Workbook

Introduction to Lab

Grade 11 & 12
Name: ………………………………………….

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 Lab Equipment
goggles protects eyes from chemical splashes

Bunsen burner used to heat substances

graduated Used to measure and transfer various

cylinder volumes of liquids. The smaller the
cylinder diameter, the more accurate
the volume measured. In general they
give less accurate measurements
than graduated burettes and pipettes

Burette Used to deliver approximate volumes

of liquid. Because there is a stopcock
at the bottom and a tapered, small
diameter tip, liquids can be released
in very small, accurately measured
amounts. These are especially useful
for titration. The accuracy of burettes
is similar to that of a high quality
graduated pipette

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 Graduated Used to transfer solutions and
pipette solvents from one vessel to another.
It is not extremely accurate.
Approximate volumes of liquids can
be transferred using the graduated
pipette

Volumetric measures small amounts of liquids

pipette extremely accurately

Volumetric Flask for making up solutions to a known

extremely accurate volume

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 Pipette pump used to pull liquid up into a pipet

Erlenmeyer flask used to hold liquids, has narrow neck

to prevent splashes

Beaker Used to hold liquids

stirring rod Used for stirring

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Evaporating dish liquids are heated over a flame so that
they evaporate, leaving a solid residue

crucible and cover used to hold small amounts of

chemicals during heating at high
temperatures

crucible tongs to hold hot crucibles

Thermometer Measuring temperature

mortar and pestle used to grind up materials

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rubber stopper used to cover ends of test tubes and
flasks

hot plate / stir used to heat and stir substances

plate

Clamp and a stand To hold glassware

Digital Balance an instrument for determining weight

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 Lab Session I
Date:…………………………………………………
Aim: to determine the concentration of a solution of sodium hydroxide by titration against a standard solution
of potassium hydrogenphthalate. [To standardize sodium hydroxide]
Note: potassium hydrogenphthalate has the formula of C8H5O4K, it is a monoprotic acid so HA can be used as
its symbol
Part I
Materials:

- Safety spectacles
- Spatula
- Potassium hydrogenphtalate
- Digital balance
- 250ml beaker
- Wash bottle of distilled water
- Stirring rod
- 250ml volumetric flask
- Filter funnel
- Dropping pipette
- Weighing bottle or wash glass

Procedure

- Take a weighing beaker and place it on the balance. Record its mass
- Add potassium hydrogen phthalate in the beaker to get about 5.00g of potassium hydrogenphthalate
- Record the mass of the beaker
- Transfer this amount to 250ml beaker that contains about 100ml distilled water. Use some water to
rinse all the substance off the watch glass. Do this at least twice.
- Stir with a glass rod until all the solid is dissolved. Then transfer the solution to the volumetric flask.
Use more water from the wash bottle to rinse out the beaker and the glass rod. Do this at least twice..
- Add water to just below the line on the volumetric flask
- Add the final drops with a teat pipette to ensure that the bottom of the meniscus is on the line.
- Close the flask and turn it over a couple of times
- Label your solution with your name, date and contents.

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Results:

Value Uncertainty
Molar mass of potassium
hydrogenphthalate
Mass of empty bottle
Mass of bottle and contents
Volume of solution

Data Processing:
Calculate the concentration of potassium hydrogenphthalate using the collected results and determine its
percentage, relative and absolute uncertainty

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Questions:
What effect would each of the errors described below have on the concentration of potassium
hydrogenphthalate?
a) Some of solid potassium hydrogenphthalate was spilled in making the transfer

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b) Not enough water was added to bring the volume up to the mark

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Part II
Materials

- Safety Spectacles
- Filter Funnel
- Burette 50ml
- Stand, clamp
- Two beakers, 100ml
- Sodium hydroxide solution of unknown concentration
- Pipette 25ml
- Pipette filler
- Standard hydrogenphthalate
- Conical flask, 250ml
- Phenolphthalein indicator
- White tile
- Wash bottle of distilled water.

Procedure
- Rinse the burette with sodium hydroxide and fill it with the same solution. record the initial reading of
the burette
- Rinse the pipette with the prepared potassium hydrogenphthalate solution and use it to transfer
25.0ml of the solution to a clean 250ml conical flask.
- Add two to three drops of the phenolphthalein indicator solution.
- Run sodium hydroxide from the burette while swirling the flask until the solution just turns pink.
Record the final burette reading
- Refill the burette and record its initial reading
- Use the pipette to transfer 25.0ml potassium hydrogenphtalate and add two or three drops of an
indicator.
- Titrate carefully and repeat titration at least twice or more

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Results:

Pipette solution
Burette solution
Indicator

Rough trial 1st titration 2nd titration 3rd titration

Initial reading
of burette
cm3 ± 0.05
Final reading of
burette
cm3 ± 0.05
Volume used
(titre)
cm3 ±
Mean titre
cm3 ±

Date processing
Calculate the concentration of the sodium hydroxide solution and determine its percentage, relative and
absolute uncertainties

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Questions:

a) Comment on the precision of the above results

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b) What are the errors that affects precision. Suggest some of them

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c) What effect would each of the errors below have on the calculated value of the concentration of sodium
hydroxide?

(i) The burette is not rinsed with sodium hydroxide

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(ii) The pipette is not rinsed with potassium hydrogenphthalate

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(iii) The tip of the burette is not filled before titration begins

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(iv) The conical flask contains some distilled water before the addition of potassium hydrogenphthalate

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d) In using phenoplhtalein as an indicator, we prefer to titrate from colorless to pink solution rather from pink
o colorless. Suggest a reason for this.

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e) Why it is advisable to remove sodium hydroxide from the burette as soon as possible after the titration?

