Role of Dairy Substitutes ~

D. E. MILLER
Durkee Famous Foods, Research and Development Department, Chicago, Illinois

During the last 10 to 15 years, one of the arranging the fat molecules in any blend
most controversial subjects in the dairy indus- of fats. Thus, the edible fat refineries can
try has been the use of vegetable fats in dairy make a f at with any desired melting point
type products. In spite of much opposition and with practically any dilatometric pro-
from various state and federal regulatory agen- file---that is they can control the amount
cies and resistance by part of the dairy industry of f a t that is solid or liquid at any given
itself on the preparation and labeling of vege- temperature and in any desired product.
table fat dairy type products, the makers of
these new foods continue to widen their mar- The dairy industry is limited to a single fat
kets, both in institutional and retail outlets. system which must be used to prepare many
Little more than a quick stroll through your different types of products. However, the man-
neighborhood supermarket is necessary to see ufacturers of foods containing no milk fat do
the growing acceptance of these foods by con- not have these limitations and are able to use
sumers. Especially in the last several years, the most functional lipid system, including
coffee whiteners, whipped toppings, sour dress- emulsifiers, for each product. This enables man-
ings and chip dips, soft serve and frozen des- ufacturers to make products that are predict-
ably similar from batch to batch and also to
serts have demonstrated remarkable growth, and
make products to meet any specification.
are gaining ever increasing momentum in the
I n whipped toppings, this consistency in per-
market.
formance can cut down on the high rate of re-
Reliable estimates indicate that in 1966 the
turns which many dairies have with whipping
total market for vegetable fat dairy products
cream.
was in excess of $240 million at retail prices
Composition for three fats: milk fat, a
and a 1967 growth rate of 36% is anticipated.
typical coffee whitener fat, and a typical top-
The outstanding potential for new products in
ping fat is given in Table 1. I n the first column
this market is obvious.
Among the reasons for the growing accep-
tance of these new foods are: TABLE 1. Fatty acid composition.
1. Long shelf-life of finished products. Many Typical
of these foods can be kept indefinitely coffee Typical
when frozen and several weeks under nor- Milk whitener topping
mal refrigeration. Thus storage and dis- Fatty acid fat fat fat
tribution problems are minimized f o r the Butyric 4 : 0 3.0 ....
manufacturer and retailer, and add con- Caproic 6:0 1.8 Tr.
venience fo r the housewife. Caprylic 8 : 0 1.4 "'2 4
2. Low cost of the basic ingredients. The Caprie 10:0 3.0 3 3
average price of vegetable fats ranges be- Laurie 12 : 0 3.4 40 32
tween 0.44-0.66 cents per kilogram2 Com- (13:0) (12:1) Tr . . . . . . . . .
pare this cost with the price of milk fat to- 14 branched Tr.
day and you can see there is a significant Myristic 14:0 1~.4 14 ~2
(15 branched) (14:1) 0.8 ........
cost reduction. 15:0 2.1 ........
3. Improved technology in developing lipid 16 branched Tr.
systems. The principal reason for the suc- Palmitie 1 6 : 0 33.3 ~2 ~
cess of these new foods is a result of the (17 branched) (16:1) 1.6 .... Tr.
improved technology by processors of veg- 17:0 1.6
etable fats. They are able to process fats Stearic 18:0 11.3 27 12
that meet almost any desired specifications. Oleic 18:1 22.8 2 ]0
This can be done by hydrogenation to Elaldic 18:1 ...... .... 13
control melting point; by blending differ- Linoleic 18:2 1.5 .... 2
ent types and different melting fats from
different sources, by solvent fraetionation TABLE 2. The percentage of solid fat at six tem-
of certain portions of fats, and by re- peratures.

Presented to the Invitational Seminar, Industry Solid fat index--% solid fat at:
and Business Section, at the Sixty-second Annual Fat 10 21.1 26.6 33.3 37.8 43.3 C
Meeting of the American Dairy Science Associa-
tion, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, June Milk fat 33 14 10 3 0 0
27, 1967. Whitener fat 69 58 50 27 14 6
Topping fat 55 33 19 7 3 0
2 One kilogram equals 2.205 lb.
1330
 OUR I N D U S T R Y TODAY
is a listing of the common name of the fatty
acids. The first number after the name refers
to the number of carbon atoms in the fatty acid
molecules. The number after the colon refers
to the number of unsaturated or double bond
carbon linkages. As you can see, milk fat is
unique in that it does contain many different
types of fatty acids. I have listed only the most
prevalent fatty acids. Jensen et al. (1) stated
that 142 different acids have been reported in
milk fat. This composition may vary through-
out the year. The next two columns on the com-
position sheet list the major fatty acids present
m a typical whitener fat and topping fat. You
will notice that the linoleic fatty acid content
of all three fats is low. I f it is determined that
higher amounts of polyunsaturated fats are in-
deed beneficial for humans the ]inoleic content
of the vegetable fats can be increased to certain
degree by blending in other fats such as corn
oil or safflower oil. Table 2 presents the solid
fat index ratio of the same three fats. This
chart shows what per cent of the fat is solid
at the six different temperatures.
