157

CHAPTER - III
JAIN PHILOSOPHY AND PRACTICES
Our age is not only the age of Science but also the age of anxiety and mental tension.
Our life is full of excitements, emotional disorders and conflicts of values. We know
much about the atom but not enough about the values needed for meaningful life.
Jainism is not only a religion, but a unique philosophy of self that prescribes a code
of conduct for all human beings irrespective of creed, caste and colour. The Jain
philosophy fully advocates limitless power and energy of the human soul and its
independency.
The right thinking and the right conduct of Jains are auxiliary colours spread
on the vast canvas of non-violence, which is the backbone of Jain philosophy.
The word Jina means the enlightened, the perfected human who has conquered the
internal passions and annihilated even the subtlest of attachment and aversion by
one‟s own efforts. Such enlightenment slowly and progressively results into
omniscience. Jina-s teach the path of soul purification and perfection, called Jainism,
only after attaining self-perfection.
According to Jain philosophy, they believe in and worship Tirthankars, who were
human beings attaining the state of perfect enlightenment through meditation and
self-realization. A detailed discussion on philosophy, principles and spiritual
practices in Jainism are discussed here under coverage of following topics:
I. History of Jainism and Biography of Lord Mahāvīra
II. Fundamental Principles, Metaphysics of Jainism
III. Stages of spiritual elevation (Guṇasthānaka-s)
IV. Jain scriptures and Spiritual teachers
V. Spiritual Practices prescribed for Jain ascetics - monks and nuns
VI. Spiritual Practices prescribed for Jain householders
VII. Celebrations/ Festivals, Prayers and Prime symbol in Jain traditions
I. History of Jainism and Biography of Lord Mahāvīra:
Jainism is considered as the eternal philosophy and one of the oldest religions. It
existed long before the last tīrthaṅkara Lord Mahāvīra and his teachings were based
on those of his predecessors. He thus was more of a reformer and propagator of an
 158

existing religious order than founder of any new faith. He recognised the
philosophical tenets of Jainism to correspond to his times.
Lord Mahāvīra is the twenty fourth and last tīrthaṅkara of this era of Jain religion,
who is founder of current concepts and philosophy of Jainism. Lord Ṛṣabhadeva or
Ādinātha was the first tīrthaṅkara of this group, who existed millions of years before.
Among the most disturbed state of all religions and sacrifices in very violent form,
Mahāvīra was born on 13th day of the rising moon half of Caitra month in 599 B.C. at
Kshatriyakuṇḍa (currently known as Kuṇḍalpura) in the state of Bihar, India. His
father, King Siddhārtha began to prosper ever since his wife, queen Triśalā became
pregnant. So, parents gave him name of „Vardhamāna‟ means increasing. He was
popularly known as Mahāvīra since he showed high degree of courage and
fearlessness during his childhood. As he got matured and got married, he firmly
realised that worldly happiness and pleasures do not last and based mainly on
miseries and unhappiness of others. At the age of 30, he renounced the worldly life
and became a monk. He spent initial twelve and half years in deep silence and
meditation to conquer his desires, feeling and attachments. He observed severe
austerities, fasting for most of the time, moving to places bare-footed and no clothes
on. He also continued facing all types of hardships during this entire period of
renounced life. He developed highest quality of love towards all living creatures.
With this progress in spirituality at the age of 42, he could destroy all types of karma
and realized perfect perception, knowledge, power and total bliss attaining the
ultimate state of knowledge known as kevalajñāna (omniscience) in Jainism. Next
thirty years, he travelled around the whole country, preaching the eternal truth
realised by him to the people. Lord Mahāvīra is the founder of Jainism prevailing
today. All his teachings are preserved in the form of fundamental scripture in Jainism
called as Āgama-s.
Lord Mahāvīra organized his followers into four fold order namely:
1. sādhu or śramaṇa (monk)
2. sādhvī or śramaṇī (nun)
3. śrāvaka (layman) and
4. śrāvikā (laywoman).
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Together as a group, they are called as Jain Saṅgha, a big family or society. Śrāvaka
or śrāvikā is one who listens or who has recourse to faith or whose sins flow away
from him278. These śrāvaka-s are of four catagories as under:
1. nāmaśrāvaka (by birth or default)
2. sthāpanāśrāvaka (statue of a layman)
3. dravyaśrāvaka (carries out rites but devoid of spirituality) and
4. bhāvaśrāvaka, who is a true believer of Jain Philosophy.
Lord Mahāvīra made religion simple and natural, free from elaborate ritual
complexities. He said,
“A living body is not merely an integration of limbs and flesh but it is the
abode of the soul, which potentially has perfect perception (anantadarśana),
perfect knowledge (anantajñāna), perfect power (anantavīrya) and perfect
conduct (anantacaritra).”279
His message reflects the freedom and spiritual joy of living being, preaching
the gospel of universal love. He rejected the concept of God as a creator, a
protector and a destroyer of the universe and denounced the worshipping of
gods and goddesses as a means of material gains and personal benefits.
II. Fundamental Principles:
Jainism is spiritualistic as it believes in existence of soul. It is eternal and transmit-
grates to another body after death. Every soul is potentially divine. The ultimate goal
of Jainism is how to attain total freedom from the cycle of birth and death and there-
fore from pain, suffering and misery of the life. Thus, like other Indian Philosophies,
final goal of Jainism is liberation, absolute freedom which is termed as mokṣa.
In its pure state, soul has the following four characteristics:
1. Infinite knowledge (anantajñāna)
2. Infinite faith (anantadarśana)
3. Infinite energy (anantavīrya)
278
R.Williams, Jaina Yoga - a survey of the Mediaeval Śrāvakācāras, Oxford University Press,
London, 1963, p.36
279
Jain Philosophy and Practice -1, Jain Education Committee, North America, p. 18, 2002
 160

4. Infinite bliss, happiness (anantānanda)

Worldly soul is impure, polluted with karmic matter.
Lord Mahāvīra explained through various sermons that every living being (soul,
jīva) is ignorant about his/her true self and also is in bondage of karmic particles.
These particles are continuously accumulated by our good or bad deeds. And
accordingly we enjoy pleasures in materialistic belongings and possessions. This is
the deep-rooted cause of self-centered violent thoughts, anger, hatred, greed and
other vices. And that‟s how more karma gets accumulated. In order to get rid of
this cycle, one has to follow the right path consists of right faith, right knowledge
and right conduct. This trio also called as triratna of Jainism is termed by
Mahāvīra as samyak-darśana, samyak-jñāna and samyak-caritra respectively.
These are not three ways to moksha, but integration of these three only can take us
to liberation. All three constitutes the mokṣa mārga as explained in the beginning
of Tattvārthasūtra.280
These three gems together called as triratna, destroys bhāvakarma and afterwards,
the dravyakarma gets dissolved automatically. These three gems form foundation
of entire spiritual path of Jainism.
"There's no knowledge without right faith,
No conduct is possible without knowledge,
Without conduct, there's no liberation,
And without liberation, no deliverance" - Lord Mahāvīra281
Each one of three gems is explained below:
1. Right perception (samyak darśana)
Jainism insists on real faith, the real darśana which only can give us the real
happiness. It is the right way of perceiving and understanding any object or
situation. One needs to remove the false perception about everything (mithyā
darśana) to attain samyak darśana. Mithyā is wrong perception (avidyā).

280
सम्यग्दर्शनऻानचाररत्राणणमोऺमागश: | T.S, 1.1,

Acharya Umaswati, Tattvārthasūtra, JAINA and Shrut Ratnakar, Ahmedabad, July, 2007
281
Uttarādhyayana Sūtra, Chapter- 27, Translation of Verse 30
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Ratnakāṇḍa Śrāvakācāra (sūtra-34) tells that nothing in this triloka (entire

universe) and trikāla (all time and eras) is better than samyak darśana for a
jīva and nothing is worse than mithyātva.
Belief in substances ascertained as they are is right faith282. Upon what right
faith is to be developed? How? The scriptures including Tattvārthasūtra tells
us how one can practice Samyak darśana on 28 tattvas (elements) with full
awareness, consistent efforts (adhigama) and with the support of pramāṅa,
naya, nirdeśādika and satsamkhyādika.
Right Faith (samyak darśana or samyak śradhhā) is of three types283 as under:
a. Aupaśamika: Aupaśamika means suppression. It happens due to the
suppression of passions (non-living particles of kaṣāya-s). Here, all these ājīva
particles of mithyātva karma are settled down or become inactive.
b. Kṣayopśamika: Kṣayopśamika means the mixer of suppression and
destruction. This state is due to the partial suppression and partial destruction
of passions.
c. Kṣayika: Kṣayika means destruction. This samyakatva or right faith is due to
the destruction of all passions.
Right perception can be attained either by intuition, automatic instinct or
without support of the scriptures, by acquiring knowledge284, education,
listening, nisarga or pūrvasamskāra or by others‟ advices (bāhya nimitta) or
sermons and support (adhigamaja) through pramāṇa or naya. Samyaktva
(right perception) is considered as pre-requisite for observance of restraints.
Doubtfulness (śaṅkā), expectations (ākāṅkṣā), wavering mind (vicikitsā),
praising the wrong viewpoint and adoration (anyadṛṣṭi praśamsā) thereof are
five transgressions of right perception285.

282
तत्तत्तवाथशश्रद्धानं सम्यग्दर्शनम ्। T.S. 1.2,

Acharya Umaswati, Tattvārthasūtra, JAINA and Shrut Ratnakar, Ahmedabad, July, 2007
283
Umaswati, Mokshashastra, Kanji Swami Smarak Trust, Devlali, V.S. 2047, pp.10, 11
284
तन्ननसगाशदधधगमाद्वा। T.S. 1.3

285
र्ंकाकाङऺाववधचकत्तसानयदृन्टि प्रर्ंसा संस्तवा् सम्यग्दृटिे रतीचारा्। T.S. 7.23
 162

Having firm faith in existence of the eternal soul and its knowing property is
the basis of right perception. One has to repeatedly contemplate and meditate
over the true nature of the soul. This can take him to directly experience the
soul. There will not be any scope for any doubt. Such doubtfulness or shankā
is the first transgression. With the faith in the right perception, one tends to
behave in the right direction. Then he needs to get involved in some
wholesome activities, which might earn to him wholesome karma. With this,
one earns favourable situations in life. But, sometimes the aspirant starts
expecting such consequences as a result of right perception, which is ākāṅkṣā,
the second transgression. Inspite of faith in existence of soul, his mind starts
wavering due to exposure to strong viewpoint to a different concept with a
strong logic and motivation. This wavering is termed as vichikitsa, the third
transgression.
At different times, such viewpoints are so strongly presented that the aspirant
may be impressed and be overcome thereby. He may be led to praise that
viewpoint. This admiring wrong viewpoint and conduct and praising it
(anyadṛṣṭi praśamsā) constitutes fourth and fifth transgressions of samyakatva
(right perception). Hence, the right believer should become aware of these
obstructions and avoid them during his spiritual journey.
2. Right knowledge (samyak jñāna)
Samyak jñāna can only be acquired after attainment of samyak darśana. After
these two only, samyak caritra is possible. For liberation, one need to know
the existing position, what is to be known (jñeya mimāmsa) and then, consider
what needs to be done for going ahead (cāritra mimāmsā). Therefore, equal
importence is given to both knowledge and conduct in Jainism. The complete
knowledge of an entity (e.g. a pot) could be attained as per Tattvārthasūtra286,
by nāma nikṣepa (name), sthāpanā nikṣepa (symbol), dravya nikṣepa (past or
original state) and bhāva nikṣepa (present state).

286
नामस्थाऩना द्रव्य भावतस्तननयास्। T.S.1.5
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Jainism talks of five types of knowledge287which are pramāṇa-s (valid know-

ledge) as mentioned Tattvārthasūtra. Each one of them is explained below:
a) Intellectual and cognitive knowledge (matijñāna)
b) Scriptural and articulate knowledge (śrutajñāna)
c) Clairvoyance or extra-sensory knowledge (avadhijñāna)
d) Mind reading capability or Telepathy (manaḥparyāyajñāna)
e) Omniscience, ultimate knowledge (kevalajñāna)
This knowledge is of two types. The first two are indirect knowledge and
others are direct as per Tattvārthasūtra288. In other words, matijñāna and
śrutajñāna are parokṣa pramāṇa (indirect Perception), as they are attained
through external factors like senses and mind289. The other three avadhi,
manaḥparyāya and kevalajñāna are pratyakṣa pramāṇa (modes of direct
knowledge). Each one is explained below:
a) Matijñāna: This knowledge is empirical and gained through senses. It
includes intellect, memory, recognition, reasoning and deduction. This
knowledge, also called as abhinibodhika jñāna arises in four stages, namely
avagraha or apprehension (one comes to know that something exists), Īhā or
faint perception (one gets vague idea whether a rope or snake is there), avaya
or comprehension (one confirms that it is rope) and dhāraṇā or imprint (one
retains impression of rope, if it is not there). Six organs of senses i.e. five
organs of perception and mind are involved in gaining knowledge in these
four stages. Thus, considering all combinations, there are 24 ways of gaining
this knowledge.
b) Śrutajñāna: This knowledge is conceptualized through language. It is ac-
quired by reading texts, scriptures or by oral instructions from the authorized

287
मततश्रत
ु ावधधमन् ऩयशय केवऱातन ऻानम ्। T.S.1.9, तत्तप्रमाणे। T.S. 1.10,

Acharya Umaswati, JAINA and Shrut Ratnakar, Ahmedabad, July, 2007

288
आद्ये ऩरोऺम ्। T.S. 1.11, प्रत्तयऺमनयत ्। T.S.1.12

289
तददन्नद्रयातनन्नद्रयतनममत्ततम ्। T.S.1.14
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persons. Śrutajñāna 290is preceded by matijñāna (sensory knowledge) and is

of many types. The person having both matijñāna and srutajñāna knows all
dravya-s, areas, kāla and bhāva. Such person is known as śrutakevali.
c) Avadhijñāna: (Clairvoyance) It is a direct means of knowledge and is
perception of things that are out of the natural range of senses. This extra
sensory knowledge is acquired specifically by Yogī-s and is of two types291:
i) Bhāvapratyaya292: This clairvoyance is associated with a particular state
of existence and arises to all heavenly and infernal beings.
ii) Guṇapratyaya293: This knowledge is a result of eradication and
purification of karma and is of six types on basis of internal purity. These are
anugāmika (clairvoyance stays with the person wherever he goes),
ananugāmika (restricted to certain areas), vardhamāna (increasing level of
clairvoyance), hīyamāna (decreasing level), avasthita (steady level, continues)
and anavasthita (fluctuating, unsteady).
The scope of clairvoyanace is the substance which has a shape (the matter)294.
d) Manaḥparyāya jñāna295: This is also direct means of gaining the knowledge. It
is the act of seeing the objects of other‟s mind. This also is of two types.
Ṛjumatī manaḥparyāya or simple, where one can read mind upto some extent
and vipulamatī manaḥparyāya or comprehensive, where one can read mind
upto great extent and it continues till next stage of kevaljñāna. Vipulamatī is
special as compared to Ṛjumati on account of higher purity and infallibility.

290
श्रुतं मततऩूवं ह्यनेकद्वादर्भेदम ्। T.S. 1.20
291
Umaswati Maharaj, Shri Tattvārthādhigama Sūtra, Part-1, Shri Jain Shreyaskar Mandal,
Mehsana, 1959, Chapt.6, sūtra p.72
292
भवप्रत्तययोऽवधधदे वनारकाणाम ्। T.S. 1.21, Acharya Umaswati, JAINA and Shrut Ratnakar,

Ahmedabad, July, 2007

293
ऺयोऩर्मतनममत्तत् षड्ववकल्ऩ् र्ेषाणाम ्। T.S. 1.22

294
रूवऩटववधे्। T.S. 1.27

295
ऋजवु वऩऱ
ु मती मन्ऩयशय्। T.S. 1.23
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Telepathy (manaḥparyāya) and clairvoyance (avadhi) differ with regard to

purity, space, knower and objects. Telepathy is purer than clairvoyance, but
clairvoyance extends to larger space. Those with telepathy maintain special
restraint while clairvoyance can be had in all four conditions of existence296.
e) Kevalajñāna297: It is the knowledge of all other substances in all their modes.
Here, the object is known directly by the soul. With attainment of all other
types of knowledge and following various spiritual practices prescribed in the
scriptures, gradually partial suppression and elimination of karma takes place.
Continuous practice of this takes the aspirant towards the highest kind of
knowledge called Omniscience or kevalajñāna.
One to four types of knowledge can be held by a soul. But when one holds only one
type, it has to be Omniscience (kevalajñāna). If two are held, they are sensory and
scriptural; in case of three, these are sensory, scriptural and clairvoyance or
telepathy; and if four types are held, they are sensory, scriptural, clairvoyance and
telepathy.298 Kevalajñāna can not be lost once it has been received.
Range of sensory and scriptural knowledge can extend to all objects, but relates to a
few modes. That of clairvoyance can extend to all tengible objects but relates to
some of their modes. That of mind reading capacity can extend only to a small
section of tangible objects and relates to only a few modes. But, the scope of
omniscience extends to all the objects in all their modes. Other than omniscience, all
other categories are mixture of knowledge and ignorance. Omniscience is perfect
innate, pure enlightenment.
A person can have at a time minimum one and maximum four types of knowledge
out of above five. Matijñāna, śrutijñāna and avadhijñāna can be of erroneous and
misleading types299. They arise due to lack of discriminating view point. There are

296
ववर्ुवद्धऺेत्रस्वाममववषयोऽवधधमन् ऩयशययो्। T.S. 1.25

297
सवशद्रव्यऩयाशयेषु केवऱस्य। T.S. 1.29

298
एकादीतन भाज्यातनयुगऩदे कन्स्मननाचतुर्भयश्। T.S. 1.30

299
मततश्रत
ु ावधयो ववऩयशयश्च। T.S. 1.31
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five view points (naya) namely common, linear, practical, verbal and literal300. There
are many perspectives from which an object or situation can be viewed. All these
naya could be broadly classified into two: The first is niścaya naya, which is
absolute point of view e.g. the soul can be described as spotlessly pure, where as
from worldly viewpoint; it is smeared with karma, which is vyavahāra naya, which
is practical point of view. Sameway, there are many types, classifications or other
subdivisions of naya.
The nine kinds of disposition arising from destruction are the destruction of karma-s
affecting the knowledge, perception, charity, gain, enjoyment, re-enjoyment,
prowess, right belief and conduct301.
3. Right conduct (samyak câritra)
Samyak câritra could be called as prime practice of Jainism and samyak darśana and
samyak jñāna are necessary pre-requisites for this. Samyak cāritra can only be
possible after attaining above two i.e. samyak jñāna and samyak darśana. It is
actually perfect mental purification resulting into pure soul. The ultimate state of
equilibrium is right conduct. Various types of conduct are mentioned by various
scholars in scriptures like niścaya câritra (absolute conduct) and vyavahāra câritra
(practical/actual conduct). Five types of conduct recommended by Tattvārthasūtra
(2.2) are chief means of liberation. They are:
a) Samyak cāritra (equanimity of mind, refraining from sins)
b) Chedopasthāpanīya câritra (observance of penalties for faults committed
through negligence or inadvertence)
c) Parihāraviśuddhi câritra (refraining from all kinds of injury-physical, mental
and vocal)
d) Sūkṣma samparaya câritra (control of the passions like greed)
e) Yathākhyāta câritra (characteristics of those monks who have annihilated all of
their passions, lusts and desires).