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 Lab Session II

Practical Determination of the empirical formula of magnesium oxide

A student was asked to carry the following steps to find the empirical formula of magnesium oxide:
- Clean a crucible and its lid with distilled water and dry them
- weigh a crucible and lid and record its mass
- cut 10cm magnesium ribbon and place it in the crucible and reweigh
- Place the crucible on a triangle supported by a tripod and heat using a Bunsen burner.
- Lift the crucible lid from time to time.
- keep heating to make sure that combustion is complete
- leave crucible to cool
- reweigh the crucible with the lid
- Repeat the experiment until getting consistent results

Results:

Mass g ± 0.001
Trial I Trial II Trial III
Mass of crucible and lid 30.911 32.112 31.000
Mass of crucible+ lid + 31.037 33.201 32.022
magnesium
Mass of crucible + lid + 31.106 33.312 32.333
magnesium oxide
Mass of magnesium
Average mass of magnesium

Mass of magnesium oxide

Average mass of magnesium
oxide

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 (a) Use the results to calculate the empirical formula of magnesium oxide

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(b) Comment on the precision of the student

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(c) Comment on the accuracy of the student

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(d) Describe briefly a design for measuring the empirical formula of copper oxide

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 Lab Experiment 3
The use of Computer data logger in finding the enthalpy change

A Computer data logger is an electronic device that records data against time, store data, display and analyze
the data by drawing graphs.
Advantages of using data logger:

1. Automatic collection of data on a 24 hour basis (extended periods)

2. The work is carried by the data logger so it can be stopped and repeated at any time
3. Saves time since two or more experiments can be conducted at the same time
4. Computer data logger saves time in drawing manual graphs so that one can concentrate on inquiry,
analysis and development of method

Parts of computer data logger:

a. Sensor: A device that responds to some physical properties such as temperature, pressure, light
intensity, voltage , current,…..
b. Interface box: coverts signals coming from the sensor to signals that can be read by the computer
(digital)
c. Computer with appropriate software: the computer process the signal coming from the interface. It
stores the collected data, display them and analyze them.

Disadvantages of using data loggers:

1. Sensors are very sensitive and can be broken easily or malfunction at high voltage.
2. The data logger takes readings at the interval which has been set up. If anything happens between
recordings, the data will not be collected.
3. The equipment is expensive and sensors are not enough so students have to share in large numbers.

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Part (a): Determining the enthalpy change of a reaction
Steps:

1. Pipette 25.0 cm3 of 1.00 moldm-3 copper sulfate solution into a polystyrene cup
2. Weigh excess 6 g of zinc in the weighing bottle
3. Start your computer data logger. Data logger interval is 30 seconds
4. Put the sensor inside the polystyrene cup and then start recording
5. At 3 minutes, add the zinc powder to the cup
6. Continue recording for 30 20 minutes

Questions:
The accepted value is -217KJ/mol. Calculate the percentage error and list possible reasons for any difference
between the your value and accepted value

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Sample of an internal assessment
Aim:
To investigate how does the enthalpy of solution change down group I and group II chlorides using calorimetric method.
Moreover to compare the ΔH solution of group I chloride salts with that of group II. 1.00±0.01g of chloride salt (LiCl(S),
NaCl(S), KCl(S), MgCl2(S), CaCl2(S), SrCl2(S) and BaCl2(S)) is dissolved in 50.0±0.1 cm3of distilled water in polystyrene cup placed
in another polystyrene cup covered by polystyrene lid where a thermometer is passed through a hole in the lid; the
whole system is covered by a polystyrene layer that surrounds the edges and the top of lid. Then the maximum increase
or decrease in temperature of solution is recorded using a thermometer.

Introduction:
After covering the topic entitled Energetics in DP Chemistry classes, I enjoyed the subtopic entitled calorimetric method
as it opened my eyes that certain chemical reactions and physical processes release or absorb heat energy from or into
the surrounding, and the enthalpy change in these reactions or processes can be calculated. Therefore, I started thinking
of using calorimetric method to calculate ΔH solution of ionic compounds such as NaCl, MgCl2 … etc. Then I decided to
use metal chloride salts of group I and II since these salts are ionic compounds and thus have crystalline lattice structure
where oppositely charged ions are strongly attracted to each other by ionic bonding. The strength of the ionic bonds in
the compounds can be affected by changes on the oppositely charged ions, and the size of the ions. As the charge of the
ion increases, the energy needed to break down the crystalline lattice structure in the compound increases, thus ΔH
lattice increases. But as the size of the cation increases; ΔH lattice decreases. I wandered if ΔH lattice will affect ΔH
solution of these ionic compounds. Moreover, the number of anions increases moving from group I to group II and I
don’t know if this will increase or decrease the temperature and thus ΔH solution. I wanted to explore if ΔH hydration of
these ionic compounds in water will affect ΔH solution.

As an inquirer, I decided to compare between theoretical ΔH solution with experimented ΔH solution using calorimetric
method to decide whether going down group I and II of chloride salts ΔH solution becomes more or less exothermic.

Scientific Background:
Enthalpy changes occur when an ionic compound dissolves in water and by that, heat is either absorbed from the
system or released into the surrounding and this can be indicated by the sign positive (absorbed) or negative (released).
But upon dissolving, energy is needed to break the lattice between oppositely charged ions. Also energy is released
when ions form a bond with water molecules. In the case of group I and II chlorides, going down the group the ionic
radius becomes bigger and as a result, the energy needed to break the lattice decreases because as the distance
between the positive ions and the negative ions increases, so the forces of attraction between oppositely charged ions
become weaker. But going from group I to group II, the ionic radius becomes smaller making it harder for the lattice
structure to be broken down.

Theoretically, I used ΔH lattice and ΔH hydration to construct Hess’s cycle to obtain the theoretical values of ΔH solution.
But first, what is ΔH lattice and ΔH hydration?

ΔH lattice: “The lattice enthalpy is defined as the standard enthalpy change that occurs on the formation of 1 mole of
gaseous ions from the solid lattice.”1

1
Murphy, B. Horner,G. Tracy,D. Bylikin,S. 2014. Oxford IB Diploma Program Chemistry:Course Companion. Third Edition. Oxford: Oxford
University Press, p. (358).

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ΔH hydration: “The heat energy released when new bonds are made between the ions and water molecules is known as
the hydration enthalpy of the ion. The hydration enthalpy is the enthalpy change when 1 mole of gaseous ions dissolves
in sufficient water to give an infinitely dilute solution. Hydration enthalpies are always negative.”2

The theoretical value of ΔH lattice and ΔH hydration were taken from the official IB chemistry Data Booklet, version
number 3, table 18 in page 16 and table 20 in page 18 .