The purpose of this discussion today is to
present some findings concerning foods that
contain no milk fat and how some of them have
fulfilled the demand for dairy-type products
at a lower cost to the consumer and possibly
with higher profit margins to the processor.
This discussion is not to convince anyone to
start producing and marketing of the nondairy
foods, but to present some idea of the tech-
nology and current size of this market.
There are several products containing no milk
fat being marketed. The first product, which
is being sold as a liquid, or frozen, or concen-
trated, or as a dried powder, is coffee whitener.
The relative size of the market for all types of
creaming agents, including coffee cream, half-
and-half, and the nondairy products for use in
coffee is 2,498 million liters yearly? The total
market at retail prices has a value of about
$1,260,000,000.
The latest information indicates that the liq-
uid and frozen coffee whitener market was
growing at a phenomenal rate of approximately
60% per year.
The value of this current market is appraised
at $16 million. Converting this value to a
kilogram basis would place this market in excess
of 20.4 million kilograms, assuming 0.47 liter
which sells for 29 cents in the grocery store
weighs .48 kilogram. The dry coffee whitener
market consists of 29.5 million kilograms.
I f the 2,498 million liters of creaming agents
are converted to equivalent gallons of coffee
whitener, it is estimated that the nondairy
whiteners now command roughly 5% of the
total market on a volume basis. I f the present
rate of growth continues, the market for non-
dairy whiteners will double in size in total vol-
8 One liter equals 1.057 quarts (U.S.).
1331
tune within three years and most certainly
within the next five year period.
As mentioned previously, nondairy whiteners
are usually sold in two forms--dry and liquid
which may be frozen. The basic formulae for
both types are similar except the water is re-
moved from the dried product. The usual in-
gredients in liquid whiteners can be found in
Formula One as follows:
Liquid coffee whitener
Ingredient %
Vegetable fat 8-12
Protein material 1-2
Emulsifiers 0.2-1.0
Buffers 0.1-0.25
Stabilizers 0.02-0.15
Flavors and color
Sweetening agents 5-10
Water Remainder
Procedure: Dry mix the protein material,
buffers, stab~Iizers, and sweetening agent.
Add to the water. Mix well to disperse
solids, tteat to 43.3 C and add fat, emul-
sifiers and color. I-Ieat to 71.1 C for 30
minutes. Add flavor and homogenize mix
at 176 and 35 kg cm~ through two-stage
homogenizer. Cool mix as rapidly as pos-
sible to 4.4 C. I f desired, freeze mix as
rapidly as possible to --18 C. Defrost mix
at 4.4 C before use.
Yegetable fat in a fat-in-water emulsion ac-
tually gives the whitening qualities to the
whitener. The protein material is usually so-
dium caseinate or a soya proteinate. These are
added to help maintain an emulsion. The
emulsifiers may consist of one or a combina-
tion of the following: mono- and diglycerides,
polysorbate 60, lecithin, and sorbitan mono-
stearate. These are added to improve the
whitening qualities by providing a better dis-
persion of the fat in the water. Emulsifiers
are also necessary to obtain a freeze-thaw
stable emulsion.
Buffers, usually disodium or dipotassinm
phosphate, or sodium citrate or a combination,
are added to prevent feathering of the protein
in hot coffee. Carrageenan is a common stabi-
lizer and is added to give some body to the
product and to prevent separation of the mix.
Corn syrup solids (24 or 42 D.E.) is the usual
ingredient added to provide some sweetness in
the product.
Many of the dairy stabilizer companies are
now selling dry base containing the protein
material, emulsifiers, buffers, color, stabilizer,
and a portion or all of the sweetening agents
required for coffee whiteners. The dairy pur-
chases the fat separately from an oil processor.
At least one company is selling a complete
base--the processor adds only water.