300
नैगमसंग्रहव्यवहारजस
ुश ूत्रर्ब्द सममभरूढै वंभूता नया्। T.S. 1.33
301
ऻानदर्शनदानऱाभभोगोऩभोगवीयाशणण च। T.S. 2.4
 167

Jainism always put more emphesis on attitude than the actions of the aspirant.
Therefore main focus of right conduct is holding of five vows (mahāvrata-s for
ascetics), twelve vows (aṇuvrata-s) for laymen, following five samiti-s (carefulness)
and three gupti-s (restrains) at the centre of our lives as described below.
Five vows (pañcavṛtta-s)
The vrata or vow is a specific code of conduct dealing with the ethical code of
householders and ascetics. It is defined in scripture as
“vrata is a (religious) rule (of behaviour) observed with determination for a
particular or indefinite period and always indicates aversion or abstinence from
doing foul or shameful acts or deeds302”.
It reveals an inclination towards doing good and virtuous acts or deeds. Vows to be
followed by ordinary common men or Śrāvaka are called Aṇuvratas or śrāvakācāra,
whereas, vows which are laid down for monks are Mahāvratas or śramaṇāchāra.
These vows are considered very significant from social and religious point of view.
Desisting from injury, falsehood, stealing, unchastity and attachment is the fivefold
vow303. One should always keep on trying to implement as per one‟s capacity all
these vows.
There are five transgressions for each of the vows, minor vows and the
supplementary vows.304The consequences of these acts of violence and others are

calamity and reproach in this world and in the next birth.305So, these five sins should
be considered and thought off as the cause of all sufferings. 306While following the
vows, one knowingly or unknowingly acts adversely or follows them with lots of
impurities, called as aticāra-s. Jain scriptures have mentioned five aticāra-s for each

302
Jain Philosophy and Practice-1, Jain Education Committee, North America, 2002, p.58
303
दहंसाव-तस्तेयाब्रह्मऩररग्रहे र्भयौ ववरततर्व्शतम ्। T.S. 7.1,

Acharya Umaswati, Tattvārthasūtra, JAINA and Shrut Ratnakar, Ahmedabad, July, 2007
304
र्व्तर्ीऱेषु ऩञ्च ऩञ्च यथाक्रमम ्। T.S. 7.24

305
दहंसाददटवहामुत्रा ऩायावद्यदर्शनम ्। T.S. 7.9

306
द्ु खमेव वा। T.S. 7.10
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vow, one has to avoid. The five vows (Prākṛta names are given in addition) are as
under:
i) Ahiṃsā (Non-violence) or sthūlaprāṇatipātavaramaṇa
Ahiṃsā paramo dharmaḥ307 (non-violence is the supreme religion)
Non-violence has long been central to the religious traditions of India,
especially Jainism. Religion in India has consistently upheld the sanctity of
life, whether human, animal or the most elemental. More than refraining from
violence, it is a deep reverence for all life. This philosophy is a living practice.
When anger, jealousy or unfulfilled ambitions provoke us, when we use
critical words for others, the one whom we damage first is our own self.
Ahiṃsā is the cardinal principle of Jainism. The true meaning of ahiṃsā is to
not to harm any living beings directly or indirectly. A person must not
intentionally hurt any such living creature or their feelings either by thought,
word or deed by himself or through others or approving such an act
committed by somebody else. Violence caused unintentionally is also a sin.
Control of speech, control of thought, observing the ground in front while
walking, care in taking and placing things or objects, and examine the food in
the sunlight before eating/drinking are five observances of non-violence.308
Lord Mahāvīra made a simple yet profound statement based on the inclusion
of Non-violence into every fabric of his consciousness,
“All of life is just like me. I want to live. So do all souls, all living beings. The
instinct of self-preservation is universal. Every living being clings to life and
fears the death. Each one of us wants to be free from pain. So let me carry out
all my activities with great care so that I am not harmful to any living
being”309

307
Acāraṅga sūtra – IV, Indian Philosophical Terms, Somaiya Publication, 2004, p.448
308
वाङ्गमनोगुप्तीयाशदान तनऺेऩण सममत्तयाऱोककतऩान भोजनातन ऩंच। T.S. 7.4
309
Jain Philosophy and Practice-1, Jain Education Committee, North America, 2002, p.61
 169

“All breathing, existing, living, sentient creatures should not be slain, nor
treated with violence, nor abused, nor tormented, nor driven away.” Lord
Mahāvīra310.
Each one has right to exist or survive, so nobody has right to harm, injure or
kill any other living being. This phenomenon is based upon the positive
quality of universal love and compassion.
The more developed its sensory apparatus is, the more a life form is sensitive
to pain. We must refuse to be a cause of agony and pain by killing and eating
fish, birds and animals. The choice of a strict vegetarian diet is an expression
of a sincere consideration for the ecology of the planet as well.
The nature of violence is classified according to Ācāraṅga Sūtra in four
categories:311
a. Premeditated violence: To attack somebody knowingly, should be
prohibited.
b. Defensive violence: To commit intentional violence in defense of
one‟s own life. Maintain complete detachment.
c. Vocational violence: To incur violence in the execution of one‟s
means of livelihood. When there is no other option, have detachment while
committing.
d. Common violence: To commit violence towards one sense living
beings such as plants in the performance of daily activities. This should be
minimized by filtering water, not eating meals after sunset, vegetarianism and
abstinence from alcohol.
Violence is also defined as312“the severance of vitalities through
pramattayoga (the mind, the speech and the body out of passion) is injury or
violence.”

310
Ācāraṅga Sūtra, Volume-1, Lect.4, lesson 1, The Sacred Books of the East, ed.& tr.H.Jecobi
311
Ibid., p.24
312
Acharya Umaswati, Tattvārthasūtra, JAINA and Shrut Ratnakar, Ahmedabad, (July, 2007),

प्रमत्ततयोगात्तप्राणव्यऩरोऩणं दहंसा। T.S. 7.13

 170

It means deprival of life on account of non-vigilance (negligence, wrong

motive) constitutes violence. Violence can also be of two types: dravyahiṃsā
(physical) and bhāvahiṃsā (mental).
Five types of samiti-s or attitudes to prevent violence and to implement other
vratas are mentioned later in this chapter in details under the topic of saṃvara
under the description of nine tattva-s.
ii) Satya (Truthfulness) or sthūlamṛṣāvādaviramaṇa
It requires moral courage to always speak only harmless truth and believe in
truth and never lie. But with that practice, one can conquer greed, fear, anger,
jealousy and ego. The truth should be wholesome and pleasant, else remain
silent. One should not utter an untruth, ask others to do so or approve of such
activities. Speaking through pramattayoga what is not commendable is
falsehood. Lie consists of uttering what is not true313.
iii) Asteya (Non-stealing) or sthūla adattādānavaramaṇa
Taking through pramattayoga anything what is not given is stealing314.
Stealing also consists of taking the property of others without their consent or
by unjust or immoral methods. The vow says not to steal or take anything that
does not belong to us or properly given to us. Without permission of the
owner, one should not take anything even if it is worthless from anywhere. It
also indicates not to take or to earn and keep more than one‟s need.
iv) Brahmacarya (Chastity/Celibacy) or paradāratyāgaḥ:

Total abstinence from pleasure derived by five senses is called celibacy. Not
to indulge in sensual pleasure, to have control over our senses in order to
concentrate on spirituality. Society today, needs this value more than any
other time, because, sensual pleasure is an infatuating force, which sets aside
all virtues and reasoning at the time of indulgence. One may refrain from
physical indulgence but may still think of it, which also is prohibited here.

313
असदमभधानमनत
ृ म ्। T.S. 7.14
314
अदत्ततादानं स्तेयम ् । T.S. 7.15
 171

Indulgence in sex and any type of sensual pleasure is unchastity and not
conducive of soul, if we take Brahman as soul.315
Samvāyāṅgasūtra prescribes 18 types of non-chastity (abrahmacarya), 29
types of scripts of non-wholesome activities (pāpaśruta) and 32 types of

wholesome activities (śubhayoga).316

v) Aparigraha (Non-possession/non-attachment) or parigraha-

parimāṇa-aṇuvṛtaḥ
Not to accumulate anything that is not needed today, complete detachment
from people, places and material things. Infatuation is the desire through
pramattayoga for acquisition,317safeguarding and addition to external and
internal possessions. The more wealth a person possesses, the more he is
likely to commit sin to acquire and maintain the possessions and in long run
he will be unhappy. Wealth creates attachment, which results in continued
greed, jealousy, selfishness and violence. Wants and desires have no limit.
This attachment leads to bondage of karma and finally cycle of birth and
death.

Apart from these five main restraints, other subsidiary restraints are318:
i. Digvirati: limiting areas of operation in different directions
ii. Deśavirati: restricting area of operation for a certain period
iii. Anarthadaṇḍavirati: averting the purposeless violence
iv. Sāmāyika: stipulates exercising of equanimity

315
मैथुनमब्रह्म। T.S. 7.16
316
Āvaśyakasūtra, Shri Akhil Bharatiya Sudharma Jain Sanskriti Rakshak Sangh, Jodhpur, 2007, pp.
98-101
317
मूर्चछाश ऩररग्रह्। T.S. 7.17

318
ददग्दे र्ानथशदण्ड ववरततसामातयक प्रोषधोऩवासोऩभोगऩररभोगऩररमाणाततधथसंववभागर्व्तसंऩननश्च । T.S.

7.16
 172

v. Pauṣāḍhopavāsa: practicing the monastic code for a day or pre-fixed period

either pratipurna without any food or deśa with water and food.
vi. Bhogopabhoga parimāṇa: laying restrictions on the use and consumption of
certain articles
vii. Atithisamvibhāga: serving monks, nuns and others
First three (i, ii and iii) are auxiliary and minor vows mainly for the householders,
which should be observed through out the life. All our activities whether related to
business or not should be restricted to certain fixed areas, direction and limited to
certain period of operation.
Others (iv to vii) are disciplinary restraints, to be observed from time to time to a
certain extent.
Bhogopabhoga parimāṇa is prohibiting oneself of using many articles except the
necessary ones for the life. These restrictions are two types, food related and
work/business related. To use an article once only is upabhoga and those being used
frequently are paribhoga. Fifteen aticāra-s are prescribed in Ācāraṅga Sūtra for
various types of restrictions.
Sallekhanā,319which is fasting until death, is an additional restraint being observed in
some of the sects of Jains.
One who wants to observe restraints has to be faultless320. Deceptive instincts, strong
urge for any worldly aspect and wrong perception are main faults or obstructions on
the path of spiritual pursuits.
Jainism puts emphasis on four essential aspects for a layman, dāna321(donation,
charity, giving of one‟s wealth to another for mutual benefit), śīla (conduct), tapas

(austerities) and bhāvanā (mode, attitude). Its significance depends upon the
methods of charity, article to be donated and worthiness and approach of the donor
as well. The distinction with regard to the effect of a gift consists in the manner, the

319
मारणान्नतक ं सल्ऱेखना जोवषता। T.S. 7.22

320
तन्र्ल्यो र्व्ती। T.S. 7.13

321
अनग्र
ु हाथशस्य स्याततसगो दानम ्। T.S. 7.38
 173

thing given, the nature of the giver and the nature of the recipient. The desired
qualities are the manner – with reverence, the thing – promotes austerities and
study. The giver should be free from envy and dejection, and the recipient‟s qualities
which lead to salvation322.
Jain monks and nuns follow all these vows strictly and totally as great vows
(mahāvrata), while common people can follow as per their ability, desire and permit
as aṇuvrata323. One should not commit any of above sin by speech, thoughts or
deeds.
Few more fundamental principles of Jainism are explained under the different
heading as under.
III. Doctrines of Jainism
According to Prof. R. H. Singh,324
“Jainism is a metaphysical realism, a philosophical non-absolutism, an ethical
Puritanism and a psychological rationalism. Jaina attitude is empirical and realistic
based on logic and experience”.
The main and unique doctrines along with others are anekāntavāda and nayavāda.
Jain‟s perspective of approach towards the truth is mainly through three modes:
Doctrine of non-absolutism (anekāntavāda), Philosophical stand-points (nayavāda)
and sevenfold predication (sapta-bhanginiya).
1. Anekāntavāda and Syādvāda
Above referred vows can be comfortably implemented if one starts accepting
philosophy of non-absolutism (anekāntavāda) and the theory of relativity
(ayādvāda). It is a theory of relativity of knowledge. Our knowledge is partial and
can be only a view point.

322
ववधधद्रव्यदातऩ
ृ ात्रववर्ेषात्ततद्ववर्ेष्। T.S. 7.39
323
अणर्व्
ु तोऽगारी । T.S. 7.20
324
R.H.Singh, The Foundation of Contemporary Yoga and Yoga Therapy, Chaukhamba Sanskrit
Pratishthan, Delhi, 2009, p.77
 174

Principle of anekāntavāda refers to aneka + anta i.e. indefinite ends or unlimited

solutions. Every object has infinite aspects and except kevalī, each person with
limited potentiality can not know each and every aspect of an object. Each concept
has many meanings and all can be true from different points of view. Acarya
Siddhasena Divakar gave this terminology anekāntavāda, saying that any reality can
not be expressed only in one way. A thing can be one and many at the same time.
According to this principle, soul is one and eternal. Though, individually, it is
different or many. It‟s a law of multiple nature of reality. It is a key to unlock the
mystery of the paradoxical nature of Reality. The nature of the reality can be in the
form of substance, quality or modes. The same reality can be viewed from different
stand-points.
Anekāntavāda is an infinite approach or angle of looking at an element or event, and
to prevent it relatively is syādvāda. This principle teaches us to try to understand
others‟ thoughts and keep a neutral approach towards our own thoughts by “may be”
attitude. Each thing has many characteristics, but when understood it as a whole unit,
we know the reality. So, instead of creating doubt or uncertainty, syādvāda helps a
correct, precise and thorough comprehension of the reality. Based as it is on
anekāntavāda and the related nayavāda, the theory manifests the realistic, rational
and highly tolerant spirit of Jainism.
The very foundation of the Jainism is the conception of reality which is manifold,
hence highly complex and pluralistic in character. Therefore Jainism is also called
the philosophy of anekāntavāda.
Non-violence can be practiced in two ways, by vyavahāranaya and niścayanaya.
Approach of niścayanaya mentions it as a free and independent entity. It enables us
to understand the reality from view point of the substance without denying the
existence of modes (e.g. Gold and jwellery). One of the illustrations as it is
mentioned above is ratnatrayī sādhanā (samyak darśana, samyak jñāna and samyak
cāritra), which is self awareness of highest level. But, according to vyavahāranaya,
soul is a bound entity. It allows us to comprehend the reality from perspective of its
 175

attributes and modes, but deny existence of the substance (e.g. necklace)325. Few
examples are austerity, detachment, and control over senses. This relativity principle
or thought process can bring universal peace, unity and integrity in the universe.
The way to implement this principle is syādvāda. Syādvāda is a way of living or
thinking, whereas anekāntavāda is a policy, philosophy or principle, the Jain
doctrine of many-sided reality, a true Jain follows. „syāt‟ means „may be‟ and „vāda‟
means „assertion‟. Thus, assertion of possibilities is syādvāda. Syāt is only partly
known, much to be known. When things have many characters, naturally they are
objects of all-sided knowledge. Any particular object can be viewed from different
points of view. So when we speak of a particular aspect, we have to use the word
`syāt' i.e., from a particular point of view, or as related to this aspect, this objects is
such and not otherwise. So syādvāda is the doctrine of relativity of Judgment which
is born out of the non-violent and non-absolutistic attitude of the Jains. It led to the
uttermost cautiousness of speech of "explaining problems with the help of siyāvāya
(syādvāda)”.
Naya: (knowledge of all view-points): The scriptures refer to concept of relativity or
theory of seven fold predictions where a specific significance with logic of statistical
inference is mentioned as saptabhaṅgī naya. These seven naya-s326(naigama,
saṅgraha, vyavahāra, ṛju, śabda, samabhirūḍha, evambhūta) are the view points
having their separate organization. They all take shelter in nature of the things. One
who is ideal in character should respect all. Originally, there are three possibilities
i.e. may be, may not be and can not be expressed. But out of these, seven
possibilities of different points of views can be framed as under:

325
T.Sethia, (ed.), Ahiṃsā, Anekanta and Jainism, Motilal Banarsidass publishers Pvt.Ltd., Delhi,
2004, 164
326
Yashovijay, Jnanasara, Jaina Sahitya Mandala, Bombay, p. 249, 1986
 176

Existence Non-existence

Inexpressibility

1. syād asti: (it) may be. e.g. In a certain sense, the pot is

2. syād nāsti: may not be. In a certain sense, the pot is not.
3. syād asti- nāsti: may be and may not be. In a certain sense, the pot is and is
not.
4. syād avaktavya: cannot be said. In a certain sense, the pot is inexpressible.
5. syād asti avaktavya: may be but, cannot be expressed. In a certain sense, the
pot is and is inexpressible.
6. syād nāsti-avaktavya: may not be but, cannot be expressed. In a certain sense,

the pot is not, and is inexpressible.