Group I: For example, ΔH solution of LiCl was determined by constructing the Hess’s cycle below:

Li+ (g) + Cl-(g)

+864kJ/mol -538kJ/mol -359kJ/mol

LiCl(s) + (aq) Li+ (aq) + Cl-(aq)

ΔH solution = ΔH lattice + ΔH cationic hydration + ΔH anionic hydraion
ΔH solution of LiCl= (+864) + (-538) + (-359) = -33kJ/mol

ΔH solution of NaCl= (+790) + (-424) + (-359) = +7kJ/mol

ΔH solution of KCl= (+720) + (-340) + (-359) = +21kJ/mol

The ΔH lattice decreases by 74kJ/mol going from LiCl to NaCl, and by 70kJ/mol going from NaCl to KCl. The ΔH cationic hydration
decreases by 114kJ/mol going from LiCl to NaCl, and by 84kJ/mol going from NaCl to KCl. But the ΔH anionic hydration
remained the same going from LiCl to NaCl to KCl. The decrease in ∆H cationic hydration is greater than the decrease in
∆H lattice leading that ∆H solution is changing from being exothermic to endothermic down group I chloride.
Moving from LiCl to NaCl to KCl, the ionic radius of the positive ion increases and this decreases the attraction between
oppositely charged ions in the chloride compounds. Therefore the value of ΔH lattice decreases going from LiCl to NaCl to
KCl.

ΔH solution of group I chlorides becomes more endothermic (less exothermic) as we move down the group since heat
energy needed to break up 1 mole of the crystal lattice becomes higher than heat energy released when new bonds are
made between the ions and the water molecule. In other words, ΔH lattice of metal chloride becomes higher than the
ΔH hydration of the alkali metal cation and ΔH hydration of anion (Cl-) moving down group I chloride.

Group II: For example, ΔH solution of MgCl2 was determined by constructing the Hess’s cycle below:

+2540kJ/mol Mg2+ (g) + 2Cl-(g)

-1963kJ/mol 2x-359kJ/mol

MgCl2(s) + (aq) Mg2+ (aq) + 2Cl-(aq)

ΔH solution of MgCl2 = (+2540) + (-1963) + (2x-359) = -141kJ/mol

ΔH solution of CaCl2 = (+2271) + (-1616) + (2x-359) = -63kJ/mol

ΔH solution of SrCl2= (+2170) + (-1483) + (2x-359) = -31kJ/mol

ΔH solution of BaCl2 = (+2069) + (-1346) + (2x-359) = +5kJ/mol

2 http://www.chemguide.co.uk/physical/energetics/solution.html

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The ΔH lattice decreases by 269kJ/mol going from MgCl2 to CaCl2, and by 101kJ/mol going from CaCl2 to SrCl2, also by
101kJ/mol going from SrCl2 to BaCl2. The ΔH cationic hydration decreases by 347kJ/mol going from MgCl2 to CaCl2, and by
133kJ/mol going from CaCl2 to SrCl2, then by 137 from SrCl2 to BaCl2. But the ΔH anionic hydration remained the same going
from MgCl2 to CaCl2to SrCl2 to BaCl2. The decrease in ∆H cationic hydration is greater than the decrease in ∆H lattice
leading that ∆H solution is changing from being exothermic to endothermic down group II chloride.
ΔH solution of group II chlorides becomes more endothermic (less exothermic) as we move down the group II chlorides
since heat energy needed to break up 1 mole of the crystal lattice becomes higher than heat energy released when new
bonds are made between the ions and the water molecule. In other words, ΔH lattice of metal chloride becomes higher
than the ΔH hydration of the alkaline earth metal cation and ΔH hydration of anion (2Cl-) moving down group II chloride.
But in the case of group II chloride , more energy is needed to break down the lattice because the positive ion radius
decreases moving from group I to II chloride and forces of attraction between positive and valence electrons increases
moving from group I to II chloride. The number of chloride ions increases from group I to II chloride. Therefore, small
cations with higher charge attract water molecules more strongly causing greater release of heat energy3.

Table1: Shows the theoretical ΔH solution of alkali metal chloride and alkaline earth metal chloride.

Alkali metal chloride Theoretical ΔH solution Alkaline earth metal Theoretical ΔH solution
kJ/mol chloride kJ/mol

LiCl -33 MgCl2 -141

NaCl +7 CaCl2 -63
KCl +21 SrCl2 -31
BaCl2 +5

Methodology:
If temperature increases and chemical bonds are formed then the system will release energy in form of heat to the
surrounding, this is known as an exothermic reaction. On the other hand, if temperature decreases and chemical bonds
are broken down and energy is absorbed from the surrounding, this is known as an endothermic reaction.

Calorimetric method was used in this investigation. 1.00±0.01g of chloride salt (LiCl(S), NaCl(S), KCl(S), MgCl2(S), CaCl2(S),
SrCl2(S) and BaCl2(S)) is dissolved in 50.0±0.1 cm3 of distilled water in polystyrene cup placed in another polystyrene cup
covered by polystyrene lid where a thermometer is passed through a hole in the lid; the whole system is covered by a
polystyrene layer that surrounds the edges and the top of lid. Then the maximum increase or decrease in temperature
of solution is recorded using a thermometer.

After measuring the initial and final temperature, the heat obtained or released will then be measured using the
formula:

3
Murphy, B. Horner,G. Tracy,D. Bylikin,S. 2014. Oxford IB Diploma Program Chemistry: Course Companion. Third Edition. Oxford: Oxford
University Press, p. (361-363).

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q= mH O x cH O x ΔT avg
2 2

Where: q= the heat absorbed or released by the system which is indicated by the sign positive (absorbed) or negative
(released).

m= the mass of the distilled water which is equivalent to volume of the distilled water since density of water is 1g/cm3.

c= the specific heat capacity of water which is a constant that equals 4.18 J/g.K.