The fat used in coffee whitener should give
maximum coloring effect when whitener is
J. DAII~Y SCIEI~CE VOL. 51, NO. 8
1332 J O U R N A L OF D A I R Y S C I E N C E
added to coffee. The fat also should be ex-
tremely bland in flavor so it will not add any
undesired flavors. The fat recommended for
a freeze-thaw stable whitener is the fat re-
ported in Table 1. The high solids of this fat
at lower temperatures aids in the freeze-thaw
.stability of the whitener. This type of fat
is usually sold in a flaked form so it also is
very convenient to handle in the dairy plant.
The ingredient costs for a liter of whitener
is approximately 12.7 cents. The average retail
selling price is 61 cents. Thus, producers have
48.3 cents per liter available for processing,
packaging, marketing, and distribution--plus
a good profit. Most dairies are equipped to
prepare coffee whiteners as well as the other
nondairy fat foods. All that is required is a
pasteurizing vat, homogenizer, cooler, and pack-
aging equipment. High-temperature short-time
pasteurization and aseptic procedures may also
be used.
The next product in our discussion today is
whipped toppings. I n the institutional and
food service markets, whipped toppings gained
favor at a nmch earlier date than coffee whiten-
er. The reason for this was that toppings can
be made that have the eye appeM and eating
qualities of whipped cream, but have the addi-
tional benefits of better stand-up qualities and
stability and have more predictable and con-
sistent whipping qualities. W h i p p e d toppings
being marketed today are in three f o r m s - -
liquid-frozen (which may be concentrated),
dry, and aerated. Marketing data on toppings
are scarce. The 1963 Census of Manufacturers
has revealed that approximately 50 nfillion
liters of whipped toppings containing no milk
f a t were produced in 1963, having a manufac-
turers' value of $21.6 million. This is the first
and only figure which has been released to
the public on the total market for whipped
toppings. I t is estimated that 6.8 million kg
of dried topping were made in 1966 and is ex-
panding at a rate of about 10% per year, as
evidenced by the large number of new manufac-
turers who are entering the field. The basic
formula for whipped toppings is similar to
coffee whitener except the vegetable fat, emul-
sifter, and sugar contents are usually higher.
Formula Two is typical for fluid whipped
toppings and follows:
W h i p p e d topping
Ingredient % Dips and spreads are the economy cocktail
Sugar 7-14
Sodium easeinate 1-3
Stabilizer 0.1-0.5
Vegetable f a t 24-28
Enmlsiflers 0.4-1.1
Water Remainder
Procedure: Dry mix the sugar, sodium ca-
seinate, and stabilizer. Add to the water.
Mix well to disperse solids. Heat to 43.3 C
J. DAIRY SCIENCE VOL. 51, NO. 8
and add f a t and emulsifiers. Heat mix to
71 C for 30 minutes. Homogenize mix at
106 and 35 kg cm: through two-stage ho-
mogenizer. Cool mix as rapidly as possible
to 4.4 C. Hold mix at this temperature for
at least 12 hours before whipping.
The fat and emulsifier systems for toppings
are much more critical than those for coffee
whitener. The fat used should have a melting
point that prevents a greasy tactual sensation
in the whipped product. Also, the solid and
liquid portions of the f a t should be at the
right ratio to produce a whipped product that
has the desired stand-up and eating qualities.
A high per cent of a good topping vegetable
fat is in the solid state at a whipping tempera-
ture of 10 C to nmke a product that whips
fast and has good stand-up properties. This
vegetable fat is practically all liquid at body
temperature. This was designed so topping
would have good palatable qualities. The emul-
sifiers should be selected that produce a topping
mix that remains thin and free-flowing with
good whipping time and will whip to a desired
overrun (usually 250% or more). Emulsifiers
used may be any or mixtures of the following:
high and low melting mono- and diglycerides,
propylene glyco monostearate, glycerol lacto-
palmitate, polysorbate 60, and sorbitan mono-
steaxate. The last four emulsifiers usually are
used in dried or freeze-thaw stable toppings.
The equipment required to prepare toppings
is similar to that needed for coffee whiteners.
Most dairies have this equipment. The average
ingredient cost for toppings per liter is ap-
proximately 21 cents. The average retail price
per liter ranges from 90 cents to $1.20--1eaving
70 cents to $1.00 p e r liter for costs and profit
for the manufacturer.