7. syād asti - nāsti - avaktavya: may be and may not be but, can not be

expressed. In a certain sense, the pot is, is not, and is inexpressible.

If we combine these seven options or possibilities (syāt) together, it becomes
anekāntavāda.
Our thought is relative. Our expressions are relative. Thus the doctrines of ahimsā,
anekāntavāda and syādvāda are organically related. Anekāntavāda and syādavāda
are complimentary to each other.
According to Lord Mahāvīra, we can minimize attachments and aversions and
establish harmony in our life by following this principle. It means total non-violence
and forbearance in our thoughts because we think respectfully on anybody‟s views
and review our own thoughts truthfully, critically and honestly. Each element has
 177

many characteristics. Anekāntavāda makes us realize the whole of it. It minimizes

our ego, attachment and aversion i.e. rāga and dveṣa.327
Series of questions and responses appeared in Bhagavatisūtra later on, because of
the basis of the evolution of anekāntavāda. Naya is partial expression of the truth.
2. The inherent purity of the self: Fundamentally, each soul is pure in the orig-
inal form. The innate potentiality of all the souls is to achieve final liberation. So,
with total purification and intense efforts, one can attain liberation later or sooner.
3. The doctrine of naya: Each substance changes modes continuously. So, any
judgement based on a particular mode of it is only partially or relatively true. Naya
enables us to apprehend an object from a particular aspect at a time and also enables
us to gain insight in the complex nature of Reality. It has two catagories: 1)
Transcedental aspect (niścayanaya - ultimate, fundamental and integrated point of
view). 2) Empirical aspect or pragmatic view (vyavahāranaya). This doctrine is
already explained under the title of anekāntavāda.
4. The theory of knowledge: The knowledge originally comes from an
omniscient, as he has complete and pure knowledge. So, one should have full faith in
him to attain the state of „right faith‟, followed by the next state of „right
knowledge‟. The different types of knowledge are discussed previously under the
topic „Right Knowledge‟. The spiritual progress starts with matijñāna and
śrūtijñāna. Then, the aspirant with his consistent enrichment of knowledge and
intense desire of liberation attains the higher states avadhi, manah-paryāya and
finally, kevalajñāna.

5. The Doctrine of Karma:

The origin and development of the doctrine of karma is in Brahmanical, Budhhist
and Jaina traditions. Especially in regards to its Genesis, doctrine of karma in
Jainism is unique in many respects. Here, Karma is a form of matter, called as
„pudgala‟ and is atomic in nature.

327
Vora Arti, “Samparksetu”, monthly, Nov.2011, p.9, Sri Zalawad Jain S.M.Mandal, Ghatkopar,
Mumbai
 178

“The number of atoms in every karman is infinite and are found in all six directions
of space” as per The Uttaradhyāyana Sūtra (33.17-18)328. It is this micro sized
atomic matter which binds all souls with downwards property (adhoguruttva),
whereas pure soul has upward gravity (ūrdhvaguruttva).
As per Bhagavatisūtra329 in Jainism, each and every activity involves karma.
Whether one indulges in activity by mind, words or physical action, one does
acquire karma-s. As worldly soul continually stays involved in one or another
activity, the resulting karma-s continue to flow towards it. All the sources or causes
of karma can be classified into two:
a) Bhāvasrāva: Influx of karma due to our attitude. It is reflection or state of
our soul at every moment. It is not a physical particle but, a form of our soul,
(paryāya) such as angry soul, happy soul or greedy soul. These are of five
types, namely:

1. mithyā darśana-s (Wrong perception and lack of faith)

2. āvirati (Intense attachment)
3. kaṣāya-s (like anger, greed and ego)
4. pramāda (Indolence)
5. śarīra (body)
b) Dravyasrāva: These are physical karmic particles attached to (karma) or
not attached to the soul (karma particle). Influx of this karma is of eight types
as per Bhagavatisūtra as under. The sources and causes of all types are
mentioned later under the topic of āsrava.
1. Jñānāvaraṇīya: This karma conceals wisdom and acts as an obstruction to the
infinite right knowledge. If it is minimized or reduced, one gets more intelligence
and learns more easily. Knowledge is of five types (mati, śruti, avadhi,
manaḥparyāya and kevalī) as explained earlier, which is obscured by this karma.

328
H.Jacobi (tr.), Jaina Sūtras, SBEXLV, pt. II, Delhi, 1964
329
http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/8455/14/14_chapter%2010.pdf, Chapter-10, p.285
(Retrieved on 01.08.2016)
 179

All practices mentioned under topics of saṃvara and nirjarā tend to minimise these
karma particles.
2. Darśanāvaraṇīya: This karma conceals right insight and acts as an obstruction
to faith or infinite perception power. It diminishes power of perceiving the right
meaning and cognition. Thus, it prevents acceptance of the Jain code of conduct.
3. Mohanīya: This karma causes delusion, which is most dangerous. As it
creates doubts about spiritual teachers, it destroys faith and right conduct or belief of
soul. This karma can be darśanāmohanīya (perception related delusion) or
caritramohanīya (character related delusion).
4. Antarāya karma: This obstructive karma prevents a person from engaging in
virtuous activities like dāna (charity), lābha (benefits), upabhoga (enjoyment of
fruits), virya (strength).330 It obstructs enjoyment of consumables and re-enjoyment
of non-consumables and also making use of their powers to progress.
5. Vedanīya: It is Aghati karma, that can‟t be destroyed and which leads to
experiences of pain (ashāta) and pleasure (shāta).
6. Āyuḥ karma: It is also Aghati Karma that which determines life span and type
(gati) i.e. form of existence (hell or infernal, sub-human or tiryañca, human or
celestial age creation).
7. Nāmakarma: It is Aghati Karma that determines the individuality, specific
form of existence i.e. Body of human being. It can be ṣubh (good) or aṣubh (bad).
Nāmakarma determines the physique331. Wrong or evil exercising of verbal, physical
or mental faculties and raising disputes and quarrels lead to unwholesome
nāmakarma providing poor physique. The contrary activities promoting unity and
harmony among others lead to wholesome nāmakarma that give good physique and
healthy body.
Tattvārthasūtra 6.24 and 6.35 stipulate that criticizing others, praising the self,
concealing the virtues and publicizing the vices of others result in acquisition of low

330
ववघ्नकरणमनतरायस्य। T.S. 6.27
331
T.S. 6.21, 6.22
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status karma, giving us birth in the lower families. Whereas, the contrary types of
high status karma give us birth in the higher families.
Tīrthaṅkara Nāmakarma is the highest type of wholesome karma. For such
nāmakarma, sixteen aspects or qualities as eligibilities are mentioned below as per
Tattvārthasūtra332.
a) Purity of perception
b) Utmost modesty
c) Faultless observance of restraints and spiritual code
d) Maintaining pure awareness
e) Acute desire for liberation
f) Charity
g) Austerities to the extent possible
h) Extending peace and security to the religious order, monks and nuns
i) Selfless servicing
j) Dedication to the cause of Omniscient Lords
k) Dedication to the heads of order
l) Dedication to the learned people
m) Dedication to the sacred books
n) Observance of six essentials
o) Promoting the right path
p) Affection towards the fellow religionists

8. Gotra karma: That karma which determines social or economical status.

Out of above karma-s, first four are ghātiya karma-s (destructive in nature). They
obscure true nature of soul. The remaining four are aghāti karma-s (non-
destructive).

दर्शनववर्ुवद्धतनशनय सम्ऩननता र्ीऱवर्व्तेटवनतीचारोऽभीक्ष्ण ऻानोऩयोगसंवेगौ र्न्तत तस्त्तयागतऩसी

332

साधु समाधधवैयावत्तृ त्तयकरण महशदाचायश बहुश्रत

ु प्रवचन भन्ततरावश्य का ऩररहाणणमाशगं प्रभवनाप्रवचन
वत्तसऱत्तव ममतततीथशकरत्तवस्य। T.S. 6.24
 181

At the time of kevala jñāna, ghātiya karma-s (first four from the above) get
destroyed. Then, the other four aghatiya karma-s get destroyed upon death. The soul
attains ultimate liberation reaching to the final state known as state of siddha. Here,
there is no more karmic bondage; the soul is permanently freed from the cycle of
birth and death. Physical body, desires, requirements are not there, only eternal bliss
is left. It is now a pure consciousness whose nature of infinite enlightenment and
infinite happiness manifests by itself.
As per Uttarādhyayana (34.1), karma produces leṣya-s, which determines character
or personality of a man like his merits and demerits. Six types of leṣya-s are
mentioned in Bhagavatisūtra333. They are kṛṣna, kāpota, nīla, tejo, padma and śukla.
As per Umāswātī (T.S. - 6.1), karma operates through activities of our body, mind
and speech (creation of matter). These three activities are done in three different
ways:
a) We do these activities ourselves
b) We ask someone else to do for us
c) We encourage or motivate someone else to carry out
Thus, there are nine different ways that cause bondage of the karma to the soul. The
quantity of the bondage of karma depends on physical vigor of activities and so is
the result. The duration depends on quality of our passions at the time of activity.
And the intensity depends on how intense are our passions at the time of activity.
The capacity of soul to attract matter (which is „yoga‟ as per Jainism) and to absorb
or assimilate it (kaṣāya) and capacity of karma to bind to the soul (bandha) facilitate
the inflow (āsrava) of karma pudgala, karmic matter into soul as a result of
mundane activities. The volume of the inflow (āsrava) of karmic matter depends
upon the intensity of desires, intention, the power and position of an individual
acting knowingly and of free will or out of compulsion.
Freedom from bondage of karma is achieved by all spiritual activities like
a. Preventing accumulation of karma (saṃvara) by vinaya (dharma)
b. Stopping inflow of karma (āsrava)

333
Bhagavatisūtra, p.295
 182

c. Purging or liquidating the existing stock (nirjarā)

From activity in time point of view, karmas are classified334 into three headings:
1. Sattā karma: These are accumulated in past existence (similar to sañcita in
Hindu religion). They are non-operative now, and maturity is not fixed.
2. Bandha karma: These are produced in present existence, but are effective later
(agāmi or vartamāna). They constitute efforts for future fruits.
3. Udaya karma: These are previously generated, effective now. Consequences
are currently destined (prārabdha) and fruits of karma are operative now. They are
of two types, nikicat are those which must be experienced and the others are śithila,
which can be avoided with Yogic and other spiritual practices.
Puṇya and pāpa are categories of karma, earned depending on our activities,
whether good or bad respectively and accordingly, they bring results like happiness,
comfort or suffering and miseries. This philosophy is comparable with Hindu
mythological stories which tell us: “You reap what you sow”.
Thus through proper practice of meditation, we can sow a good thought and reap a
good action. When a good action is sown, we can reap a good habit, which in turn
can give us a good spiritual character. Any ritual or meditative practice in Jainism
takes us towards spirituality.
“Emancipation results from the dwindling of karma and that are achieved through
self-absorption (ātma-dhyāna)335”
Concept of puṇya (virtues) and pāpa (sins) and relevant effect of karma are more or
less identical with most of philosophies and religions. Indian philosophies take into
consideration not only the actual act but also the intention behind it. Depending on
this, karma can also be classified in Jainism336 in following manner.
1. Puṇyānubandhi puṇya

334
“Jain Philosophy and Practice”, compiled by JAINA Education Committee, North America, (2002),
p.103
335
George Feuerstein (2002), The Yoga Traditions, Motilal Banarasidass Publishers Private Limited,
Delhi, 2002, Pg.194
336
“Jain Philosophy and Practice”, JAINA Education Committee, North America, (2002), pp.84-85
 183

The earning of new Puṇya karma while enjoying the fruits of earlier ones, which
also was puṇya karma, is puṇyanubandhi puṇya. During good time also, if someone
intends and tries to perform good acts, the bondage of wholesome karma-s further
bring good results. Though, very few people endeavor to earn it.
2. Pāpānubandhi puṇya
While enjoying the fruits of wholesome karma, one may acquire through his active-
ties pāpkarma-s and that is called pāpānubandhi puṇya. Here, the wholesome kar-
ma-s lead to unwholesome activities. Misery would be destined for them in the end.
3. Puṇyānubandhi pāpa
While suffering the consequences of unwholesome karma, one may acquire puṇya
karma-s is called punyānubandhi pāpa. It is very difficult to keep a sense of
detachment while suffering from miseries. This is possible only if one can realize
and think positively that this pain is due to one‟s previous karma.
4. Pāpānubandhi pāpa
If one acquires pāpa karma while suffering the consequences of pāpa, it is called
pāpānubandhi pāpa. Most of the people who suffers miseries and pains, normally
blame others or some extraneous factors for causing miseries. He indulges in anger,
jealousy, animosity and even terrorism in some extreme cases. Such person reacts
violently or wrongly to suffering, inviting new pāpa karma and further accumulates
them.
Actually both these pāpa or puṇya karma are hurdles on the path of liberation. No
karma can attach to a person if his or her action is done without any attachment or
feeling of accomplishments by cultivating a sense of detachment in all situations,
favourable or unfavourable.
Inorder to have effective demolition of all karma, Jainism has nicely prescribed Tri-
ratna-s i.e. triple attack towards liberation as mentioned earlier. Here, all
achievements are by self-efforts and not by grace. So, meditation is focused on these
efforts as mentioned below:
1. Samyak darśana: To know, perceive, believe, realize and experience total
faith on right path as shown by tirthankaras, who is omniscient.
2. Samyak jñāna: To know and absorb the real form of jīva and ajīva.
 184

3. Samyak cāritra: Meditate on our attitude and efforts towards implementation

of pañca-vratas, pañca-samitis, tri-guptis and meditative techniques prescribed in
scriptures.
Jainism lays emphesis on undertaking puruṣārtha (present karma) so as to get rid of
accumulated karma (sattā or prārabdha), and to reach increasingly higher state.
Thus, instead of being a fatalistic concept, the theory of karma shows how to reach a
higher and superior level by steadily removing karma making full efforts. All Jain
literature tries to explain the ways how karma can be acquired and how that can be
overcome through observances of restrains, austerities, inner reflections, meditation
and various spiritual practices. In this birth of human being only, it is possible to get
liberated from all limiting and restraining influences of karma and thereby to attain
the blissful state.
There is a definite cause and effect relations in this theory. Nothing happens
suddenly without any past karma. More you enjoy pleasure and happiness (sukha),
more śubha karma gets diminished. Similarly, more you enjoy or experience duḥkha
or pain without grumbling, aśubha karma starts getting diminished.
Finally the current state of meditation decides balance of karma and future fruits of
the same.
6. The doctrine of five bodies (subtle physiology)337:
The Jain scriptures classify our existence into five types of bodies. They are
successively more subtle has his Hindu counterpart in the form of pañcakośa in
teachings of Taittirīya-Upaniṣad. This is also called as Subtle Sūtrachology. These
subtle five bodies are:
1. Karman śarīra: It is the inner most and subtlest layer. Here, karma matter
with soul forms instrumental body which acts as a receptacle of karma and
transmigrates at death and is reborn in different forms of life depending upon its
karma.
2. Audārika śarīra: The other forms of body are physical human body.

337
G.Feuerstein, The Yoga Traditions, Motilal Banarasidass Publishers Private Limited, Delhi, 2002,
p.194
 185

3. Vaikarīya śarīra: The transformation body that is acquired by ascetics and

natural for higher beings like deities.
4. Āhāraka śarīra: The procurement body to be projected anywhere for
temporary purpose.
5. Taijasa śarīra: The fiery body is indestructible and survives death. The lower
three bodies (2, 3 and 4) operate through its energy only.
There are two types of animate entities, those who are trapped in the cosmos of
dependence and suffering are samsārin-s, and those who have escaped samsāra, the
wheel of continual becoming are siddha-s or perfected ones. They are without spatial
location and experience unlimited bliss of infinite consciousness.

