Laboratory tests:

Rock strength is measured by laboratory testing. Strengths are very different

depending on the stress field applied to the rock. All rocks and soils are very much
stronger in compression than in tension.

The two common laboratory tests to determine the compressive strength of rock
are:

 Uniaxial Unconfined Compression Test - The rock sample is unconfined at

its side while the load is applied vertically until failure occurs. In this case, the
compressive strength is called unconfined compressive strength (uniaxial
compressive strength). A cylindrical rock core is loaded axially until it fails.

Triaxial Confined Compression Test - For design of underground structure

(such as tunnels, mining, waste repository), we need to take into account of the
confining pressure at depth. This is done at laboratory by so-called triaxial
compression test. The failure curve constructed using Mohr's circle after a series of
tests gives the shear strength (cohesion) and internal friction (angle of shearing
resistance) of the rock (or soil) sample. This will be further discussed on Mohr-
Coulomb failure criterion in the next lecture on Soil Mechanics.

A cylindical rock core is placed in a cell, subjected to all around (confining)

pressure by hydraulic oil acting through a thin impermeable membrane, and loaded
axially to failure.

There are a variety of tests to determine the tensile strength of rock:

 Direct Pull Test - A cylindrical rock core sample is anchored at both ends and
stretched.
1
  Brazilian Test - A relatively thin disk is load across the diameter until it
splits.
 Beam Flexure Test - A thin slab of rock is loaded vertically when supported
at three or four points along it's length.

The Hoek cell is a specially designed triaxial cell that can be used with regular
hydraulic jacks. This makes it highly portable and suitable for field i operation. The
hydraulic pressure is applied radially through a thick membrane. The axial pressure is
applied directly to the sample endcaps.

All the tests mentioned so far are used to determine the properties of intact
rock. Such properties are rarely representative of rock mass behaviour because of the
presence of numerous discontinuities (fractures, joints, faults, etc) in virtually all
rocks close to the Earth's surface.

2
 The portable field shear box is used to directly measure the shear resistance of
joint surfaces. A block with a natural fracture is cemented into a split-box mould with
the fracture surfaces in contact. When the cement or plaster is cured, normal and shear
loads are applied using hydraulic jacks. The displacement is meassured with a dial-
gauge. The shear-box provides information on the shear strength and shear stiffness of
jointed rock masses.

Geological controls

The engineering properties of rocks are influenced by a large number of

geological factors. Mineralogy and particle-contacts control strength on a small scale;
tectonic deformation, igneous activity aand metamorphism all result in substantial
changes in the mechanical behaviour of rocks through recrystallization and fracturing.

Burial and erosion of sediments results a series of consistent and predictable

changes. The increase in sediment load during burial combined with cementation and
filling pores results in:

 increased strength
 decreased porosity
 decreased permeabilty

3
 Stripping away sediment by erosion and the consequent unloading and weathering
results in the development of joints leading to:

 decreased strength
 increased porosity
 increased permeabilty

In general rocks become stronger and less porous and permeable as they get older.
Recent sediments are normally weaker than ancient rocks with similar lithology and
mineralogy.

Rocks and soils with a level of compaction corresponding to their present burial
depth re said to be normally consolidated. Where erosion has occured, rocks may be
compacted much more than expected for their current depth of burial. These rocks and
soils are said to be overconsolidated. Rocks that have not compacted to the expected
extent for their depth of burial, perhaps because fluids could not escape, are said to be
underconsolidated. Underconsolidated rocks are often associated with high fluid
pressures (overpressure). An overpressure is a pressure in excess of the pressure
predicted from the normal hydrostatic gradient.