ΔT= the change in temperature in kelvin which is calculated by subtracting the initial temperature from the final
temperature. (ΔT= Tf – Ti)

Furthermore, ΔH is measured using the equation:

𝒒
ΔH= 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒂𝒍𝒕 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒅

Where: mole of salt = 1.00±0.01g of chloride salt is divided by the molar mass of the metal chloride.

Hypothesis:
I predict that moving down group I and II chloride salts, ΔH solution will become more endothermic (less exothermic)
because as the size of the cation increases while the charge of the cation remains constant, the force of attraction
between the cation and the chloride anion decreases, thus the lattice enthalpy ∆H decreases down group I and group II
chloride salts. Moreover; ∆H cationic hydration becomes less exothermic down group I and II chloride salts as the size of
the cation increases, the electrostatic force of attraction between the cation and the highly polar water molecules
becomes weaker. In addition; I predict that I can compare the ΔH solution of group I chloride salts with that of group II.
ΔH solution of group II chloride salts is more exothermic than group I chloride salts since the number of chloride ions
increases plus small cations with higher charge attract water molecules more strongly causing greater release of heat
energy.

Variables:
Dependent variable:-
Initial temperature and the final temperature of the chloride solution are recorded using a thermometer ± 0.1ᵒC so that
ΔT (Final Temperature - Initial Temperature) can be calculated. ΔT is used to calculate heat absorbed or released (q) for
the dissolving process where q is used to calculate ΔH solution.

Independent variable:-
The type of metal chloride salt is changed: LiCl(S), NaCl(S), KCl(S), MgCl2(S), CaCl2(S), SrCl2(S) and BaCl2(S)) because the aim of
my inquiry is to investigate the difference in ΔH solution between group I and II chloride salts which is affected by the
radius and the charge of the cation plus number of chloride ions in the chloride salt. The previously mentioned chloride
salts are used to determine ∆H solution of these solids in in 50.0±0.1 cm3of distilled water.

Controlled variable:-
Same volume of distilled water is used in all trials to dissolve chloride salts: 50.0±0.1cm3 of distilled water is measured
using a measuring cylinder. The total volume is kept constant so that the energy absorbed or released is distributed
equally on the same volume. Changing volume of water affects temperature recorded in this investigation.

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Type of water: distilled water is used to avoid the presence of other ions that may affect the dissolving of chloride salts
in water and hence the ΔH solution.

Same mass of powder is used in the experiment: 1.00g±0.01 of powder must be controlled. The mass is controlled by
using a digital balance. The powder is transferred from the original bottle using a spatula to the filter paper that is placed
on the digital balance after tarring the balance. This mass is chosen to keep the chloride salt the limiting reactant.
Fluctuation in the mass of the powder will affect the result of ΔH solution.

Table 2: Shows the maximum solubility of each chloride salt used in this investigation in gram per 50ml water at 20ºC.

Metal chloride salt Solubility in water at 20ºC in Solubility in water at 20ºC in

g/100ml4 g/50ml
LiCl 83.5 41.8
NaCl 36.00 18.00
KCl 34.2 17.1
MgCl2 54.6 27.3
CaCl2 74.5 37.3
SrCl2 52.9 26.5
BaCl2 35.8 17.9

Same method of insulation in all trials: two polystyrene cups covered by polystyrene lid where a thermometer is passed
through a hole in the lid; the whole system is covered by a polystyrene layer that surrounds the edges and the top of lid.
This is because of the main aim of the investigation which is to use the calorimetric method to calculate ΔH solution and
to minimize heat loss to the surroundings.

Risk assessment: LiCl is harmful if swallowed, inhaled or absorbed through skin of human being.5 NaCl has no
significant risk under normal use.6 KCl is an irritant to skin and eyes plus harmful if swallowed or inhaled.7

MgCl2: may cause mild eye, skin, gastrointestinal tract and respiratory tract irritation.8 CaCl2: causes irritation to skin,
eyes, gastrointestinal tract and respiratory organs.9 SrCl2 is an irritant which causes skin and respiratory tract irritation
moreover serious eye irritation.10 BaCl2 is toxic if inhaled or ingested.11 Mask, goggles, latex gloves and laboratory coat
must be worn as precautions to avoid the above mentioned risks. In addition the fume hood must be opened for good
ventilation.

Procedure:

4 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solubility_table
5 www.sciencelab.com/msds.php?msdsId=9927210
6 www.tsi.com/.../MSDS/1033617_MSDS-Sodium-Chloride-0508.pdf
7 www.sciencelab.com/msds.php?msdsId=9927402

8
https://www.landscapepros.com/.../Magnesium-Chloride-MSDS.pdf
9 www.sciencelab.com/msds.php?msdsId=9923251

10
https://www.fishersci.ca/.../msdsproxy?...strontium-chloride...chemical
11 https://www.nwmissouri.edu/.../sds/b/Barium%20chloride.pdf

23
1- Prepare the material needed which are 2 polystyrene cups, measuring cylinder, filter funnel, metal chloride
salts (LiCl(S), NaCl(S), KCl(S), MgCl2(S), CaCl2(S), SrCl2(S) and BaCl2(S)), distilled water, thermometer, filter paper, digital
balance, a spatula, polystyrene lid and layer.
2- Place the 2 polystyrene cups over each other.
3- Place a filter funnel on the top of 100.0cm3±0.1 measuring cylinder, and then measure 50.0cm3±0.1 of distilled
water. Remove the filter funnel after measuring. The measuring cylinder should be first rinsed with distilled
water twice before adding 50.0cm3±0.1 distilled water.
4- Transfer the distilled water into the polystyrene cup making sure that all the water is transferred.
5- Using a thermometer that is passed through a hole in a polystyrene lid covering the two polystyrene cups,
measure the temperature of distilled water in the polystyrene cups. Record the result as initial temperature.
6- Using the digital balance, place a filter paper on it and press tare, measure 1.00±0.01 g of the lithium chloride
using a spatula and make sure it does not exceed the mass needed.
7- Carefully transfer lithium chloride to the distilled water in the polystyrene cups. Don’t forget to stir the solution
carefully making sure nothing goes wrong. The whole system is covered by a polystyrene layer that surrounds
the edges and the top of lid to minimize heat loss to the surroundings.
8- Record the maximum increase or decrease in temperature of solution using a thermometer.
9- Wash all the apparatus making sure nothing is left in them.
10- Repeat steps 1-9 twice to get consistent readings of ∆T.
11- After finishing with the first metal chloride, repeat steps 1-10 with other group I and II chlorides (NaCl(S), KCl(S),
MgCl2(S), CaCl2(S), SrCl2(S) and BaCl2(S)).