JAIN METAPHYSICS
The entire philosophy in Jainism is based on concept of „self‟ or ātman. Jain‟s
spiritual entities are comparable to Sāṃkhya‟s puruṣa or pure consciousness. The
purpose of all spiritual practices is to know the self in its pure form and to identify
one‟s own soul with this immaculate and transcendental reality. The fundamental
basis of Jain philosophy is the belief that the pure and perfect (emancipated) state is
integral to all the souls. A true Jain has always been conscious of the innate
potentiality of achieving perfection and the possibility of realization of eternal
disembodied and pure self-perfection.
There are nine basic elements to be known to have knowledge of entire universe and
for further actions in human life according to the āgama-s and Tattvārthasūtra
(seven elements). These are explained in details here:

Nine Elements (nava-tattva-s):

Basically there are nine fundamental elements (navatattva-s) in Jainism which are
independent characters and also nature of matter. The Omniscient has explained the
existence of the soul and its relationship with karma through these nine aspects as
per Samavāyāṅgasūtra. Without having proper knowledge of these tattva-s, a person
can‟t attain Right Faith (Samyak darśana), one of the Tri-ratna and progress
spiritually.
 186

Tattvārthsūtra mentions only seven elements338, where two elements pāpa and
puṇya are not included and they are considered as part of the third element āsrava.
These seven elements are Soul (jīva), Non-soul (ajīva), Influx of karmic particles
(āsrava), Bondage of karma (bandha), Stoppage of karma (saṃvara), Gradual
dissolutionand falling away of karma (nirjarā) and complete Liberation from
worldly bondage (mokṣa) constitute reality.
The detailed discussion on nine elements, including wholesome acts (puṇya),
unwholesome acts (pāpa) will analyze the state of worldly soul and the factors that
help or prevent in attaining the liberation. It is Philosophical arrangement and
administration of this universe by following nine elements.
We can categorize these nine elements into three types for our actions as:
1. jñeya (which is to be known): It includes first two i.e. jīva and ajīva.
2. heya (which are to be avoided): It includes āsrava, bandha and pāpa.
3. upādeya (which are to be adopted): It includes puṇya, saṃvara, nirjarā and
mokṣa. The details of each element are given below:

1. Jīva (self, soul):

It is soul, living being or consciousness. Though, modern science may not believe in
the existence of soul, which is not seen or perceived by our senses. But then, it is not
clear what exactly makes our body active and how activity comes to the end, though
the organs have life in them when a person dies. The invisible energy or life force
which keeps us alive and disappears when we die is the main difference between life
and death. Even Oxygen can not give life to a dead body.
Soul is invisible, shapeless, colorless, tasteless, formless and eternal. A given body
of man or animal is temporary residence of a soul. The transmigration from one
body to another and new embodiment birth after birth has been going on since the
time without beginning as per Jainism. Ignorant of its true nature, the jīva aspires to
get maximum happiness within the framework of its given embodiment and
surrounding situations. This attachment gives rise to the disposition of craving for

338
जीवजीवास्रव बनधसंवरतनजशरामोऺास्तत्तत्तवम ्। T.S. 1.4
 187

the desirable and of aversion for the undesirable. These craving and aversion are the
main causes of the bondage of karma.
We do not experience lasting happiness, because we don‟t realize the true properties
of the soul. Happiness is the inherent property of the soul. Our seers, after
thoroughly exploring the nature of the soul, concluded that true property of soul that
distinguishes it from lifeless matter is the capability to know, to become aware.
None of the five lifeless substances possesses this property. The three inherent
nature of soul are the principle of life (consciousness), capacity for salvation and

incapacity for salvation339.

Consciousness is the distinctive characteristic of the soul340. Also, capability to know

is the characteristic of the soul341. The principal characteristics of jīva are infinite
awareness and eternal bliss. Sanskrit words for eternity, consciousness and bliss
respectively are sat, citta and ānanda. Thus the perfect soul is saccidānanda.
Each soul (jīva) is capable of and gifted with infinite knowledge, faith and conduct.

So, virtues like jñāna, darśana and caritra are not separate from our soul.342
Different catagories of jīva, their modes, sense organs, objects of senses, types of
bodies and life span are described in Jain literature. Mainly five types of jīva are
described here343.
The distinctive characteristics of the soul are the dispositions (thought-activities)
arising from subsidence, destruction, destruction-cum-subsidence of karma, the rise

339
जीवभव्याभव्यत्तवातन च । T.S. 2.7,

Acharya Umaswati, Tattvārthasūtra, JAINA and Shrut Ratnakar, Ahmedabad, (July, 2007)
340
उऩयोगो ऱऺणम ्। T.S. 2.8
341
“Jain Philosophy and Practice”, JAINA Education Committee, North America (2002), p.82
342
एक एव दह तत्रात्तमा स्वभावे समवन्स्थत्I ऻान-दर्शन-चाररत्रऱऺण् प्रततऩाददत् II Adhyātmasāra (6/18/6)

343
औऩर्ममकऺातयकौ भावौ ममश्रश्च जीवस्य स्वतत्तत्तवमौदतयकऩाररणाममको च । T.S. 2.1,

Acharya Umaswati, Tattvārthasūtra, JAINA and Shrut Ratnakar, Ahmedabad, (July, 2007)
 188

of karma and the inherent nature or capacity of the soul. Thus, there are five modes
or states of soul as under:
a) Aupaśamika or suppressive jīva: Pacification or suppression of operative
karma is done temporarily with right perception and right conduct. Aupaśamika
mode of jīva relates to two categories of deluding karma namely, darśana-mohanīya
and caritra-mohanīya i.e. Perception deluding and conduct deluding.
b) Kṣayika or Destructive or elimination mode of jīva: This everlasting mode
arise when all karma are destroyed. Here, two types of Omniscience-obscuring kar-
ma namely, kevala-jñānavaraṇīya and kevala-darśanavaraṇīya karma and five types
of obstructing karma relating to charity, benefit, availing of consumer and durable
goods and vigor and two kinds of deluding karma mentioned above get destroyed.
c) Kṣayopaśamika or mixed mode: The above two modes arise when impact of
karma either get destroyed or suppressed. But, when it is partly suppressed or
destroyed, the state is called kṣayopaṣama.
d) Audāyika or operative mode: It is possible that one may not resort to any of
above mentioned modes or while resorting to any of such modes in respect of some
karma, he may not be able to do so in respect of other karma, then the mode stays in
consonance with the operative karma. As the rise of karma is called udaya, the mode
in accordance with that is audāyika. There are four types of existence (human,
heavenly, animal or infernal), four types of defilement, three types of sex inclination,
wrong perception, one type of nescience and one type of non-restraint, embodiment
and six types of aura. These twenty one categories relate to audāyika mode of jīva.
e) Pāriṇāmika or intrinsic mode: This intrinsic nature of soul does not depend on
any external factor. Consciousness and being worthy or unworthy of liberation are
three innate characteristics of the soul. Jain traditions maintain that some souls are so
addicted to wrong concepts that they can not see the truth.
Jīva (Souls) are divided into two categories: saṃsārik or worldly souls (transmigrat-

ing) and siddha or liberated (emancipated) ones344. The wordly souls can be with or

344
संसाररणो मत
ु ताश्च। T.S. 2.10
 189

without minds (brain)345. Wordly souls can be mobile (trasa) or immobile

(sthāvara)346.
Immobile ones are sthāvara jīva, one-sensed, earthly, aquatic beings or plants. They
are of five types347:
a) Prithvikāya jīva: These are earth bodied like sand, clay.
b) Āpakāya: These are water bodied like dew, fog, water.
c) Tejokāya are innaminate types of fire bodies like flame, blaze, lightening.
d) Vāyukāya or air bodies like wind, cyclone.
e) Vanaspatikāya or plants bodies like leaves, branches, flowers and seeds.
Depending on number of bodies in a plant they are of two types: pratyeka
vanaspatikāya, which has single soul in plant body and sādharaṇa vanaspatikāya
which has more than one soul or infinite souls in one body (anantakāya) like roots of
potato, onion and garlic.
Mobile ones or trasa are either two or more sensed bodies348. Jīva-s with two senses
are (beyindriya jīva) like worms, insects and termites. They have sense of touch and
taste. And others are more than two sensed beings, lusterous and gaseous. Three
sensed jīva (treindriyas) have additional sense of smell. They are bugs, white ants,
lice and others. Four sensed (cauindriyas) jīva have additional sense of sight or
vision. They are scorpions, crickets, spiders, flies and others. Five senses,
pañcendriya jīva, which are physical organs with additional sense of hearing,
namely skin, tongue, nose, ears and eyes, can be material or dravyendriya. Examples
are human beings, monkeys, cow, fish, birds and others. Mind which is an internal
organ (bhāvendriya) has intellectual and spiritual capacity to know.
The following are four sub-categories of the pañcendriya jīva-s.
a) Nārakī (Infernal) – jīva-s living in hell.

345
समनस्कामनस्का्। T.S. 2.11

346
संसाररणस्त्रसस्थावरा्। T.S. 2.12

347
ऩधृ थव्यप्तेजोवायुवनस्ऩतय् स्थावरा्। T.S. 2.13

348
द्वीन्नद्रयादयस्त्रसा्। T.S. 2.14
 190

b) Tiryañca - Non-human beings i.e. elephants, lions, birds, fish, insects and others
c) Deva (Celestial) - heavenly beings,
d) Mānuṣya - Human beings.
Those pañcendriya jīva without mind are called as asanjñi jīva.
According to Tattvārthsūtra, a soul can take birth in three ways349: through
pregnancy (Garbhajanya), spontaneous emergence (Upāpaātajanya) for heavenly
and infernal bodies and agglutination (Sammoorchchhin) where soul absorbs the
material particles lying on the spot and converts them into the agglutinated body.
Garbhajanya jīva can be of three types: andaj (born from egg like birds), potaj
(infant like elephant) and jarayuj (placenta like man, cow). Sammoorchchhin
(asexual origin like flies, mosquitos) can be of four type: rasaj (out of liquid like
bacteria), samavedaj (born out of sweat like bugs, mites), udbhij (burst out of earth)
and aupāpātik (spontaneous births in hell of heaven).
Souls moving from one body to another have only Karman body. Liberated souls
move straight upward, whereas worldly souls can move straight or with turns.
According to Tattvarthsūtra, madhyalok is the the area where we live and the infer-
nal world (Nark) is the down most where infernal jīva live. There are seven layers of
350
infernal abodes (sapta naraka) below our madhyaloka, named ratnaprabhā,
śarkaraprabhā, vālukaprabhā, panka, dhūma, tamas and mahātamas. They are in-
fested with increasingly unwholesome leṣya (aura) and with maximum lifespan of 1,
3, 5, 10, 17, 22, 33 sagaropams351. These jīva-s have poor metabolism, ugly bodies,
horrible experiences and appalling shapes352. They cause pain to one another.353

349
संमूर्चछं नगभौऩरादा जनम। T.S. 2.32

350
रत्तनर्कशराबाऱक
ु ाऩंक धम
ू तमोमहातम् प्रभा भम
ू यो घनाम्बव
ु ाताकार् प्रततट्ा् सप्ताधोऽध्।T.S. 3.1
351
तेटवेकत्रत्र सप्त दर्सप्तदर्त्तदवा ववंर्तत त्रयन्स्त्रंर्त्तसागरोऩमासत्तत्तवानां ऩरा न्स्थत्। T.S. 2.8.

1Sagaropam = trillions of Palyopams, can‟t be explained in mathematical figures, but only by

similies. For instance, if we make a chasm of 512cubic miles and tightly fill with fine particles of
hairs or fibres and if 1hair is removed out of it every 100 years, time taken to empty it is one
Palyopam.
352
नारका तनत्तयार्ुभतरऱेश्याऩररणाम दे हवेदनाववकक्रया्। T.S. 3.3
 191

Madhyalok consists of series of iselands, oceans is named as Jamboodweep, the

ocean as Lavansamudra and mountain Meru. Tattvārthasūtra (3.16) states that out of
35 continents in Madhyalok, five Bharats, five Airavats and five Mahavidehs are
karmabhoomis where people work for their livelihood. Tirthankars are born only in
these karmabhoomis. Our Bharatkṡetra lies on extreme south of Jamboodweep.
Maximum lifespan of human being or other creature is three Palyopams and
minimum is antarmuhurta, which is less than 48minutes.
Above our Madhyaloka is located Urdhvalok, Celestial abode. We need to study
how the minds of ancient seers were working to form Jain concept of Geography and
Cosmology which are not in accordance with current Science. The entire study
indicates that we must have been born in all these wholesome and unwholesome
abodes at different times and would continue to do so unless we undertake the
spiritual pursuit for ending the cycle of birth and death. Jīva-s in Urdhvalok are
Cosmic beings or Devas. They are imbibed with much physical strength, can move
in any part of this universe and live luxurious life due to their austerities, restraints
observed in previous lives. They are of four types Bhāvanāpati, Vyantar, Jyotishka
and Vaimanik.354
Jīva-s are mutually helpful. Living beings are interdependent is a well known
percept of Jainism. We know the interdependency of human and bacteria. The truth
lies between two extremeties. Concept of modified constancy in Jainism says that
everything remains constant within its property, but its states keep on changing.355
Soul is eternal and is always imbibed within its properties of knowing and
perceiving. However, it assumes heavenly, human or other states like male and
female from time to time. Everything retains its existence while undergoing changes
in its states and forms. Each one has two aspects; one is constant which its inherent
property and another is everchanging states of its forms. Everything is constant from

353
ऩरस्ऩरोदीररतद्ु खा्। T.S. 3.4
354
Acharya Umaswati, Tattvārthasūtra, JAINA and Shrut Ratnakar, Ahmedabad, 2007,
T.S. 4.1 and 4.2
355
T.S. 5.29 - 5.31
 192

absolute point of view, while from the practical point of view, it is temporary.
Giving multiplicity of views is inexpressible and it leads to Saptabhangi.
Guṇaparyāyavāda dravyam356, another principle of Jainism, explains that every
substance is imbibed with its properties and changing modes. Thus, all living beings
are embodied souls. Every soul is an independent entity and has been undergoing
cycles of birth and death as a result of bondage of karma.
A soul can abide in innumerable parts by virtue of its capability to expand and
contract like light of a lamp. Jīva varies from body to body. The maximum size of
jīva occurs at the time of liberation. One expands the body to the extent of the entire
cosmic Universe when an Omniscient being is on the point of being liberated. This
state is Kevali Samudghaṭa.
2. Ajīva (Insentient substances)
Anything that does not have life or consciousness is called ajīva. Worldly life arises
on account of interaction of soul with it. As there is no soul, it can not accumulate
Karma. A box, car, table, book are few examples of non-sentient entities. ajīva-s
don‟t have birth, death, pain or pleasure. According to one of the great Jain scholars,
Acārya Kundakunda, the Reality or Cosmos consists of six eternal substances (dra-
vyas) and each one is associated with guna. Jain philosophy has classified ajīva into
five categories. These five non-santient substances (pañcastikāya) are as under357:
Dharma (Priciples or medium of Motion)
Adharma (Priciples or medium of Rest)
Ākāśa (Space)
Pudgal (Physical order of existence, matter)
Kāla (Time)
a) Dharmāstikāya: It denotes medium of motion. It prevails in loka (cosmic space) and
absent in aloka (Trans cosmic space). Its primary function is to help in movement
of soul and matter. It exists in entire cosmic universe. Ether like invisible substance
is constant and eternal.