The next products in this discussion are sour
dressings and chip dips. Accurate information
on the production of regular sour cream is
not readily available, as not all areas report
amounts to the USDA. Those areas that do
report indicate that in 1964 52.2 million kilo-
grams of sour cream were produced. There
are several nondairy-fat sour dressings on the
market today. I t is estimated that approxi-
mately 3.6 million kilograms of vegetable fat
sour dressings were made in 1966. The major-
ity of all dips served today are prepared from
sour cream, sour half-and-half, or cream cheese.
appetizers and are popular for both snacking
and for parties. Menu Census Data has indi-
cated that during any two-week period, about
2.8 million households will serve dips, which
in turn will be eaten by 81% of the persons
who are present at these gatherings. The most
popular dip is onion. During 1964 dips of all
types were served 144 billion times in American
households. By 1970 it is estimated that dips
will be served 165 billion times. Most prepared
 OUR INDUSTRY
dips which are purchased in stores are sold
for around 39¢ for a 227-g package. The
ingredient costs, including the dip seasoning,
for a 227-g package of vegetable fat dip is
a little over 6 cents, leaving 33 cents per 227-g
package for other costs and profit. Since most
dips now are made at home, it is difficult to
predict what portion in the future will be
purchased as a complete food or will be con-
tinued to be made by the user. I n 1965 the
prepared dip market had a value of $24 millon.
With the estimated increase in the use of dips,
it appears that opportunities for increased
sales in this area axe large for the dairy proces-
sor.
Formula Three is a typical formula for a
cultured sour dressing or chip dip base. The
vegetable fat sour dressing is similar to regu-
lar sour cream except vegetable fats are used
to replace milk fat. These products may con-
tain 14% vegetable f a t or lower instead of
the usual ] 8 % milk fat. The vegetable fats
used in these products can be selected to pro-
duce any desired body and texture in the fin-
ished product. Blends of hydrogenated fat and
liquid oil are the combinations most usually
used. F a t s for sour dressing must be extremely
bland in flavor and must have good stability
to prevent off-flavor development during stor-
age conditions in the dressing at p H 4.5 to 4.7.
The product in Formula 3 is made exactly like
the conventional method for preparing sour
cream. The flavor of this product will be only
as good as the culture used. The ingredient
costs for this product are approximately 17.6
cents per kilogram. The direct acid method
may also be used to prepare sour dressing
or chip dip base. A n y processor that can make
sour cream can make the vegetable fat product.
I n the direct acid method, the seasoning blend
should be added at least 20 minutes after the
addition of the acid. The author prefers to
add the seasoning after the product has cooled
to 4.4 C. I n the cultured product the seasoning
should also be added after the base has cooled
to 4.4 C. One should emphasize again with
either the direct acid or cultured process, that
the vegetable fats used in these acid products
should be extremely bland in flavor and should
be flavor-stable during acid storage conditions.
Most of the imported oils are high in lauric
acid. Under certain conditions, this f a t t y acid
can split off the fat molecule and cause a def-
inite soapy-like off-flavor. Imported fats such
as coconut oil are not recommended in these
high acid products. Formula 3 follows:
Sour dressing or chip dip base
Ingredient % specification or fulfill any requirement.
Nonfat milk solids 9.0
Vegetable fat 16.0
Emulsifier .4-.6
Stabilizer 0.2-0.7
Water Remainder
TODAY 1333
Procedure: dissolve milk solids in water.
Heat to 43.3 C and add remaining ingredi-
ents. Pasteurize mix at 74 C for 20-30 min-
utes. Homogenize mix at 141 and 35 kg cm~
through two-stage homogenizer. Cool mix
to 22 C and add 2-5% culture. Incubate
at 22 C until desired acidity is obtained
( p H 4.6). Package and cool to 4.4 C.
Other nondairy fat products are being made
and marketed today. These include chocolate
and other flavored drinks, egg hOg, frozen des-
serts, and filled milk products similar to ho-
mogenized milk. Formulae for these products
have not been included because they are simi-
lar to the formulae for dairy products. Vege-
table fats are used to replace milk fat. A
processor who desires to make these foods
should make certain that the vegetable fats are
bland in flavor and should- produce a finished
product with the desired eating qualities. This
is especially true in frozen desserts.
The basic formulae given are merely examples
of the types of products that are being made
today. These formulae are constantly being
changed as new procedures and more function-
al lipid systems are being developed. These
include :
1. Development of better fat systems and
more functional emulsifiers. This should
result in reducing ingredient costs.
2. Development of formulae for all prod-
ucts that can be processed through aseptic
equipment.
3. Development of more formulae for dried
products, and concentrated products that
are freeze-thaw stable.
4. Development of more formulae utilizing
soya protein or other protein material as
it becomes available. This should also
reduce ingredient costs if the price of milk
solids and sodium caseinate continue to
increase.
5. Development of formulae for hard cheese-
like products. Much work has already
been done on these products at several
universities.