24
Table of results:
Table 3: This table shows the initial temperature and the final temperature of the chloride solution that is formed by
dissolving (1.00±0.01g) solid chloride salt in (50.0±0.1 cm3) distilled water. The temperature is recorded using a
thermometer ± 0.1ᵒC.

Controlled variables:
Type of water: distilled water.
Same volume of distilled water was used in all trials: 50.0cm3±0.1.
Same mass of chloride powder was used in all trials: 1.00±0.01g.
Same method of insulation in all trials: two polystyrene cups covered by polystyrene lid where a
thermometer is passed through a hole in the lid; the whole system is covered by a polystyrene layer that
surrounds the edges and the top of lid.
Number of Initial Final Change in Change in
Chloride salt trials temperature temperature temperature in temperature in
± 0.1ᵒC ± 0.1ᵒC ᵒC K
± 0.2ᵒC
1 21.0 24.4 3.4 3.4
LiCl 2 21.0 24.3 3.3 3.3
3 21.0 24.4 3.4 3.4
1 21.0 20.6 0.4 0.4
NaCl 2 21.0 20.7 0.3 0.3
3 21.0 20.6 0.4 0.4
1 21.0 20.2 0.8 0.8
KCl 2 21.0 20.3 0.7 0.7
3 21.0 20.2 0.8 0.8
1 21.0 23.5 2.5 2.5
MgCl2 2 21.0 23.4 2.4 2.4
3 21.0 23.6 2.6 2.6
1 21.0 22.7 1.7 1.7
CaCl2 2 21.0 22.8 1.8 1.8
3 21.0 22.7 1.7 1.7
1 21.0 22.0 1.0 1.0
SrCl2 2 21.0 22.1 1.1 1.1
3 21.0 22.0 1.0 1.0
1 21.0 20.6 0.4 0.4
BaCl2 2 21.0 20.5 0.5 0.5
3 21.0 20.5 0.5 0.5
Observation:
The solid powder has white color.
The mixture turns cloudy white upon dissolving the solid powder in colorless water.
The two polystyrene cups become cold since heat is absorbed upon dissolving NaCl, KCl and BaCl2 solid
powder in colorless water.
The two polystyrene cups become hot since heat is released upon dissolving LiCl, MgCl2, CaCl2 and SrCl2
solid powder in colorless water.

Data processing:

25
The calculations done below shows the change in temperature of lithium chloride solution that is formed by dissolving
(1.00±0.01g) solid lithium chloride salt in (50.0±0.1 cm3) distilled water. The temperature is recorded using a
thermometer ± 0.1ᵒC.
ΔT1= 24.4-21.0= 3.4K
ΔT2 = 24.3-21.0= 3.3K
ΔT3 = 24.4-21.0= 3.4K
𝑇1 + 𝑇2 + 𝑇3
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 ∆𝑇 =
3
Avg. ΔT=3.4K+3.3K+3.4K/3 = 3.37K= 3.4K

q= mH O x cH O x ΔTavg
2 2

q = 50.0g x 4.18 J/g.K x 3.4K

q = 710J
ΔH= q/moles of salt
𝒎 𝟏.𝟎𝟎
n of LiCl = 𝑴𝒓 = 𝟒𝟐.𝟑𝟗 = 0.0236mol

ΔH = 710J/0.0236mol
ΔH = -3.0 × 104 J/mol
ΔH = -3.0 ×10 kJ/mol
Table 4: This table clarifies the uncertainty in calculated ΔH solution of lithium chloride.
Apparatus Reading Absolute uncertainty % uncertainty

Thermometer 3.4oC 0.2oC (0.2/3.4) x100%= 6%

Balance 1.00g 0.01 g (0.01/1.00)x100%=1%

Measuring cylinder 50.0cm3 0.1 cm3 (0.1/50.0)x100%=0.2%

Total % uncertainty= 6%+1%+0.2%= 7%

Absolute uncertainty= (7/100)x 3.0 × 10 =2
ΔH solution = -3.0 ×10 kJ/mol ±0.2 × 10

Note: The data processing regarding the calculated ∆H solution for NaCl (aq), KCl (aq), MgCl2 (aq), CaCl2 (aq), SrCl2 (aq) and BaCl2
(aq) are shown in appendix 1.

Discussion:
Table 11: The following table illustrates the relation between the cationic radius (10-12m), average ∆T (K), and heat
change (J). Moreover, the calculated ΔH solution (kJ/mol), and theoretical ΔH solution (kJ/mol) for specific group I and II
chloride salts used in this investigation.

26
 Chlori Cation Cationic radius Average Heat Calculated ΔH Theoretical ΔH
de salt ×10-12m12 ∆T/K change solution kJ/mol solution kJ/mol
(q)/J
LiCl Li+ 76 3.4 710 -3.0 ×10 ±0.2 × 10 -33
NaCl Na+ 102 0.4 80 +5 ±3 +7
KCl K+ 138 0.8 200 +10 ±3 +21
MgCl2 Mg2+ 72 2.5 520 -5.0×10 ±0.5×10 -141
CaCl2 Ca2+ 100 1.7 360 -4.0 ×10 ± 0.4×10 -63
SrCl2 Sr2+ 118 1.0 210 -33 ±7 -31
BaCl2 Ba2+ 135 0.5 100 +20 ±8 +5