356
Ibid, 5.38
357
Ibid.,5.1 to 5.24
 193

b) Adharmāstikāya: It denotes medium of rest. It helps to rest the movement of soul

and matter. Thus, dharmāstikāya and adharmāstikāya are instrumental in motion
358
and stability. Both these dharmāstikāya and adharmāstikāya substances are
unique to Jain thought depicting the principles of motion and rest. They are said to
pervade the entire universe.
Dharma-tattva and adharma-tattva are by themselves not motion or rest but mediate
motion and rest in other bodies. Without dharmāstikāya motion is not possible and
without adharmāstikāya rest is not possible in the universe.
c) Ākāśāstikāya (Space): It accommodates all other substances except Pudgal. It is all-
pervading, infinite and made of infinite space-points. Jainism divides Ākāṣa into two
parts: Lokākāṣa and Alokākāṣa as mentioned above. Alokākāṣa is an empty space
and does not contain any jīva, pudgala, kāla, dharmāstikāya and adharmāstikāya
unlike Lokākāsha. It provides space or accommodation to soul and matter of their
actions.
d) Pudgalāstikāya (Matter): That continuously changes by addition (pud) and/or
division (gal) is called matter or Pudgal. It is a tangible object like Prakṛti. Matter is
non-living substance, which possesses a body consisting of mass and volume. They
do not have consciousness and are of infinite in number. They can be seen by eyes,
can aggregate and disaggregate others into indivisible and inactive substances. They
can not exercise their own capability to move without medium of dharma, and
capability to remain steady can be exercised with medium of adharma.
Matter can be in the form of whole (skandha), part (skandha-deśa), smallest particle
(skandha-pradeśa), atom (paramāṇu) or karma (karma-pudgala). Pudgala-s are
responsible for body, speech and mind, inhalation and exhalation, pleasure and pain,
life and death, touch, taste, odour, color, sound, darkness and light. It is nothing but
matter which is classified as solid, liquid, gaseous, energy, fine Karmic materials and
extra-fine matter or ultimate particles. Paramāṇu or ultimate particles are considered
the basic building block of all matter. One of the qualities of the paramāṇu

358
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tattva_(Jainism) (Retrieved on 02/09/2014)
 194

and pudgala is that of permanence and indestructibility. It combines and changes its
modes but its basic qualities remain the same. According to Jainism, it can neither be
created nor destroyed.
e) Kāla (Time): Time measures changes in living beings and non-living substances.
According to Jainism, Samay is the smallest and indivisible portion of time, which is
infinitely small part of a second. Time is linked to a wheel with twelve spokes
divided into Avasarpiṇi (regressive, descending) and Utsarpiṇi (progressive or
ascending) half cycles with six stages, each of immense duration estimated at
billions of sāgaropamā or ocean years (For Kālacakra, Refer Appendix no. I on
page no.348).
According to Jains, sorrow increases at each progressive descending stage and
happiness and bliss increase in each progressive ascending stage. Each half cycle is
made up of six ārās (era) each one of unequal periods. Currently, we are in 5thEra or
ārā of unhappiness (dukham kāla) which has been started after nirvāṇā of Lord
Mahāvīra and is going to last for 21000 years. The function of Time is becoming,
changing, moving and the concept of before and after. Time is a real entity according
to Jainism and all activities, changes or modifications can be achieved only through
time. The part of the universe, where dharmāstikāya and adharmāstikāya exist is
called lokākāṡa (Cosmic universe).
As per Jainism, finest part of pudgal is paramāṇu, which is finer than any sub-
atomic particle. One paramāṇu occupies space known as pradeṡa. Binding of two or
more paramāṇu is called Skandha. Jīva, dharma and adharma occupy innumerable
pradeṡas, so the term āstikāya is attached.
Dharma and adharma occupy the entire Universe; pudgala can occupy one or more
parts.
3. Āsrava (influx of Karmic pudgala to ātman or jīva)
With respect to bondage of karma, two fundamentals, namely āsrava and bandha are
closely related. āsrava is made up of two words; „Aa‟ means from all sides, „Srav‟
means dripping in. Thus, inflow of karma is āsrava and bondage of these incoming
karmas into our soul is bandha. The influx of karma occurs when the karmic
particles are attracted to the soul on account of vibrations created by activities of
 195

mind, speech and body. Exercising of physical, vocal and mental faculties
constitutes yoga in Jainism. And that leads to āsrava. These three types of yoga

cause vibration/throbbing in the space points of soul resulting in influx (āsrava) i.e.
incoming of karma359. Āsrava acts as doors through which Karma enters. This is
beautifully explained in Jain scripture Tattvārthasūtra360.
If the soul gets involved in virtuous activities, āsrava happens to be wholesome
karma and that leads to acquisition of Puṇya. If the soul is involved in sinful
activities due to defilements (kaṣāyas) that exist in soul, Āsrava happens to be of
unwholesome karma that leads to acquisition of pāpa361. Only undue exercising of
the faculties can be deemed as causing āsrava. One acquires karma when one
exercises faculties with attachement or resentment. Thus, āsrava are of two types:

Samparāyik and Iryapathik.

Exercising the faculties under the influence of defilement with passions, which
extends transmigration gets resulted into samparāyika āsrava. Absence of restraints,
kaṣāya, sense of attachment or aversion through sense organs and few specific
activities like violence leads to samparayika āsrava. Exercising our faculties without
defilement or with detached mind free from passions gets resulted into Iryapathik
āsrava 362.
Normally, a layman or householder observes activity with minor restraints. No
worldly activity, in true sense, can be entirely wholesome or unwholesome. The
difference of merits and demerits lies in degrees363. Influx is differentiated on the
basis of intensity or feebleness of thought activity, intentional or unintentional nature

359
स आस्रव्। T.S. 6.2,

Acharya Umaswati, Tattvārthasūtra, JAINA and Shrut Ratnakar, Ahmedabad, 2007

360
कायवाङ्मन् कमश योग्। T.S. 6.1

361
र्ुभ् ऩुण्यस्यार्ुभ् ऩाऩस्य । T.S. 6.3

362
सकषायाकषाययो् सांऩरातयकेयाशऩथयो्। T.S. 6.4

363
तीर्व्मनदऻाताऻात भावाधधकरण वतयशववर्ेषेर्भयस्तद्ववर्ेष्। T.S. 6.6
 196

of action, the substratum and its peculiar potency. If meritorious portion is higher,

the activity is termed as wholesome and if unmeritorious part is higher, it is termed

as unwholesome. The karmic inflow on account of yoga driven by passions and
emotions cause a long term inflow of karma prolonging the cycle of reincarnations.
On the other hand, the karmic inflows on account of actions that are not driven by
passions and emotions have only a transient, short-lived karmic effect.
The primary causes of āsrava are364:
a) Mithyāva: False perception or ignorance
b) Avirati: Attachment or lack of self restraint
c) Pramāda: Stupor, unawareness or lack of mindfulness
d) Kaṣāya: Passions or afflictions like anger, pride, deception and greed are four
defilements.
e) Yoga: Activities of mind, speech and body.
If activity is done with these, then the karma acquired is relatively stronger and long
duration. The intensity of karma depends on four factors:
i. Degree of attachment, higher the degree, higher the intensity
ii. Conditions under which activity is done knowingly or unknowingly
iii. Vigor put in the activity, if stronger then, intensity is higher
iv. Means employed for the purpose, if violent and objectionable means are
employed then, the intensity of karma will be higher.
Following activities lead to knowledge and perception obscuring karma365 which is
unwholesome type:
i. Vilification: Resenting a true presentation or wholesome display
ii. Concealing: To hide the name of true benefactor
iii. Withholding: Not to confer knowledge to a deserving person
iv. Obstruction: Raising obstacles in the way of knowledge

364
Amarmuni, Acharangasūtra, sūtra-112, p.168
365
तत्तप्रदोष तनह्रवमात्तसयाशनतरायासादनोऩघाता ऻानदर्शनावरणयो् । T.S. 6.10
 197

v. Disrespect: deliberate disregard towards the knowledge or means of

knowledge
vi. Condemning of the sources of acquiring knowledge: Outright opposition or
total absence of appreciation
Distress, lamentation, pain, wailing, violence and affliction caused to the self or
others are the cause of acquiring aśātāvedanīya (uncomfortable situation conferring
unwholesome) karma366, whereas love and compassion to all living beings,
observance of restraints with the sense of attachment, charity, asceticism with
attachment, involuntary dissociation of karmas without effort, austerities not based
on right knowledge, contemplation, equanimity, freedom from greed forbearance
and purity are the cause of acquiring śātāvedanīya (comfortable situation conferring
wholesome) karma.367
Delusion is of two types, perception related and character related, i.e.
darśanāmohaniya and caritramohaniya respectively. Attributing faults and
slanderously talking about Omniscient Lords, scriptures, religious doctrines or
heavenly beings leads to influx of perception-deluding karma368. Acutely perverted
mode of soul by virtue of defilement, intense feelings induced by the rise of the
passions leads to influx of character related deluding karma369. Indulging in
excessive infliction of injury, very violent activity and excessive possessiveness
cause influx of karma that leads to infernal life. Indulging in deception leads to
animal, sub-animal or immobile (like one to four sensed being) life. 370Antarāya or
obstructing karma creates obstructions in good activities. Little infliction of injury or

366
द्ु ख र्ोकताऩा क्रनदन वधऩररदे वनान्नयत्तमऩरोभयस्थानयसद्वेघस्य। T.S. 6.11

367
भत
ू र्व्त्तयनक
ु म्ऩादानसराग संयमाददयोग् ऺान्नत् र्ौचममतत सद्वेद्यस्य। T.S. 6.12
368
केवमऱश्रुतसंघ धमश दे वावणशवादो दर्शनमोहस्य। T.S. 6.13

369
कषायोदयात्ततीर्व्ऩररणामश्चाररत्रमोहस्य। T.S. 6.14

370
बह्वारम्भऩररग्रहत्तवं नारकसयायष
ु ्।। T.S. 6.15, मायाततयशग्योनस्य। T.S. 6.16.
 198

pain (domestic works) and little attachment, and also natural mildness cause the
influx of life-karma that leads to human life.371
Restraint with attachment, restraint-cum-non-restraint, involuntary dissociation of
karma-s and austerities accompanied by perverted faith, cause the influx of life-
karma leading to celestial birth.372 Right belief also is the cause of influx of life-
karma leading to celestial birth in the Heavens.373 Crooked and deceptive actions of
mind, speech and body, and criticising the right actions and prompting for wrong
actions cause the influx of inauspicious physique-making karma-s. The opposites of
these (namely straightforward activity and honestry or candour) cause the influx of

auspicious physique-making karma-s374.

Censuring others and praising oneself, concealing good qualities present in others
and proclaiming noble qualities absent in oneself, cause the influx of karma-s which
lead to low status.375
The opposites of those mentioned in the previous sūtra and humility and modesty

cause the influx of karma-s which determine high status.376Laying an obstacle in

charity, gains, consumption and power of others is the cause of the influx of

antarāya-s i.e. obstructive karma-s.377

The influx of the highest type i.e. Tirthankara nāma-karma is caused by sixteen
observances as mentioned earlier.

371
अऱऩारम्भऩररग्रहत्तवं मानुषस्य। T.S. 6.17, स्वभावमादश वं च। T.S. 6.18.

372
सरागसंयम संयमासंयमा काम तनजशराबाऱतऩांमस दै वस्य। T.S. 6.20

373
सम्यतत्तवं च। T.S. 6.21

374
योगवक्रता ववसंवादनंचार्ुभस्य नाम्न्। T.S. 6.22, तद्ववऩरीतं र्ुभस्य। T.S. 6.23

375
ऩरात्तमतननदा प्रर्ंसे सदसद्गुणोर्चछादनोद्भावने च नीचैगौत्रस्य। T.S. 6.25

376
तद्ववऩयशयो नीचैवत्तशृ त्तयनुत्तसकौ चोत्ततरस्य। T.S. 6.26

377
ववघ्नकरणमनतरायस्य। T.S. 6.27
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4. Bandha (Bondage of karma)

Asrava is the cause, which leads to the influx of good and evil karmas and which
leads to the bandha (bondage) of the soul. The soul assimilates the lifeless particles
(pudgala-s) suitable for karma by indulging in defilement and that constitutes the
bondage. The karmas have effect only when they are bound to the consciousness.
This binding of the karma to the consciousness is called bandha. However,
the yoga or the activities alone do not produce bondage. Out of the many causes of
bondage, passion is considered as the main cause of bondage. The karmas are
literally bound on account of the stickiness of the soul due to existence of various
passions or mental dispositions.
There are five primary causes of karmic bondage as said earlier. Wrong belief,
attachment, negligence, passions and activities are the causes of bondage.378

Āsrava and bandha both occur on account of ignorance of the soul about its true
nature. And the cause of ignorance of soul could be its delusion. One believes that
body, relatives, wealth and everything belong to him. This wrong perception is
known as mithyātva. Due to this the soul views any given situation as the cause of its
own happiness or unhappiness. If the situation is pleasing to the senses, the soul
identifies itself with that feeling and craves for continuance of such situation, and if
not pleasing, tries to avoid it with sense of aversion. This craving and aversion
defiles the true nature of soul of staying in equanimity. These defilements are
expressed in the form of four kaṣāya-s namely krodha (anger), māna (ego and
arrogance), māyā (deception) and lobha (greed and attachment). These four passions
drag the soul downwards.
Owing to this, the self attracts subtle matter pervading the same space points
occupied by the self, capable of turning into karmic matter, which is called influx.
When such karmic matter is combined by interpenetration with the space points of

the self, it is called bondage.379

378
ममथ्यादर्शनाववरततप्रमादकषाययोगा बनधहे तव्। T.S. 8.1

379
सकषायत्तवाज्जीव् कमशणोयोग्यान ् ऩद्
ु गनानादत्तते स बनध्। T.S. 8.2
 200

Depending upon four aspects of it, i.e. type, duration, intensity and plenitude of
bondage of karma, there are eight main types of bandha-s380 with 97 categories.
They are knowledge-obscuring, perception-obscuring, feeling-producing, deluding,
life-determining, name-determining (physique making) status-determining and
obstructive karma-s as mentioned below:
i. Jñānavaraṇīya (knowledge-obscuring): Concealing, obstcuring knowledge
and knowing capabilities of soul is knowledge obscuring karma and it has five
categories. Bonding of such karma is Jñānavaraṇīya karma-bandha.
ii. Darśanāvaraṇīya (perception-obscuring): Perception obscuring karma is
darśanāvaraṇīya type. It is further divided into visual, non-visual, clairvoyant,
kaivalyaprāpti and other nine types depending on type and level of perception.
iii. Vedanīya (feeling-producing): Vedaniya karma is of two types, śatavedanīya,
that provides favourable and comfortable situation and aśatavedanīya are those
which provides us uncomfortable situation.
iv. Mohanīya (deluding): Moha means delusion. It is delusion deluding karma. It
dulls faculty of discrimination. It can be of various types like darśanamohaniya
(three types of perception deluding karma), charitramohaniya (character deluding
are of 25 types) karma. Thus there are twenty eight varieties.
v. Ayushya (life-determining): This is life span determining karma and also
decides type of life called as Yoni, i.e. infernal, animal, human or divine yoni. These
are four types; any one would get bound to the soul.
vi. Nāmakarma (name-determining): It determines outward appearance and inner
conditioning also called as physique- making bondage. The topmost one is
Tīrthaṅkara Namkarma. Here, we have 42 varities.
vii. Gotra (status-determining): This karma determines status of family i.e. noble,
prosperous, low or highly literate where one is going to take birth. Two types of
gotrakarma are mentioned in the scripture.
viii. Antarāya karma (obstructive): This karma raises obstacles in doing
something. It creates obstacles in all wholesome activities like dāna, lābh, bhoga,

380
आद्यो ऻान दर्शनावरणवेदनीय मोहनीयायन
ु ाशमगोत्रानतराया्। T.S. 8.4
 201

upabhoga and vīryantarāya. For the five types of senses also, we have five types of
antarāya-s.
Jñānavaraṇīya, darśanāvaraṇīya, mohanīya and antarāya are ghatiya (defiling)
karma as they hinder the manifestation of the soul‟s natural attributes, whereas other
four vedanīya, nāma, gotra and āyuṣya karma are aghatiya karma as they do not
adversely affect the nature of the soul. The soul has simply to bear the consequences.
The further details of bonding of and effects of karma are already given in the
beginning of this chapter as a separate topic called “The doctrine of karma”.

5. Puṇya (Favourable condition through wholesome deeds)

All our activities, physical or mental and verbal expression should be wholesome or
pious and thoughts also should be pure to earn puṇya. Puṇya and pāpa are nothing
but categories of karma, whether they are good or bad. When we do something
good, comforting to others or we ask someone else to do something good, influx of
karma would be wholesome and we accumulate Puṇya. The good variety of feeling-
producing karma and the auspicious life, name and status-determining karma
constitute merit or Puṇya.381Tattvarthsūtra mentions these eight types of puṇya
karma as under:
sātāvedanīya, samyakatvamohanīya, hāsya, rati, puruṣaveda, śubha-āyuṣya, śubha-
nāma and śubha-gotra
If we properly understand the implications of Lord Mahāvīra‟s message, “Live and
let live”, it will go long way in molding our attitude towards all living creatures. As
a result, we stop coming in the way of others seeking the same comforts of life,
which we also seek. We always try to provide comfort and security to others. Such
Puṇya karma brings happiness during this life and following lives. All spiritual and
meditative practices mentioned in this Thesis are initially for earning Puṇya.
6. Pāpa (Unfavourable condition, Unwholesome deeds)
When our activities are bad, cause suffering to others, we earn Pāpa karmas. When
matures, it results into suffering and miseries. Unfortunately, most Pāpa karmas do

381
सद्वेद्यर्ुभायन
ु ाशमगोत्राणण ऩण्
ु यम ्। T.S. 8.25
 202

not show their results immediately, people do not care about the consequences. Pāpa
karma brings sufferings, diseases in this and future lives. All deeds that are not good
are Pāpa.382
Jain scripture “Bhagvati sūtra383”, the fourth Agam describes eighteen kinds of sinful
activities (pāpasthānaka,ऩाऩस्थानक) in which one should not get involved. Or do it

with regrets, if must, and repent for doing such act, never enjoy doing it. They are as
under:
a) Prānātipat (hurting or killing life, starving, verbal violence): Every aspect of
life we do the violence knowingly or unknowingly.
b) Mṛṣāvād (telling lie, spreading rumors, writing false documents): It has
become part of our life and getting more and more difficult to stick to the truth.
c) Adattadan (stealing, theft, to take without permission)
d) Maithun (unchaste, sensual enjoyment, lust): mostly, we are slave of our
senses through out our life.
e) Parigrah (possessiveness): Under the influence of our greed, we forget that
one day, we have to leave all here and nothing comes with us after death.
f) Krodh (anger, intolerance): In no time, it destroys the fruits of all good deeds
and spiritual practices.
g) Mān (arrogance, ego): It is very harmful on the path of spirituality.
h) Māyā (cheating, deceit): It is very difficult to get out of clutch of it and to be
simple and sober.
i) Lobh (greed, which leads to anger, jealousy and war): Greed leads to many
other Pāpa-karma.
j) Rāg (attachment): We normally get and remain attached to our body,
belongings and relatives.
k) Dvesh (hatred, enmity): It‟s lust for comfort, hatred for pain and miseries.
l) Kalah (quarreling): Greed, lust and rag-dwesh leads to this Pāpa.

