategic imperative for corporations, and the term has already
entered the corporate vocabulary.

or with a correlative conjunction

For example, not only ... but also

Not only have conservationists been successful in bringing issues to the attention of
governments, but they have also achieved considerable success in having policies and
institutions introduced or changed to meet their demand.

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 2. With a semi-colon (;)

For example,

Astute depositors could see what was happening to the value of the land that was supporting
the assets of the banks; they moved quickly to remove their deposits for cash.

3. With a semi-colon and another kind of link word called a conjunctive adverb

For example, furthermore, however, therefore, in contrast, similarly

These obvious contamination problems have long been known; however, what is not often
realized is the organic matter carried in ground water can contaminate samples.

Many of these link words can also be placed in other parts of the sentence.

However, some other aspects of the reforms appear counterproductive.

Some other aspects of the reforms, however, appear counterproductive.
Some other aspects of the reforms appear counterproductive, however.
Practice

A. Underline the two independent clauses in the following sentences

1. Modern management techniques have been used with success in firms in the industrial sector,
and there is scope for a greater transfer of these concepts, techniques and principles to the
farm sector.

2. We do not know where the first beachhead for the invasion was, but it is a fair guess that
the narrow strait between Bali and Lombok was the first and most fundamental barrier to
be breached.

3. Coal mining forms part of the relatively invisible history of Bannockburn, yet it was in some
ways the backbone of the local economy.

4. Environmental politics may have a substantial policy focus to it, or it may be quite abstract
and of little direct significance to policy.

B. Join the following pairs of sentences together to make compound sentences.

1. People have been conducting policy research for millennia. Policy studies emerged as a field
of intellectual enquiry less than fifty years ago.

2. Problems do not just exist. They must be defined.

3. In the early 1870s, there were large numbers of Chinese and European miners on the
Bannockburn field. Their activities have proved difficult to trace in the physical remains in
the landscape.

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Exercises
Choose the correct option from the following sentences,

a. The little flowers grew towards the sun ( simple/compound)

b. The pirates demanded treasure, and they demanded pie. (simple/compound)
c. The music is too loud for my ears ( simple/compound)

The following passage consists of simple sentences. Convert these simple sentences into compound
sentences by joining them together with the help of FANBOYS (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so).

Drought can make entire countries desolate. Absence of water can cause havoc to plants and animals.
Some areas have large open spaces that rely on water. The animals can die in these areas. This happens
when drought continues for long. Sometimes there is a severe drought. This makes dead grass to cause
the soil to blow away in hot winds.

Complex Sentence

A complex sentence has one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses.

In this type of sentence, the clauses do not have equal importance. The independent (or main) clause
contains the most important idea, and the dependent clause adds extra information.

The two clauses are linked by a subordinate conjunction placed at the beginning of the dependent
clause. For example,

although, because, just as, whereas, unless, even though

Today, New Zealand lacks crocodiles, goannas, freshwater turtles and land turtles, even
though all were probably part of its Gondwanan heritage

Even though crocodiles, goannas, freshwater turtles and land turtles were probably part of
its Gondwanan heritage, New Zealand lacks these species today.

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Subordinating Conjunctions in Complex Sentences:

When: will allow you to tell your reader that two ideas are connected by time.

Since: allows you to express a cause-and-effect relationship or a time relationship.

While, after, before, until, whenever, when: allows you to express a relationship of opposition or of
time.

Even though, though, although, while: allow you to tell your reader that one idea is the opposite of
another.

Because: allows you to tell your reader that the ideas have a cause-and-effect relationship.

If, unless, even if, as long as, provided that: allows you to tell your reader that the ideas have a
conditional relationship.

Where, wherever: to show place.

In order that, so that: to show purpose.

Practice

Underline the independent clauses and double underline the dependent clauses in the following
sentences.

1. Because it is so frequently misunderstood, the last point merits restatement.

2. One is restricted to a tiny patch of boulders and a rainforest relic on two islands, while the
others are restricted to remnant areas on the North Island.

3. Although the [Lotto] win brought many nice things, it occasioned a period of transition that
meant loss, change and much painful growth.

4. Some investors, who are known as value investors, invest in companies that have share
prices close to or below the book value of the company.

Exercises

1. In each of these complex sentences, underline each independent clause once and each dependent
clause twice.
a. Until you change those strings, your banjo will not sound very good.
b. Darryl looked after my dog while I was away.
c. Bring your backpack when you come to school today.
d. When my grandmother was young, she listened to Frank Sinatra records.
e. Unless I am wrong, peaches were first grown in China.

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2. Combine each numbered sentence with the first sentence that follows to make a complex sentence.
Add, drop, or change words as needed. Write the new sentences below.

(a) Evidence from fossils shows something. The continents have changed shape and position. (b)
Dinosaurs appeared about 240 million years ago. All the continents were connected. (c) Fossils of
mammals are very different from continent to continent. Mammals appeared about 40 million years
later. (d) The first mammals lived about 200 million years ago. The continents had begun to split
apart by that time.

__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________

Compound-complex Sentence

A compound-complex sentence has two independent clauses and at least one dependent clause.

Examples

After the two soccer players lost their game, they joined their other teammates for lunch, and
they went to the movies.

If we remove the dependent clause after the two soccer players lost their game, we have a compound
sentence. The dependent clause makes this sentence compound-complex.

The man believed in the system, and he knew that justice would prevail after the murderer was
sent to jail.

To form a compound-complex sentence, write a compound sentence and then add a dependent
clause or you can write a complex sentence and add an independent clause.

Aliya and Megan ate lunch together; when they were finished, they went to class.

(Independent clause, semi-colon, dependent clause, independent clause)

After Alex and Parveen got home from school, Alex called Parveen on the phone; they made
plans to see a movie. (Dependent clause, independent clause, semi-colon, independent clause)

Jonathan and Nick are good friends; whenever one of them needs help, the other will be there.
(IC, semi-colon, DC, IC)

Megan needed help with a project, so she asked Victoria if she would meet her in the library.
(IC, coordinating conjunction, IC, DC)
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Because James forgot his book, he shared with Wilbert, so they could both follow along with the
class. (DC IC, coordinating conjunction, IC)

Exercises

In each compound-complex sentence below, draw parentheses around each independent clause and
underline each dependent clause.

1. A tourist attraction that also has practical importance is the Panama Canal; both cruise ships and
freighters pass through it daily.

2. Is the Sears Tower in Chicago still the tallest building in the world, or have any buildings that
have gone up recently taken that honour?

3. When the last tsar of Russia was arrested by revolutionaries, he and his family were hiding at a
palace near St. Petersburg; now that palace is open to tourists.

4. Mount Fuji in Japan has become so popular with tourists that crowding has become a real problem,
but I would still like to travel there.

5. You can take a large cruise ship to see the glaciers of Alaska, or you can ride a smaller boat that
can go closer to the coast and its icy covering.

6. I’d like to see the North Pole, but I will never go where it is that cold!

Practice

1. Identify whether the sentences are simple, complex, compound or compound-complex.

a. Vampires Dairies is my favourite television show, but I also love True Blood.
b. The student wiped the whiteboard that was filthy with last week’s notes.
c. The trendy fashion designer released her new line on Wednesday.
d. Wicked Regina cast a spell on the entire city, so the citizens decided to rebel.
e. While waiting for the paint to dry, Angela went to Home Depot, and Martin organized the kitchen
appliances.
f. After listening to the Kanye West CD, I have a new respect for his music.
g. After the teacher chose groups, John and Sara were selected as partners for a project, yet Sarah
did most of the work.

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2. Identify whether the sentences singled out from the reading passages are simple, complex, compound
or compound-complex.

a. The Rosetta stone provided the key to successfully translating ancient Egyptian writing. The stone
had the same text in three ancient languages carved into it: Greek, Demotic and Egyptian. A clever
translator was able to use the known written language of Greek to unlock the Egyptian writing code.

Sentence: A clever translator was able to use the known written language of Greek to unlock the
Egyptian writing code.

Answer: ___________________________________________________________________

b. Marco Polo was an Italian merchant who travelled from Venice to China in the 13th century – about
700 years ago. It took Marco Polo over three years to travel the Silk Road from Italy to China on
foot - a distance of about 4000 kilometres. In olden days, there were many bandits along the Silk
Road, so people often travelled in large groups.

Sentence: In olden days, there were many bandits along the Silk Road, so people often travelled in large
groups.

Answer: ___________________________________________________________________

c. The weather is a term we use to describe how warm or cold the day is. Weather is very changeable.
Atmospheric conditions can be very hard to predict, even for weather forecasting experts. For
instance, months of heavy rain can follow an extended period of drought, or cold weather can
interrupt a previously warm, sunny day.

Sentence: Weather is very changeable.

Answer: ___________________

3. Underline the independent clause once, and underline the dependent clause twice. Circle the letter
below each sentence, which correctly identifies the sentence structure.
Simple sentence
C: compound sentence
CX: complex sentence
CCX: compound-complex sentence

a. Anna plays defence, and Amber plays offence.

S C CX CCX

b. Anna plays defence, yet Amber, who is a good shooter, plays offence.

S C CX CCX

c. The kitty pounced over the fence, and she landed on a bald guy’s head.

S C CX CCX

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d. When the kitty pounced over the fence, she landed on a bald guy’s head, so he squealed like a
little girl.

S C CX CCX

e. I liked the cheese.

S C CX CCX

f. I liked the cheese, yet chicken tastes better.

S C CX CCX

g. Hannah fell down when Kellie pushed her.

S C CX CCX

h. Hannah fell down when Kellie pushed her, but she wasn’t hurt.

S C CX CCX

i. I ate my peas so that I could eat my dessert.

S C CX CCX

j. I ate my peas, yet I could not eat my dessert, so I ate it later.

S C CX CCX

k. Billy went to the store, and he bought a chicken sandwich.

S C CX CCX

l. Billy went to the store, and he bought a chicken sandwich that was moldy.

S C CX CCX

m. While my dad ate chicken, I ate mutton.

S C CX CCX

n. I ate country steak, yet I also ate sausage balls, which were filled with cheese.

S C CX CCX

o. I hope that you will study for your test on Friday.

S C CX CCX

______________________________________

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Review Exercise

Identifying Kinds of Sentences Identify each sentence below with S for simple, CD for compound, CX
for complex, or CD-CX for compound-complex.

1. My aunt has joined an investment club that investigates and buys stocks, and she has made a little
profit already. _________

2. The Great Barrier Reef forms a natural breakwater for the coast of northeast Australia and attracts
tourists from all over the world. _________

3. Just thinking is not enough; you must think of something. ________

4. We had gone only a little way into the cave before our flashlight went out. ________

5. Although snow was predicted, the temperature has stayed above freezing, so rain is falling instead.
________

6. Is the universe expanding, or is it contracting? ________

7. After the holiday dinner is over, my brother washes dishes and I dry them. ________

8. The last car of the poky old freight train is just now coming into view. ________

9. Everyone who saw the movie has liked it, so I’m going tonight. ________

10. We tried hard, but the job was harder than we expected.

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References

 Eastwood, John. Oxford guide to English grammar. Oxford University Press, 1994.
 Rozakis, L. (2003). English grammar for the utterly confused. New York: McGraw-Hill.
 Savin, Harris B., and Ellen Perchonock. "Grammatical structure and the immediate recall of
English sentences." Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 4.5 (1965): 348-353.
 Williams, James D. "Grammar and usage." Concepts in composition: Theory and practice in
the teaching of writing (2003): 313-337.
 Wren, Percival Christopher, and Wren Martin. High school English grammar and composition.
S Chand, 2005.

Suggested Links

 RMIT’s writing skills site:

https://www.dlsweb.rmit.edu.au/lsu/content/4_WritingSkills/06sentences.htm

 Purdue University’s Online Writing Lab: http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/

 Simple and Compound Sentences.” Khan Academy,
khanacademy.org/humanities/grammar/syntax-sentences-and-clauses/types- of-
sentences/e/rearranging-simple-and-compound-sentences 2019.
 Sentence Types. Reading and Writing Lab. Academic Success Centre.
https://www.lamission.edu/learningcenter/docs/asc/worksheets/Grammar/Sentence%20Types
 “Student Learning Development”, University of Leicester,
www2.le.ac.uk/project/oer/oers/ssds/oers/grammar-guides/grammarguidecg.pdf.

105
READING COMPREHENSION

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 Reading Comprehension

Chapter Overview

 Introduction to Reading comprehension

 General Strategies of comprehension
 Specific strategies of comprehension
 Skimming
 Scanning
 Detailed Reading
 Inferences
 Deduce Meaning
 Lexical Inferences
 Practice exercises
 References

Student Learning Outcomes

The student will be able to:

 list and identify comprehension strategies
 apply comprehension strategies to text
 make inferences and predictions based on information in the text;
 infer meanings of unfamiliar words;
 skim for main idea(s)
 scan for details
 develop reading speed
 make use of contextual clues to infer meanings of unfamiliar words from context

Reading comprehension is the ability to process text, understand its meaning, and to integrate with what
the reader already knows. Fundamental skills required in efficient reading comprehension are:

 knowing meaning of words

 ability to understand meaning of a word from discourse context
 ability to follow organization of passage
 ability to draw inferences from a passage about its contents
 ability to identify the main thought of a passage
 ability to answer questions
 ability to determine writer's purpose, intent and point of view, and draw inferences about the
writer

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Comprehension: The Goal of Reading
Comprehension, or extracting meaning from what you read, is the ultimate goal of reading. The process
of comprehension is both interactive and strategic. Rather than passively reading text, readers must
analyse it, internalize it and make it their own.

In order to read with comprehension, developing readers must be able to read with some proficiency and
then receive explicit instruction in reading comprehension strategies (Tierney, 1982).
Reading Comprehension Strategies

General Strategies

Using Prior Knowledge/Previewing

When students preview text, they tap into what they already know that will help them to understand the
text they are about to read. This provides a framework for any new information they read.

Research has shown that better comprehension occurs when students are engaged in activities that bridge
their old knowledge with the new. For example, a simple question like “what do you know about … (a
particular topic)” will stimulate students’ previous knowledge of that topic. This will help them connect
the current reading to their already existing knowledge and make the new reading more stimulating and
engaging. The strategy allows students to work their way up from an already existing schema, instead
of starting a new one.
Predicting

When students make predictions about the text they are about to read, it sets up expectations based on
their prior knowledge about similar topics. As they read, they may mentally revise their prediction as
they gain more information.
Identifying the Main Idea and Summarization

Identifying the main idea and summarizing requires that students determine what is important and then
put it in their own words. Implicit in this process is trying to understand the author’s purpose in writing
the text.
Questioning

Asking and answering questions about text is another strategy that helps students focus on the meaning
of text.

Encourage students to frame questions before and after reading to increase their comprehension. Each
student should be able to reflect on three main questions, namely, a right now question, an analytical
question, and a research question.

 A ‘right now question’ focuses on the material presented. What is the essence of the material
read? What are the facts that are being mentioned?
 An ‘analytical question’ requires students to ponder over what they have learnt. What does
the author want me to understand from this material?

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  A ‘research question’ encourages the students to look for information beyond what is in the
text. This allows for more comprehensive active learning to occur.
Visualizing

Studies have shown that students who visualize while reading have better recall than those who do not
(Pressley, 1977). Readers can take advantage of illustrations that are embedded in the text or create their
own mental images or drawings when reading text without illustrations.
Specific Strategies
Skimming

Skimming is reading rapidly in order to get a general overview of the material. Skimming is the process
of quickly viewing a section of text to get a general impression of the author's main argument, themes
or ideas.

It usually takes three forms: Preview, Overview and Review.

Preview skimming

Most often followed by a second skimming or a thorough reading, preview skimming is used:

 in selecting a book.
 in surveying a chapter before reading or studying.
 in finding appropriate material for use in research.
 in sorting through correspondence before answering it.

Method: Read the first paragraph, and the headings and first sentences of later paragraphs and sections.

Overview skimming

You use overview skimming to sample the reading material more thoroughly than you do in a preview,
as you may not intend to read the material at a later time.

Method: As you do in preview skimming, you would read the first paragraph, the headings and first
sentences of paragraphs and sections, but in addition, as you alternately read and skim, you alert yourself
to the structure and content of the material through an awareness of paragraph patterns, thought
transitions, and clue words.

Review skimming

Your purpose with review skimming is to re-familiarize yourself with material you have previously read
thoroughly or skimmed.

Method: Prepare yourself by trying to remember as many of the ideas and details clearly. It may be that
you already have a good grasp of the main ideas and will be stopping primarily to note significant details
- names, places, terms, etc. You may be trying to establish in your mind a sequence of events or a
procedure, or you may be attempting to fill in a skeleton outline to clarify the structure of the whole.

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 Purposes of Skimming

 To see what is in the news on a website or on a paper

 To look through a text to decide whether you want to read it or not
 To look through the television guide/program schedule to plan your evening
 To see through a catalogue to choose an offer
 To go through the options after searching something on Google

Skimming to save time

To skim, prepare yourself to move rapidly through the pages. You will not read every word; you will
pay special attention to typographical cues-headings, boldface and italic type, indenting, bulleted and
numbered lists. You will be alert for key words and phrases, the names of people and places, dates,
nouns, and unfamiliar words. In general, follow these steps:

i. Read the table of contents or chapter overview to learn the main divisions of ideas.
ii. Glance through the main headings in each chapter just to see a word or two. Read the headings
of charts and tables.
iii. Read the entire introductory paragraph and then the first and last sentence only of each
following paragraph. For each paragraph, read only the first few words of each sentence or to
locate the main idea.
iv. Stop and quickly read the sentences containing keywords indicated in boldface or italics.
v. When you think you have found something significant, stop to read the entire sentence to make
sure. Then go on the same way. Resist the temptation to stop to read details you don't need.
vi. Read chapter summaries when provided.

Good skimmers do not skim everything at the same rate or give equal attention to everything. While
skimming is always faster than your normal reading speed, you should slow down in the following
situations:

 When you skim introductory and concluding paragraphs

 When you skim topic sentences
 When you find an unfamiliar word
 When the material is very complicated

Activity-Skimming Practice

Improving Health and Wellbeing

Read only the introductory paragraph, the headings and the topic sentence of each paragraph. Then
answer the questions that follow.

[P1] To stay healthy, the body’s needs for energy and nutrients must be met. This is particularly
important in growing children as damage inflicted may not be reversible and can affect normal
development. People whose diet lacks the necessary nutrients suffer from malnutrition, a condition that
includes both over-nutrition and under-nutrition and is considered a risk factor for health.

Under-nutrition

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[P2] Under-nutrition is in news reports of famines in poor countries, but it can also be found in developed
countries. In industrialised countries, under-nutrition can be seen in young people who have eating
disorders such as anorexia nervosa or bulimia, where the amount of energy they consume in food is less
than the needs of their body.

[P3] If children’s diets are too low in energy, they will stop growing and gaining weight. They will
become lethargic, less active and be unable to concentrate. If the situation continues, they may develop
life-threatening diseases. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2012) reports
that 100 million children under the age of five are underweight and 35% of all deaths of children under
five are caused by malnutrition.

[P4] When people suffer from under-nutrition, they are often deficient in vitamins and minerals needed
by the body. For example, they may not have enough Vitamin A. If this deficiency is not tackled, eyesight
may be permanently damaged. Lack of iron is another very common form of deficiency. This helps to
explain why about 50% of women in India suffer from some degree of anaemia.

