relay ladder logic

The Basics of Ladder Logic

Ladder logic is the basis of most control functions

Ladder logic uses switch or relay contacts to implement Boolean

expressions. In years past, ladder logic was made possible with
discrete relays and was sometimes termed “relay logic.” Today
most implementations are done using a specialized
microprocessor-based device called a programmable logic
controller (PLC). Although the means of implementation have
changed over the years, the basic concepts remain the same.

Logical functions.
When studying logic,
one must begin with the
basic functions. Input
values can be combined using the logical AND, OR, and exclusive
OR (XOR) functions (Fig. 1 at right). Logic gates use digital
electronics to implement these functions. Each gate is actually a
circuit, typically consisting of transistors and biasing resistors. As
an example, the transistor-transistor logic (TTL) 7408 chip
contains four, two-input AND gates in one integrated circuit (IC)
package. These gates and other types on separate ICs can be
wired together to implement a wide array of digital logic.

In the case of ladder logic, logic functions are implemented by

developing a ladder diagram. Named for its resemblance to a
ladder, the diagram consists of two vertical rails connected by
several horizontal rungs. Each rail is energized at a different
voltage, and each rung contains at least one element, such as a
relay coil or an indicator lamp, across which voltage can drop. In a
ladder circuit, normally open (type-A) and normally closed (type-
B) contacts are interconnected so as to implement the logical
functions. Connecting two contacts in series implements an AND
function, since the first and second contacts must both be closed
to complete the circuit. Connecting the same two contacts in
parallel implements a logical OR, since at least one contact must
be closed to complete the circuit. An XOR implementation for two
inputs, which is actually [(A AND B') OR (A' AND B)] where the
 prime mark indicates a logical NOT or inversion, requires a type-A
and a type-B contact for both inputs.

A relay coil, whether it's a discrete device or a “virtual” device

mimicked by PLC software, controls one or more sets of contacts.
When a relay coil is energized or “picked up,” its type-A contacts
close and its type-B contacts open. Conversely, when the coil is
de-energized or “dropped out,” its contacts return to their normal
state.

Seal-in
function. Many
times,
momentary
pushbuttons
are used to
provide user
input to a
control circuit. If such a switch is used as a start pushbutton for a
motor, the switch must be “sealed-in” so the motor doesn't stop
when the pushbutton is released. This requires a path to develop
around the switch so current can continue to flow after the switch
contacts open. The seal-in function can be provided with a relay
coil and a single set of type-A contacts as shown in the dashed
box in Fig. 2. When the start button is pushed, the SI relay picks
up and its type-A contacts close, providing a current path after the
start pushbutton is released.

Other functions.
A variety of specialized input devices, such as temperature
sensors, pressure switches, position indicators, and flow switches,
can provide input to the ladder logic circuit. Devices like timers
and counters can also be added to make more complex logic
possible. Fig. 2 shows a simple motor control circuit that will only
allow the motor to start — and remain running — when its lube oil
pump is running, at least one valve is open, and no alarms exist.
Pressing the stop button drops out the SI coil, stopping the motor.
Indicator lamps — red for running, green for stopped — can also
be used. This basic control circuit forms the basis for much more
complex control circuits.
Ladder LogicBasics
Tips for learning the symbolic language of motor control

A specialized segment of the electrical construction and

maintenance industry, AC motor control is an area that requires
specific knowledge in order to troubleshoot motors effectively and
ensure smooth operations. This means gaining a clear
understanding of ladder diagrams and ladder logic, which enable
the automation that drives motors. The combination of input
devices that either manually or automatically sense a condition —
and the corresponding change in condition performed by the
output device — make up the core of motor control. Let's take a
closer look at what's involved in learning the symbolic language of
motor control.

First, it's important to discuss the term “logic” for a moment. In the
study of digital electronics, devices are used that operate in either
an ON or OFF state. A specialized branch of mathematics called
Boolean algebra analyzes this relationship with two numbers: a
zero (representing the OFF state) or a one (representing the ON
state). These two numbers comprise the binary number system.

The most common logic functions are the AND, OR, and NOT
functions. Think of a single-pole light switch in your home that
controls a 100W light bulb. The switch can either be off or on,
thereby representing a zero in the off state and a one in the on
state. Now imagine placing two single-pole switches in series to
control the same 100W light bulb. In this condition, switch No. 1
and switch No. 2 have to both be on to light the 100W bulb. This
is an example of an AND operation. Figure 1 represents the AND
circuit just mentioned. Logic relates to ladder diagrams because
input functions in series constitute an AND operation, while input
functions in parallel constitute an OR operation.
Fig. 1. Switch S1 and S2 must both be closed for the light to
come on.
You will encounter two types of ladder diagrams: the 2-wire
control circuit and the 3-wire control circuit. The 2-wire control
circuit is shown in Fig. 2. This circuit is used to start a motor for
some industrial process. The components in a 2-wire control
circuit are a maintained contact switching device (S1), a relay coil
(M1), and the thermal overload relay contact (OL). The sequence
of operations is fairly simple. When S1 is closed, the coil of
magnetic motor starter M1 is energized and the motor starts,
provided the running overload current is within the values of the
overload relay OL. To stop the motor, S1 is simply opened.

Fig. 2. Typical 2-wire control circuit for starting a motor.