382
अतोऽनयत्तऩाऩम ्। T.S. 8.26
383
Bhagvatisūtra, p.299
 203

m) Abhyākhyan (accusation): Our common nature of putting allegation on others

for our faults leads to this Pāpaa.
n) Paiśunya (gossip): Nobody likes to get victimized of it.
o) Rati-arati (liking and disliking): pleasure and displeasure for sensual
activities. Lack of equanimity, partiality and prejudice.
p) Parparivād (criticism): It leads to hurting others and painful for us too.
q) Māyā mṛshāvād (malice, telling a malicious lie): It is a combination of b) and
h) Mithyātva śalya (wrong habits, to keep faith in false beliefs): The biggest root
cause of other Pāpa mentioned above is this mithyātva or Avidyā. Acarya
Hemchandra defines mithyātva as "belief in false divinities, false gurus and false
scriptures384". This leads to suffering.
Above referred pāpasthānakas are also called as kaṣāyas. “kaṣa” means worldly life
and “aya” means gain. And with this gaining of worldly life, there is no chance of
liberation. Thus, these kaṣāyas are hurdles on the spiritual path. One can understand
that anger and ego are part of dveṣa and deceit and greed are part of rāga.
Each of these kaṣāyas are classified into four catagories385 as under:
1. Anantanubandhi: This level of kaṣaya is extremely severe. It obstructs right
faith and conduct.
2. Apratyakhyaniya: Intensity here is severe. It obstructs partial renunciation and
partial vows.
3. Pratyakhyaniya: The intensity is moderate here. It obstructs total
renunciation. The aspirant is unable to take vritts, can‟t follow or implement. It is
compared with a line drawn on sand which gets eliminated with few efforts.
4. Saņjvalan: The intensity is slight and hardly lasts for 15days. It obstructs total
faith and knowledge. It is compared with a line drawn on water, gets pacified
without much efforts.
There are few additional pāpasthānakas (pseudo-passions) as given below:
384
Robert Williams, Jaina Yoga: A Survey of the Mediaeval Śrāvakācāras, Motilal Banarsidass, 1998,
p. 47
385
http://www.jainworld.com/philosophy/passions.asp, (Retrieved on 28/09/2015 ) and
“Look N Learn” magazine dt.10/06/2013, Parasdham, Mumbai
 204

1. Hāsya (laughing or joking)

2. Rati and A-rati (passionate)
3. Śoka (sadness)
4. Bhaya (fear)
5. Jugupsā (disgust)
6. Puruṣveda (cause of male sexual desire for women)
7. Striveda (cause of female sexual desire for men)
8. Napuṃsakaveda (cause of androgynal sexual desire - for both male and
female)
7. Saṃvara (Stoppage of influx of karma)
Saṃvara means prevention of Āsrav or the incoming karma386. It is restraining the
influx of Karma pudgals. The first step to emancipation or the realization of the self
is to see that all channels through which karma has been flowing into the soul have
been stopped, so that no additional karma can accumulate. This is referred to as the
stoppage of the inflow of karma or saṃvara. There are two kinds of saṃvara: that
which is concerned with mental life (bhava-saṃvara), and that which refers to the
removal of karmic particles (dravya-saṃvara). This stoppage is possible by self-
control and freedom from attachment. The practice of vows, carefulness, self-
control, observance of ten kinds of dharma, meditation, and the removal of the
various obstacles, such as hunger, thirst, and passion stops the inflow of karma and
protect the soul from the impurities of fresh karma.
The soul can prevent influx of new karma while facing the consequences of the
current operative karma, if it can avoid atleast main four kaṣāyas (passions) namely
krodha, māna, māyā, lobha out of eighteen referred earlier. Though, it is difficult to
stay in equanimity, one can try to change a given situation. Making efforts is also
karma and if that happens to give instant results, the situation may change.
One should learn the techniques given in the scriptures to prevent or minimise these
four prime passions (kaṣāyas). Developing an attitude of forgiveness, penace and

386
आस्रवतनरोध् संवर्। T.S. 9.1,

Acharya Umaswati, Tattvārth-Sūtra, JAINA and Shrut Ratnakar, Ahmedabad, 2007

 205

repentance will reduce the anger. For annihilation of lobha (greed), develop a habit
of helping others, and also try to understand that our gain is somebody‟s loss.
Humility and surrendering to God attitude definitely reduces our ego (mān). Honesty
is the best practice to take care of māyā-kaṣāya. The main cause of these kaṣāyas is
fruitation of mohaniya karma.
One should avoid the sense of pride and arrogance in favourable circumstances and
stop blaming anything or anybody else for unfavourable circumstances. Thus,
staying free of kaṣāyas is Saṃvara and it helps prevent the inflow of new karmas.
To attain Saṃvara, constant practice of following elements is required.
a) Right belief
b) Observance of vows
c) Awareness
d) Passionlessness
e) Peacefulness of vibratory activities
Jain literature explains 57 (5 Samitis +3 Guptis +10 Yatidharma +12 Bhāvanās +22
Pariśala +5 Caritra) practical ways to stop influx of karma as under:
Uttarādhyayansūtra is one of the Mūla sūtras (fundamental principles) and the Jain
scripture of direct utterances and last sermon by lord Mahāvīra before his nirvāṇa
and it describes the essence of Mahāvīra‟s thoughts regarding social and spiritual life
of man. In this holy literature, five samitis and three guptis are described in 24th
chapter “Pravacan-māta” (mother of all discourses). These samitis and guptis are
also described in Tattvārthasūtra. Samitis are rules of conduct which ensures
indulgence in the right or auspicious practices and guptis are avoiding misconduct or
abstaining from indulgence in wrong or inauspicious practices.
Five types of Samitis387 (Carefulness, circumspection), which purify the actions by
maintaining vigilance are Iryā. Bhāshā, Eshnā, Ādāna-nikśepa and Utsarga as
explained below:

387
ईयाशभाषैषणा दान तनऺेऩोत्तसगाश सममतय्।T.S. 9.1
 206

1. Īryā samiti (carefulness in movements): Taking care while walking not to

harm and hurt any living creature like insects or any movement with full mental
awareness and attention to the acts results into purification.
2. Bhāṣā samiti (carefulness in speech): No indulgence in anger, conceit, greed,
pride, laughter, fear, gossip and slandering. Only use faultless language with brevity
and proper time.
3. Eṣaṇā samiti (carefulness in exploring alms): while begging or accepting and
using the required articles and bed one should ensure purity of all. Acquire only
necessary items innocently.
4. Ādāna Nikśepa samiti (Circumspection in taking, moving and keeping any
object including bowls): A careful ascetic should observe and check himself while
picking up and putting down both common and special equipment and items.
5. Utsarga or Paristhāpanika samiti (carefulness in disposing waste): One
should dispose stool, urine, mucus, slim from the nose, body dirt, waste things and
even his body with due care at a suitable solitary place for disposal so as not to cause
any inconvenience to anybody by becoming a source of nuisance, unsanitation or
contamination. As this waste may cause generation of germs and insects and death of
them.
As it is almost impossible to restrain all possible activities as mentioned in guptis
below, one has to carry on many activities till he or she is alive, one can follow
samitis by keeping awareness while performing them.
Three guptis (restraints or preservation) are prescribed in the scriptures, which curb
sinful activities. It is restraining yoga which is mental, vocal and physical
faculties388.
1. Manogupti (Mental restraint): The ascetic should prevent his mind with full
awareness from wishing thoughts of causing injury or destruction of others. One
should guard his mind from impture thoughts like anger, hate, greed, jealous and
ego. Four types of thoughts or words are there namely: truth, untruth, partial truth
and neither truth or untruth. One should be proper selective while inviting thoughts.

388
सम्यग्योगतनग्रहो गन्ु प्त्। T.S. 9.4
 207

2. Vacanagupti (Vocal restraints): It is regulation of speech. No words harming

or embarrassing others should be uttered.
3. Kāyagupti (Physical restraints): It is regulation of body movements. One
should prevent bodily activities directed at misfortune, causing misery to or
destruction of other living beings. While walking, jogging or moving anywhere, one
should be alert enough not to kill, harm any bugs, insect on the path.
Guptis and Samitis are closely related. Samitis purify our actions and Guptis prohibit
any seenful activities by our body, mind or speech and so included for practicing
Saṃvar. Both are very much useful to the spiritual aspirants. They are included in
observing right conduct.
Yati dharmas, ten religious virtues also called as daśalakṣaṇadharma389 according to
Tattvārthasūtra which stipulates these attributes as the topmost (uttam) religion were
discussed earlier under „spiritual practices for householders‟.
12 types of attitudes or practice of Reflections or cintanānuprekṣā:
Tattvārthasūtra also prescribes twelve positive thoughts of contemplation designed
with one-pointed mind to serve as an aid to spiritual progress leading to the path of
renunciation. They are called as anuprekṣā or bhāvanā or chintanānuprekshā.390
These are reflections as meditation on transitoriness, helplessness, trans-migration,
loneliness, distinctness, impurity, influx, stoppage, dissociation, the universe, rarity
of enlighten-ment and the truth proclaimed by religion explained as under:
a) Anitya bhāvanā or anityanucintanānuprekṣā:391 One has to meditate
profoundly on Tirthankar‟s words on impermanence of the world and all worldly
things including our body. All these and places or genus where we are living are
transitory, nothing is permanent and all is perishable and hence, we should not get
attached to any of them. This practice is comparable with one of the meditative

389
उत्ततमऺमामादश वाजशवसत्तय र्ौचसंयम तऩस्त्तयागा ककञ्चनय ब्रह्मचयाशणण धमश्। T.S. 9.5

390
अतनत्तयार्रण संसारै कत्तवानयत्तवार्ुर्चयास्रवसंवर तनजशरा ऱोकबोधध दऱ
ु भ
श

धमशस्वाख्यातत्तत्तवानुधचनतनमनुप्रेऺा् । T.S. 9.7

391
Amarmuni, Achārangasūtra, sūtra-400, p. 557
 208

practices based on the same principle of non-permanency in Buddhism which is also

called as „Anitya Bhāvnā‟.
b) Āśaraṇa Bhāvanā (Aṣaraṇucintanānuprekṣā): Āśaraṇa means unsheltered,
helpless. Meditate on thought that no one else is going to give us protection, shelter
and nobody can share my pains and sufferings except the ultimate. I have to
experience all myself. So, surrender to him. At the time of death, we become
helpless as nobody can save us. No worldly things can provide refuge so why should
we depend upon them.
c) Samsāra Bhāvanā: Saṃsārānucintanānuprekṣā means contemplating on
worldly order. Meditate on thought that there is no permanent relationship with
anyone in this universe. During the cycle of birth and death, any friend becomes
enemy and vice versa. Our own people, samsarik mother, sister keep on changing,
sometimes in the same cycle too. So, we should not have any attachment for any
type of relationship. We should make attempts to attain permanent happiness.
d) Ekatva Bhāvanā: Ekatattvānicintanānuprekṣā is contemplation on solitude
of the soul. e.g. “I am alone, was born alone will die alone, am sick alone, am going
to suffer alone. I have to experience the karmas, which I have acquired alone.” This
meditation can free us from sense of attachment and accelerate towards liberation.
e) Anyatva Bhāvanā: Anyatvanucintanānuprekṣā means the otherness,
different from everything else. Think and realize that this body is separate from the
soul. Realize that this body, wealth and family are not mine and different from me.
f) Aṣuci Bhāvanā: Aṣucicintanānuprekṣā is contemplation on contents and
components of our body. Actually, they are in no way adorable or pleasing. This
body is made up of and is producing lots of impurities is the thought which
minimizes our attachment towards it.
g) Āsrava Bhāvanā: Asravanucintanānuprekṣā is to become aware of influx of
karmās and their consequences. All sources and causes that create the inflow of
karmās should be discarded. Sensual desires bring lots of bad karmās. We come to
know by this contemplation that every indulgence in the sense objects leads to
Asrava. The root cause of all miseries is relation of soul with karma pudgals, so get
detached. Minimise and stop accumulation of karmās.
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h) Saṃvara Bhāvanā: Saṃvaranucintanānuprekṣā is to meditate on wishful

implementation of all mahavruttas, to appreciate all great souls and try to adopt
those characteristics that they lived. Above reflection on Asrava leads us to
contemplate on stoppage of influx karmās and various methods thereof. One should
carry out those activities including contemplation on Samiti, Gupti, Yati and dharmā
mentioned earlier which reduce or block new bondages of karma.
i) Nirjarā Bhāvanā: Nirjaranucintanānuprekṣā burns all karmās giving faster
results. Make efforts for „sakāma nirjarā‟ and automatic arousal of good karma or
experiencing fruits of all karma is „akāma nirjarā‟. Contemplate on shedding of
accumulated karma, and various spiritual practices for destroying them. One must
contemplate on twelve kinds of austerities, peacefully bearing the hardships and
discomforts that one may come across by virtue of karma without grumbling.
j) Loka Bhāvanā: Lokanucintanānuprekṣā is to know about self, universe or
their interdependency. Loka means cosmos (vishvaracana), which is made up of
panchāstikay. Meditate on transitoriness of this universe, on three Lokas, namely the
Upper world, the middle and the lower world filled with souls and pudgala-s. It
improves metaphysical knowledge and philosophy.
k) Bodhi-durlabha Bhāvanā: Bodhidurlabhanuchintananuprekṣā is to
meditate on this birth and its uniqueness. It also includes thoughts of repentance
about unattainability of the right faith, right knowledge and right conduct. One must
contemplate on how difficult it is for the souls that are wandering aimlessly in the
four stages of existence in this vicious cycle, where there is a rare chance of right
guidance and enlightenment.
l) Dharma Bhāvanā: Dharmanuchintananuprekṣā is to meditate on our true
religion, duties and aim of the life. Thoughts of repentance about unattainability of
true preceptor, scripture and religion and appreciate the omniscient who has
expounded an excellent śṛta Dharma and Caritra Dharmā. Thus, adoring the
spiritual aspects laid by Tirthankars amounts to attitude called as Dharmā-
svakhyatattvānuprekshā. This helps to stay firm on the spiritual path.
These states of mind and this attitude teach us to utilize the spiritual knowledge in
developing and expanding one‟s own soul. It inspires to purify and develop the inner
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soul. Apart from these twelve reflections, there are four more additional reflections
that represent the positive means of supporting the five vows. They play very
important role in the day-to-day life of a householder as they are intended to develop
purity of thoughts and sincerity in the practice of religion. They can be practiced
very easily to attain the right sentiments. They are maitri (amity), pramod
(appreciation), karunā (compassion) and madhyastha (equanimity)392.
Maitri Bhāvanā is contemplation of friendship. Lord Mahāvīra‟s philosophy is
cultivating friendliness towards all living beings and adores the virtuous which
brings love and respect to others. Result of this meditation is removal of harsh
thoughts, words and actions which will hurt others. It leads to a supportive, tolerant,
caring and forgiving attitude.
Pramod Bhāvanā is admiring the success of our friends or others including spiritual
leaders. Friendship combined with admiration, destroys jealousy. At the end,
negative impulses get turned into positive ones resulting into peace. By appreciating
the virtues of others, we develop that virtue.
Karuṇā Bhāvanā is expressing compassion towards weak, helpless, addicted with
vices, poor and people in distress instead of disgust or hate. We can show such
people the right path with patience, tolerance and forgiveness. Thus, we can avoid
accumulating bad karmas for us as well as for them.
Madhyastha Bhāvanā is remaining in equanimity, instead of provoking turmoil in
our mind when situation does not work out favorably or somebody behaves
abnormally causing terrorism in the society. Instead of being disappointed, angry or
getting disturbed, try to be calm thinking that you have done your best to resolve the
situation. Develop objectivity towards the inveterate. It is not in our hand to change
others, so change our own approach, attitude and neglect reaction of others.
Thus, we can avoid influx of bad karma and live peacefully in the worldly life by
developing friendship with all living beings, admiring their success, holding their
hands when they are in distress, and leaving them alone at the times when they do

392
मैत्रीप्रमोद कारुण्यमाध्यस्थ्यातन च सत्तत्तवगुणाधधक न्तऱश्यमानाववनयेषु। T.S. 7.11
 211

not understand what is right or wrong. One should continue contemplating on these
attitudes or bhāvanā till it becomes the natural way of life to observe them.
Twenty two hardships (Pariṣahā) are mentioned in Tattvārthasūtra. One has to
experience hardships in the form of hurdles or obstacles on this path just as result of
the past karma. These hardships393are hunger, thirst, cold, heat, insect-bites,
nakedness, absence of pleasures, women, pain arising from roaming, discomfort of
postures, uncomfortable couch, scolding, injury, begging, lack of gain, illness, pain
inflicted by blades of grass, dirt, reverence and honour (good as well as bad
reception), arrogance of learning, despair or uneasiness arising from ignorance and
lack of faith. They are mainly for testing if we could maintain calmness or the state
of equanimity, to stay on the right path for eradicating the bondage of karma. Inspite
of all hardships, if one can ignore the bodily concerns, he can prevent acquisition of
new karma. A spiritual aspirant should remain aware that hardships arise as the
consequence of karma and need to be borne with patience. More than nineteen
pariṣāha-s or afflictions can not occur simultaneously394since one out of cold and
heat and one out of pain arising from roaming, discomfort of postures and

uncomfortable couch can occur at a time.