Over-nutrition

[P5] Over-nutrition is usually associated with industrialised countries, although it is now also a problem
among affluent people in developing countries. The main problem is that the amount of energy consumed
in food is greater than the needs of the body and this can result in people becoming overweight or obese.
As with under-nutrition, this may lead them to become lethargic, less active and less able to concentrate.

[P6] Further health problems will arise over time, particularly if the diet is high in saturated fat. Saturated
fat is solid at room temperature; examples include animal fats, dairy products and coconut and palm oil.
Eating a diet high in saturated fat raises blood cholesterol and the risk of heart disease. People who are
overweight or obese are more likely to suffer from coronary heart disease, type 2 diabetes, gallstones,
arthritis, high blood pressure and some types of cancer.

[P7] Type 2 diabetes is a metabolic disorder in which the body has trouble making its own insulin to
control the level of sugar in the blood. Because it tends to develop in adults, it is also known as adult-
onset diabetes. However, growing numbers of young adults and children are now developing it.

(The Open University (2014) ‘Science File’, KG004 Improving health and wellbeing)

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Question 1: Having skim read the text you should now have an overview of the information it contains.
To see if you have, try to match the following statements to the paragraphs in which they were
mentioned.

Using the following two lists, match each numbered item with the correct letter.

1.1. Paragraph 5 a) Under-nutrition in rich and poor countries

2.2. Paragraph 2 b) Definition of type 2 diabetes

3.3. Paragraph 6 c) Over-nutrition in rich and poor countries

4.4. Paragraph 7 d) Negative effects of eating highly nutritious foods

5.5. Paragraph 3 e) Causes of under-nutrition

6.6. Paragraph 4 f) Effects of low-calorie diets in children

Question 2: Having skim read the text, which of the following headings best describes the topic of the
whole text?

1. Health issues in developing countries

2. Forms of malnutrition
3. Solutions to malnutrition

Scanning

Scanning is reading rapidly in order to find specific facts. Scanning differs from skimming in that you
do not deal with all of the content, but search through the material for a specific purpose or a specific
word (or its synonym):

 finding the answer to a question

 seeking an appropriate quotation reference or statement
 locating names in a directory, words in a dictionary, prices in a catalogue, etc.

When you scan, you cover only as much of the content as is necessary to accomplish your purpose. You
scan to quickly locate specific information: words, numbers, names, ideas, or the answers to specific
study questions.
Purposes of Scanning

 To search for a word in a dictionary or index

 To find a phone number or an address in a directory
 To check the time schedule of a program in an agenda
 To check the price of a specific item in a catalogue
 To know a particular information from a text

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Method

 Fix clearly in your mind what you are looking for.

 Anticipate how the information will look.
 Run your finger down the middle of the page or backward and forward across the page. Let your
eyes follow this seeking the particular target.
Examples

 Looking for names, places or titles: look for the visual clue provided by capital letters.
 Looking for distances or a date: look for the visual clue provided by numbers, or words such as
miles, meters, minutes or hours.
 Looking for an idea: anticipate the words that could be used to state it.
 Looking for a relationship: may be expressed after such clue words as ‘thus’, ‘consequently’, or
‘as a result’.
Scanning for research and study

Scanning, too, uses keywords and organizational cues. But while the goal of skimming is a bird's-eye
view of the material, the goal of scanning is to locate and swoop down on particular facts.

Skim this material first to decide if it is likely to contain the facts you need. Don't forget to scan tables
of contents, summaries, indexes, headings, and typographical cues. To make sense of lists and tables,
skim them first to understand how they are organized: alphabetical, chronological, or most-to-least, for
example. If after skimming you decide the material will be useful, go ahead and scan:

 Know what you're looking for. Decide on a few key words or phrases–search terms, if you will.
You will be a flesh-and-blood search engine.
 Look for only one keyword at a time. If you use multiple keywords, do multiple scans.
 Let your eyes float rapidly down the page until you find the word or phrase you want.
 When your eye catches one of your keywords, read the surrounding material carefully.
Scanning to answer questions

If you are scanning for facts to answer a specific question, one step is already done for you: the question
itself supplies the keywords. Follow these steps:

 Read each question completely before starting to scan. Choose your keywords from the question
itself.
 Look for answers to only one question at a time. Scan separately for each question.
 When you locate a keyword, read the surrounding text carefully to see if it is relevant.
 Re-read the question to determine if the answer you found answers this question.

Scanning Reading Practice-1

Using the understanding you gained from skim reading the text IMPROVING HEALTH AND
WELLBEING, quickly scan the text again to answer the following questions.

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 1. How many children are underweight?
2. What percentage of children die because of under-nutrition?
3. What diseases are caused by over-nutrition?
4. Who develops type 2 diabetes – adults or children?

You will need to first select the relevant section. To answer questions 1 and 2, look for numbers and
percentages. To answer questions 3 and 4 look for specific words.

Scanning Practice-2

The Birth of Blue

Artists have always been enchanted by blue, yet fine blues have long been difficult to obtain. Blues are
relatively rare in nature, and painters throughout the ages have therefore found themselves at the mercy
of what contemporary chemical technology could offer. Some blues have been prohibitively expensive,
others were unreliable. The quest for a good blue has driven some crucial technological innovations,
showing that the interaction of art and science has not always been a one-way affair.

The first pigments were simply ground-up coloured minerals dug from the earth. But few blue minerals
are suitable as pigments - so there are no blues in cave art. Ancient Egyptian artists used blue
prominently, however, because they knew how to make a fine artificial pigment, now known as Egyptian
blue.

The discovery of Egyptian blue, like that of many other artificial pigments, was almost certainly an
accident. The Egyptians manufactured blue-glazed stones and ornaments called faience using a
technique they inherited from the Mesopotamians. Faience manufacture was big business in the ancient
world-it was traded all over Europe by 1500 BC. Faience is made by heating stone ornaments in a kiln
with copper minerals such as malachite. Egyptian blue, which was made from at least 2500 BC, comes
from firing chalk or limestone with sand and copper minerals, and probably appeared by the chance
mixture of these ingredients in a faience kiln.

Scientists recently deduced the secrets of another ancient blue: Maya blue, used for centuries throughout
Central America before the Spanish Conquest. This is a kind of clay - a mineral made of sheets of atoms
- with molecules of the blue dye indigo wedged between the sheets. Using indigo in this way makes it
less liable to decompose. No one has made colours this way since the Mayas, and no one knows exactly
how they did it. But technologists are now interested in using the same trick to make stable pigments
from other dyes.

The finest pigment available to media artists was ultramarine, which began to appear in Western art in
the 13th century. It was made from the blue mineral lapis lazuli, of which only one source was known:
the remote mines of Badakhshan, now in Afghanistan. In addition to the difficulty of transporting the
mineral over such distances, making the pigment was a tremendously laborious business. Lapis lazuli
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turns greyish when powdered because of impurities in the mineral. To extract the pure blue pigment, the
powder has to be mixed to a dough with wax and kneaded repeatedly in water.

As a result, ultramarine could cost more than its weight in gold, and medieval artists were very selective
in using it. Painters since the Renaissance craved a cheaper, more accessible, and blue to compare with
ultramarine. Things improved in 1704, when a Berlin-based colour maker called Diesbach discovered
the first "modern" synthetic pigment: Prussian blue. Diesbach was trying to make a red pigment, using
a recipe that involved the alkali potash. But Diesbach's potash was contaminated with animal oil, and
the synthesis did not work out as planned. Instead of red, Diesbach made blue.

The oil had reacted to produce cyanide, a vital ingredient of Prussian blue. Diesbach kept his recipe
secret for many years, but it was discovered and published in 1724, after which anyone could make the
colour. By the 1750s, it cost just a tenth of ultramarine. But it wasn't such a glorious blue, and painters
still weren't satisfied. They got a better alternative in 1802, when the French chemist Louis Jacques
Thenard invented cobalt blue.

Best of all was the discovery in 1826 of a method for making ultramarine itself. The French Society for
the Encouragement of National Industry offered a prize of 6,000 francs in 1824 to anyone who could
make artificial ultramarine at an affordable price. The Toulouse chemist Jean-Baptiste Guimet was
awarded the prize two years later, when he showed that ultramarine could be made by heating china clay,
soda, charcoal, sand and Sulphur in a furnace. This meant that there was no longer any need to rely on
the scarce natural source, and ultramarine eventually became a relatively cheap commercial pigment
(called French ultramarine, as it was first mass-produced in Paris).

In the 1950s, synthetic ultramarine became the source of what is claimed to be the world's most beautiful
blue. Invented by the French artist Yves Klein in collaboration with a Parisian paint manufacturer,
Edouard Adam, International Klein Blue is a triumph of modern chemistry. Klein was troubled by how
pigments lost their richness when they were mixed with liquid binder to make a paint. With Adam's help,
he found that a synthetic resin, thinned with organic solvents, would retain this vibrant texture in the dry
paint layer. In 1957, Klein launched his new blue with a series of monochrome paintings, and in 1960
he protected his invention with a patent.

Complete the summary below. Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each
answer.

The colours used in cave paintings and other early art were made by
crushing ___________________________________. However, later artists have generally had
to rely on the _____________________________ of the day for their supplies of blue. Among
the first examples of the widespread use of blue was in ________________________art. Over
the centuries, many more attempts to create acceptable blues have been made, some of which
have led to significant ______________________

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Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.
What was the main disadvantage in using ultramarine for medieval artists?
a) It contained a number of impurities.
b) It was excessively expensive.
c) The colour wasn't permanent.
d) The preparation process was hazardous.

The discovery of Prussian blue was the result of _____________

a) using the wrong quantity of an ingredient.

b) mixing the wrong ingredients together.
c) including an ingredient that was impure.
d) using an ingredient of the wrong colour.

Look at the following notes that have been made about the types of blue described in Reading Passage.
Match each description with a type of blue.

Types of Blue
A Egyptian blue a) developed in the early years of the 19th century

B Maya blue b) derived from a scarce natural resource

C Ultramarine c) specially designed to retain its depth of colour when used in

paint

D Prussian blue d) was cheap to produce but had limited appeal for artists

E Cobalt blue e) made using a technique which is not yet fully understood

F French ultramarine f) thought to have been produced during another

manufacturing process

G International Klein g) came to be manufactured inexpensively in large quantities

Blue

Detailed Reading
Detailed reading involves learners reading in detail with specific learning aims and tasks. It can be
compared with extensive reading, which involves learners reading texts for enjoyment and to develop
general reading skills.

Intensive reading activities include skimming a text for specific information to answer true or false
statements or filling gaps in a summary, scanning a text to match headings to paragraphs, and scanning
jumbled paragraphs and then reading them carefully to put them into the correct order. In-depth reading
is used to:

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  gain deeper meaning and comprehension of a text.
 research detailed information for an assignment.
 read difficult sections of a text.
There are four different strategies or methods that should enhance your comprehension:
 the RAP strategy
 the RIDA strategy
 the Five S method
 SQ3R.
The RAP strategy

The RAP strategy is good for textbook explanations and research articles:
 Read (a paragraph or a section).
 Ask yourself some questions about what you have just read.
 Put the answers in your own words (and make notes if you need).

You can use this strategy whenever you are reading a difficult passage or when you find your
comprehension wandering from the page. By taking your eyes off the page and making yourself reflect
on the meaning of what you have just read, you can develop the ability to recall and retell yourself the
information along with its relevant importance and where it fits with other information on the topic. You
may be able to say such things as:

“Okay this section is about … and the author has made three main points which are … and … There
was an example about … and the last point was that …”
The RIDA strategy

The RIDA strategy relates to descriptive and narrative texts:

 Read.
 Imagine the scene you have just read about.
 Describe it to yourself.
 Add more detail as you read.

This strategy makes you reflect on the details about places, people, actions and events and create a picture
based on the words and style of language used by an author. You can note which imagery has the most
powerful effects and add your reactions in the form of margin notes.
The Five S method

The Five S method is a power-reading method that reminds students to use the appropriate reading style
and save time (Gawith, 1991):

 Skim: Read the introduction, summary and first and last sentences of each paragraph.
 Scan: Where is the information on …?
 Select: Do you need to read all this chapter? Select sections that you need to know more about.
 Slurp: Read in-depth and more slowly selected sections. Can you tell yourself about this concept
now? Read again if necessary.
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  Summarize: Use a map, keywords, index cards, or questions as a framework for some notes.
Take no more than 10 minutes.
SQ3R

 Survey: Skim through the material you are about to read, noting headings, sub-headings,
diagrams, graphs, etc. This step is used to give you a general overview of the material you about
to read.
 Question: Ask yourself some questions about the material while you are reading: use the
section/chapter headings, questions at the end of chapter or reading objectives from study guides.
 Read: Read the material using a slower in-depth reading style. Pause frequently to answer the
question you have raised, then read on. Read with a pencil and make margin notes or underline
words or phrases which are important (e.g. definitions). Read all of the material, including charts
and tables.
 Recite: Make notes from memory on the sections you have just read. Try to recall the main
headings and concepts.
 Review: Check your recalled notes against the section that you read. Add in anything important
that you missed out. Put a * by these points so that you attend to them when you go through these
notes the next time. Repeat the review process a number of times.

Activity: In-depth reading to find the key points

Read Paragraphs 3 to 7 of the MALNUTRITION TEXT and underline or highlight the key points they
make. If you find new words, at this stage only look them up if they are essential to understand the overall
meaning of a sentence.

Inferences
Inference is an interpretation that goes beyond the literal information given. Making an inference
involves using what you know to make a guess about what you don't know or reading between the lines.
Readers who make inferences use the clues in the text along with their own experiences to help them
figure out what is not directly said, making the text personal and memorable.

Readers think about and search the text, and sometimes use personal knowledge to construct meaning
beyond what is literally stated

As a reading strategy, inferring requires readers to use prior knowledge and the information stated in a
text to draw conclusions. When readers infer, they “think about and search the text, and sometimes use
personal knowledge to construct meaning beyond what is literally stated.”

Inference is drawing conclusions based on information that has been implied rather than directly stated.
People make inferences every day, both in oral and written communication. For example, read the
following sentences:

"My wife and I tried to pack light but we made sure not to forget our bathing suits and sunblock. I wasn't
sure if I would get seasick again so I made sure to pack some medicine for upset stomachs."
You can deduct a great deal of information from these sentences:

 The author is married.

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  He and his wife are going on a trip.
 They are going to be on a boat.
 They will be around water.
 They will be going swimming.
 They have gone swimming before.
 The author has gotten seasick on a boat in the past.

This information was not clearly stated in the sentences, but you can use what was written to deduce
or infer much more than what was said. Most of the information students get from reading comes from
what is implied rather than direct statements, as you can see from the amount of information available
by reading between the lines

Inference Activity 1:

1. Can you infer where I am and what I am doing? I see bubbles rising. I hear my own breathing.
There are fish swimming above me. I feel the seaweed swaying.

Answer:_______________________________________________________

2. Can you infer where I am and what I am doing? I hear screaming. My stomach feels funny. Can
you see my hair blowing? I’m feeling excited!

Answer: _________________________________________________________

3. Can you infer where I am? I hear a loud “thwack” as the ball leaves the ballpark and the crowd
roars with cheers!

Answer: ___________________________________________________________

Activity 2: Inferences from Pictures

Possible inference: ____________________________________________________________

Evidence: _________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

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Possible inference: ____________________________________________________________

Evidence: _________________________________________________________________

Activity 3

Directions: Read each passage and then respond to the questions. Each question will ask you to make a
logical inference based on textual details. Explain your answer by referencing the text.
Miya came out of the bathroom with tears in her eyes. She ran down to the cafeteria and asked the staff
if they had any rice. Fortunately for Miya, Ms. Lucille did. Ms. Lucille filled a red plastic cup about half
way with white rice grains and handed it to Miya. Miya pulled a damp phone from out of her back pocket
and pushed it into the dry rice grains inside of the plastic cup. She sincerely thanked Ms. Lucille and
then went back to class. She felt relieved, but she was still a little worried.

1. Why is Miya upset at the beginning of the passage? _______________________________

How do you know this?

2. Why does Miya put her phone in the cup of rice? ___________________________________

How do you know this?

3. Why is Miya relieved but still worried at the end of the text? ______________________

How do you know this?

Otto stuffed another candy bar in his mouth. He lay sprawled on the floor with his back against his bed.
Candy wrappers surrounded him. His shirt was caught in the folds of his belly and he had melted

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chocolate all over his face and hands. "Ugh…" he groaned weakly as he struggled to finish chewing.
Suddenly, the front door opened. "Otto, I'm home!" It was his mom. Otto rolled almost gracefully from
his sprawled position and began kicking the candy wrappers under his bed. As she walked slowly up the
stairs to his room, he managed to get all of the wrappers under the bed and then he threw a blanket over
them. She opened the door, took one look at his face, and knew.

4. Why does Otto act guiltily when his mom comes home? ________________________

How do you know this?

5. How did Otto's mom know what he was doing? ___________________________________

How do you know this?

Shawn sat in his seat as the morning bell rang and released a big yawn. He rubbed his eyes and could
feel how baggy they were. He stretched as the teacher went to the front of the class and began talking,
"Good morning, students! I'll take attendance while you start working on that test that I promised you."
The class let out a collective groan, but Shawn's eyes widened. He began rummaging through his
backpack and pulled out a crumpled notebook with part of the cover torn off it. He frantically rifled
through the pages, many of which were filled with just a few words or doodles. The teacher looked
directly at Shawn as he said, "OK, class, put your notes away and clear off your desks. It's test time."
Shawn began looking around the room frantically. He saw Cassie sitting next to him. Shawn whispered,
"Psst... Cassie." She turned to him with a scowl. His eyes pleaded with hers. "Not going to happen,
Shawn," Cassie said loudly. This startled Shawn and he jumped in his seat. The teacher looked at Shawn
again, "No more talking class."

6. Was Shawn up late last night studying for the test? _________________________________

How do you know this?

7. Why does Shawn suddenly liven up when the teacher announces the test? _____________________

How do you know this?

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8. What did Shawn want from Cassie? _________________________________________

How do you know this?

Reading to Deduce Meaning

When you encounter unfamiliar vocabulary in an English reading selection, what is your typical
response? Do you bring out your dictionary to look up the word? Have you ever finally decided on a
definition only to realize that you have forgotten what you were reading and must begin the sentence or
paragraph all over again?

Over-reliance on a dictionary not only slows down your reading but may interfere with your
comprehension as well. A better strategy is to use the context, the words and sentences surrounding a
particular word, to help you guess that word's meaning. Usually the guesses you make will be accurate
enough for you to understand the author's ideas. When they are not, or when the terms require an exact
technical definition, you can use your English dictionary as a back-up resource.
Guessing meaning from context

Guessing from context refers to the ability to infer the meaning of an expression using contextual clues.
These clues may be purely linguistic or situational:

 Linguistic context: the linguistic environment in which a word is used within a text

 Situational context: extra-linguistic elements that contribute to the construction of meaning.

This may involve background knowledge of the subject.

Learners should be able to infer the meaning of an unknown word using:

1. the meaning of vocabulary items that surround it;

2. the way the word is formed;
3. background knowledge of the subject and the situation.

Techniques for guessing the meaning

Texts are often full of redundancy and consequently, students can use the relation between different
items within a text to get the meaning. Our prior knowledge of the world may also contribute to
understanding what an expression means.