Average ∆T decreases from 3.4K to 0.4K moving from LiCl to NaCl then it increases from 0.4K to 0.8K moving from NaCl
to KCl. But average ∆T is the highest for LiCl in comparison with the other metal chloride salts. The same pattern is
observed in the heat change moving down group I metal chlorides where it decreases from 710J to 80J moving from LiCl
to NaCl then it increases from 80J to 200J moving from NaCl to KCl. On the other hand; heat is released in case of LiCl
but absorbed in case of NaCl and KCl. Average ∆T decreases from 2.5K to 1.7K to 1.0K to 0.5K moving from MgCl2 to
CaCl2 to SrCl2 to BaCl2 respectively. And the same pattern is observed in heat change moving down group II metal
chlorides where it decreases from 520J to 360J to 210J to 100J. Heat is released in case of MgCl2, CaCl2 and SrCl2 but
absorbed in case of BaCl2.
Moving across the period two from NaCl to MgCl2, average ∆T increases from 0.4K to 2.5K and also the heat change
increases from 80J to 520J. Also the same pattern is observed moving across the period three from KCl to CaCl2 since
average ∆T increases from 0.8K to 1.7K and also heat change increases from 200J to 360J.
The process of dissolving 1.00±0.01g of metal chloride salt in 50.0±0.1cm3 distilled water is exothermic for LiCl, MgCl2,
CaCl2, and SrCl2 and in this case the energy needed for the formation of bonds between cations and water molecules
plus between anions and water molecules does pay back for the energy needed for breaking the bonds between cations
and anions in the lattice plus the hydrogen and London dispersion forces between water molecules themselves.
Whereas the process is endothermic for NaCl, KCl and BaCl2 and in this case the energy needed for the formation of
bonds between cations and water molecules plus between anions and water molecules doesn’t pay back for the energy
needed for breaking the bonds between cations and anions in the lattice plus the hydrogen and London dispersion
forces between water molecules themselves.
The enthalpy change ∆H solution becomes more endothermic(less exothermic) going from LiCl to NaCl to KCl since the
calculated ∆H solution is changing from -3.0 ×10 kJ/mol to +5 kJ/mol to +10kJ/mol respectively. Therefore, it is
concluded that as the size of the cation increases while the charge of the cation is 1+, the force of attraction between
the cation and the chloride anion decreases , thus the lattice enthalpy ∆H decreases down group I chloride. Moreover;
as the size of the cation increases, the electrostatic force of attraction between the cation and the highly polar water
molecules becomes weaker, so the ∆H cationic hydration decreases down group I chloride. The ∆H anionic hydration
remains constant as the size and the number of chloride ion remain the same down group I chloride. In addition, the
energy released when ions dissolve in water is lower the total energies needed to separate the oppositely charged ions
in the solid giant crystalline lattice structure and to separate water molecules themselves. In other words; the decrease
in ∆H cationic hydration is greater than the decrease in ∆H lattice leading that ∆H solution is changing from being
exothermic to endothermic down group I chloride.
The enthalpy change ∆H solution becomes more endothermic(less exothermic) going from MgCl2 to CaCl2 to SrCl2 to
BaCl2 since the calculated ∆H solution is changing from -5.0×10 kJ/mol to -4.0 ×10kJ/mol to -33kJ/mol to

12 IB Chemistry Data booklet, version 3, table 9 in page 9.

27
+20kJ/mol respectively. Therefore, it is concluded that as the size of the cation increases while the charge of the cation is
2+, the force of attraction between the cation and the chloride anion decreases, thus the lattice enthalpy ∆H decreases
down group II chloride. Moreover; as the size of the cation increases, the electrostatic force of attraction between the
cation and the highly polar water molecules becomes weaker, so the ∆H cationic hydration decreases down group II
chloride. The ∆H anionic hydration remains constant as the size and the number of chloride ion remain the same down
group II chloride. In addition, the energy released when ions dissolve in water is lower the total energies needed to
separate the oppositely charged ions in the solid giant crystalline lattice structure and to separate water molecules
themselves. In other words; the decrease in ∆H cationic hydration is greater than the decrease in ∆H lattice leading that
∆H solution is changing from being exothermic to endothermic down group II chloride.
On the other hand, the ΔH solution values of group II chloride salts are higher than that of group I chloride salts. In other
words; ΔH solution of group II chloride salts are more exothermic than ΔH solution of group I chloride salts. The reason
behind this is; the charge of the cation increases from 1+ to 2+ going from group I to II, the size of cation decreases
going from group I to II plus the number of chloride ions increases going from group I to II. As a result, the electrostatic
force of attraction between the cation and the highly polar water molecules becomes stronger. Therefore, the energy
released when ions dissolve in water is higher than the total energies needed to separate the oppositely charged ions in
the solid giant crystalline lattice structure and to separate water molecules themselves causing greater release of heat
energy to the surrounding.

Conclusion:
It is concluded that the experimental calculated ΔH solution of both groups I and II chloride salts using calorimetric
method becomes more endothermic moving down group I and II chloride salts because as the size of the cation
increases while the charge of the cation remains constant, the force of attraction between the cation and the chloride
anion decreases, thus the lattice enthalpy ∆H decreases down group I and group II chloride salts. Moreover; ∆H cationic
hydration decreases down group I and II chloride salts because as the size of the cation increases, the electrostatic force
of attraction between the cation and the highly polar water molecules becomes weaker. However, ΔH solution of group
II chloride salt is more exothermic than group I chloride salt since the number of chloride ions increases plus small
cations with higher charge attract water molecules more strongly causing greater release of heat energy. My conclusion
was consistent with my hypothesis.

Sources of errors:
To calculate the % error in the calculated ΔH solution, the following equation is used:
𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒−𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
% error = |
𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
| 𝑋100%
7−5
% error in the calculated ΔH solution of NaCl (aq) = 7
𝑥 100% = 30%

Table 12: The following table illustrates the results obtained after calculating the % error in the calculated ΔH solution of
metal chloride salts in water.