Tattvārthasūtra describes fourteen stages of spiritual elevation395and development

for stopping of karma inflow and how much one has to bear with the above
hardships in each stage. It also specifies types of karma that lead to different
hardships (pariṣāha-s). Only Jnānāvaraniya (knowledge obscuring),
darṣanāvaraṇīya (perception obscuring), Mohaniya (perception-deluding), caritra-
mohaniya (character-deluding), vedaniya (situation conferring) and antaraya
(obstructing) karma are responsible for causing hardships (pariṣāha-s).

393
ऺुन्त्तऩऩासार्ीतोटणदं र्मर्कनाग्नयारततस्त्रीचयाशतनषद्यार्य्याक्रोधवधयाचनाऱाभरोगतण
ृ स्ऩर्शमऱसत्तकार

ऩुरस्कारप्रऻानां दर्शनातन । T.S. 9.9

394
एकादयो भाज्या युगऩदे कन्स्मननै कोनववंर्ते् । T.S. 9.1

395
सक्ष्
ू मसांऩरायछद्मस्थवीतरागयोश्चतद
ु श र् । T.S. 9.10
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Five cāritras396 (conduct) are also included in these 57 ways of Saṃvara. These
practices should be considered as steps towards liberation. They are Sāmāyika,
chedopasthāpana, pariharāviṣuddhi, sukṣma-Samparāya and yathākhyātāmiti. They
are explained below:
a) Sāmāyika: „sām‟ is equanimity and „āy‟ means incoming, Sāmāyika is effort
to cultivating equilibrium of mind throughout life.
b) Chhedopasthāpana Cāritra: After initiation and adoption of Sāmāyika
attitude, one has to live a life of an ascetic. There is a reinitiation in case of failure to
keep the vow by taking to the vow again after penance. Jain monks stay in Sāmāyika
forever, for which they take vow known as Vadi-Dikṣā.
c) Pariharāviṣuddhi cāritra: It is a stage of higher purification. One has to
follow special types of penance as an ascetic. It involves adopting various hard
postures.
d) Sukṣma-Samparāya-cāritra: To live a life without any kaṣāya or afflictions or
a subtle degree of defilement. Here, almost all types of defilements are overcome,
except a few wholesome attachments. Those attachments can stay upto tenth stage of
spiritual elevation.
e) Yathākhyāta or Vitarāga cāritra is the last, twelfth stage of spiritual elevation.
It is a state of total detachment and dissociation of deluding karma and living a life
of an Arihant.
More and more, we practice these virtues, faster we attain spiritual upliftment. The
superior level of observance, the higher one rises on the ladder of spiritual elevation.
8. Nirjarā (exhaustion of the accumulated karma)
Nirjarā is partial eradication of acquired karmas. Previously acquired karma that
becomes operative, get exhausted as they mature. When karmas after giving the end
results get exhausted on their own and no active effort was made to eradicate them, it
is called akām Nirjarā, which happens automatically. Efforts in the form of twelve
types of penance or austerity can eradicate accumulated karmas which are bonded
with the soul in the dormant form currently, before they become operative. This

396
सामातयकर्चछे दोऩस्थाऩना ऩररहार ववर्ुवद्धसक्ष्
ू म सांऩराय थाख्यातममततचाररत्रम ् । T.S. 9.18
 213

process of eradication by deliberate effort is sakām Nirjarā or avipāka Nirjarā.

Twenty two hardships397 (parisāha-s) mentioned above for Saṃvara could actually
be included in sakām nirjarā.
This eradication or shedding or destruction process has two stages. The state of
omniscience or Kevaljnān is attained when one totally overcomes delusion and also
when all defiling (Ghāti) karmas are destroyed. After attaining Kevaljnān, one may
continue to live as he has to destroy other Aghāti karmas like Ayu, Nām, Gotra and
Vedaniya karma. These karmas get destroyed only upon death. Lord Mahāvīra lived
for thirty years after attaining Kevaljnān. The soul is like a mirror which looks dim
when the dust of karma is deposited on its surface. When karma is removed by
destruction, the soul shines in its pure and transcendent form. It then attains the goal
of mokṡa.
Nirjarā can also be classified as of two types: the psychic aspect of the removal of
karma (bhāva-nirjarā) and destruction of the particles of karma (dravya-nirjarā).
Acārya Umasvati wrote in „Tatvārthasūtra‟ that Nirjarā can be achieved by Tapa or
austerities.398 Jain Agamas have prescribed six types of internal and six types of
external austerities or Tapa. Fasting is just one of the external austerities. Austerities
not only prevent influx of karma (Saṃvara), but eradicate accumulated karma
(Nirjara) too. Tapa was given prime importance by Lord Mahāvīra also which is
described in Acārang sūtra399
Three stanzas from „Pancācār sūtra‟ state as follows:400
When these twelve types of tapa are observed, without getting perturbed or any other
consideration, it becomes code of austerity called as Tapāchār. These are the
principle ways of Nirjarā.

397
Acharya Umaswati, Tattvārthasūtra, JAINA and Shrut Ratnakar, Ahmedabad, 2007

मागाशर्चयवनतनजशराथशऩररषोढव्या् ऩरीषहा्। T.S. 9.8

398
तऩसा तनजशरा च। T.S. 9.3
399
“Acāranga sūtra”, 6/47, 66, 107, 108
400
“Jain Philosophy and Practice” JAINA Education Committee, North America, 2002, p.91
 214

I. Tatvārthasūtra mentions six types of external austerities401. They are fasting,

reduced diet and special restrictions while accepting food from a household, giving
up stimulating and delicious dishes, lonely habitation and mortification of the body.
They are explained as under:
a) Anaṣan (Fasting): It is going without food or not eating for aspecified time.
b) Avamaudārya or Uṇodari: It insists on eating less than needed. With this,
spiritual aspirants, when they don‟t get enough to eat, with little empty stomach can
stay unperturbed.
c) Vṛtti-sankṡep or Vṛtti Sāṃkhyan is curtailing desires or eating within the limits
of predetermined restrictions of material, area, time and mode. Number and type of
materials to be used is curtailed here. One has to remain satisfied inspite of all these
restrictions. One can not go for spiritual development without contentment and
tranquility of mind in all circumstances.
d) Rasatyāga or Āyambila is relinquishing tasty food. Give up attachment for the
taste, as it is unsatiable craze. Hankering for taste does not allow a person peace of
mind. Diet should not create a hurdle on the spiritual path. Detail of „Āyambil tap‟ is
given later in this chapter.
e) Kāyā-kleṣa is tolerating or bearing physical pain voluntarily. It is a physical
hardship. Meditation with Kāyā-kleṣa in Kāyotsarga mudra inspires the aspirant to
get detached from the body and focused on the soul.
f) Sāllinatā or Viviktaṣayyāsan is staying in forlon place, occupying minimum
space and braving discomfort.
Varieties of external austerities or also called as Tapasyās in Jainism are of
following types in ascending order:
i) Navkārsi: Taking food or water only 48 minutes after sunrise.
ii) Porsi: Taking food or water only three hours after sunrise.
iii) Sādh-porsi: Taking food or water only 4.5 hours after sunrise.
iv) Purimiddha: Taking food or water only six hours after sunrise.

401
Acharya Umaswati, Tattvārth-Sūtra, JAINA and Shrut Ratnakar, Ahmedabad, 2007,

अनर्ानावमोदयशवन्ृ त्ततऩररसंख्यानरसऩररत्तयागववववततसय्यासनकायतऱेर्ा बाह्य तऩ्। T.S. 9.19

 215

v) Avadhdh: Taking food or water only nine hours after sunrise.

vi) Chauvihar / Tivihār: One must not take anything after sunset or only water
once.
vii) Biyāsaṇa: Taking food only twice a day in one seat, one place. Boiled water
only between Sunrise and Sunset.
viii) Ekāsaṇa: Taking food only once a day in one seat, one place. Boiled water
only between Sunrise and Sunset.
ix) Āyambil: Taking food only once, while sitting at one place. The food has no
taste, spices, milk, sugar, oil or any vegetables or fruits.
x) Upavāsa: One must not take any food for about 32 hours for one fast i.e. from
previous night to next morning of the day of Upavās. In Tivihār Upavās, boiled
water can be taken between sunrise and sunset only. In Chauvihār Upavās, even
water also is not allowed.
xi) Chhath: Upavās for two consecutive days
xii) Attham: Upavās for three consecutive days
xiii) Atthāi: Upavās for eight consecutive days
xiv) Māsakṣamaṇ: Upavās for thirty consecutive days (only on boiled water for
one month)
xv) Varsi-tapa: Alternate days Upavās for fourteen months.
xvi) Navpad Olἷ: Twice in every year Āyambil as mentioned in ix) done for nine
consecutive days. Sometimes, it is restricted to one type of grain only in a day.
External tapa is important as far as it is helpful and is conducive to internal tapa.
The actual tapa for Nirjarā is internal tapa. Such Tapa in the form of various types
of fasting called as „Upavās‟ is very popular among Jains. „Upa‟ means closer and
„Vās‟ means abode. Thus Upavās really means abiding in proximity with or in tune
with the soul. If a person sincerely tries to stay in accordance with the real nature of
soul, he cannot indulge in any sense of craving or aversion and can reach up to a
higher level of Nirjarā. When someone observes the penance of Upavās, he should
spend his day in meditation, prayers and spiritual activities.
 216

Austeriries bring a sense of detachment towards worldly pleasures as they are

ephemeral and nothing stays forever. Without the sense of detachment and acute
desire for liberation, it would be hard to adhere to the restraints.
The main purpose of observing all these above referred austeritiesis to enable oneself
for internal austeriries.
II. Internal Tapa includes six types of austerities402. They are as under:
a) Prāyaṣcitta (repentance, atonement) b) Vinaya (modesty) c) Veyāvaccha (service
to all monks) d) svādhyāya (self-study) e) dhyāna (meditation) and f) kāusagga
(Japa meditation) are internal Tapa as explained under:
a) Repentance (Prāyaṣchitta) is attonement for our indulgence in wrong
activities or evil tendencies. The sense of remorse should enable one to avoid the
recurrence of such indulgences. Nine categories of repentances are mentioned in
Tattvārthasautra403namely Ālochan (confession), Pratikamaṇ (recalling the lapses
with a view to attoning), Tadubhay (Confession and attonement), Vivek
(discriminating wisdom), Vyutsarga (giving up physical and mental involvement),
Tapa (austerities), Chhed (reduction in proportion and delay in initiation of faults),
parihāra (remaining in a quarantine for a specific period), Upasthāpan (re-adoption
of vows).
b) Reverence (Vinay) means modesty, humility and respect for others. With this
egoless attitude, one may feel inclined to develop the wholesome attributes by
noticing the virtues of others which leads one to increasingly higher spiritual level.
c) Rendering selfless service (Veyāvachcham):404 Respectful service to the head
(ācārya), the preceptor, the ascetic, the disciple, the ailing ascetic, the congregation
of aged saints, the congregation of disciples of a common teacher, the congregation
of the four orders (ascetic, nuns, laymen and laywomen), the long-standing ascetic
and the ascetic of high reputation are the ten kinds of service. A spiritual aspirant

402
प्रायन्श्चववनय वैया वत्तृ त्तयस्वाध्याय व्युत्तसगशध्यानानयुत्ततरम ्। T.S. 9.20

403
आऱोचनप्रततक्रमणतदभ
ु य वववेक व्युतसगशतऩश्छे दऩररहारोऩस्थाऩना्। T.S. 9.22
404
आचायोऩाध्याय तऩन्स्वर्ैऺ ग्ऱानगण कुऱ संघ साधु मनोऻानाम ्। T.S. 9.24
 217

knows that all living beings have the same type of soul. So, he needs to develop
regards for others, thus a will to serve others without expecting in return.
d) Self-study (Svādhyāy): Svādhyāya or “self study” is of great importance in
Jainism. The study of self is conducted to learn and to know the true nature of the
soul. Study of those scriptures and meditation which has potential of uplifting self
towards liberation is Svādhyāy.
The Bhāṣya of the Agama „Sthānānga Sūtra‟ says:
Shobhanam amaryadaya adhyayan srutesyadhikamanusaranam swadhayah
Svādhyāya is methodological, systematic study and implementation with full of
awareness and control of what is heard (srut). It is also self-study or study of self,
soul i.e.
Svasyah ātmannah adhyayanam svadhyayah
When the closest disciple Gautam asks Lord Mahāvīraa,
“Sahajjanam bhante jīve ki jāṇayi?”
It means “What one gains out of Svādhyāya?”
Mahāvīra replies, “Sajjanam nāṇāvarnijja kammam khaveh”
It means “all accumulated Jnānāvarṇiya karma can be destroyed instantly with
Svādhyāya.” The proper form of words could be understood and explained in the
right meaning with Svādhyāya. His words are more effective and influencial, who is
true practitioner of Svādhyāya.
Daṡavaikālika sūtra explains that monks with pure mind can wash out all past
bondages as gold and silver get purified by heating them in fire if they do Svādhyāya
and meditation with full concentration.
e) Renunciation of body (Vyutsarga, Kāyotsarga) means to give up or renounce
from the body. Giving up external and internal attachments are two types of
renunciations.405
f) Dhyāna is meditation. Tattvārthasūtra refers to concentration on one subject
by a person of a very strong physique which can extend upto one prahar or 48
minutes406.

405
बाह्यार्भयनतरोऩध्यो्। T.S. 9.26
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The Acāranga Sūtra based on teachings of Lord Mahāvīra dating back to 500 B.C.,

describes Jain meditation and spiritual practices elaborately and in minute detail of
philosophy. The Sūtraktianga, Bhagavati and Sthānāng also give directions on
contemplation, Yogāsana, meditation and other practices. Aupapāttika has organised
presentation of Tapoyoga which is a kind of right conduct.

The Agamas and other scriptures in Jainism mention four types of meditation or
Dhyāna407namely, ārta or the painful (sorrowful), raudra or the cruel, dharma or the
virtuous (righteous) and ṡukla or the pure meditation. The first two namely
ārtadhyāna and raudradhyāna are Aśubh-dhyāna (inauspicious) and the other two
namely dharma and śukladhyāna are Śubh-dhyāna (auspicious). The last two are

mainly for liberation408. The details of each one is given below:

a) Ārtadhyāna: (Meditation on Pain, sorrow)

“ऋते भवं आतंम”् (Focussing on pain or causes of the pain is Artadhyāna).

To be troubled, to feel sorry, to cry and to lament loudly constitute the characteristics
of Ārtadhyāna.
Upon receipt of a harmful object, thinking again and again for its removal is the first
kind of sorrowful meditation409. Upon loss of a favourable object, thinking again

and again for its repossession is the second kind of sorrowful meditation410. In the

case of suffering from pain and disease, thinking continuously for its removal is the

third type of sorrowful meditation411. Thinking about fulfilment of the wishes for

406
उत्ततमसंहननस्यैकाग्रधचनतातनरोधो ध्यानमानतमह
ुश ू ताशत ्। T.S. 9.27
407
आतशरौद्रधम्यशर्ुतऱातन। T.S. 9.28

408
ऩरे मोऺहे त।ू T.S. 9.29

409
आतशममनोऻस्य साप्रयोगे तद्ववप्रयोगाय स्मतृ तसमनवाहार्। T.S. 9.30

410
ववऩरीतं मनोऻस्य। T.S. 9.31

411
वेदनायाश्च। T.S. 9.32
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enjoyment and to see that available comforts and enjoyment are not lost is the fourth
sorrowful meditation412. Thus, Ārtadhyāna is worrying all the time about getting
attached to unwanted objects or getting detached from desirable objects or rāga and
dveśa or physical and mental pain or expecting non-achievable pleasures in life.
These sorrowful meditations occur in the case of laymen with and without small
vows and non-vigilant ascetics413.
In the same way, some of the Jain scholars like Acārya Yashovijay, Acārya
Shubhchandra and others have classified Ārtadhyāna into following types:
अतनटियोगजनमाध्यं तथेटिाथाशत्तययात्तऩरम ् I

रुतप्रकोऩात्ततत
ृ ीयं स्यान्ननदानात्ततय
ु म
श ङ्धगनाम ् II (ऻानाणशव, २३/२२)

1. Aniṣṭasaṃyog: worries of getting things which we don‟t want.

2. Rogacintā: worries of disease and suffering.

3. Iṣṭaviyog: worry of loosing things which we want to keep.

4. Nidāna: worries of non-achievement of desirable objects.

Most people continuously worry and complain about their painful and unhappy
situations. They wish to remain in comfort zone, get attached to pleasures, get
attracted to some persons and objects (Rāga), and try to avoid unpleasant
experiences and persons (Dveṣa). They worry to avert disagreeable, unwanted
objects and painful situations, to regain the lost favourable situations and get
strongly inclined to stake everything for some worldly gain. They have intense
desire to acquire desirable objects. These situations are classified in Tattvārthsūtra
as under:
1. Amanojna-samprayoga-viyoga-cinta-ārtadhyāna
2. Manojna-viyoga-samprayoga-cinta- ārtadhyāna
3. Dukhakar-vedanā-samprayoga-viyoga-cintā- ārtadhyāna
4. Sukhakar-vedanā-viyoga-samprayoga-cintā- ārtadhyāna

412
तनदानं च। T.S. 9.33

413
तदववरतदे र्ववरतप्रमत्ततसंयतानाम ्। T.S. 9.34
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All these categories prevail during initial five stages of spiritual elevation. Mind
occupied in these thoughts is doing Ārtadhyāna. Pāpakarma incurred by Ārtadhyāna
is comparatively less; as involvement in wrong activity in it is less.
The result or the symptoms of Ārtadhyāna are fear, doubt, stress, despair, irritation,
tearfulness, frustration, depression, worries, uneasiness, madness, lust for objects,
physical stiffness and rarely unconsciousness. Finally the jīva doing artadhyāna gets
Tiryanchgati (next birth as insect, animal or bird) according to scriptures like
Jnānārnav and Adhyātmasāra.
b) Raudradhyāna:
To think in a cruel and murderous manner or inclination is „Raudra Dhyāna‟. It
consists of continuously occupying mind with intense and cruel thoughts of violence,
lies, stealing, harassing, killing or harming others, and sense-objects414. Accordingly
the categories are:
1. Himsārtha or Himsānandi raudra-dhyāna: Sedist who enjoys violence gets

involved in this Dhyāna. He has intensepurpose of having pleasure of violence.