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  Synonyms and definitions

Kingfishers are a group of small to medium-sized brightly coloured birds

When he made insolent remarks towards his teacher, they sent him to the principal for being
disrespectful

 Antonym and contrast

He loved her so much for being so kind to him. By contrast, he abhorred her mother

 Cause and effect

He was disrespectful towards other members. That’s why he was sent off and penalized.

 Parts of speech

Whether the word is a noun, a verb, an adjective or an adverb, functioning as a subject, a predicate or an
object.

 Examples

Trojan is an example of a computer virus

 Word forms (the morphological properties of the word)

Getting information from affixes (prefixes and suffixes) to understand a word. Examples: dis- (meaning
not), –less (meaning without)

 General knowledge

The French constitution establishes laïcité as a system of government where there is a strict separation
of church and state.

Activity 1

DIRECTIONS: Use the context to select the most appropriate meaning.

1. Just as the invention of the automobile rendered horse-drawn carriages obsolete in modern cities, so
the use of computers and word processors will make the common typewriter much scarcer in offices
of the future.
 rendered obsolete:
a. cause it to be outdated and no longer useful
b. cause it to increase in price
c. cause it to change
 scarcer:
a. more common
b. more efficient
c. more rare

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2. Because business computers are becoming more and more complex, many office workers have had
to get new training to handle these sophisticated electronic systems.
 sophisticated:
a. complex
b. business
c. worldly

3. Computers are even becoming more prevalent in American schools and homes; perhaps in another
twenty years every school-age child in the United States will be able to operate a computer,

 prevalent:
a. large
b. common
c. expensive

4. Some automobile factories have begun to automate their assembly lines by using robots instead of
human workers. This automation will increase the amount of money needed for machinery but will
decrease the cost of labour.

 automate:
a. to increase the number of human workers
b. to produce a greater variety of products
c. to operate or control something by machine rather than by human labour

5. Unlike white-collar workers, who usually work in an office, blue-collar workers may be found in
many different work settings. For example, they may work outdoors to construct a new highway, or
they may assemble new cars in an auto factory or repair damaged ones in a mechanic shop.

 blue-collar workers:
a. business executives
b. secretaries
c. manual labourers

6. The early industrial revolution contributed to the demise of the feudal lords and the rise of the
bourgeoisie. Likewise, the new technological revolution may herald major social and economic
changes in the societies of the future.

 demise:
a. creation
b. loss of power
c. gain in power

 herald:
a. introduce
b. end
c. respond to

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7. Blue-collar workers were originally given this name because of the blue work shirts they often wore.
Given this information and the preceding vocabulary clues, reread paragraph 4. Can you guess what
or who the "steel-collar workers" are who are replacing the blue-collar workers? Write you answer
in the space provided.

Steel-collar worker: ____________________________________

Activity 2

Read the text and guess the meaning of the underlined words.

By about 1600 a few Spanish, French and English people had started settlements in America. A group
of English people called the Pilgrim Fathers had come at about that time. Although they had not seen
any Indians since they arrived, the settlers were worried that they might be attacked at any time.

Making Friends with the Indians

The settlers had not seen any Indians near the settlement. So, they were most surprised when, one day
in spring, an Indian walked into the village and greeted the amazed settlers in English. He told them that
his name was Samoset, and that he had learned English from fishermen who had visited the coast.
The settlers welcomed him and gave him food and drink. Samoset told them that a tribe of Indians had
once lived in the place where they had settled. All of this tribe had died of an illness three years earlier.
Samoset belonged to another tribe called the Massasoit. Samoset was sent back to his tribe with presents.
He came back with other Indians. The settlers gave them food and the Indians danced to show their
friendship.
Several days later Samoset came back with another Indian called Squanto, who also spoke English.
Squanto was the only Indian left of the tribe which had died of illness. He had been carried off as a
slave to Spain and had escaped to England. This was how he knew English. They told the settlers that
Chief Massasoit wanted to visit them. The settlers wanted to be friendly, but they were afraid to let the
chief and all his warriors come into the settlement. Eventually, the governor of the settlement, John
Carver, decided to allow Massasoit and twenty of his braves to visit them.

They met in a cottage and the governor came with twenty white men too. The two leaders made peace
terms. They agreed not to attack one another and also agreed to help one another if either of them was
attacked.
When Massasoit and his braves left, Squanto decided to stay with the settlers. He stayed with them until
he died.
Match the words with their definitions
a) what you feel when something unexpected happens
1. settle b) a group of families who live together and are ruled by a chief
2. surprised c) the boss of an Indian tribe
3. tribe d) to get away
4. carry off e) to move to a place and stay there
5. chief f) rules to stop a war
6. warrior g) to take people from one place to another
7. peace terms h) someone who fights in a battle
8. escape

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Lexical Inferencing

Lexical Inferencing According to Morrison (1996), lexical inferencing is using the available linguistic
cues as well as other key points in a text in order to guess the meaning on unfamiliar word. Inferencing,
in the opinion of Paribaht and Wesche (1999, p. 198), is a cognitive process that employs “familiar
attributes and contexts” to distinguish unfamiliar elements in reading.
Strategies for lexical inferences

Strategy Definition Example

Analysing Analysing a word using “preclude, my first impression was knowing in

knowledge of prefixes, advance, conclude…but in this passage…“the
suffixes, punctuation, assumption of perfect information precludes these
or grammar. changes because a firm knows how much it can sell
at each price and what it can produce… that means
it controls future…that is, the prices in the future…it
knows these…based on my first impression…it
knows in advance…”

Associating Attempting to infer the “so, the assumption of perfect information precludes
meaning by associating these changes, because a firm knows how much it can
the word with other sell at each price and what it can produce… the
similar words. assumption of perfect information” …conclude…it
should be conclude …does it mean conclude? … “a
firm know how much it can sell…the assumption”
…I don't really understand what it means, conclude
does not appear to make good sense here.”

Repeating Repeating the word or “The assumption of perfect information precludes

part of the text these changes…the assumption of perfect
containing the word out information precludes because a firm knows how
aloud. much it can sell at each price and what it can produce,
both now and in the future…the assumption of perfect
information precludes…”

Using textual Guessing the meaning “stipulate, I'm not sure of what it means, however, I
clues of the word by using found the clues from “something that prevents any
the surrounding context individual from setting up a firm to produce any
clues. good.” So, it can be some difficulties, some
obstacles, to prevent from individual, that is,
barriers.”

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Strategy Definition Example

Using prior Using prior knowledge “each firm produces a very

knowledge or experience to infer small allotment …allot…allotment of the total supply
the word meaning. in the market, and no firm can influence the price of
its product by increasing or decreasing the amount
that it supplies”…I don't know this word, and neither
do I know what it means after reading the sentence
for the first time…“Smallness, each firm produces a
very small…” this word… “of the total supply in the
market”…oh, the third point…each firm is small in
scale, and it produces a very small part of the total
supply in the market, so this word means small
production or small something.”

Paraphrasing Paraphrasing or “All firms have freedom of entry to all markets, and
translating part of the they have freedom of exit so that they can suspend to
text that contains the produce a good at any time…so they can suspend to
word produce a good at any time… they can suspend to
produce a good”…they can decide to produce any
good at any time because they have freedom of entry
and exit so they can produce a good at any time at
random.”

Making inquiry Questioning their own “Perfect information, each firm has all the
inferences. information that it needs to make decisions without
…uncertainty on prices, wages and other issues that
sway it”… “perfect information,” that is, each firm
has sufficient information to decide…um…“without
uncertainty on…” …these things sway…these things
won't …influence …influence…these.” Am I right?

Confirming/ Confirming or “So, a perfectly competitive firm does not hold stocks
disconfirming disconfirming the to allow for accidental events, and we assume that its
inferences made by sales equal its fabrication…its sales equal
using the information its fabrication. Because it says that it does not hold
in the text stocks that means its production has to be sold out,
so its sales…how much it is sold out equals its
production. Fabrication should mean production
here.”

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 Strategy Definition Example

Commenting Making evaluative I've no idea of this word (stipulation), but I think it
comments about the means rules or restrictions…because of the
word subtitle, “freedom of action,” now I'm reading the
third sentence “all firms have freedom of entry to all
markets,” it says all firms have freedom of getting
into and out of the market so the previous sentence
must be talking about that there are no restrictions
keeping any individual from producing, that's what I
think…so this word should mean restriction or some
kind of …restriction, I think.

Activity

Read the following sentences. Then choose the best definitions for the underlined words.

1. A world-famous violinist at the age of eight, Kamisha proved to be a child prodigy.

a. screenwriter
b. failure
c. problem
d. genius

2. Trevor was always so enthusiastic about spelling bees, but this year he seemed reluctant to participate.

a. unwilling
b. eager
c. anxious
d. dedicated

3. I like the look of vintage clothes, including twin sets and poodle skirts from the 1950s, thigh high
dresses in the wild patterns of the 1960s, and even the bell bottoms of the 1970s.

a. tight
b. old-fashioned
c. modern
d. conservative

4. Proud of his big win in the regional debate tournament, Shane showed up at the state finals looking
smug.

a. overly confident
b. terrified
c. well dressed
d. angry

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5. Project your voice as if it were a ball that you were throwing all the way back to the last row of the
auditorium.

a. throw forward
b. soften
c. disguise
d. organize

Practice Exercises

Directions: Read the passage and answer the questions that follow.

4. Weather in the UK

The weather affects everyone, and everyone has something to say about the weather. This is especially
true in a country like the UK that has very changeable weather. In the UK the weather from one day to
the next can be completely different, or even from the morning to the afternoon. The weather can change
from being rainy one day to sunny the next, or from strong wind and gales in the morning to snow in the
afternoon.

In the UK there are four seasons, spring, summer, autumn and winter, and the weather is different in
each of them. However, there is not a sudden change between the seasons. The end of the winter season
is the same as the start of the spring season. It takes several weeks for the weather to change enough for
people to notice the difference.

The summer is the season with the best weather. In general, it is hot and sunny with only a little rain
sometimes. However, it can sometimes be cold and wet for one or two weeks at a time. British people
like to spend a lot of time outside when it is nice in the summer. After the summer is the autumn. In this
season the weather gets colder and there are stronger winds, also it will rain more. All the leaves will
start to fall off the trees as it is cold. Frost might start to form on the ground towards the end of the
autumn.

Winter is the coldest season in the UK. The temperature will often be at zero degrees Celsius. This means
that ice will often form on the ground overnight where there were puddles. This makes it difficult to
walk sometimes. There might also be snow, but the UK does not get much snow, mainly just cold rain
in the winter. Then when winter ends the spring starts. The temperature will start to get warmer and the
winds will not be as strong. Plants start to grow again and new leaves form. It is always nice when the
spring starts as it means the nice weather in the summer is nearly back again.

Many people in the UK complain about the weather, but as the weather changes so much it is very
interesting and gives the people something to talk about all year round.

1. How can the weather in the UK be described?

a. Boring
b. Wet
c. Changeable
d. Humid

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 2. How quickly can the weather change?
a. From one week to the next.
b. From one morning to afternoon.
c. From one day to the next day.
d. The weather does not change much.

3. How many seasons are there in the UK?

a. Two
b. Three
c. Four
d. Five

4. When will frost first start to form on the ground?

a. In the spring
b. In the summer
c. In the autumn
d. In the winter

5. Why do people like the spring?

a. It means the summer is nearly back.
b. It is not winter.
c. It is the shortest season.
d. It only happens every other year.

Directions: Read the passage and answer the questions that follow.

2. How humans evolved language

A. Thanks to the field of linguistics we know much about the development of the 5,000 plus languages
in existence today. We can describe their grammar and pronunciation and see how their spoken and
written forms have changed over time. For example, we understand the origins of the Indo-European
group of languages, which includes Norwegian, Hindi and English, and can trace them back to tribes in
eastern Europe in about 3000 BC.

So, we have mapped out a great deal of the history of language, but there are still areas we know little
about. Experts are beginning to look to the field of evolutionary biology to find out how the human
species developed to be able to use language. So far, there are far more questions and half-theories than
answers.

B. We know that human language is far more complex than that of even our nearest and most intelligent
relatives like chimpanzees. We can express complex thoughts, convey subtle emotions and communicate
about abstract concepts such as past and future. And we do this following a set of structural rules, known
as grammar. Do only humans use an innate system of rules to govern the order of words? Perhaps not,
as some research may suggest dolphins share this capability because they are able to recognize when
these rules are broken.

C. If we want to know where our capability for complex language came from, we need to look at how
our brains are different from other animals. This relates to more than just brain size; it is important what
other things our brains can do and when and why they evolved that way. And for this there are very few
130
physical clues; artefacts left by our ancestors don’t tell us what speech they were capable of making.
One thing we can see in the remains of early humans, however, is the development of the mouth, throat
and tongue. By about 100,000 years ago, humans had evolved the ability to create complex sounds.
Before that, evolutionary biologists can only guess whether or not early humans communicated using
more basic sounds.

D. Another question is what is it about human brains that allowed language to evolve in a way that it did
not in other primates? At some point, our brains became able to make our mouths produce vowel and
consonant sounds, and we developed the capacity to invent words to name things around us. These were
the basic ingredients for complex language. The next change would have been to put those words into
sentences, similar to the ‘protolanguage’ children use when they first learn to speak. No one knows if
the next step – adding grammar to signal past, present and future, for example, or plurals and relative
clauses – required a further development in the human brain or was simply a response to our increasingly
civilized way of living together. Between 100,000 and 50,000 years ago, though, we start to see the
evidence of early human civilization, through cave paintings for example; no one knows the connection
between this and language. Brains didn’t suddenly get bigger, yet humans did become more complex
and more intelligent. Was it using language that caused their brains to develop? Or did their more
complex brains start producing language?

E. More questions lie in looking at the influence of genetics on brain and language development. Are
there genes that mutated and gave us language ability? Researchers have found a gene mutation that
occurred between 200,000 and 100,000 years ago, which seems to have a connection with speaking and
how our brains control our mouths and face. Monkeys have a similar gene, but it did not undergo this
mutation. It’s too early to say how much influence genes have on language, but one day the answers
might be found in our DNA.

Task 1

Match the headings with the parts of the text (A–E).

What we know How linguistic capacity evolved How unique are we?

The physical evidence The tiny change that may separate us from monkeys

A. …………………………………………………………………………………………
B. …………………………………………………………………………………………
C. …………………………………………………………………………………………
D. …………………………………………………………………………………………
E. …………………………………………………………………………………………
Task 2

Are the sentences true or false?

1. Experts fully understand how the Hindi language developed. True False

2. The grammar of dolphin language follows the same rules as True False
human language.
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 3. Brain size is not the only factor in determining language True False
capability.

4. The language of very young children has something in common True False
with the way our prehistoric ancestors may have spoken.

5. When people started using complex language, their brains got True False
bigger.

6. The role of genetics in language capacity is not yet clear. True False

Skimming and Scanning Practice

Directions: Read the passage and answer the questions that follow.

3. London

A. London has long retained its reputation as an ideal short break destination for a wide range of visitors.
The city offers a plethora of activities and attractions, is steeped in history and is renowned for its world
class contribution to theatre and the arts. Despite the unpredictability of the British climate, the visitor
to London is never short on entertainment whatever the weather. While most cities can boast one or two
landmarks which have achieved international recognition, few can boast of so many in such a compact
area. Westminster Abbey, Big Ben, the Tower of London and the many famous parks are well known
throughout the world.

B. One reason why tourists favour London is the British Royal family, which draws countless tourists to
visit Buckingham Palace, the official residence of the Queen. It was originally built in the early 18th
century for John Sheffield, the then Duke of Buckingham. Since then, the Palace has undergone a number
of changes. Having been partially destroyed by fire in 1809, it was rebuilt, then extended by George VI
after he became sovereign in 1937. Visitors are able to view the Palace from the gates and experience
the famous ritual of the Changing of The Guards. Since the 1990s, restricted access to parts of the Palace
has also been available to the general public.

C. While it is unlikely to catch a glimpse of the Royals themselves whilst on a visit to the Palace, tourists
are assured of viewing them in wax form at Madame Tussauds’ waxwork museum. From the Royal
family to Hollywood stars and prominent politicians, many of the worlds rich and famous have been
immortalized in wax. It is estimated that a tour of the museum takes about two hours, and it is possible
to buy a combination ticket also allowing entry to the London Planetarium.

D. For visitors with an inclination for the arts, the West End is an essential part of the itinerary. With
productions to suit all tastes, it is always possible to find a mystery, thriller, comedy or musical at a time
to suit. There are many websites or booking agents that can arrange tickets to almost any kind of
performance. Some shows in the West End have been running for decades and still attract audiences for
every showing.

E. A more recent addition to the portfolio of attractions London has to offer is the London Eye. Open
daily, it offers visitors the theme park style opportunity to take a thirty-minute ride and view the city
from 450 feet up. Visitors are treated to an unparalleled panoramic view of the city, and might even spot
a good restaurant for their evening meal!
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F. Apart from all of the constructed attractions, London also offers something for those more budget
conscious travellers. Hyde Park and St James’ Park are just two of the many areas that make a pleasant
stroll, and there is also the option of a walk along parts of the Thames, allowing the imaginative to picture
the history of what was once one of the most famous rivers in the developed world.

1. What is the overall focus of the passage? Skim to get a general idea and select your answer from
the choices given.

a) Recreation options in London

b) Historical links to London
c) London’s royal influence

Scan for answers to the following questions. Use NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS for each
answer.

2. What was moderately damaged by fire in 1809?

___________________________________________________________________________

3. What allows viewing of London from 450 feet?

___________________________________________________________________________

Read the text in detail to answer the following questions.

4. Select the correct answer A, B or C to complete this sentence

London is different to other cities because…

a) It has many theatres and arts venues.

b) It has a long and rich history.
c) It has a wide range of attractions which are accessible to each other.

5. What is now open in part to the general public which was once inaccessible?

___________________________________________________________________________

6. Apart from an agent, how can you obtain tickets to see a show at the West end?

Reading Comprehension- Skimming and Scanning Practice

Directions: Read the passage and answer the questions that follow.
Questions 1–4 are about the following announcement.

Student Volunteers Needed!

On Saturday, December 12th, from 10 A.M. until 4 P.M., Carverton Middle School will be holding a
music festival in the school gymnasium. The special event will feature a variety of professional
musicians and singers.

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 Task Time Date

Make posters 1 P.M.–4 P.M. December 5th

Set up gym 11 A.M.–4 P.M. December 11th

Help performers 9 A.M.–4 P.M. December 12th

Welcome guests 10 A.M.–2 P.M. December 12th

Clean up gym 4 P.M.–7 P.M. December 12th

Interested students should speak with Ms. Braxton, the music teacher. Students who would like to help
at the festival must have written permission from a parent or guardian.

1. What time will the festival begin?

a. 10 A.M.
b. 11 A.M.
c. 1 P.M.
d. 2 P.M.

2. In line 3, the word feature is closest in meaning to _______.

a. Look
b. Keep
c. Include
d. Entertain

3. What job will be done the day before the festival begins?
a. Making posters
b. Setting up the gym
c. Cleaning up the gym
d. Helping the performers

4. Who is told to talk to Ms. Braxton?

a. Parents
134
 b. Students
c. Teachers
d. Performers

Scanning Exercise

Have a quick look through the advert below, then answer the questions.

Questions

1 What can you save from shopping at this place?

.......................................................................................................................

2 How many good reasons are there for shopping there?

.......................................................................................................................

3 What is the telephone number?

.......................................................................................................................

4 What can you earn with Argos?

.......................................................................................................................

5 What are the names of the catering firm?

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 .......................................................................................................................