Metal chloride salt solution %error in calculated ΔH solution

LiCl(aq) 9
NaCl(aq) 30
KCl(aq) 52
MgCl2(aq) 65
CaCl2(aq) 37
SrCl2(aq) 6
BaCl2(aq) 300

28
The presence of high percentages of errors indicates that the calculated ∆H solution values are inaccurate and there
are a number of systematic errors done in the experiment and these systematic errors include:
- It is assumed that the specific heat capacity of the metal chloride is the same as the specific heat capacity of water.
- It is assumed that the temperature is controlled during dissolving process. Uncontrolled temperatures affect rate of
dissolving and hence ∆T.
- It is assumed that all the metal chlorides are pure and dry.
- The rate of stirring is different in every trial.
- It is assumed that heat is only absorbed or released by the solution. In fact, the heat is absorbed or released by the
thermometer and the two polystyrene cups and lid.
- It is assumed that the density of the metal chloride salt is negligible.
- It is assumed that the specific heat capacity of the two polystyrene cups and lid are negligible.

The changes in the temperature recorded in the raw table of results are not precise since the differences in the
recorded ∆T are greater or lower than 0.1 and this indicates the presence of random errors and these errors include:
- Fluctuation in the reading of the mass of the metal chloride salt using the digital balance. In other words, the reading
can be 1.01g and sometimes 0.99g.
- Fluctuation in the volume of 50.0cm3distilled water which is measured using a measuring cylinder.
- Fluctuation in the reading of the final temperature after placing the chloride salt in the distilled water.

Improvements:
- Change the calorimeter used by dissolving the salt in water in glass beaker that is surrounded by two layers of
polystyrene covered also by two layers of polystyrene from the top. Then place the whole system in a pottery which
is a better insulator to minimize the heat loss and obtain measurable T values.
- Use a magnetic stirrer to uniform rate of dissolving of salt in distilled water.
- Use a temperature probe instead of the thermometer to record initial and final temperatures.
- Dry the metal chloride salt in the oven and store in the desiccator before dissolving in water.
- Compensate for the heat loss to surroundings by plotting a graph of temperature versus time and then extrapolate.
- Calculate the specific heat capacity of the metal chloride salt, thermometer and the two polyethylene cups.
- Make sure the reading of the scale is correct by placing your eye on the meniscus.
- Make sure that when transferring the metal chloride salt into the distilled water that all the powder is transferred.
- Be aware of cleaning the apparatus before beginning the next trial to avoid mixing of different chloride salts.

Bibliography:
1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solubility_table
2. http://www.chemguide.co.uk/physical/energetics/solution.html
3. https://www.landscapepros.com/.../Magnesium-Chloride-MSDS.pdf
4. https://www.fishersci.ca/.../msdsproxy?...strontium-chloride...chemical
5. https://www.nwmissouri.edu/.../sds/b/Barium%20chloride.pdf

6. IB Chemistry Data booklet, version 3, table 9 in page 9, table 18 in page 16 and table 20 in page 18.
7. Murphy, B. Horner,G. Tracy,D. Bylikin,S. 2014. Oxford IB Diploma Program Chemistry: Course Companion. Third
Edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. (358) + (361-363).
8. www.tsi.com/.../MSDS/1033617_MSDS-Sodium-Chloride-0508.pdf
9. www.sciencelab.com/msds.php?msdsId=9927402
10. www.sciencelab.com/msds.php?msdsId=9923251

29
 11. www.sciencelab.com/msds.php?msdsId=9927210

Appendix 1:
The calculations done below shows the change in temperature of sodium chloride solution that is formed by dissolving
(1.00±0.01g) solid sodium chloride salt in (50.0±0.1 cm3) distilled water. The temperature is recorded using a
thermometer ± 0.1ᵒC.
ΔT1 = 21.0-20.6= 0.4K
ΔT2 =21.0-20.7= 0.3K
ΔT3 = 21.0-20.6= 0.4K
𝑇1 + 𝑇2 + 𝑇3
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 ∆𝑇 =
3
Avg. ΔT = 0.3K+0.4K+0.4K /3= 0.367=0.4K

q= mH O x cH O x ΔTavg
2 2

q = 50.0g x 4.18 J/g.K x0.4K

q = 84J = 80J
ΔH= q/moles of salt
𝟏.𝟎𝟎
n of NaCl= 𝟓𝟖.𝟒𝟒 = 0.0171 mol

ΔH = 80J/0.0171mol
ΔH = +5000J/mol
ΔH = +5kJ/mol
Table 5: This table clarifies the uncertainty in calculated ΔH solution of sodium chloride.

Apparatus Reading Absolute uncertainty % uncertainty

Thermometer 0.4oC 0.2oC (0.2/0.4) x100%= 50%

Balance 1.00g 0.01g (0.01/1.00)x100%= 1%

Measuring cylinder 50.0cm3 0.1 cm3 (0.1/50.0)x100%= 0.2%

Total % uncertainty= 50%+1%+0.2% =51%

Absolute uncertainty= (51/100)x 5 =3

30
 ΔH solution =+5kJ/mol ±3

The calculations done below shows the change in temperature of potassium chloride solution that is formed by
dissolving (1.00±0.01g) solid potassium chloride salt in (50.0±0.1 cm3) distilled water. The temperature is recorded using
a thermometer ± 0.1ᵒC.
ΔT1=21.0-20.2= 0.8K
ΔT2= 21.0-20.3= 0.7K
ΔT3=21.0-20.2= 0.8K
𝑇1 + 𝑇2 + 𝑇3
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 ∆𝑇 =
3
Avg. ΔT= 0.8K+0.7K+0.8K /3= 0.766=0.8K

q= mH O x cH O x ΔTavg
2 2

q = 50.0g x4.18 J/g.K x0.8K

q = 200J
ΔH= q/moles of salt
ΔH = 200J/0.0134mol
ΔH = +10000J/mol
ΔH = +10kJ/mol
Table 6: This table clarifies the uncertainty in calculated ΔH solution of potassium chloride.
Apparatus Reading Absolute uncertainty % uncertainty