I n summary, the status of the vegetable fat
foods being marketed today briefly was dis-
cussed. Vegetable fat processors have spent
a considerable amount of research time and
money developing specialized fats and emulsi-
fiers for these products. Vegetable fats are
not all the same. The ideal f a t for a dried
coffee whitener will certainly not meet the re-
quirements of a fat for whipped toppings. A
fat refinery can process a f a t to meet any
Much time has also been spent on develop-
ing emulsifiers for the vegetable f a t foods.
When used in these new products emulsifiers
readily combine immiscible fat and water, they
help to maintain a stable emulsion, and they
J . ])AIRY SCIENCE ~OL. 51, NO. 8
1334 J O U R N A L OF D A I R Y S C I E N C E
create the correct amount of fat agglomera-
tion or emulsion reversion during whipping of
mellorine or toppings to produce desired dry-
ness and stiffness.
Choice of emulsifying system depends upon
the ultimate form of nondairy food (liquid,
frozen, or dry).
Type and amount of emulsifiers must be taken
into account when designing a fat system for
these new food products. Amounts of emulsi-
fiers used may also vary with the type of pro-
tein used, and the total f a t levels in the fin-
ished products. These are some of the factors
that must be considered in developing a lipid
system for the new foods.
A dairy that plans to start making these new
foods should consult a vegetable fat processor
to obtain the right lipid system (fat and
emulsifier). H e should also contact a dairy
Sterilization and Aseptic Packaging of Milk
Products" Industrial Applications 1
Director of Technical Sales, CP Division, St. Regis, Chicago, Illinois
Traditionally, sterilized milk and milk prod-
ucts have been given a presterilization heat
treatment, filled into a container, sealed and
then subjected to a heat treatment known to
produce sterility. Because of research and
product developments during the past 15 years,
it is generally recognized that many of the
sterile milk products will have improved flavor,
color and other characteristics if subjected to a
shorter sterilizing treatment at a higher tem-
perature and then packaged aseptically.
This discussion will briefly introduce, in a
general way, industrial methods and equipment
for this type of product.
The processes consist of heating the milk or
milk product to 140 to 154 C, holding it for
two to four seconds, cooling to a lower temper-
ature, then maintaining sterility during filling
and seMing into a sterilized container.
Sterilization of System
The processing equipment downstream from
the heater must be capable of being sterilized,
usually by circulation of water at 143 to 148 C
or by steam at the same temperatures or by
combinations of these. Steam contacts all s u r -
1 Presented at Invitational Seminar, Annual Meet-
ing of the American Dairy Science Association,
Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, June 27,
1967.
J. DAIRY SCI]~I~C~ VOL. 51, NO. 8
stabilizer company to obtain the correct sta-
bilization system for each type of food. A n y
manufacturer anticipating entry into produc-
tion of the nondairy fat foods should also be
aware of the Filled Milk Act of the Federal
Government. H e should also be aware of vari-
ous pertinent patents which a p p l y to some
of these foods so that an individual decision
can be made on his p a r t to determine whether
he may want to participate in the opportunities
that exist in this new market. Most vegetable
fat processors should be able to assist in the
marketing and patent situation.
Reference
(1) Jensen, R. G., J. G. Quinn, D. L. Carpenter,
and J. Sampugna. 1967. Gas-liquid chro-
matographic analysis of milk fatty a c i d s :
A review. J. Dairy Sci., 50:119.
H. L. MITTEN, JR.
faces and penetrates into gasketed and recessed
areas. Steam, however, requires longer expo-
sure time than water to assure all the surfaces
have attained the sterilizing temperature.
Commercial processing systems are much
more sophisticated than the general outline
given here and nearly always include homogeni-
zation and may provide for regeneration to save
costs for both heating and cooling of the prod-
uct. Automatic controls to sterilize, operate,
divert product having substerilizing tempera-
ture, flush and resterilize the equipment may be
provided.
Homogenization
Homogenization may he done prior to the
final heat treatment or following it. I f ho-
mogenization is done before final heating, higher
pressures and a higher degree of homogeniza-
tion is required than in the case of postheating
homogenization if creaming is to be avoided
during storage. Homogenization after final heat-
ing avoids the emulsion destabilizing effects of
the final heat treatment, and the degree of fat
globule division and dispersion obtained at the
homogenizer is maintained. This allows lower
pressures which have less destabilizing influ-
ence on the milk proteins. The main disadvan-
tage of homogenization, after final heating, is
the necessity to provide an aseptic homogenizer
which, because of its special design features,