6 How long does the offer last?

.......................................................................................................................

4. Reading Comprehension - Atoms and Electricity

Atoms are the basis for everything in the universe. All matter is composed of atoms. Solids are made of
densely packed atoms while gases have atoms that are spread out. Protons, electrons, and neutrons are
the basic parts of atoms. The parts of the atom include positive and negative charges and are responsible
for the electrical charges known as electricity.

Electrons are the smallest of the three particles that make up atoms. They are located in an area that
surrounds the nucleus of an atom. Electrons have negative charges. Protons, electrons, and neutrons are
all related to electric charges.

Protons have positive charges. Protons are large and are found in the nucleus. Along with neutrons, they
are grouped together in the centre of the atom.

Neutrons are neutral and do not have a charge. They are large and are found in the nucleus grouped
together with the protons.

Atoms start out with the same number of electrons and protons. Under certain conditions, electrons can
be removed from an atom or added to an atom. Removing electrons would leave the atom with more
positive than negative charges.

Electricity is the transfer of electrons from one atom to another. Electrons have a negative charge; they
sometimes are attracted to atoms that have a positive charge. Electrons orbit in an area that surrounds
the nucleus of an atom. Electrons then sometimes jump to the shells of nearby atoms as they orbit. This
jumping or movement of electrons creates electric current. Current is what flows through electrical wires
and powers electronics items, from light bulbs to televisions.

Electrical charges are created in power plants that goes through power lines to bring electricity into
homes or businesses.

Static electricity is the imbalance of positive and negative charges in an object. Static electricity is
created when electrons move from one place to another. Electrons can move more easily in some objects
than in others. The rubbing of certain materials against one another can transfer negative charges, or
electrons.

An example of static electricity is when a balloon is charged by rubbing it on the hair. It picks up extra
electrons and has a negative charge. Holding it near a neutral object will make the charges in that object
move. This is an example of static electricity. Another example involves clothing is in a dryer. The
fabrics rub together and there is an exchange of electrons from the surfaces of the clothing. They are
then attracted to each other and cling together. The crackling sound heard comes from the electrons being
pulled away from each other when the clothes are separated.

In summary, without atoms and the interaction between electrons, protons, and neutrons, it would not
be possible to have electricity. The main parts of an atom included protons with positive charges,
136
electrons with negative charges, and neutrons with no charge. Electrical current is produced in power
plants and is then transferred to homes and businesses through power lines. Finally, a common form of
electricity is static electricity which often occurs when electrons rub off and on various objects and
interact with each other.

1) Which of the following parts of an atom have no charge?

a) Proton
b) Electron
c) Neutron
d) Nucleus

2) Which of the following parts of an atom have a positive charge?

a) Proton
b) Electron
c) Neutron
d) Nucleus

3) Which of the following parts of an atom have a negative charge?

a) Proton
b) Electron
c) Neutron
d) Nucleus

4) Which of the following is the transfer of electrons from one atom to another?

a) Electricity
b) Static electricity
c) Both a and b
d) Neither a nor b

5) Which of the following flows through electrical wires and powers electronics items, from light bulbs
to televisions?

a) Static electricity
b) Neutron current
c) Nucleus charges
d) Electric current

6) Which of the following causes the crackling sound heard from the electrons being pulled away from
each other when the clothes from a dryer are separated?

a) Static electricity
b) Neutron current
c) Nucleus charges
d) Electric current

137
5. Activity: Read the notice and answer the given questions:

IMPORTANT NOTICE: PRODUCT RETURN

Fancy Foods wishes to inform the public that pieces of metal have been found in some jars of Fancy
Foods Chicken Curry (Spicy). The batches of the jars involved have numbers from J6617 to J6624. The
batch number is printed on the bottom of each jar.

If you have any jars with these batch numbers, please return them (preferably unopened) to the
supermarket where you purchased them. You can also return them to the factory (Fancy Foods Retailers,
Blacktown). Fancy Foods will pay $10 for each jar returned unopened and $5 for each jar already opened.

No payment will be made for empty jars, which do not need to be returned. However, the Retailing
Manager will be interested to hear from people who have consumed chicken curry from any of the above
batch numbers. In particular, it will be helpful if they can give information about the place of purchase
of the product.

Jars of Fancy Foods Chicken Curry (Coconut) and Fancy Foods Chicken Curry (Mango) have not been
affected and do not need to be returned.

REWARD

Fancy Foods will pay a reward of $10,000 to $50,000 for information which leads to the conviction of
any person found guilty of placing metal pieces in its products. If you have such information, please
contact the Customer Relations Manager, Fancy Foods Retailers, Blacktown.

Choose NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS AND/OR A NUMBER from the text for each answer.

1. What has been found in some Fancy Foods products?

2. Where can you find the batch number on the jars?
3. How much will you receive for an opened jar of contaminated Chicken Curry?
4. If you have eaten Chicken Curry from a jar with one of the batch numbers listed, whom should
you contact?
5. What is the maximum reward Fancy Foods is offering for information about who contaminated
their product?

[Taken from; General Training Reading sample task – Short-answer questions]

6. Reading Comprehension-Legal system

In many countries the legal systems are very complex. This is because they have been developed over
very long times. Every time that a new case is decided it can have an effect on future cases. This means
that the people who work in legal situations have to be clever. They have to know and understand all the
rules and precedents. A precedent is when a previous decision will have an effect on future cases as it
was related to an important point.

There are many people who work with the law, such as solicitors or judges. A solicitor is a lawyer who
spends most of their time advising their clients and preparing legal documents, such as wills or contracts
138
for buying and selling houses. They need to be very careful and make sure that all the details are correct,
otherwise their clients might lose a lot of money.

A barrister is a type of lawyer who works in court rooms. They will either work for the prosecution or
defence sides. If they are a prosecution lawyer, they are trying to prove that the defendant (the person
on trial) committed a crime. They have to present evidence to show that the defendant is guilty. If they
are a defence lawyer then they work for the defendant and have to show that the evidence presented is
not enough to prove that their client is guilty and he should be judged to be not guilty.

Then there are judges and magistrates. A magistrate will hear trials about less serious crimes, while a
judge’s will be about more serious crimes. These are the people who have to decide what punishment
will be given to someone who is guilty. The punishments could range from a small fine up to a long
prison sentence, and even a death sentence in some countries. The trial happens in the judge’s courtroom,
so the judge is responsible for making sure the trial is run fairly and follows the law.

If a lawyer believes that a trial was not fair or there was a mistake in the law, they can ask for a new trial
that will generally be hear by an appeal court where an appeal judge will be in charge. Often appeal
judges will be the most experienced judges in a country, so they know a lot about the law and how to
apply it.

1) What do lawyers have to be?

a. Nice
b. Clever
c. Greedy
d. Fast workers

2) What could happen if a solicitor makes a mistake?

a. Someone who is innocent could go to prison.

b. Someone could lose their job.
c. The client could lose some money.
d. The client could learn something new.

3) What does a defence lawyer have to do?

a. Show that the prosecution’s evidence is not enough.

b. Prove that the defendant is guilty.
c. Show that the defendant was someone else.
d. Prove that the judge has made a mistake.

4) What is the most severe punishment a judge could give?

a. A long time in prison.

b. A fine.
c. A judge does not give punishment.
d. Capital punishment.

139
5) Why might an appeal be needed?

a. The first trial was not fair.

b. The first trial took too long to finish.
c. The first trial was done perfectly.
d. The first trial had too many people watching.

Reading Comprehension-Why Bridges Collapse

Read a civil engineering article about why bridges fall to practice and improve your reading skills.

Some of the biggest and most expensive transportation projects in the world have involved building
bridges. Bridges are crucial links that carry cars, trucks and trains across bodies of water, mountain
gorges or other roads. As a result, they are one of the most important aspects of civil engineering and
are subject to intense scrutiny, especially when they collapse.

Bridge collapses can be tragic events, leading to loss of life and serious property damage. That's why
bridge engineers, designers and builders must always take their jobs very seriously. The best way for
them to prevent these accidents is to understand why bridges collapse in the first place. Understanding
bridge collapses can lead to major changes in the design, construction and safety of future building
projects. The following are main reasons why bridges fall.

Fire

Historically, more bridges were made of wood and were much more susceptible to fire. This was
particularly true of old-fashioned train bridges, where the spark created by the steel wheels and steel
tracks could sometimes cause a bridge to catch fire and burn to the ground.

During construction

A large number of bridge accidents occur during the construction of the bridge itself. These accidents
are often due to an error made by the engineers, such as a miscalculation. The bridge collapses under its
own weight, and this can be deadly for the workers on it at the time.

Earthquakes

Earthquakes damage all structures, including bridges. Luckily, this kind of collapse is relatively
infrequent, especially with modern bridges. Engineers have learned to design bridges in earthquake
zones on areas that are much more resistant to movement.

By defect

Some bridge collapses are mysteries, and engineers only realize why after they conduct a complete
investigation. In some cases, this could happen because inferior-quality material was used in the
construction, or because of a defect in a key piece of the bridge. In other cases, the bridge was designed
only to support a certain amount of weight and no more.

140
Boat or train crash

Both of these kinds of accidents are extremely rare, but boats and trains can cause a bridge to collapse
for different reasons. With trains, it's the velocity of the impact that can bring a bridge down. With boats,
it's the very large mass they have that can bring about the collapse, even if they are moving very slowly
when it occurs.

The best way to avoid bridge failures is to plan for them. Modern technologies that can detect structural
weakness, safer working environments and better designs can all help to reduce these terrible accidents.

Circle the correct answer.

1. Why are bridges considered so important according to the article?

a) They are important parts of a transportation network

b) They cost a lot of money
c) When they collapse it’s a serious problem

2. How can the people who make bridges stop collapse?

a) By studying for longer at university

b) By asking engineering experts to check their work
c) By studying the reasons for a collapse

3. Which of the following reasons is given as the cause of a bridge catching fire?

a) A lightning strike
b) The contact between train tracks and train wheels
c) The extreme heat of a train

4. Which is an example of an error during construction?

a) The bridge catches fire.

b) A mistake is made in the calculations.
c) There is a natural disaster.

5. How common is it for an earthquake to destroy a bridge?

a) Very common in earthquakes zones

b) Relatively common
c) Relatively uncommon

6. Which of the following is not mentioned as a defect in bridge construction?

a) A badly made part

b) Inexperienced designers or engineers
c) Poor-quality materials

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7. How does a train cause a bridge to collapse?

a) By being too heavy for a bridge to support

b) By being very big
c) By hitting a bridge very fast

8. What role can modern technology have in reducing bridge accidents?

a) It can detect weak spots in the construction.

b) It can stop human error.
c) It can select higher-quality materials.

References and further reading

1. Alderson, J. Charles and A.H Urgu. Reading in Foreign Language. New York, Longman Inc.
1984. (p.3-5)
2. A Reading Skills Book: mosaic one, Mc Graw Hill companies, Inc. 1996(p.22)
3. Developing reading skill and strategy. Department of education Papua New Guinea 1987 (p.15)
4. Gawith, G. (1991). Power learning: A student's guide to success. Mills Publications. [Massey
Library link]
5. Grellet, Francoise. Developing reading Skill: a practice guide for reading comprehension
exercise. Cambridge Press, 1981. (p.5-8)
6. Honig, B., L. Diamond, and L. Gutlohn. (2013). Teaching reading sourcebook, 2nd ed. Novato,
CA: Arena Press.
7. Maxwell, James. Reading Progress. NEFR publishing company Windsor, 1977 (p.3-5)
8. Making Inferences and Drawing Conclusions. 6 Nov. 2003. Cuesta College.
9. McCarthy, E. J., Perreault, W. D., & Quester P. G. (1997). Basic marketing: A managerial
approach. McGraw-Hill Australia. [Massey Library link]
10. Ministry of Education. (1996). Exploring language: A handbook for teachers. Learning
Media. [Massey Library link]
11. Morrison, L. (1996). Talking about words: a study of French as a second language learners lexical
inferencing procedures. Canadian Modern Language Review, 53(1), 41-75.
12. Ogle, D. M. (1986). K-W-L: A teaching model that develops active reading of expository
text. The Reading Teacher 38(6), pp. 564–570.
13. On Target: Strategies to Help Readers Make Meaning through Inferences. South Dakota
Department of Education.
142
 14. Padilla, M. 1990. The Science Process Skills. Research Matters – to the Science Teacher No.
9004. Retrieved from http://www.narst.org/publications/research/skill.cfm.
15. Paribakht. T. S. & Wesche. M. (1999). Reading and “incidental” L2 vocabulary acquisition.
Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 21,195-224.
16. Paterson, L. (2006). Colonial discourses: Niupepa Maori 1855-1863. Otago University
Press. [Massey Library link]
17. Pressley, M. (1977). Imagery and children’s learning: Putting the picture in developmental
perspective. Review of Educational Research 47, pp. 586–622.
18. Spears, Dean Milan. Developing critical Reading Skill MC-Grow hill Companies, Inc. 1999 (p.1-
3/11-13)
19. Swan, Michael. Understanding Ideas: advanced reading skill. Cambridge univ. press, 1971 (p.1-
3)
20. Study Up Resources. (n.d.). http://owll.massey.ac.nz/about-OWLL/studyup-resources.php
21. The Reading Comprehension Abilities of Dyslexic Students in Higher Education. Fiona
Simmons-Chris Singleton - Dyslexia - 2000.
22. Tierney, R. J. (1982). Essential considerations for developing basic reading comprehension
skills. School Psychology Review 11(3), pp. 299–305.
23. Todd-Williamson, C. (n.d.). Reading, note-taking, and how to use a literature matrix [online
tutorial]. http://owll.massey.ac.nz/interactives/study-up-how-to-use-reading-
techniques/content/index.html#/
24. Tolkien, J. R. R. (1954). The lord of the rings: The two towers. Allen & Unwin.
25. Troyka, Lynn Structured reading. Library of Congress 1971 (p.8-11)
26. Wong, L. (2002). Paragraph essentials: A writing guide. Houghton Mifflin. [Massey Library
link]

Suggested Materials
 https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/theories-reading-2
 https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/using-texts-constructively-what-are-texts
 https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/teens-reading-skills
 https://www.ielts-exam.net/ielts_reading/1095/
 https://owll.massey.ac.nz/study-skills/skimming.php
 https://owll.massey.ac.nz/study-skills/scanning.php
 http://www.butte.edu/departments/cas/tipsheets/readingstrategies/skimming_scanning.html
143
 https://tourismteacher.com/reading-strategies-skimming-and-scanning/
 https://www.learngrammar.net/a/scanning-skimming-two-useful-reading-strategies
 https://web.archive.org/web/20170428221522/http://www.speedreadinfo.com/speed-reading-
tip-study-7-reading-strategies-read-proficiently/
 https://courses.lumenlearning.com/developmentalreading/chapter/making-inferences/
 https://tourismteacher.com/reading-strategies-skimming-and-scanning/
 https://www.open.edu/openlearn/ocw/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=19202&section=3.4
 https://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/sites/podcasts/files/LearnEnglish-Reading-B2-Why-
bridges-collapse.pdf
 https://www.open.edu/openlearn/ocw/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=19202&section=3.1
 https://www.ereadingworksheets.com/reading-worksheets/inferences-worksheet
06/preview/answers.jpg
 https://www.ieltsbuddy.com/guessing-meaning-from-context.html
 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0346251X14000724#tbl1
 https://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/sites/podcasts/files/LearnEnglish-Reading-C1-How-
humans-evolved-language.pdf
 https://www.examenglishforfree.com/courses/free-ielts-preparation-course/lessons/how-to-
improve-your-reading-for-ielts/topic/skimming-and-scanning-skills-for-ielts/
 https://www.excellentesl4u.com/esl-legal-reading.html

144
PARAGRAPH WRITING

145
 Paragraph Writing

Chapter Overview
Parts of Speech Learning Objectives

Students will be able to:

 Paragraph structure
 identify the three key parts of a paragraph: topic
 Topic sentence and effective topic
sentence, supporting details, and conclusion.
sentence
 write a paragraph containing a topic sentence,
 Analysis of topic sentence and
supporting details, and conclusion.
Paragraph
 differentiate and distinguish among various kinds
 Features of Paragraph
of expository paragraphs.
 Types of Paragraph
 self-edit and formulate their oral and written
 Expository writing styles and
production
Paragraphs

What is a paragraph?

A paragraph is much more than a collection of connected sentences. It is a building block of essay
development, and paragraphs provide the structure needed to develop the thesis of a paper. In fact, a
useful way to think about a paragraph is as a “mini-essay,” or an essay within an essay, with its own
mini-thesis (the topic sentence), middle or body (the supporting details) and end or conclusion (the
concluding sentence).
Basic Paragraph Structure
What makes a paragraph?
A paragraph has three basic parts:

Topic Sentence

A topic sentence states what the entire paragraph is about. A good topic sentence should be a general
sentence that presents the topic clearly. A topic sentence is the first sentence of the body paragraph. The
topic sentence introduces the topic of the paragraph. A good topic sentence will be broad enough to
allow for explication but narrow enough that it does not require a paragraph that is too long.

146
Supporting sentence

The supporting sentences of a paragraph are the sentences between the topic sentence and the concluding
sentence. The supporting sentences “support” the topic sentence. That is, they explain and elaborate on
the point of the paragraph.
Concluding sentence

The concluding sentence is the last sentence in the paragraph. It should succinctly end the paragraph and
transition to the next paragraph, if appropriate.

A paragraph is a group of sentences which develop one central idea, usually stated in a topic
sentence. A paragraph usually begins with a topic sentence, which introduces the topic. The
supporting sentences that follow support the idea in the topic sentence with explanations, reasons,
and other details. Every sentence in the paragraph must help the development of the topic sentence.
Together, the sentences of the paragraph explain the writer’s main idea (most important idea) about
the topic. The paragraph is the basic unit of composition.

 The Topic Sentence and Controlling Idea

The Topic Sentence is an important feature of a paragraph. It is the most general sentence
in a paragraph, and it has two parts:
1. A topic: the subject or issue being discussed, and
2. A controlling idea: a point, opinion, or feeling about the topic.

 Example: Snow skiing is a challenging sport with important requirements.

In this example, the subject of the sentence, snow skiing is the topic, and the predicate of
the sentence expresses the point or opinion about the topic: that it is challenging and has
important requirements.
As the controlling idea, the rest of the paragraph will serve to develop this point with
supporting details. The topic sentence is typically the first sentence in a paragraph.

Example: Snow skiing is a challenging sport with important requirements. Bending your
knees and putting your weight on the downhill ski during turns will help you control your
speed as you ski. If you do not adhere to these requirements, you may ski too fast and even
fall.

The topic sentence can come later in a paragraph too.

Example: Bending your knees and putting your weight on the downhill ski during turns
will help you control your speed as you ski. Snow skiing is a challenging sport with
important requirements. If you do not adhere to these requirements, you may ski too fast
and even fall.

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Exercise 1: Identifying the elements of a paragraph
Read the paragraph. Then label the formatting elements of the paragraph. Use the
words in the box.

a. double spacing b. margin c. indent

The Ice Man

Whenever I remember my experience in the Mexican Air Force,

I think of my flight instructor because he taught me how to fly a

fighter jet. His nickname was Ice-Man, because he was always

calm. This was a positive characteristic because he had to teach

students not to panic in a dangerous situation. For example, one

time, I made a big mistake while we were flying in the clouds.