Thermometer 0.8oC 0.2oC (0.2/0.8) x100%= 30%

Balance 1.00g 0.01g (0.01/1.00)x100%=1%

Measuring cylinder 50.0cm3 0.1 cm3 (0.1/50.0)x100%=0.2%

Total % uncertainty= 30%+1%+0.2%= 31%

Absolute uncertainty= (31/100)x 10 = 3
ΔH solution = +10kJ/mol ± 3

31
The calculations done below shows the change in temperature of magnesium chloride solution that is formed by
dissolving (1.00±0.01g) solid magnesium chloride salt in (50.0±0.1 cm3) distilled water. The temperature is recorded
using a thermometer ± 0.1ᵒC.
ΔT1= 23.5-21.0= 2.5K
ΔT2= 23.4-21.0= 2.4K
ΔT3= 23.6-21.0= 2.6K
𝑇1 + 𝑇2 + 𝑇3
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 ∆𝑇 =
3
Avg. ΔT=2.5K+2.4K+2.6K/3 = 2.5K

q= mH O x cH O x ΔTavg
2 2

q= 50.0g x 4.18J/g.K x2.5K

q= 520J
ΔH= q/moles of salt
ΔH = 520J/0.0105mol
ΔH = -49523J/mol
ΔH = -5.0×10kJ/mol
Table 7: This table clarifies the uncertainty in calculated ΔH solution of magnesium chloride.
Apparatus Reading Absolute uncertainty % uncertainty
Thermometer 2.5oC 0.2oC (0.2/2.5) x100%= 8%
Balance 1.00g 0.01g (0.01/1.00)x100%=1%

Measuring cylinder 50.0cm3 0.1 cm3 (0.1/50.0)x100%= 0.2%

Total % uncertainty= 8%+1%+0.2% =9%

Absolute uncertainty= (9/100) x 5.0 × 10 = 0.5×10
ΔH solution = -5.0×10kJ/mol ± 0.5×10

The calculations done below shows the change in temperature of calcium chloride solution that is formed by dissolving
(1.00±0.01g) solid calcium chloride salt in (50.0±0.1 cm3) distilled water. The temperature is recorded using a
thermometer ± 0.1ᵒC.
Δ T1=22.7-21.0= 1.7K
Δ T2 =22.8-21.0= 1.8K
32
Δ T3 = 22.7-21.0= 1.7K
𝑇1 + 𝑇2 + 𝑇3
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 ∆𝑇 =
3
Avg. ΔT= 1.7K+1.8K+1.7K/3 = 1.733K= 1.7K

q= mH O x cH O x ΔTavg
2 2

q= 50.0gx4.18 J/ g.Kx1.7K
q= 360J
ΔH= q/moles of salt
ΔH = 360J/0.00901mol
ΔH = -4.0 ×104 J/mol
ΔH = -4.0 ×10 kJ/mol
Table 8: This table clarifies the uncertainty in calculated ΔH solution of calcium chloride.
Apparatus Reading Absolute uncertainty % uncertainty

Thermometer 1.7oC 0.2oC (0.2/1.7) x100%=10%

Balance 1.00g 0.01g (0.01/1.00)x100%=1%
Measuring cylinder 50.0cm3 0.1 cm3 (0.1/50.0)x100%= 0.2%
Total % uncertainty= 10%+1%+0.2%= 11%
Absolute uncertainty= (11/100) x 4.0 ×10 = 0.4×10
ΔH solution = -4.0 ×10 kJ/mol ± 0.4×10

The calculations done below shows the change in temperature of strontium chloride solution that is formed by
dissolving (1.00±0.01g) solid strontium chloride salt in (50.0±0.1 cm3) distilled water. The temperature is recorded using
a thermometer ± 0.1ᵒC.
ΔT1= 22.0-21.0= 1.0K
ΔT2=22.1-21.0= 1.1K
ΔT3= 22.0-21.0= 1.0K
𝑇1 + 𝑇2 + 𝑇3
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 ∆𝑇 =
3
Avg. ΔT= 1.0K+1.1K+1.0K/3 = 1.033K= 1.0K

33
q= mH O x cH O x ΔTavg
2 2

q= 50.0gx4.18J/g.K x1.0K
q= 210J
ΔH= q/moles of salt
ΔH = 210J/0.00631mol
ΔH = -33000J/mol
ΔH = -33kJ/mol
Table 9: This table clarifies the uncertainty in calculated ΔH solution of strontium chloride.
Apparatus Reading Absolute uncertainty % uncertainty

Thermometer 1.0oC 0.2oC (0.2/1.0) x100%= 20%

Balance 1.00g 0.01g (0.01/1.00)x100%=1%

Measuring cylinder 50.0cm3 0.1 cm3 (0.1/50.0)x100%= 0.2%

Total % uncertainty= 20%+1%+0.2% =21%

Absolute uncertainty= (21/100)x 33 =7
ΔH solution = -33kJ/mol ± 7

The calculations done below shows the change in temperature of barium chloride solution that is formed by dissolving
(1.00±0.01g) solid barium chloride salt in (50.0±0.1 cm3) distilled water. The temperature is recorded using a
thermometer ± 0.1ᵒC.
Δ T1=21.0-20.6= 0.4K
Δ T2= 21.0-20.5= 0.5K
Δ T3= 21.0-20.5= 0.5K
𝑇1+𝑇2+𝑇3
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 ∆𝑇 = 3

Avg. ΔT= 0.4K+0.5K+0.5K /3= 0.466=0.5K

q= mH O x cH O x ΔTavg
2 2

q= 50.0gx4.18J/g.K x0.5K
q= 100J

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ΔH= q/moles of salt
ΔH = 100J/0.00480mol
ΔH = +20000J/mol
ΔH =+20kJ/mol
Table 10: This table clarifies the uncertainty in calculated ΔH solution of barium chloride.
Apparatus Reading Absolute uncertainty % uncertainty

Thermometer 0.5oC 0.2oC (0.2/0.5) x100%= 40%

Balance 1.00g 0.01g (0.01/1.00)x100%=1%

Measuring cylinder 50.0cm3 0.1 cm3 (0.1/50.0)x100%= 0.2%

Total % uncertainty= 40%+1%+0.2% = 41%
Absolute uncertainty= (41/100)x 20 = 8
ΔH solution = +20kJ/mol ± 8

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