A 3-wire control circuit is shown in Fig. 3. Again, this circuit is
used to start a motor for some industrial process. The
components in a 3-wire control circuit are a momentary
pushbutton (STOP), a momentary pushbutton (START), a
normally open relay contact (M1), a relay coil (M1), and the thermal
overload relay contact (OL). The sequence of operations here is a
little more complex. When the start button is pressed, the coil of
magnetic motor starter M1 is energized and the motor starts,
provided the running overload current is within the values of the
overload relay OL. However, there is one very important
difference: A normally open contact of magnetic motor starter M1
seals around the start button to latch the circuit. To stop the
motor, the STOP button is pressed, which, in turn, breaks the
latch and de-energizes the coil of magnetic motor starter M1,
stopping the motor.

Fig. 3. Typical 3-wire control circuit for starting a motor (M1).

What components make up a full-blown ladder diagram? There
are several types of input and output devices. For the purpose of
this article, we will focus on conventional electromechanical
devices. See Fig. 4 for a list of common symbols used in ladder
diagrams and motor control circuits.

Fig. 4. Common symbols used in ladder diagrams and motor

control circuits.
Input devices can first be classified as momentary contact and
maintained contact devices. Momentary contact devices are
spring-loaded and are classified as normally open and normally
closed devices. The designation “normally” refers to the state of
the device in its resting position — when no external stimulus is
acting upon it. The contact arrangement of switching devices can
also be classified as SPST, SPDT, DPST, DPDT, 3PDT, etc. The
first two letters refer to the number of “poles,” and the last two
letters refer to the number of “throws.” For example, SPST refers
to a single-pole, single-throw contact while 3PDT refers to a 3-
pole, double-throw contact. A fractional manual motor starter
useful for single-phase motors (1 hp and lower) can either be an
SPST for 120V applications or DPST for 240V applications. A
green start button is an example of a normally open momentary
pushbutton, while a red stop button is an example of a normally
closed momentary pushbutton.

Maintained contact devices are not spring-loaded. Instead, they

remain in either an ON or OFF state. They can also be classified
as normally open and normally closed. An emergency stop is an
example of a maintained contact device.

Temperature-sensing devices commonly used in motor control

applications are thermostats and thermocouples. A thermostat
relies on the thermal expansion/contraction of a bimetal, while a
thermocouple relies on a principle known as the Seebeck effect.
Two dissimilar metal wires are joined together in a loop with one
end being the hot junction; the other being the cold junction. A
difference of potential is generated in the loop in response to
temperature change. Each of these devices sense temperature
change and then presents a contact closure for use in a control
circuit.

Motion-sensing devices commonly used are photoelectric controls

and proximity controls. Early versions of photoelectric controls
had an incandescent lamp transmitter and a cadmium sulfide
photocell receiver. Modern versions of the photoelectric control
have pulsed infrared transmitters and solid-state photo-detector
receivers. They work on the principle of beam interruption to
sense motion and then present a contact closure to the control
circuit.

Proximity controls sense motion when an object passes by the

sensing target on the device. They can detect metallic as well as
non-metallic objects. They operate on the principles of magnetism
and capacitance, and then present a contact closure to the control
circuit.
Limit switches are the most versatile devices in terms of motion
detection. Available in a variety of operator mechanisms and
contact arrangements, they work on the principle of physical
contact between an object and the operator mechanism to
present a contact closure to the control circuit.

The most commonly used liquid level sensing device is the float
switch, which operates on the principle of buoyancy. The float is
suspended in a liquid bath. As levels of the liquid rise and fall, the
float moves. This movement presents a contact closure to the
control circuit.

The most commonly used pressure-sensing device is the

pressure switch. The diaphragm in a pressure switch monitors the
change in pressure and presents a contact closure to the control
circuit.

Other types of input devices include the foot switch, the selector
switch, or even the contact of a control relay or a timing relay.
These are all mechanical devices that present a contact closure to
the control circuit.

Outputs of the control circuit can be relay coils, pilot indicating

lights, or audible devices. To use the generic term “relay coil,” we
need further classification into magnetic motor starter, contactor,
and relay. A magnetic motor starter is a relay with a coil and
contacts as well as running overload protection by means of
thermal overload relays. Bi-metallic thermal overload relays are
units made of a heater coil that heats a coil of wire to a specified
temperature based on overload current, and a bi-metal unit that
expands/contracts and operates a contact. Solder pot thermal
overload relays use a similar heater coil and a eutectic solder that
melts under overload conditions and correspondingly turns a
ratchet wheel to operate a contact. The contact arrangement on
the thermal overload relay is normally closed. However, it will
open under excessive current conditions and de-energize the coil
of the magnetic motor starter and consequently disconnect the
motor. Contactors are also relays that switch high load currents
but do not provide running overload protection via the thermal
overload relay. Control relays are usually designed to switch small
control circuit currents. Common types of timing relays are ON-
delay (delay on operate), OFF-delay (delay on release), interval
delay, and repeat cycle delay. Time delay relays are used for
timing in a control circuit.

Pilot indicating lights are used to provide visual indication of a

function or to verify that a certain operation is either on or off.
Audible sounding devices are used to indicate trouble with a
process or alert the user to a particular situation.

Now that you've been introduced to the more common input and
output devices that make up a ladder diagram, next time we'll
explore in more depth how 2- and 3- wire control circuits tie the
control circuit with ladder diagrams into motor operation. Look for
the next installment of “Motor Facts” in the June 2007 issue.