Most instructors would take control and fix the situation, but not
Ice-Man. He just gave instructions to fix the problem. I corrected

the mistake and got confidence in my abilities. I will always

remember his quiet, clear voice and the black aviator glasses that

he wore. He was a special person in my life, and I hope that

someday I can see him again and thank him for helping me to
realize my dream of flying solo and becoming a real pilot.

Exercise

Choose the best topic sentence for each group of supporting sentences.

1. ________________________. I usually go skiing every weekend in the winter

even though it is expensive. I love the feeling of flying down a mountain. The views are beautiful
from the top of a mountain and along the trails. Even the danger of falling and getting hurt can’t
keep me away from the slopes on a winter day.
a) Skiing is expensive.
b) Skiing is my favourite sport.
c) Skiing is dangerous
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2. _________________________________________________. North Americans send cards for
many occasions. They send cards to family and friends on birthdays and holidays. They also send
thank-you cards; get well cards, graduation cards, and congratulation cards. It is very common
to buy cards in stores and send them through the mail, but turning on the computer and sending
cards over the Internet is also popular.

a) Sending cards is very popular in North America.

b) Birthday cards are the most popular kind of card.
c) It is important to send thank-you cards.
3. ___________________________________________ . One thing you must consider is the
quality of the university’s educational program. You also need to think about the school’s size
and location. Finally, you must be sure to consider the university’s tuition to make sure you can
afford to go to school there.

a) It is expensive to attend a university in the United States.

b) There are several factors to consider when you choose a university to attend.
c) You should consider getting a good education.
4. ________________________________________ . First of all, we need money to
repair old roads and build new roads. We also need more to pay teachers’ salaries and to pay for
services such as trash collection. Finally, more tax money is needed to give financial help to the
poor citizens of the city. It is clear that the city will have serious problems if taxes are not raised
soon.

a) We should raise city taxes.

b) City taxes are too high.
c) City taxes pay for new roads.
5. _________________________________________ . For example, a person can have
breakfast in New York, board an airplane, and have dinner in Paris. A businesswoman in London
can instantly place an order with a factory in Hong Kong by sending a fax. Furthermore, a
schoolboy in Tokyo can turn on a TV and watch a baseball game being played in Los Angeles.

a) Airplanes have changed our lives.

b) Advances in technology have made the world seem smaller.
c) The fax machine was an important invention.

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Exercise
Understanding a paragraph

Read this paragraph. It is the beginning of an article about Switzerland in a student

newspaper. Then answer the questions.

Switzerland -SomethingInterestingat Every Turn

By Ken Jones
If you dream of travelling to
a country with beautiful
mountains, delicious food,
wonderful places to go sight-
seeing and polite people, you
should visit Switzerland. If
you look at the map, the first
thing you notice is that
Switzerland has many mountains, including some of the highest in Europe.
Climbing or skiing down the mountains is great fun. Another thing you will
notice is that Switzerland shares its borders with five different countries:
France, Germany, Italy, Austria and Liechtenstein. In fact, there are four
official languages in Switzerland: German, French, Italian and Romansch. All
these groups of people make Swiss culture very interesting. Finally,
Switzerland has many cities and interesting places to visit. Cities such as
Bern have modern buildings like the Paul Klee Zentrum, yet the traditional
alpine refuges in the mountains show that the country's old traditions are still
alive. All the people, places and things to see definitely make Switzerland a
great place for a holiday.

a. What is the topic of the paragraph?

________________________________________________________________________
b. What is the main idea about the topic?
_______________________________________________________________________
c. What ideas help explain the main idea.
_______________________________________________________________________

 Effective Topic Sentence

The main idea expressed in the topic sentence should not be too general or too specific. If
it is too general, it will be difficult to develop it adequately in a single paragraph. If it is
too specific, there will be nothing left to say to develop the idea in the paragraph.
Look at the following topic sentences.

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‘Everyone can benefit from exercise.’
This topic sentence is too general. There are many different kinds of exercise and different
kinds of exercise have different benefits. Not all of them can be developed within one
paragraph.
‘Doing aerobics for thirty minutes a day will strengthen a person’s cardio- vascular system
by twenty five percent.’
This topic sentence is too specific. There is nothing else that can be said to support this
statement in the remainder of the paragraph.
‘There are three reasons why I exercise every day.’
This sentence is an adequate topic sentence. It limits the discussion of the paragraph to only
discussing the reasons that the writer exercises. Telling what those three reasons are and
what benefits the writer gains from exercise can be expanded upon in the paragraph.
The controlling idea limits the topic of the paragraph to one definite idea or one aspect of the
topic that represents a particular idea, feeling, or opinion. The controlling idea must not be
too broad, it must be specific enough for the subject to be discussed within one paragraph.
Look at these three topic sentences. Each has same topic, but contain different controlling ideas.
Topic
Naran Valley is a favorite vacation spot for travelers across Pakistan.
(controlling idea: vacation spot)
Naran Valley is noted for its awe-inspiring panorama.
(controlling idea: panorama)
Naran Valley is an ideal area to view the geologic history of the earth.
(controlling idea: geologic history)

Exercise
Circle the topic of the sentence. Underline the controlling idea about the topic.

a. (Switzerland) is a very interesting country to visit.

b. Dogs make excellent pets.
c. A really good place to study is the library at my school.
d. Learning a foreign language creates job opportunities.
e. Football is my favourite sport because it is exciting to watch.
f. One of the most valuable tools for students is the computer.
g. My sister and I have very different personalities.

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 h. Summer is the best time to travel in my country.
i. My hometown is a friendly place to live.

Exercise
Identifying effective topic sentences
Read each pair of sentences. Write TS next to the sentence that is more
effective. Be prepared to explain your choice.
1. TS a. An English-English dictionary is the best choice for
English learners.
b. Many English learners use dictionaries.
2. a. The grains of rice should not stick together.
b. Persian rice is only considered authentic if it is
made in the following way.
3. a. The Internet has changed the way students do
research for term papers.
b. The Internet is changing students’ lives.
4. a. A college degree is important.
b. Having a college degree has many positive effects on a person’s life.
Analysing the topic sentence
Identify the topic sentence in the sample paragraph along with the specific topic and
controlling idea. After identifying the topic and controlling idea on your own, proceed
to the Analysis.
Sample Paragraph:
Toddlers have strong opinions about certain food. Broccoli (“trees”) and alphabet soup
can bring shrieks of delight. Happy eaters are not always skilful or neat eaters, however.
Toddlers still have much to learn about using a fork and spoon.
Analysis: In the sample paragraph, the topic sentence is “Toddlers have strong opinions
about certain food.” According to this topic sentence, the paragraph is largely about
toddlers but the controlling idea concerns their opinions about food or their eating
preferences.
Supporting Details
In a paragraph, the topic and controlling idea are developed with supporting details.
Listed here are some types of supporting details found in paragraphs along with an
example of each in a sentence:
Facts: statistics or evidence from research that can be verified.
The office sold seven million dollars of real estate during the boom years (Stoff, 2011).
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 Opinions: statements, quotes, or paraphrases from subject matter experts (which maybe you!)
According to expert tea maker, Stoff (2010), there are three easy steps to making tea.
Definitions: explanations of what a term or concept means
A “crossover” is a family vehicle with the features of a sedan, mini-van, and an SUV.
Examples: illustrations that show how something is or how it is done Mario was a shy,
introverted young man.
For example, he had few friends and mostly kept to himself.
Descriptions: a visual or sensory depiction of a person, place, event, activity, or idea
Frostbit leaves crunched beneath our winter boots on the path through the snow frosted trees.

 Concluding Sentences (How to end a paragraph)

The final sentence of a paragraph is called the concluding sentence. It sums up the main
points or restates the main idea in a different way. A sentence that sums up the paragraph
reminds the reader of what the writer's main idea and supporting points were. A sentence
that restates the main idea should give the same information in a slightly different way,
perhaps by using different words or by using different word order.

 Paragraph Organization:

Paragraph organization refers to the way sentences are ordered and structured to create a
unified and cohesive body of text. It helps you understand various cohesive texts, articles
and blogs and you can increase your comprehension of the content and write more
cohesively when you understand paragraph organization.

The principal features to consider in paragraph organization are the topic sentence and
controlling idea, supporting details, organizational patterns, and signal words. Signal words
indicate a type of organizational pattern and reinforce or further the meaning of the content
(the information given in the body of the text) by way of that organization. For example,
words such as because, consequently or hence are the signal words to show cause and effect
organizational pattern and words like another, both, however, likewise are used to show
compare and contrast organizational pattern.

This resource explains these features by analysing paragraphs in order to deconstruct and
see paragraph organization in context.

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Analysing the Paragraphs

Paragraph 1

There are many reasons why I enjoy walking tours when visiting new cities. For starters,
walking through a city allows the visitor to see the details of an area without having to
hurry. This often results in meeting locals and experiencing their lives and traditions first
hand. Furthermore, walking tours are flexible and inexpensive because there are no strict
schedules or transportation expenses. Travelers taking walking tours are rewarded with
first-hand experiences of the places they visit and the opportunity to personally interact
with the people who live there.

Analysis 1:

The first sentence begins with “there are,” so we must read beyond the subject and verb to
find the topic. Additionally, this is a complex sentence with an independent and dependent
clause connected by “why,” so there may be two topics. Looking at the objects of both
clauses, we find “many reasons” and “walking tours”; these two topics are linked together
by the controlling idea: why walking tours are enjoyable when visiting new cities. The
signal words build on this idea of “why” or causes with terms such as “results” and
“because.” The last sentence then sums up the ultimate effect of walking tours: travellers
are rewarded. This is an example of cause and effect organization.

Paragraph 2

Although the twin brothers shared many physical characteristics, they handled themselves
differently in social situations. Mohib was a shy introverted young man. He had few
friends and mostly kept to himself. On the other hand, Asad was outgoing and the life of
the party. Unlike Mohib, Asad had many friends and felt totally at ease among big crowds.
The best way to tell these identical twins apart is to invite both to a party and observe how
differently they interact with the other guests.

Analysis 2:

When the topic sentence is complex (having more than one clause) as in this paragraph,
there may be two subjects and therefore two topics; however, here, the subject of the first
clause is “the twin brothers” and the subject for the second clause is “they,” so they refer
to the same topic: the twin brothers. The controlling idea is that they share many physical
characteristics but handle themselves differently socially. The paragraph then progresses
with descriptions of these similarities and differences and signal words that create contrast
such as “although,” “on the other hand,” and “unlike.” Vocabulary such as “apart” and
“differently” also indicate that the organizational pattern of this paragraph is Compare and
Contrast.

Practice Analysis 1: Identify the supporting details in the paragraph given below then
proceed to the Analysis. Hint: A paragraph may not have every type of detail in it, but it
might have more than one type as they develop the topic and main idea with more
information and depth.
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Hiking can be especially exhilarating during snowy, winter months. When my friend and
I visited North Carolina last January, we hiked in the Blue Ridge Mountains near the
highest peak, Mount Mitchell, which is 6,684 feet above sea level. We first crossed a
footbridge over a rapidly moving, ice-cold river and then followed a wooded trail up to a
waterfall. Frostbit leaves crunched beneath our winter boots on the path through the snow
frosted trees. We also saw deer and rabbits as we trekked up the path. I assure you that
nothing feels better than inhaling crisp, fresh mountain air, but the neatest part of hiking
in winter, besides the beauty of the mountain, is exhaling and seeing your breath turn to
frost when it hits the cold air!

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
________________________________

Practice Analysis 2: Identify the topic then proceed to the Analysis of the following
paragraph.

Making a great cup of tea is easy if you follow these three steps. First, heat a cup of water
to a boiling point. Then put the tea bag in the hot water, and let it seep into the hot water
for at least three minutes. Finally, add creamer and sugar to taste. There is nothing tastier
than a strong cup of tea early in the morning.

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________

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Features of Paragraph

Unity

The ideas in a paragraph should logically fit together. Furthermore, they should flow from one idea to
the next. A paragraph should be organized in a way that it builds appropriately. This could be by a
sequence of ideas or events. Additionally, transitions should be used from one sentence to the next that
connect the ideas and concepts. In a dis-unified one, a writer’s purpose and the connections between the
sentences can be unclear, as in this one:

(1)Firstly, the Olympic Games provide an outlet for competition. (2) Friendly
competition among many countries occurs around the world. (3) Regardless of each
country’s financial situation, the competition is in the field of sports and not in politics.
(4)It provides to people who have trained very hard a form or basis of comparison to
others around the world, giving these competitors the opportunity to find out if they are
the very best. (5)Also, along with providing an outlet for the competition, the Olympic
Games creates a sense of nationalism. (6)Nationalist pride is always a component of
the Olympics, each country having its representatives. (7)The Olympics unifies a
country, giving its citizens something in common-- a victory—that brings them together.
(8)For example, the acquisition of a gold medal or a number of gold medals can be a
source of national pride. (Adapted from a student paper, used with permission.)

Here, the topic sentence is about how the Olympic Games provide an outlet for competition, and in
sentences (2), (3) and (4) the writer sticks to that idea. However, in sentence (5), she shifts focus to
how the Olympic Games create a sense of nationalism. It’s possible that this second idea is
connected to the key concept in the topic sentence, but the writer doesn’t make that connection, and
as a result, the paragraph ends weakly with an example supporting the shift in topic. The writer
never makes her point about how the Games provide a competitive outlet.

To achieve unity, begin with a clear topic sentence. This doesn’t mean that it has to appear at the
beginning of the paragraph, although a topic sentence usually does in academic writing. What is
important, however, is that, the main idea or purpose, stated in the topic sentence, sets the agenda for the
rest of the paragraph.
Coherence

You’ve achieved coherence in a paragraph when a reader (usually an instructor) congratulates you on
good “flow.” A paragraph that is coherent flows because it is arranged according to a definite plan, and
as a result, all the sentences are not just about the same main topic, but they also “stick together” and
lead readers smoothly from the topic sentence to the concluding one. This “stickiness” results from
sentences that follow, one from the other, in a way that makes sense. Each sentence takes a logical step
forward. There are a number of ways to achieve coherence: through the use of ordering principles,
pronouns, transitional words, and repetition.
Using an ordering principle to achieve coherence

One way to achieve the flow of coherence is to decide on an ordering principle for the ideas in your
paragraph. This means that there is a pattern of development that creates a logical flow between the
sentences.

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Using pronouns to achieve coherence

Another way to help achieve coherence is to use pronouns to refer to nouns in previous sentences in
the paragraph, thus “sticking” the sentences together. For example, if you refer to people in one
sentence you can “point back” to that noun in the next sentence by using the pronoun them. In this
case, people is the antecedent of the pronoun them.
Using transitional words and phrases to achieve coherence

Transitional words and phrases also help to create coherence by providing bridges between
sentences within the paragraph and between paragraphs. For example, words and phrases like
“also,” “in addition to,” “additionally” and “furthermore” signal your readers that the relationship
between two sentences is one of addition.
Using repetition to achieve coherence

Most developing writers are taught to avoid repetition, and this is good advice to a point. However,
judicious repetition of keywords and phrases and synonyms throughout a paper can provide your readers
with necessary signposts and strengthen the flow of the essay.
Adequate Development

For a paragraph to be considered “adequate” or “sufficient,” the paragraph should be well-developed.

The reader should not be left wanting more information. Similarly, the paragraph should include enough
evidence to support its topic sentence. There are three ways to ensure that your paragraphs are fully
developed: by providing the right level of supporting detail, choosing the right kind of evidence and
choosing the right pattern of development for your purpose.
Developing paragraphs with the right level of detail

To fully develop the sub-topic of the essay’s main idea in a paragraph, you must provide your readers
with details. It is not enough to make assertions. Your readers must understand fully how you reached
your conclusion.

Developing paragraphs with the right kind of detail

Not only is it important to provide enough detail for your readers, it’s important to provide the right
kind of detail, and that will depend on the purpose of your essay. The kind of detail will also depend on
the demands of the assignment and the discipline you are writing in. For example, if you are asked to
write a personal essay, your details might be examples of personal experiences. If you are asked to write
a history paper, the “right” kind of details might come from your analysis of a historical text, and support
in an argumentative essay might come from both analysis and reasoning.

In the example below, a writer explains how classical ideas of pathos can be used to enhance the
persuasiveness of a message. As you read, consider the details the writer has chosen, and why she might
have chosen those and not others:

Appeals to pathos, or what modern rhetoricians call emotional appeals, begin by

making an audience more open to the message. Aristotle himself suggested this
approach to persuasion in the Rhetoric when he stated that “(o)ur judgments when we
are pleased and friendly are not the same as when we are pained and hostile” (as cited
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 in Horner, 1988, p.57). In other words, Aristotle proposed that writers persuade, in
part, by affecting the mood of their audience and by making them better disposed
towards the message. To maximize this effect, writers need to know and identify with
their audience. Are audience members all the same age, or a mixed group? What socio-
economic group are they likely to be part of? What is their level of education? Asking
questions like these will help writers to know their audience’s hopes and fears, and
prepare the audience to be more sympathetic to the message (Horner, 1987).

In this paragraph, the writer has selected details from a text in the form of quotations and summary
because she is trying to support her explanation of pathos.
Developing paragraphs with the right pattern of development

The particular kind of support you provide will depend largely on the pattern of development you use
for your paragraph, which, in turn, depends on its purpose. If you are trying to make a point by telling
a story, then you might use narrative. If the purpose is to explain, step by step, how something is done,
then a process pattern might be better.

Although we were close, Samantha managed to hide her problem throughout Grade
11. I remember her saying that she had to watch what she ate to maintain her figure,
but that wasn’t unusual; almost everyone we knew was constantly on a diet, so when
she’d bring only apiece of lettuce and a slice of tomato for lunch, I didn’t think
anything of it. I didn’t find it unusual either that she spent a lot of time in the girl’s
washroom that year. Like any good friend, I accepted her explanation that she had
picked up a flu that she couldn’t shake. It wasn’t until the beginning of Grade 12 that
I began to suspect that something more serious might be wrong. I noticed that she
looked gaunter each week, and she complained of feeling weak and tired all the time.
Even more disturbing, though, was the way she made excuses not to walk home with
Kath and me. Eventually, she even stopped meeting us for lunch at Wu’s Cafe. At first,
I thought maybe she was on something, but when I stole peeks into her locker and her
big saddle-bag purse, I never saw anything suspicious. Then, one day, we were in the
girl’s room, repairing our lipstick and I asked her, straight out what the problem was.
She leaned on the sink with both hands, and hung her head, until her blonde hair
shielded her face, and in a shaky voice she told all: the uncontrollable urges to eat
anything, and the vomiting that always followed. With that simple statement, the wall
of secrets Samantha had built between us over last year collapsed and once again, we
were friends. (Adapted from a student essay with permission.)

Even though this paragraph does not start with a formal topic sentence, it is not difficult to find the
theme—it’s in the last sentence, which is a common pattern in narration.
Transitions

Good paragraphs have transitions between preceding and proceeding paragraphs. These transitions are
logical and verbal. One paragraph should logically flow to the next. The ideas in a body of work should
be organized so each paragraph transitions well to the next. It should not be choppy. Additionally, verbal
transitions within and between paragraphs should help the reader move seamlessly through the piece of
writing.

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Length

You might be wondering, “How do I know when to start a new paragraph?” or “how long should a
paragraph be?” Usually, these questions are related to how well paragraphs are developed and unified,
and essentially, there is no one, right answer. In extreme cases, you might find a paragraph as short as
one sentence or as long as a page if it achieves the writer’s purpose. However, most paragraphs fall
somewhere between these two extremes, and while there are no hard and fast rules, there are a few
principles you can use to determine proper paragraph length:

 The paragraph should be long enough to fully develop your topic.

 The paragraph should focus on one topic
 The paragraph length should support the effect you are trying to create. Keep in mind that
longer paragraphs slow readers down and shorter paragraphs are easier and quicker to read.
 A paragraph of over 12 sentences in an academic essay probably needs to be divided.
 A paragraph of 5 or fewer sentences in an academic essay probably needs to be developed
further or combined with another paragraph.
 Paragraph length can vary greatly from discipline to discipline.

How to Write a Good Paragraph:

A Step-by-Step Guide

The following is a guide on how to draft, expand, refine, and explain your ideas so that you write clear,
well-developed paragraphs and discussion posts:

Step 1: Decide the Topic of Your Paragraph before you can begin writing, you need to know what
you are writing about. First, look at the writing prompt or assignment topic. As you look at the prompt,
note any key terms or repeated phrases because you will want to use those words in your response.
Then ask yourself:

 On what topic am I supposed to be writing?

 What do I know about this topic already?
 If I don’t know how to respond to this assignment, where can I go to find some answers?
 What does this assignment mean to me?
 How do I relate to it? After looking at the prompt and doing some additional reading and
research, you should better understand your topic and what you need to discuss.

Step 2: Develop a topic sentence before writing a paragraph. It is important to think first about the
topic and then what you want to say about the topic. Most often, the topic is easy, but the question
then turns to what you want to say about the topic. This concept is sometimes called the controlling
idea. Strong paragraphs are typically about one main idea or topic, which is often explicitly stated in
a topic sentence. Good topic sentences should always contain both

(1) a topic and

(2) a controlling idea.

The topic – The main subject matter or idea covered in the paragraph.

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The controlling idea – This idea focuses the topic by providing direction to the composition.

Read the following topic sentences. They all contain a topic and a controlling idea. When your
paragraphs contain a clearly stated topic sentence such as one of the following, your reader will know
what to expect and, therefore, understand your ideas better.

Examples of topic sentences:

 People can avoid plagiarizing by taking certain precautions.

 There are several advantages to online education.
 Effective leadership requires specific qualities that anyone can develop.

Step 3: Demonstrate your point after stating your topic sentence, you need to provide information to
prove, illustrate, clarify, and/or exemplify your point.

Ask yourself:

 What examples can I use to support my point?

 What information can I provide to help clarify my thoughts?
 How can I support my point with specific data, experiences, or other factual material?
 What information does the reader need to know in order to see my point?

Here is a list of the kinds of information you can add to your paragraph:

 Facts, details, reasons, examples

 Information from the readings or class discussions
 Paraphrases or short quotations
 Statistics, polls, percentages, data from research studies
 Personal experience, stories, anecdotes, examples from your life.

Sometimes, adding transitional or introductory phrases like: for example, for instance, first, second,
or last can help guide the reader. Also, make sure you are citing your sources appropriately.

Step 4: Give Your Paragraph Meaning After you have given the reader enough information to see
and understand your point, you need to explain why this information is relevant, meaningful, or
interesting. Ask yourself:

 What does the provided information mean?

 How does it relate to your overall point, argument, or thesis?
 Why is this information important/significant/meaningful?
 How does this information relate to the assignment or course I am taking?

Step 5: Conclude after illustrating your point with relevant information, add a concluding sentence.
Concluding sentences link one paragraph to the next and provide another device for helping you
ensure your paragraph is unified. While not all paragraphs include a concluding sentence, you should
always consider whether one is appropriate. Concluding sentences have two crucial roles in
paragraph writing: First, they draw together the information you have presented to elaborate your
controlling idea by:

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  Summarizing the point, you have made.
 Repeating words or phrases from the topic sentence.
 Using linking words which indicate that conclusions are being drawn (e.g., therefore, thus,
resulting). Second, they often link the current paragraph to the following paragraph. They
may anticipate the topic sentence of the next paragraph by:
 Introducing a word/phrase or new concept, which will then be picked up in the topic sentence
of the next paragraph.
 Using words or phrases that point ahead (e.g., the following, another, other).

Step 6: Look Over and Proofread. The last step in good paragraph writing is proofreading and
revision. Before you submit your writing, look over your work at least one more time. Try reading
your paragraph out loud to make sure it makes sense. Also, ask yourself these questions:

 Does my paragraph answer the prompt and support my thesis?

 Does it make sense?
 Does it use the appropriate academic voice?

Types of paragraph

 Introduction to Expository Writing

The purpose of an expository essay is to describe, explain, compare and contrast or

offer a solution to a problem. The writer's main task is to convey information
accurately and effectively in order to
1) increase a reader's knowledge,
2) help a reader better understand a process, and
3) help to enhance a reader's comprehension of a concept or an idea.
As such, the writer's tone is authoritative, objective and informative.

Along with having topic sentences and supporting details, paragraphs are also
organized to achieve a certain purpose. Expository paragraphs deal with facts, ideas,
beliefs. They explain, analyse, define, compare, illustrate. They answer questions like
What? Why? How? What was the cause? The effect? Like what? Unlike what? Listed
here are some of common patterns for organizing an expository paragraph:

• Description: for listing details

• Compare and Contrast: for showing how things are similar or different
• Problem and Solution: for presenting an issue and ways to address it
• Cause and Effect: for showing how one thing leads to another

 Describing people, places, and processes

Descriptive writing is a writing style which is used to describe different things, places,
people and ideas in sensory detail. By doing so, the writer creates a vivid image of
whatever he/she is writing about. A descriptive paragraph explains how someone or
something looks or feels. A process paragraph explains how something is done.

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 Activity: Read this description written by a young woman about her grandmother. Circle
the adjectives that describe the grandmother.

her kindness. was

was She was

was
saw
She
happy was

was all
my

annoyed
and
spend

Descriptive paragraphs
 Using adjectives
Adjectives are words that tell us how things look, feel, taste, sound, or smell.
Adjectives also describe how you feel about something. Here are a few common
adjectives.

shape and size atmosphere how you feel appearance

large I small Cosy amazed colourful
wide I narrow comfortable surprised unforgettable
round warm I cool happy beautiful
rectangular cold I hot nostalgic unattractive

Description of a place may answer some of these questions:

• Where is the place?
• How big is it?

162
 • How warm or cold is the place?
• How does the place make you feel? Why?
• What things can you see in this place?
Activity: Discuss the above questions with your fellows.

Exercise: List some words to describe these places.

Picture 1 Picture 2

163
Activity. Read this description from a travel brochure. Circle the
adjectives.
Discuss with your fellows to look for the alternate describing words.

Niagara Falls, a popular destination for thousands of the falls and crashing to the
visitors each year, is a beautiful place. When you bottom in a loud roar. If you
stand at the edge and look down at the 188 feet of want to experience the falls
white waterfalls, you feel amazed at the power of close up, go for a boat ride.
nature. The tree-lined river that leads into the falls is You'll come near enough to
fast- moving, pouring over the edge of look up at the roaring streams
of water flowing over the edge
and feel the cool mist that rises
as the water hits the rocks
below. Seeing Niagara Falls is
an unforgettable experience!

 Describing the place around you

 Using prepositions

Prepositions tell us how a space is organized. These are some common and
useful prepositions:
in front of / behind to the right of / to the left of in the
on top of / on the bottom of middle of
next to around between
above / below, underneath

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 Activity

 Write six sentences to describe the place where you are right now.
 Use adjectives and prepositions.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

Describing a character
Describing people
Here are some common adjectives for describing people:
Personality Physical characteristics
big, large, tall small,
happy, satisfied relaxed
tiny, short thin
excitingnervous angry serious
heavy
sad, depressed outgoing
strong
weak
brown-, black-, blond-, red-haired
light-, dark-skinned
Exercise
 Think of a person or place you know well Then
brainstorm your ideas, narrow down your topic,
and write a descriptive paragraph.
______________________________________
______________________________________
______________________________________
______________________________________
______________________________________
______________________________________
______________________________________
______________________________________
______________________________________
______________________________________
______________________________________
______________________________________

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Suggested Activities

Identify all the key parts of a paragraph then proceed to analyse the following paragraph.

There are three types of family vehicles made in the United States. The first type is the
minivan. All American car manufactures make a version of the minivan. Some say that the
comfort and amenities of the minivan compare to none. The second type of family vehicle
is the SUV. Some SUVs offer four-wheel-drive to navigate tough terrains, and they also
offer seating for a large crowd. A third type of family vehicles is called the “crossover”.
These vehicles supposedly have the best features of the sedan, mini-van, and SUV. They
are easy to manoeuvre, look much like a regular sedan, and sit up to six people. All of these
vehicles are family friendly; they offer safety, roomy comfort, and many extra features to
accommodate the special needs of families.
For the following paragraph, choose the sentence from the list below that
would make the best topic sentence.

Zahid university,
examination.
do

university,

and
role

up

1. One of my closest friends, named Zahid, is a person I can trust.

2. My friend Zahid is a very successful student.
3. I admire my friend Zahid because he doesn't give up.

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 Write a topic sentence for three of these topics.
a. a favourite place to relax
b. a grandparent
c. a pet I have known
d. a favourite food to eat
e. playing a

musical

instrument topic

..........................

.......

topic : ..............................................

topic: ..............................................

Use words or phrases in the box to complete the sentences.

Concluding sentence, topic, topic
sentence, indented supporting
sentences, paragraph

a. The .............................. is usually the first sentence in a ...................... ........

b. It gives the ............................ and the ...............................
c. The first sentence of a paragraph can be ..............................
d. The .............................. come after the topic sentence. and they explain the
topic sentence.
e. The .............................. comes at the end of a paragraph.

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 Comparison and Contrast Paragraph

- What does this picture denote?

- What is the meaning of the overlapping area?
- What is the meaning of the area that is not overlapping?

A compare and/or contrast paragraph is required if you are asked to examine similarities and/or
differences. Compare focuses on similarities. Contrast focuses on differences.

Examples of questions requiring a compare and/or contrast paragraph:

 Compare and contrast the grain characteristics which determine quality in wheat
and barley.
 What characteristics distinguish plants from animals?
 What is the difference between allopathy and homeopathy?

Notice that the words compare and/or contrast do not always appear in the question.

Organization:
a. Whole to whole:

- Topic Sentence: introduction of two topics to be compared or contrasted

- Body: examination of topics – first one and then the second one:
 Topic 1:
Point A
Point B
Point C
 Topic 2:
Point A
Point B
Point C

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 - Conclusion: evaluation of the topics
b. Point to Point:

- Topic Sentence: introduction of two topics to be compared or contrasted

- Body: examination of topics – first one and then the second one:
 Point A:
Topic 1
Topic 2
 Point B:
Topic 1
Topic 2
 Point C:
Topic 1
Topic 2
- Conclusion: evaluation of the topics

Note: The following words can help you to write a good compare and contrast paragraph:

Similarities Example
 Is similar to: Spring weather in Vancouver is similar to spring weather
in Halifax.
 Both: Both Vancouver and Halifax have rain in the spring.
 Also: Halifax also has a rainy spring season.
 Too: Halifax has a rainy spring season, too.
 As well: As well, Halifax has rainy spring season.

Differences Example
 On the other hand: On the other hand, winter is much colder in Halifax.
 However: However, winter is much colder in Halifax.
 But: Vancouver has a mild winter, but Halifax has a cold one.
 In contrast to: In contrast to Vancouver, Halifax has a cold winter.
 Differs from: Halifax differs from Vancouver by having a cold winter.
 While: While Vancouver has a mild winter, Halifax has a cold
winter.
 Unlike: Unlike Halifax, Vancouver doesn't get much snow.

169
Examples
Sample Paragraph 1 (using Plan A):
What characteristics distinguish plants from animals?

PLAN A Compare and contrast feature by feature

Feature 1 — Describe X, describe Y — Feature 1 — describe sources of food for
identify similarities and differences plants then for animals
Feature 2 — Describe X, describe Y — Feature 2 — describe movement of plants
identify similarities and differences. and then of animals=
Feature n — Describe X, describe Y — Feature 3 — external appearance of plants
identify similarities and differences. then of animals.

There are several characteristics which distinguish plants from animals. Green plants are able
to manufacture their own food from substances in the environment. This process is known as
photosynthesis. In contrast, animals, including man, get their food either directly from plants
or indirectly by eating animals which have eaten plants. Plants are generally stationary.
Animals, on the other hand, can usually move about. In external appearance, plants are
usually green. They grow in a branching fashion at their extremities, and their growth continues
throughout their lives. Animals, however, are very diverse in their external appearance. Their
growth pattern is not limited to their extremities. It is evenly distributed and only occurs in a
definite time period. Therefore, the differences between plants and animals is quite significant.
Sample Paragraph 2 (using Plan B):
What is the difference between allopathy and homeopathy?

Plan B Describe all of the features then discuss

Describe X — features 1–n Feature 1 — describe all of the features of
allopathy
Describe Y — features 1–n Feature 2 — describe all of the features of
homeopathy
Describe and discuss points of similarity Summarise
and/or difference.

Allopathy and homeopathy are quite different. Allopathy is the treatment of disease of one kind
by exciting a disease of another kind or in another part. It is sometimes incorrectly used as a
name for orthodox medicine or Western medicine. Homeopathy, in contrast, is a system of
medicine based on the treatment of a given disease by administering small quantities of a drug
which produces the symptoms of that disease in a healthy person. The treatment of illnesses,
then, would be markedly dissimilar because the underlying beliefs are strongly differentiated.

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Exercise
Compare and Contrast
When you compare two subjects, you look for things that are the same. When you contrast
them, you look for things that are different. Some pieces of writing both compare and contrast
two things in the same paragraph or essay. Writers use transitional words to suggest whether
something is being compared or contrasted.
Directions:
Think about two buildings that you are familiar with. They can be two different homes, two
different schools, or any combination of buildings. Write a paragraph that both compares and
contrasts the two buildings.
Problem and Solution Paragraph

- What do you think this picture means?

- What do the question mark and the bulb sign mean?
- What do you think is the process that is happening in the boy's mind?
Introduction:
A problem-solution paragraph has three main parts. The topic sentence introduces the solution
to a problem. The body sentences explain the problem and solution. The ending sentence calls
readers to action. Problem / solution writing first explains a problem and then proposes one or
more solution to that problem. Often this type of writing requires more than one paragraph.
Organization:
Writing about problems
How to write a problem paragraph
A problem paragraph describes and discusses a problem issue. The topic sentence names the
issue you will discuss. The supporting sentence show why this issue is a problem.
a. Air pollution
b. Traffic
c. Overcrowded classrooms

Using conditional structures

The real (or first) conditional is a useful way to talk about both problems and solutions:
Fish will get sick if factories dump their waste into streams.

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 Modal + main verb (present)
(will, can, could, should, etc.,)
If you eat fish from polluted waters, you could get sick too.
Present: modal + main verb
(will, can, could, should, etc.,)
Punctuation note: No comma is needed when the if –clause comes second:
People can become sick if they eat the sick fish.
The event in the if-clause is possible, or is likely to happen. The event in the result clause would
logically follow. There are other types of conditional sentences, but real conditionals are the
most common in writing about problems and solutions.
Linking problems with solutions
How to link a solution paragraph to a problem paragraph
The first paragraph-the problem paragraph-explains the problem. The topic sentence of the
second paragraph-the solution paragraph-introduces your solution or solutions. The supporting
sentences show how your solution(s) will solve the problem. Use these phrases:
 In order to solve these problems.... In order to overcome these problems......
 To meet this need... one solution is........
 One answer is......... One thing we can do is.......
 A second / third / final answer is........
Writing solution
Finding the best solution
After you have brainstormed solutions to your problem, you need to select the best one or ones
to write about in your solution paragraph. A strong solution clearly and reasonably solves the
problem. A weak solution doesn’t really solve the problem or is not practical or not logical.
Talk about the solutions that this student brainstormed for her topic. Mark each one strong, OK
or weak.
Topic sentence: I need more spending money while I am in college
 ......... borrow money from my friends
 ......... sell some of my things
 .......... ask my parents for money
 .......... play my guitar on the streets
 .......... get a part-time job
 .......... drop out of college and get a full-time job
 .......... buy lottery tickets
 .......... ride my bike to school instead of using public transportation
 .......... ask my professors
 .......... buy fewer CDs and new clothes
Look at this list of ideas that a student brainstormed about his topic, try to add one more
problem and solution to the list.

172
Topic: getting along with a roommate
 Noisy roommate
 Make cleaning schedule
 Roommate is messy
 Argue about how to decorate room
 Fighting causes stress
 Set aside quiet time for studying
 Each person decorates half of the room
 Talk each week about concerns
Problem Solution
a. ............. f. .................
b. ............ g. ..................
c. ............. h. ...............

Examples:
What is the main idea of the first paragraph? What is the topic sentence?
Deforestation is a serious problem because forests and trees aren’t just pretty to look at, they
do an important job making the earth’s environment suitable for life. They clean the air, store
water, preserve soil, and provide homes for animals. In the past fifty years, more than half of
the world’s rain forests have been destroyed. Today, the forests of the world are being cut down
at a rate of fifty acres every minute! Scientists say that if deforestation continues, the world’s
climate may change, floods may become more common, and animals will die.
One solution to the problem of deforestation is to use less paper. If you use less paper, fewer
trees will be cut for paper making. How can you use less paper? One answer is to reduce your
paper use by using both sides of the paper when you photocopy, write a letter, or write a paper
for school. A second answer is to reuse old paper when you can, rather than using a new sheet
of paper. The backs of old envelopes are perfect for shopping lists or phone messages, and
when you write a rough draft of an essay, write it on the back of something else. A final answer
is to recycle used paper products instead of throwing them away. Most schools, offices, and
neighbourhoods have some kind of recycling centre. If you follow the three Rs-reduce, reuse,
and recycle-you can help save the world’s forests.
Exercise
Problem and Solution

Write a paragraph discussing the problem of global warming. Also, discuss the solutions that
you feel will remedy it.
Directions:
Brainstorm the possible problems that are occurring because of global warming. Then look
out for their solutions. Pen them down according the structure that has already been shared.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

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___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

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 Cause and Effect Paragraph

- What is going to happen in the picture?

- Can you see a cause in this picture?
- Can you see an effect in this picture?
Introduction:
"Cause and effect" composition is a common type of writing in English that shows up often on
important tests and is, therefore, necessary to master. Develop your cause and effect writing
skills by first reviewing the structures and practices of standard essay writing and then diving
into what makes a successful cause and effect essay.
Organization:
As when writing any other essay, you need to use evidence and examples as well as attention-
grabbing techniques when doing cause and effect writing. The key difference between standard
essays and cause and effect essays is that cause and effect composition addresses topics or
problems by outlining the causes and effects, or reasons and results, of several components of
a topic.
Cause and effect essays are generally organized by problems, outcomes, and possible solutions.
Though cause and effect writing isn't exclusively used to address problems, this type of
composition often involves writing prose that proposes solutions to an issue—cause and effect
writers can use the consequences of various occurrences to speculate about how to solve a
dilemma.
No matter what the purpose of your cause and effect essay, the first thing you need to do to
start writing is brainstorm.
Brainstorm Topics
Step 1: Come up with ideas. Get started brainstorming topics right away—the objective of
brainstorming is to generate as many ideas as possible before writing. Brainstorming helps you
think creatively about a cause and effect topic in order to come up with something that you
truly want to write about. Don't get caught writing about a topic that doesn't interest you
because you didn't take the time to brainstorm.
When brainstorming for cause and effect essays specifically, be sure to think of both reasons
and results. Follow each idea from its cause to its effect to make sure that your arguments are
well-founded so that you don't waste time on ideas that won't go anywhere.
The following cause and effect example ideas show the results of a successful brainstorming
session.

175
Cause and Effect Examples
Topic – Cause – Effect
 College - Go to college to get a stable career
 Apply only to prestigious schools
 Choose to study a popular major for job security - Graduate with debt/loans
 Don't get accepted into college anywhere
 Heavy job competition upon graduation
 Sports Play a sport to stay fit and healthy
 Prioritize sports over other extracurricular
 Join a team for the comradery
 Sustain injuries from repeated bodily strain
 Difficulty getting into desired college
 Trouble maintaining relationships with friends that do not play sports
 Example topics with several possible causes and effects for each of them.
Write an Outline
Step 2: Create an outline. An outline provides a map for your writing and you should never try
to write an essay without one. Some teachers even require you to write an outline before you
are allowed to start an introductory or body paragraph because they improve the quality of
writing so significantly.
Use ideas from your brainstorming session to "jot down", or quickly write, ideas for how your
whole essay might progress (these do not have to be in complete sentences). An outline makes
organizing much easier but does not have to be rigid—feel free to make changes as needed.
See the following cause and effect essay outline example for help.
Title: How Fighting Fast Food Can Help End Obesity

I. Introduction
Hook: Statistic about obesity
Thesis statement: Obesity has become the number one threat to good health in developed
countries.
II. Body Paragraph 1: Availability and overeating
 Availability
 Fast food is everywhere
 Impossible to ignore
 Health Problems
 Buy too much fast food too often because it's everywhere
 Obesity, heart problems, diabetes, etc.
 Plan ahead
 Easier to resist when you have a plan
 Meal prep, take different routes, etc.
III. Body Paragraph 2: Affordability and overspending
 Affordability
 Overspending

176
  Educate
IV. Body Paragraph 3: Convenience
V. Conclusion
End obesity by teaching people how dangerous fast food can be

Cause and Effect Language

Step 3: Choose the right language. Now you can write a great cause and effect essay using
your outline. There are several language formulas that can effectively show cause and effect
relationships, so take the time to choose the best ones for your piece. As always, vary your
sentence structures for a smoother read and use plenty of evidence to write a convincing essay,
then try some of these phrases to take your cause and effect arguments to the next level.
Cause Language
 There are several reasons for...
 The main factors are...
 The first cause is...
 [Cause] leads to or might lead to [effect]
 This often results in...
 Effect Language
 Before [cause]...Now [effect]...
 One of the results/outcomes of [cause] is...Another is...
 A primary effect of [cause] is...
 [Effect] often occurs as a consequence of [cause].
Linking Language
Make your cause and effect essay more coherent with linking language—or sentence
connectors—that make the relationships between causes and effects crystal clear.
Use the following conjunctive adverbs to smoothly transition from one idea to the next in your
cause and effect writing.
 Also
 Too
 In addition
 Thus
 Therefore
 Consequently
Examples
The Positive Effects of Day-care
Since my daughter has been in day-care she has become better at a few different things. To
start off, her vocabulary is much larger and more developed. Before she started day-care, my
daughter had a few select words that she would say like; momma, dada, Cocoa (one of the
puppies), and some other simple words. Now she tries to repeat everything that is said. Another
result of her being in day-care is that she has the ability to interact with other children better.
In the past, she was only around one child. Now she is around about six to eight kids, and she

177
has learned to share her toys and to play in a group with the other children. Her learning to
share has carried over at home when she tells her daddy or me that it’s his turn or mommy’s
turn when putting her socks on. A third outcome of her being in day-care is the fact that she is
becoming more self-reliant. Before day-care, she wouldn’t try very hard to help me with getting
dressed, but now she wants to try to do it all on her own. She puts her pull ups on and tries to
pull on her shirts and pants herself. Socks still go on upside down, but at least her shoes go on
the correct feet I am really glad that I decided to put her in a day-care, for the benefits have
been great.
Courage at a Cost
Many people believe that the act of courage lies within each individual, and these acts of
courage can be brought out by three possible causes. The first cause, and the most obvious, is
provocation. Often times this is seen in movies where the villain kidnaps and threatens to kill
the hero's family. More often that not, the hero finds it within himself to put aside his fears and
overcome near impossible odds to save the day. The majority of the time it is direct threats
such as this one that provoke human nature to acts of courage. The second cause is a purpose.
In 2001, the Twin Towers fell to terrorist attacks. Military enlistments reached all-time highs
as many men and women joined the armed forces. For many of these people, the prospect of
serving their country, and gaining revenge for the cowardice acts of the terrorists were the only
reasons necessary for their courage. The third cause is a belief in a higher power. The presence
of God gives many people the courage to do things they would not be able to do otherwise. His
words play clearly in their minds," Be strong and of good courage", because: "the lord thy god
is with thee whithersoever thou goest"(bible reference). According to God and his followers,
his presence is enough cause for courage. For these people, their courage knows no boundaries.
Whatever your inspiration for courage may be, you can just about bet it was brought on by one
of these three underlying circumstances.
Exercise
Cause and Effect

Write a paragraph in which you explain something that happened to you in terms of its
causes and effects.

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

178
References

Brundage, D., & Lahey, M. (2004).Acting on words: An integrated reader, rhetoric and
handbook. Toronto, ON: Pearson Education Canada.

Brundage, D. & Lahey, M. (2007). Acting on words: An integrated rhetoric,

reader, andhandbook.2ndEdition, in press. Toronto: Pearson,.

Horner, W. B. (1988).Rhetoric in the classical tradition. New York, NY: St. Martin’s Press,
Inc.

Lundsford, A. & Connors, R. (1989).The St. Martin’s handbook. Annotated

instructor’s ed. New York: St. Martin’s Press.
nd
Messenger, W. E. & De Bruyn, J. (1986). The Canadian writer’s handbook. 2
Edition. Scarborough, ON: Prentice-Hall Canada, Inc.

Compare and Contrast

"Easy Teacher Worksheets - Ready To Print Teacher

Worksheets". Easyteacherworksheets.Com, 2020, https://www.easyteacherworksheets.com/.
"Eslflow's English Language Teaching Resource For Ideas And Lessons Plans.". Eslflow,
2020, https://eslflow.com/.
"Google Images". Google.Com, 2020, https://www.google.com/imghp?hl=EN.
"North Allegheny School District / District Homepage". Northallegheny.Org, 2020,
https://www.northallegheny.org/.
"Slideshare.Net". Www.Slideshare.Net, 2020, https://www.slideshare.net/.
"TOEFL, TOEIC, And Accent Reduction - Testden". Testden, 2020,
https://www.testden.com/.
"UNE Home". Une.Edu.Au, 2020, https://www.une.edu.au/.

Problem and Solution

"Discover The Best Ebooks, Audiobooks, Magazines, Sheet Music, And More |
Scribd". Scribd, 2020, https://www.scribd.com/.
"Thoughtful Learning K-12". K-12 Thoughtful Learning, 2020,
https://k12.thoughtfullearning.com/.

Cause and Effect

"English120 / Frontpage". English120.Pbworks.Com, 2020, http://english120.pbworks.com/.

"Thoughtco.Com Is The World's Largest Education Resource". Thoughtco, 2020,
https://www.thoughtco.com/.

179
TRANSLATION SKILLS

180
 Translation Skills

Chapter Overview
Parts of Speech Learning Objectives

Translation Skills Students will be able to:

• Importance and Application of
Translation Skills
• Tips to be a good Translator
• Applications
• Qualities needed by the Translators
• Translation Strategies
• Rules for Translation of Passages
• English to Urdu Translation
Paragraphs
• Urdu to English Translation
Paragraphs
• References
 get familiarize with the base
objectives and significance of
Translation skill
 understand the role and application
of Translation skills/studies in real
life
 translate paragraphs from Urdu to
English and vice versa

Introduction
Translation is the communication of meaning from one language (the source) to another
language (the target). Translation refers to written information, whereas interpretation refers to
spoken information. Translation has been used by humans for centuries, beginning after the
appearance of written literature. In broader sense it is actually, the ability to transfer style, tone
and cultural elements accurately from one language to another. If you attend a university to
gain an appropriate language qualification, your course will teach you many important
translation skills.

Importance and Application of Translation Skills

 Translation enables effective communication between people around the world

 It is a courier for the transmission of knowledge
 It is a protector of cultural heritage
 It is an essential tool for the development of a global economy
 Highly skilled translators are key
 Translation Studies helps practitioners develop those skills
 Sharpens your market strategies as a business person
 Helps to approach your potential clients

181
Tips to be a good Translator:
Here are some tips to help you take your translation skills to the next level.

Develop your language sense

Your sense of language, for both the source and target languages, is one of the core
things that drives the quality of your translation.

Read often

Reading from a diverse set of authors (again for both languages) is one of the best ways
to develop your language sense. A rich reading history is a good start, but it isn’t
enough. Once you start translating, you will see things from a new perspective. If you
don’t have much time, focus on the genre(s) you are translating the most (or want to).

Read carefully

When reading, take time to analyse an author’s style: What makes it unique? How does
the style help support the story?
When translating, it’s not usually possible to convey all aspects of an author’s style into
a different language. But the parts in the source text whose style stands out are good
candidates for trying to reflect that same style in some way in the target language. I’m
sure you’ve read books where you are more captivated by the story and others where
you are more dazzled by the author’s word craft (of course, both of these at the same
time is ideal!)

You can also use reading as an exercise to hone your proofreading skills.

However, if you are in ‘analyse’ mode all the time, you’ll never finish a book, so learn
to turn it off and on. Also, for studying an author’s style often a short story is sufficient,
so if you are scarce on time use those.

Compare translations

Compare published translations sentence-by-sentence to their source text to get ideas

for your own work. If this is the first time you are doing this, you may be surprised by
the amount of non-literal renderings (though this depends on the translator). Think
about why certain things were omitted or emphasized. Eventually, you’ll find areas you
feel are mistakes, or at least areas that could be improved. If you compare two different
translations of the same source text, you may be surprised how diverse two different
translator’s renderings can be.

Filter feedback

Feedback is, of course, a valuable tool to improve your translation skills, whether it is
about the overall tone of a translation or a low-level analysis of individual words and
grammar. But if you ask 100 people, you’ll get 100 types of feedback, some in conflict
with one another.

182
 Learn whose feedback you trust and value that more. This could be because they are a
published translator (or author), or just because you happen to like their own
writing/translation style.
Don’t think of feedback as a way to improve a specific translation. Think of it as a way
to develop your language sense. The more your sense is, the less you’ll need feedback.

Translation has more than one ‘right’ answer

While some things (like proper grammar, spelling, and punctuation) have objective and
clear-cut rules to a certain extent, once you get into the realm of style and flow there
are many schools of thought.
What is ‘accepted’ or ‘popular’ varies by genre and time period (not to forget region).
Read up on selected works in the genre/period you are translating and emulate aspects
you think are appropriate in your own translation. You may have to adjust your
translations to better fit the publisher/editor as well.

Write yourself

Being an author yourself will give you great practice to play with wording, sentence
structure, and flow–all things you can directly apply to your translations. Not to mention
that many of the books, articles, and other resources aiming to help writers can also
help you write better translations.

Readout loud

Reading your translations out loud is one of the best ways to catch grammar errors as
well as more deeply feel the flow of a text. Listening to professional narrators, read in
the source language can also help you gain a better understanding of the nuances of that
language. It’s even better if you can find narrations of the works you are translating,
especially to help get a better grasp of the nuances of the dialogue. (This is especially
important if you are not using the source language on a daily basis.)

Don’t forget the business side of translation.

The above ideas are mostly about improving translations in an academic, ivory-tower
sense. But it’s likely you are trying to actually get paid for translating (or want to
someday, even as a side job). So don’t forget to polish your business-side skills:
communicating with clients, selecting work that fits you, time management and
understanding your translation speed, legal knowledge (copyright law, etc.), etc.
If you are used to the ivory-tower approach and suddenly you are in a situation where
you have to deliver several projects on a deadline with quality, you may have to make
compromises. However, learning to do quality translations and then learning to do that
faster is more feasible than learning to make mediocre translations quickly and then
improving the quality later.

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Application
Translation is a profession which requires critical thinking and an academic level of
knowledge. A good translator is one who has a lot of experience and a passion for language.

Some translators are self-employed - freelance translators - while other translators work for
various agencies or organizations. While each career is quite different, the concept of working
hard for translation clients is still the same. Perhaps the only difference is that freelance
translators need to protect their personal lives and ensure they’re disciplined enough to limit
the hours they work. It does take personal responsibility and self-discipline to become a
successful freelance translator.

Qualities commonly needed by all translators

To be a translator, you need many skills. Some are specific translation skills; others are general
entrepreneurial skill sets.

Ability to write well and adhere to a given framework adds to the basic translation
skills.

A translator must enjoy writing, experimenting with words, testing out what goes where
best.

Sometimes translators are given target word counts or even character counts that they must not
exceed. Adhering to such specifications can require some linguist acrobatics or lateral thinking.

If you attend a university to gain an appropriate language qualification, your course will teach
you many important translation skills. One of them is the skill to transfer a document’s style
adequately, taking into account the purpose of the text and the social setting. The ability to
transfer style, tone and cultural elements accurately from one language to another is another
important feature of Translation Skills.

Other possibilities to improve cultural competence include: actively watching foreign language
TV and films; listening to radio stations in your second language; studying online foreign
language content; reading the literature of the relevant country. Continuous translation practice
in a number of subject areas will also improve your translating skills over time.

Be aware when watching dubbed films that the dialogue is often stilted and unnatural, in real
everyday situations a native speaker would not speak like that. If you’re reading translated
books you are also more likely to come across less-than-perfect language than in a book that
you read in the original as translations are rarely as well-edited as original literature.

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Translation Strategies
After dealing with the difficulties implied in the lack of equivalence at a word level, Baker
proposes the following classification of strategies used by professional translators (1992, pp.
26-42):

Rules for Translation of Passages

Read the passage carefully and understand the meaning of the passage.

1. Translate into the language coherently.

2. Direct Speech should be changed into Indirect Speech.
3. Have a rough draft first and then a fair draft.

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 Translate the following passage into Urdu
1. Trees are useful to us. They give us timber and firewood. The timber is used to make
chairs, tables and other furniture. We get oil from the oil seeds of some trees. The leaves
and fruits of some trees are used to prepare medicines.

_________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________

2. Food is essential for all living beings. Without food man cannot live long. Every man has
to eat a certain quantity of food. If he eats less than that quantity, his health will fail and he
will fall ill. So every man has to eat enough food to live.

_________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________

3. Electricity gives us comfort and happiness. The fans that run by electricity give as cool air.
The washing machine and the grinders are very useful to women. Electricity runs factories.
The electric lamps give brighter light than the old kerosene lamp.
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________

186
4. Television is one of the wonders of modern science. Many useful programmes on
education, health and agriculture are telecasted. Interesting plays and films are shown at
regular intervals. It is used for commercial advertisement. It was invented by John Baird.
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________

5. A Policeman has to protect the public from thieves and wicked men. He has to give help to
all those who need it, especially to strangers, foreigners and old people. He must be brave
and strong so that he can prevent violent people behaving rudely. In a difficulty the
policeman has the right to call upon anybody for help. To refuse to help the policeman is
an offence against good citizenship.

_________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________

187
‫‪Urdu to English Translation‬‬
‫‪Translate the following passage into English:‬‬

‫‪Paragraph 1‬‬

‫آج کل ہم سائنسی دور میں رہ رہے ہیں۔ دنیا کا ہر ملک سائنسی میدان میں ترقی کرنے کی آرزو رکھتا ہے۔ انسان کو‬
‫چاہیے کہ سائنس کو مثبت مقاصد کے لیے استعمال کرے۔ لیکن انسان نے اس کی مدد سے بہت ہولناک اور تباہ کن‬
‫ہتھیار بنا لیے ہیں۔در حقیقت ہر ملک چاہتا ہے کہ اس کے پاس جدید ترین دفاعی ہتھیا ر ہوں۔‬

‫‪English Translation‬‬

‫___________________________________________________________________________‬

‫___________________________________________________________________________‬

‫___________________________________________________________________________‬

‫___________________________________________________________________________‬

‫_________________________________________________‬

‫‪Paragraph 2‬‬

‫مسلمانوں کو قائ ِد اعظم پر پورا اعتماد تھا۔ وہ آپ کی ہر بات مان لینے پر فخر محسوس کرتے تھے۔ قائ ِد اعظم نے‬
‫مسلمانوں کو متحد ہونے کا مشورہ دیا۔ مسلمانوں نے آپ کی نصیحت پر عمل کیا۔ قائ ِد اعظم نے پاکستان کے قیام کے‬
‫میں پاکستان بن گیا اور ہمارے عظیم قائد کو ان کی محنت کا پھل مل ‪1947‬اگست ‪14‬لیے سخت محنت کی ۔ آخر کا‬
‫گیا۔‬

‫‪English Translation‬‬

‫___________________________________________________________________________‬

‫___________________________________________________________________________‬

‫___________________________________________________________________________‬

‫______________________________________________________________‬

‫‪Paragraph 3‬‬

‫آج کے دور میں جنگالت کی اہمیت بہت ذیادہ ہے۔ یہ آب و ہوا کو خوشگوار بناتے ہیں۔ یہ موسم کی شدت کو کم کرتے‬
‫ہیں۔ یہ آندھیوں ‪ ،‬سیالبوں‪ ،‬اور سیم و تھور کو روکتے ہیں۔ بارش کا سبب بنتے ہیں۔ برف کو جلد پگھلنے سے روکتے‬
‫ہیں۔ زمین کی زرخیزی کو بڑھاتے ہیں۔ جنگالت ملک کی معاشی ترقی میں اہم کردار ادا کرتے ہیں۔‬

‫‪English Translation‬‬

‫___________________________________________________________________________‬

‫___________________________________________________________________________‬

‫‪188‬‬
‫___________________________________________________________________________‬

‫___________________________________________________________________‬

‫‪Paragraph 4‬‬

‫عالمہ اقبال ہمارے قومی شاعر ہیں۔ وہ سیالکوٹ میں پیدا ہوئے۔ ابتدائی تعلیم بھی وہاں ہی سے حاصل کی۔ اس کے بعد‬
‫الہور چلے آئے جہاں سے انہوں نے فلسفے میں ایم اے کیا۔ کچھ عرصہ وہ گورنمنٹ کالج میں پروفیسر رہے۔ پھر وہ‬
‫لیکن ان کو یہ کام پسند نہ آیا۔ ان شروع کی انگلستان چلے گئے۔ انگلستان سے واپسی پر انہوں نے الہور میں وکالت‬
‫کی ذیادہ دلچسپی شاعری اور قومی مسائل میں تھی۔‬

‫‪English Translation‬‬

‫___________________________________________________________________________‬

‫___________________________________________________________________________‬

‫___________________________________________________________________________‬

‫___________________________________________________________________‬

‫‪Paragraph 5‬‬

‫مجھے کتابیں پڑھنے کا بڑا شوق ہے۔ اس لیے اپنا فارغ وقت زیادہ تر کالج الئبریری میں گزارتا ہوں۔ میں گھنٹوں پیٹھا‬
‫کتابوں کا مطالعہ کرتا ہوں اور دنیا کے عظیم عالموں سے استفادہ کرتا ہوں۔ بعض دفعہ سوچتا ہوں کہ طلباء کی اکثریت‬
‫نہیں آتی؟ یہ جگہ ویران کیوں ہے؟اگر طلباء میں مطالعہ کا شوق پیدا ہو جائےتو ہمارا ملک دن الئبریری میں کیوں‬
‫دوگنی رات چوگنی ترقی کرے گا۔‬

‫‪English Translation‬‬

‫___________________________________________________________________________‬

‫___________________________________________________________________________‬

‫___________________________________________________________________________‬

‫___________________________________________________________________‬

‫‪189‬‬
‫‪Paragraph 6‬‬

‫تندرستی بڑی نعمت ہے۔ لیکن آدمی جب تک تندرست رہتا ہے اس نعمت کی قدر نہیں کرتا۔ جب کوئی معمولی‬
‫آ کر گھیر لے تو اس کی قدر معلوم ہو جاتی ہے۔ اگر جسم کے کسی حصے میں تکلیف ہو جاتی بیماری بھی اسے‬
‫ہےتو سارا جسم اثر قبول کرتا ہے۔ تندرستی ہو تو کھانے پینے‪ ،‬چلنے پھرنے اور کام کرنے میں جی لگتا ہے۔‬
‫صحت خراب ہو جائے تو کسی چیز میں مزہ نہیں آتا۔جو لوگ اکثر بیمار رہتے ہیں ان کی زندگی خود ان کے اور ان‬
‫کے دوسرے متعلقین کے لیے وبا ِل جان بن جاتی ہے۔‬

‫___________________________________________________________________________‬

‫___________________________________________________________________________‬

‫___________________________________________________________________________‬

‫___________________________________________________________________________‬

‫___________________________________________________________________________‬

‫___________________________________________________________‬

‫‪References‬‬
‫‪Baker, M. (1992). In Other Words. London: Routledge.‬‬

‫‪https://www.iolante.com/a-career-in-translation/general-abilities-‬‬
‫‪skills/#:~:text=The%20ability%20to%20transfer%20style,you%20many%20important%20tr‬‬
‫‪anslation%20skills.‬‬

‫‪https://www.onehourtranslation.com/translation/blog/translation-skill-great-demand‬‬

‫‪http://selftaughtjapanese.com/2018/04/24/be-a-better-translator-10-tips-to-take-you-to-the-‬‬
‫‪next-level/‬‬

‫‪190‬‬
PRESENTATION SKILLS

191
 Presentation Skills

Every time you communicate with another person or group of people, you are presenting
yourself; your opinions, thoughts, hopes, likes, dislikes, intentions and a variety of other
aspects of your personality, to the other person.
Sometimes you will find yourself in a situation where you must formally present information-
a team briefing, meeting or interview for example. Sometimes you will present in a more
informal setting – persuading friends of the merits of one singer over another for example.
Regardless of the nature of the presentation or the environment in which it happens, the aim of
all presentations is to share information with the audience to sell a product or idea, persuading
them to accept your way of thinking on a given subject, gaining goodwill, teaching something,
spurring people into action or, more often than not, a combination of all of these objectives.
Student presentations usually involve an individual or group of students presenting to academic
staff, student peers or other invited audiences. Understanding the true purpose of your
presentation can help you to prepare and deliver it more effectively.
Student presentations might include:

• Group and individual presentations, for a given topic as part of a module assessment.
• Seminar presentations, giving a paper to an academic or your peers for teaching or
showing evidence of your understanding of the topic.
• Providing an overview of some research carried out by you or your group.
• Demonstrating the use of a piece of equipment or software such as PowerPoint to
show that you have developed the essential skills to use it appropriately.
• Dissertation-related presentations and Viva to demonstrate your ability to manage a
research project.
• A job interview where you have been asked to present for several minutes on a given
topic.
As with the variety of purposes, the benefits of students’ presentations will be influenced by
the situation, but they can be summarized as providing opportunities for:
• Student-centred participation in their learning
• Developing new knowledge and different perspectives on a topic
• Practice in a known environment/situation
• Increasing confidence to speak and present in front of an audience
• Improving marks earned for a module assessment
• Developing a wide range of communication and presentation skills
• Preparation for skills needed in the workplace
• An exchange of roles and perspectives from audience to presenter

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Different types of presentation
There are several different types of presentation; the most common are:

 Informative – sharing information with the audience, for example, the results of a
research project
 Demonstrative – demonstrating how to do something, for example, a cookery
demonstration
 Persuasive – convincing listeners to accept your proposal, for example, offering the
solution to a problem, dispute or controversy
 Decision making – motivating audience members to follow your suggested course of
action, for example, buying your product or donating money to a good cause.

What are effective presentations?

Effective presentations achieve their objectives and usually bring some benefit and learning to
all the people involved in them, whether presenters, audience or tutors. They will also earn
good marks if they are assessed. Presentations need to be interesting and useful to the learning
situation but they can also be enjoyable, even memorable. You may remember more of the
content of your peers’ presentations than the content delivered by the lecturers. You may also
remember the content of your own presentations more than the content of the lectures you have
attended. This may be because of the anxiety levels associated with presentations and the
amount of preparation and rehearsal time needed for the content to be developed.
Following are the characteristics of an effective presentation:

 Careful planning and preparation

 Good time management
 Relevant and interesting content
 Clear structure
 Good communication skills
 Appropriate use of technologies
 Clear supporting documentation
 Suitable audience participation
Careful planning and preparation

Planning and preparation usually involve some research and choosing or rejecting suitable
content which may involve some of the following activities before content can be chosen,
created and presented:
 searching databases and on-line resources for articles
 use of libraries for reviewing relevant resources
 tutorials with academic staff to develop new knowledge
Good time management

Time management is important for preparing and delivering good presentations, yet it is often
a source of stress for students. For your presentation, good time management is important in
two quite different ways: in the planning and preparation stages; and time allocated for
delivering the presentation.

193
Planning and preparation stages

In some situations, you may have just a few days to prepare for the presentation; for others,
you may be given several weeks. Each brings benefits and problems. A short amount of time
creates pressures on what you can achieve and may limit the quality of the final presentation.
A longer amount of time can result in a lack of focus with tasks being left until closer to the
delivery date, then a period of frenzied activity leading up to the event. However, much time
you are given to prepare, you may find it useful to create a time plan or a chart of your intended
progress. This could involve:
 listing all of the tasks that need to be completed before the date of the
presentation
 placing these tasks in an order of priority
 allocating the time needed to complete each of these tasks
 checking your progress regularly
 reallocating the remaining time to make sure that you complete all of the tasks
Time will probably be needed for reading to increase your understanding of the topic. However,
to be able to present, explain or teach that content to someone else in the audience needs even
deeper levels of understanding and this will probably use quite a large amount of your preparation
time. If you are part of a group, some planning meetings will need to be arranged and
communication through e-mails set up. Time will also be required for preparing and testing
visuals, models or demonstration materials and for rehearsing the use of technologies. Handouts
and other supporting documents may need to be compiled, edited and copies made.
It is also important to allow for some rehearsal time to ensure a more polished performance
and greater confidence. This is especially important for a group presentation where timing
will be important.
Time allocated for delivering the presentation

In most presentations, it is usually better to deliver less content at a reasonable pace, than too
much content at a faster pace that may leave the audience feeling overwhelmed and confused.
How you use the time during the presentation will be influenced by how much content you
intend to cover, the structure of this content and the amount of audience participation expected.
Also, how you create and use the supporting documentation will influence how you make use
of the time during your presentation. If time is short, you could cover a few important points
at a general level during the presentation then suggest that the audience read the more detailed
handouts in their own time.
Allocating and managing the performance time can be even more of a problem for a group
presentation. In some situations where several group presentations will be given in a fixed
amount of time, the tutor may stop the presentation when the allotted time has been used,
regardless of how much of the presentation has been delivered. If this happens, you will almost
certainly lose marks or be penalized in some way. This emphasizes the importance of
rehearsing and editing. During rehearsal, each person will need to be timed, so that time for
one part of the presentation is not somehow used by one of the other presenters. If each
presenter is allocated five minutes for their part, they should be timed during the rehearsals so
that some changes can be made if they overrun.
If you are delivering the presentation alone, you will probably be judged on how the time has
been used. Has there been enough time for the difficult content or was so much time used at
the start on the preliminary information and the most important content appears rushed and too

194
brief? As you develop the content, you will probably become more certain about the best use
of the time, and the tutor may give you some guidance on this in a tutorial.
Relevant and interesting content

You may find it useful to create the content in the following ways:
 decide what to include and what to leave out
 choose examples to provide interest and improve understanding
 provide links to further sources of information
Decide what to include and what to leave out. For many subject areas, there is usually much
more content than can be delivered within the time allocated for the presentation. You will
need to set your chosen content within the context of the module studied and make sure that it
is relevant, accurate and interesting to the audience.
Choose examples to provide interest and improve understanding. There is a lot of research
evidence that shows how using examples improves our understanding and learning. You will
need to think about how to use examples in the presentation and where to place them in the
structure of the content. You can use examples to explain how they improved your own
understanding of the topic. Remember, if you found examples helped your own understanding,
this will probably be the same for your audience. How you use the examples is usually very
important when the presentation is assessed and a portion of the marks may be given for how
examples are used. Think about using them in a critical and analytical way, instead of just
describing them. Just listing or describing some examples can become tedious for the audience.
It can be helpful at the start of a presentation to use examples that the audience will already
understand. This helps them to review their existing knowledge. You can then move on to use
new and perhaps more complex examples to extend their thinking. Also, think about how you
can use some topical examples to keep their interest and attention.
Remember, however relevant or important the content is to the purpose of the presentation, it
could still be incredibly boring for the audience to listen to.
Provide links to further sources of information

It is usually helpful to provide links to useful sources of information that audience members
can follow up in their own time. These sources could relate to content that you have not been
able to include but can be used for further reading and knowledge development.
Clear structure

A clear structure usually helps the audience to gain a quick understanding of the content of the
presentation. Provide a clear outline or overview of the presentation so that they understand
the progression of the topic and how it relates to a wider picture. Links can be made to what
the audience already know and understand. It may also be helpful to tell them what you expect
them to understand by the end of the presentation by stating your aims and objectives at the
start. This is especially important in academic presentations where learning outcomes may also
need to be identified.
Provide a brief but clear introduction to the topic. Divide the content to be covered into sections
that are relevant to the knowledge but that also enable pauses for reflection and opportunities
for reviewing key issues. Provide links between the different sections then draw the
presentation to a conclusion, perhaps by reviewing the themes covered, summarizing results or
emphasizing the most important points or future issues and concerns.

195
There is much research evidence to show that we recall and remember more detail from the
beginning and ending of presentations and lectures than in the middle. This can be problematic
as the deep content may be placed in this middle part. However, the general advice is to use
several beginnings and endings throughout the presentation by structuring the content well and
changing the approach or activity periodically to keep the attention of the audience.
Opportunities for this approach will be limited in a short presentation but the principles still
apply and being aware of these techniques emphasizes the importance of having a clear
structure.
Good communication skills

For communication to be effective, the content needs to be clearly understood, meaningful

and interesting to the audience. Effective communication in presentations needs a
combination of content that fits the purpose and good presentation and communication skills.
To achieve this, you will need to consider several questions:
 What is the purpose of the presentation and what is it that you need to communicate in
the allotted time?
 What is the current knowledge level of the audience and what new knowledge or
awareness do you want the audience to have gained from listening to or seeing your
presentation?
 What is the most effective way to communicate this knowledge? For example, is it
more useful to show pictures, use models, sound, speech or text?
There are many influences on how well we communicate and on how well we are understood
by our audience. It is useful to consider these influences under three broad areas:
1 Verbal communication
2 Visual communication
3 Non-verbal communication
Verbal communication

We suggest five principles here:

• Limit your use of jargon.
Generally speaking, to be understood, the presenter needs to use vocabulary that is familiar to
the audience. Too much jargon can distract the audience while they try to understand new
meanings and applications.
• Explain new or complex terms. When you use familiar words and phrases the audience will
understand your content much more quickly. You can also introduce new vocabulary and give
brief explanations with examples, as each one is introduced. In this way, you are extending the
audience’s knowledge and demonstrating your own knowledge to the tutor. You could decide
to create a Glossary that provides brief descriptions of the terms used in your presentation.
Give this to the audience with other handouts that you have created.
• Speak clearly.
Speak a little slower than you do in everyday conversations with friends and colleagues. This
will give the audience time to listen and understand what you are saying while getting used to
your style of speech.

196
• Use an interesting tone of voice.
If you sound interesting, you will probably make the content interesting. Showing some
enthusiasm for the topic can generate interest from the audience.
• Finish sentences.
During communication with friends and colleagues, we often do not need to finish sentences
because they finish them for us or can make an accurate guess at the meanings without hearing
everything spelt out. We may interrupt them or be interrupted ourselves. Generally, we get
used to this style of communication and compensate for it by asking questions or for repetition
of something we have not understood. In a presentation, you will be expected to present the
content using complete sentences. Whilst this may seem obvious, we have attended many
events where speakers adopt an informal approach and pause before sentences are finished,
leaving the audience guessing! This can be very irritating and exhausting to try to work out the
correct meanings. Practise and rehearse completing your sentences and
Visual communication

When you think about what makes presentations effective, it will be useful to consider how
you can use images to communicate more effectively. At this stage, it will be useful to
remember these principles:
• Use images to improve understanding
Sometimes, it is easier to use a picture instead of words to improve audience understanding.
When you show a picture, you can ask them a question or suggest they think about the image
in a certain way. You can then remain silent while they think about the image or the task you
have set them. Images can also be used to direct audience attention away from you and onto
the image on the screen. This may help to steady your nerves as it gives you a few seconds to
perhaps take some deep breaths or check your notes.
• Use images to save time
If there is only a short amount of time, you could include images as a quick way to cover
some of the content. You have probably heard of the phrase, ‘a picture paints a thousand
words’, and this is very relevant to a student presentation.
• Use images for interest
Images use the visual sense, whereas sound and speech use the auditory sense. Providing
content in a variety of formats means that the audience has to use a range of senses. This
keeps them active in the process of receiving the presentation. We all have preferences and
using a variety of communication approaches ensures a wider appeal to different members of
the audience.
• Use images for impact
Images are more relevant for some topics than others but even if only a few can be included,
they can be useful to create pauses and breaks in the delivery, generate discussion themes or
make a lasting impression.
Non-verbal communication
You will also need to think about non-verbal communication, that is how you communicate
using body language. There is a large amount of research in this area and you will probably
not have the time to read about it while preparing your presentation. However, there are some

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key principles that you can use to improve your non-verbal communication during the
presentation.
• Choose whether to stand or sit. In some situations, such as in a seminar, you may be one of
a group who sits in a circle or around a table. Check with the tutor what the best approach is.
In many student presentations standing will be expected. Whether you sit or stand, you
should try to convey some control and authority for your performance.
This will be especially important for an interview presentation and a Viva.
• Keep still
Having agreed on the best position, try to keep still and stay in one place rather than moving
around. Swaying backward and forward becomes distracting as does taking steps forward,
backward or from side to side. For a group presentation, decide where each person will stand,
who will move and when. Rehearse these changes to avoid collisions.
The audience may laugh if this happens but you will probably not be amused!
• Keep your hands still
We all have a tendency to flap our hands while we speak. This is natural in most situations and
while it might be used for enthusiasm, it can be a distraction during a presentation. If you do
not use your hands to operate the technology or demonstrate something, hold cards or papers
or clasp your hands lightly in front of you to reduce the waving around. Avoid all repetitive
behaviours such as clasping and unclasping hands, folding your arms, using your pockets and
shuffling your notes.
• Face the audience as much as possible
They will pick up non-verbal clues from your facial expression. This will also help you to
‘sweep the group’ by making brief eye contact with the audience. If you use PowerPoint, do
not turn to view the screen as your voice will become muffled. Use the image on the console
or create paper images if you need them for memory purposes so that you do not need to turn
to the screen. ‘Sweeping’ the audience frequently will help you to relax and may give you some
feedback on what they find interesting or boring.
Appropriate use of technologies

Remember the following key principles.

1 In most situations, the technology should be ‘the servant’ not ‘the master’. You should
control it rather than letting it dominate the presentation. If it creates problems, it will distract
the presenters and the audience from the content that needs to be delivered.
2 It needs to be fit for purpose. Use it as an integral part of the presentation rather than an
add-on feature.
3 The technology should improve what you have to communicate so that the audience gains a
better understanding of your content. However, it may be that the topic will not be improved
by the software that has to be used.
4 Rehearse using technology, especially if it is an essential part of demonstrating your skills
in the presentation. You will need to feel confident in how you use it.
5 Have a backup system in case it fails. We have seen situations where the technology failed
but the presentation was still effective because the presenter had made copies of notes and

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screenshots that he then worked through with the audience. If you have rehearsed your
presentation well, this type of experience will be less of a problem.
Clear supporting documentation

As part of your presentation, you may have been asked to create handouts but even if handouts
are not essential, the audience may find summaries, lists of key points, or a print out of the
slides useful. Good handouts can be used in the future and may give a ‘feel good factor’ to the
presentation. The style and level of detail given in this documentation should be relevant to the
presentation situation and audience needs.
Suitable audience participation

Student presentations vary considerably. Some will be expected to involve the audience in
activities or discussion at certain times within the presentation. Others will be more formal,
having no interaction at all or requiring questions and answers only at the end of the
presentation. Inevitably, the purpose of the presentation will influence the amount of audience
participation but interesting participation can be a worthwhile experience for all concerned.
Different perspectives on a topic can be identified and explored further. Creative ideas can
stimulate discussion and extend understanding.
The briefing details for the presentation should explain the level of interaction expected and
this will probably influence the design, level and structure of the content. In most situations, it
is important for the presenter(s) to remain in control of the presentation and this includes
managing the interactions with members of the audience. Make it clear at the start of the
presentation how you expect them to participate by explaining how and when you want to take
questions. There are several approaches to consider, for example, you could suggest that they
can ask for further explanation if they do not understand a point you are covering but they must
leave their general questions to the end of the presentation. This helps to set the ground rules
and maintains a feeling of control for the presenters. It can sometimes be helpful to say how
many minutes have been allocated for questions at the end of the presentation. If a member of
the audience repeatedly tries to interrupt the flow, you can then remind them that there will be
time for their questions at the end. Use this as a warning however. One or two students
monopolizing this final stage of the presentation may irritate other members of the audience
and cause them to withdraw from any further discussion.
If you want the audience to participate during the presentation, there are several techniques you
can use to encourage this. You can do this by inviting questions or directly involving chosen
members of the audience with tasks, exercises and demonstrations.
If the audience is very quiet and do not immediately pose questions when you ask for any, it
can be useful to prepare a few of your own questions that you use to extend the topic and
perhaps stimulate further questions. Some audience members may be more willing to answer
an open or a direct question from you rather than raise their own question.
Finally, questions can seem tedious after the third or fourth so select them carefully and link
the ones that are similar to avoid any repetition and retain the audience’s interest. Answer
questions succinctly then move on. If someone keeps going back to the same point, close the
discussion and offer to discuss it with them when the presentation is over.

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References

McCarthy, P., & Hatcher, C. (2002). Presentation skills: The essential guide for
students. Sage.

Chivers, B., & Shoolbred, M. (2007). A student's guide to presentations: making

your presentation count. Sage.

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