2. Asatyārtha or Mruśānandi raudra-dhyāna: Intense purpose of untruthfulness.
3. Steyārtha or Chauryanandi raudra-dhyāna: Intense purpose of stealing.
4. Viśay-saṅrakṣanārtha or sanrakshānandi raudra-dhyāna: Intense purpose of
protecting objects of pleasure.
This occurs in unrestrained and partly restrained stages. A person is strongly inclined
to resort to wrong means. That can prevail in first five stages of spiritual elevation.
The intensity of thoughts is very high as compared to Artadhyāna.
Here, finally the jīva doing raudradhyāna gets Narakgati (complete suffering in
infernal state or hell) according to Jnānārnav and Adhyātmasār.
c) Dharmadhyāna:
To interpret and contemplate on the meaning of Āgama-s (Scriptures) and the words
of the Vitarāgas is “Dharmadhyāna”. When delusion is minimized or overcome by
contemplating about percepts and commandments of the Lords like blissful nature of

414
दहंसानत
ृ स्तेय ववषय संरऺणेर्भयो रोद्रमववरतदे र्ववरतयो्। T.S. 9.19
 221

the soul (Ajnāvicay), on impact of karma on worldly soul and way to get free from
that, it is termed as dharmadhyāna. To create interest in the words of the Vitarāgas
and Tirthankaras, to show feelings and make attempts to behave according to their
advice - these are the characteristics of this dhyāna.
Dharmadhyāna or the virtous meditation are of four types – concentration on
realities (tattva) through pramāṇa and naya, ways and means to help living beings to
take the right belief, knowledge and conduct, fruition of karmas and the reasons
thereof, and state of universe415. Meditation on sermons (of Vitarāg/Tirthankar),
regarding the path which takes away from suffering, emergence of new karma and
fruits there of, the great architecture of the entire universe or any religious activity is
Dharmadhyāna. Those who have subdued or destroyed all kleśa-s can have
Dharmadhyāna.
Various types of Vicaydhyāna are suggested as part of it. Vicay is symbolic practice
of meditation and detachment. It points at valour and endeavour. „Samprekṡa‟ is one
of them where soul is witnessed through the soul. Prekṡādhyān is a practice to see
deeply or minutely i.e. to witness416.
Other Jain scriptures like Agamas, Yogashastra (10/7), Jnānārnav and Adhyātmasār
(2/16/35) have mentioned four types of Dharmadhyāna namely:
1. Agnyāvicay: In one of the oldest scriptures agnya vicaya, which is the first
pillar of dharmadhyāna, it is suggested that the aspirant has to think and contemplate
upon sermons of Jin Tirthankars and to accept, believe and tries to follow the Lord‟s
agnyas (orders) or orders of the authority. Here, one contemplates on seven facts,
namely - life and non-life, the inflow, bondage, stoppage and removal of karmas,
and the final accomplishment of liberation.
2. Apayvicay: In apaya vicaya, which is second pillar of dharmadhyāna, one has
won over anger, pride, deceit and greed. Here, one contemplates on the incorrect
insights one indulges into (avidyā) and that eventually develops right insight. It is to
think and contemplate upon the miseries and various practices for destruction of

415
आऻाऩायववऩाकसंस्थानववचयाय धम्यशम ् । T.S. 9.36
416
Acharya Kundkunda, Samaysara, “sampikkhae appagamappaenam”, pp.200-201
 222

karma. Apayvicay is pondering over causes of distress and unhappiness and

minimizing them. This helps in exercising Saṃvara and Nirjarā, prevention and
eradication of karma.
3. Vipākvicay: In vipāka vicaya which is the third pillar of and based on
dharmadhyāna is where one has to accept the stone thrown at him as the maturation
of own karma and also one reflects on the eight causes or basic types of karma as
mentioned earlier. It is also to think and contemplate upon emergence of various
fruits of karma accumulated previously. The law of karma is supreme and
inexorable. Nobody is immune from its operation. We should not crave for the
comforts and should not feel unhappy in uncomfortable situation. We should make
use of comfortable situations for undertaking the virtuous activities and in adverse
situations, we should think of not repeating the unwholesome activities. That type of
contemplation is called Vipākvicay.
4. Sansthānvicay: In sansthānvicay which is fourth pillar of dharmadhyāna, one
thinks about the vastness of the universe and the loneliness of the soul.417 It is to
contemplate upon the universe and the shape and state of eternal Lokas, interaction
between jīva and ajīva. Worldly life arises from interaction of Pudgal (ajīva) with
soul (jīva).
Dhyānaṣatak and Adhyātmasār have mentioned following twelve points and pre-
requisites for Dharmadhyāna:
1. Bhāvanā: Four types of attitude are necessary before practicing
Dharmadhyāna. They are Jnāna (true knowledge increases confidence level in soul),
Darśana (faith), Cāritra (conduct) and Vairāgya (detachment).
2. Deśa: Place of meditation (should be peaceful)
3. Kāla: Anytime
4. Āsana: Any comfortable meditative posture like Vīrāsana, Simhāsana,
Kayotsargāsana, Paryankāsana.

417
Rudi Jansma & Sneh Rani Jain, Yoga and Meditation Published by Prakrit Bharti Academy, Jaipur,
2006.
 223

5. Ālambana: Four media for Dhyāna are mentioned in Sthanāngasūtra. They

are Vancana (Study of sūtra and scriptures), Pruchhana (enquire for any doubts),
Parivartana (revision, repeat the sūtras already learnt), Anuprekṣā (analyse and
contemplate on Sūtra-meanings etc.). Thus, the aspirant gets established in dhyāna
and never returns. Ālambana is comparable with Savikalpa dhyāna where as
Nirambalana is with Nirvikalpa dhyāna
6. Krama (Sequence): First control Manoyog, then Vacanyog and Kayāyog
7. Dharma or Dhyey: Ajnāvicay dhyeya, Apay, Vipāk, Sansthān
8. Dhyātā: Different scriptures have given different eligibilities at different
levels of elevation for an aspirant who can practice dhyāna. Ideal examples are
Stithaprajna, Muni.
9. Anuprekṡā: It is deeper, steady and undisturbed contemplation. A continuous
observation accompanied by contemplation is Anuprekṡā. This is the most important
aspect. Four types of Anuprekṡa are mentioned in the scriptures418: Ekattva, Anitya,
Āṣaran and Sansār. Others have mentioned twelve types of attitude.
10. Leṣyā: Leṣyā is an aura around the soul. It is a result and reflexion of all
activities at the soul level. Jain darśana refers to two types of leṣya-s, namely
Dravya lesyā and Bhāva-lesya. It may be pure or impure. Six types of leṣya-s are
described in the scriptures. Tejo, Padma, śukla leṣya-s are very auspicious in
Dharmadhyāna and take the aspirant upwards. Krisna, Neel and Kapot leṣya-s are
inauspicious or bitter ones and are causes of downfall on spiritual path. All six lesyās
prevail till six stages of spiritual elevation (gunasthānas). At seventh guṇasthānaka,
Tejo, Padma and Ṥukla remain. From 8th to 13th stages, only Ṥukla exists. There is no
lesyā at the last 14th and highest stage of gunasthāna. The result or fruit of Krisna
lesyā is Nārki (infernal state), Neel lesya is sthāvar state (plant), Kapot lesyā is
Tiryancha state (next birth is animal, insect), Tejoleṣyā is human birth, Padma lesyā
is Devloka or celestial state and Ṥukla lesyā is mokṣa (liberation)419.
418
Sthānāngsūtra (4/1/247), Dhyānashatak p.65
419
Chimanlal Kaladhar, Jain Darsana- article appeared in daily newspaper “Mid-day” dt. 20.12.2015,
p.29
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11. Linga: Indications of Dharmadhyāna are mentioned. Detached attitude,

kindness, body fragrance, cheerfulness, Faith, Sidhhis, Rutambharā budhhi – Samatā
– Pratibhājnān.
12. Phala: As a result one develops steadiness and one-pointedness in dhyāna,
inner joy, gets entry into swarga and finally makes himself eligible for Ṥukladhyāna,
the source of mokṡa.
Dharmadhyāna is feasible in 7th to 12th stages of spiritual elevation.
Another classification of Dhyāna as mentioned by Acāryas Shubhchandra and
Hemchandra is again of four types:
1. Piṇḍastha: visualization through medium of body. It is of five types:
a) Pārthivi Dhāraṇā: Establish idols, worship and meditate.
b) Agnivi Dhāraṇā: Focus and contemplate on burning of karma in fire.
c) Vāyavi or Māruti Dhāraṇā: Contemplate on flying off by wind all the ash or
impuruties sticking to the self/soul.
d) Varuni Dhāraṇā: The impurities will be carried away by water.
e) Tattvabhu Dhāraṇā: Visualizethe destruction of impurities through the
medium of basic elements.
All these five Pindastha dhyāna given above are types of visualization.
2. Pādastha (pāda, mantra like “Arham”, “Namo arihantanam”, “Om”).
3. Rupastha: Direct visualization of Tīrthaṅkara e.g. sermon of Jineswar in
Samvasarana. Meditate on this nature of Arihanta.
4. Rupātit: Formless Siddha. Nirambalan Nirvikalpa dhyān i.e. meditation with
no object and independent of any God or Tirthankar. All qualities of soul are
actualized.
All eight main karmas (Jnanavarniya and others) are composed of material atoms of
karmavargana and are alien to the soul. Fruitation of karma results into pleasure and
pain and can not be identified with the self. The enlightened soul knows that:
Ahamekko khalu suddho damsananamaio sayaruvinaviatthi majja kimcivi annam
paramāṇumettam pi (Sthānāngasūtra - 38)
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Meaning: I am single and instrically pure, am possessed of knowledge and intuition.

I am totally devoid of sense data such as taste, touch etc. and therefore totally
formless (arupi), not a single atom of the alien substance matter is mine420
iv. Ṥukladhyāna
Dharmadhyāna practice makes one‟s mind steady, calm, composed and gets aborbed
into one single object chosen for meditation. Ṥukladhyāna makes such mind more
matured, peaceful and brings cittavṛtti s under full control. This is the highest level
of meditation where no desires are left. The aspirant continues his journey with pure
mind while washing all karma-mala completely towards Ṥukladhyāna now. It is pure
white state.
Acārya Hemchandra has explained in his Yogashastra as under that above referred
environment and states are very difficult in current times. The practice of
śukladhyāna has become almost non-attainable (due to accelerated multiplication the
impurities in our life). But this unbroken tradition should continue to benefit even
few rare aspirants; the explanation of Yogashastra is given below.

अनवन्र्चछत्तत्तयाम्नाय् समागतोङ्स्येतत क त्तयशतेङ्स्मामभ् I

दटु करमप्याधतु नकै् र्त

ु ऱध्यानं यथार्ास्त्रं II (योगर्ास्त्र, ११/४)

Ṥukladhyāna is pure form of meditation421. It can be resorted by those who are

atleast at the 8th stage of spiritual elevation and well versed in Poorvas. Four
catagories of Ṥukladhyān is described in Sthānāngasūtra (4/247), Bhagvatisūtra
(25/7), Adhyātmasār (5/16/74-80) and Tattvārthasūtra (Sūtra 9/39 to 9.46) as under
indicating their progressive order. The first two types of pure meditation are attained
by the saints well-versed in the purvas, the Shrutkevali.422The last two types of pure
meditation arise in the omniscients.423The result of this is Mokṡa. These four types

of Ṥukladhyāna are:
420
Ibid p.44
421
Tattvarthadhigamsūtra, part-2, Chapter 9, 10, Sri Jain Sreyaskar Mandal, Mehsana,1960
422
र्ुतऱे चाद्ये ऩूववश वद्। T.S. 9.37

423
ऩरे केवमऱन्। T.S. 9.38
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a) Pṛthaktvavitarka savicār: It is multi-tiered contemplation on different states

about different aspects and different types of soul or any other object on the basis of
scriptural knowledge. It is oscillation of mental concentration between subtle aspects
of the same object or the subject and word e.g. Parsvanāth. So, it is not absolute
meditation. This dhyāna is purely analytical and internally influential. It is also
called as Bheda-cintana (Contemplation of difference) - To contemplate that the
body and the soul are different. For transcendental aspect, Jains accept only true
scriptures (Āgamas) which are findings of Tirthankaras.
b) Ekatvavitarka vicār: Abheda-cinatna (Contemplation of non-difference). To
contemplete on the form of the soul - I am the soul - is called Ekatvavitarka vicāra.
It is unitary contemplation on only one aspect of soul or any other object on the basis
of the knowledge acquired. It is a progress towards single pointedness. It can not be
influenced by words, body or mind, so it is called „avichār‟. This knowledge is
Nirvikalpa kevaljnān. Due to non availability of other aspects of other objects,
fluctuations of mind do not take place. It is free from shifting. 424Ghātikarma easily
get destroyed in this state. One can achieve Kevaljnāna in this.
The above two categories represented by „ṡukla-leṣyā‟ are stages can be resorted by
those, whose delusion is calm down or overcome, who knows poorvas. Vitarka
denotes sacred literature. Vicār denotes meaning, connotation and moving from one
Yog to another. Nirvicār denotes absence of such varying contemplation and staying
steady on one aspect. These first two types are based on one substratum and are
associated with scriptural knowledge and shifting.425
Following two categories could arise with discolouration of leṣyās to the omniscient
Lords.
c) Sookṣma-kriyā-apratipati: It is a subtle contemplation of an omniscient Lord,
when one forsakes all physical, mental and verbal faculties and resort to the subtle
body. Only Ayu antarmuhurta remains with him. “Samudghat Kriyā” is

424
अवीचार द्ववतीयम ्। T.S. 9.42

425
एकाश्रयेसववतकशवीचारे ऩव
ू े।T.S. 9.41
 227

recommended in Yogashastra (11/50) to enjoy and finish all Vedaniya karma of an

aspirant. This practice is comparable with Patañjali‟s Bahukaynirman Kriyā to enjoy
Sopkarma. This represents „paramṡukla leṣyā‟.
d) Vyuparata-Kriyā-anivrtti or Ṥaileṡikaran or Utsanna Kriyā or Samucchinna
Kriyā nivrutti: Here, above referred Ṥūkṡma Kriyā also is stopped. With this small
stage of dhyāna, remaining four Aghātikarmas also get destroyed. It is a subtle con-
templation of an omniscient Lord at the time of liberation. It leads to the irreversible
stillness of the soul. It is „leṣyātit‟ (beyond any leṣyā) state. Steady condition under
suppression of subtle activity like breathing is called samucchinna Kriyā anivrtti.
Discreption, renunciation, absence of delusion and steadiness in the face of difficult-
ties - these are the characteristics of the four types of ṡukla Dhyāna. He who takes to
the ṡukla dhyāna attains mokṡa (liberation) and attains to the class of Siddhas.
Thus, these are stages of almost getting rid of desires followed by freedom from
rāga, dveṣa and moving to stage of liberated soul.
The aspirant with minimum knowledge (alpajnāni) can practice first two types of
ṡukladhyāna. The result is Devloka426. The remaining two should be practiced by
kaṣay-free kevaljnānis, who are in the state of equilibrium.The result is Mokṡa. Thus
depending upon the stages of spiritual elevation, one can have the Ṥukladhyāna.
Thus, four types or stages of pure concentration are that of many substances through
the activity of mind, speech and body, that of one substance through the activity of
mind, speech and body, that of subtle activity and that of complete destruction of
activity.427These four types of pure concentrations are achieved by those having all
the three activities i.e. the mind, the speech and the body, one activity, body activity
and no activity respectively.428
Meditation has been the central practice of spirituality in Jainism for ages. Jain
meditation and spiritual practices system is referred to as salvation-path. Its three
important constituents are three jewels as mentioned earlier.
426
Adhyātmasara 5/16/80
427
ऩथ
ृ तत्तवैकत्तवववतकशसूक्ष्म कक्रयाप्रततऩा ददव्युऩरत कक्रयातनवतॉतन । T.S. 9.39
428
त्र्येक योग काययोगा योगानाम ् । T.S. 9.40
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Ten degrees of Nirjarā in ascending order are described in Tattvārthasūtra

depending on various liberation seekers of different levels. The dissociation of
karma increases innumerable-fold from stage to stage in the ten stages of the right

believer ( Samyakdraṡti), the householder with partial restraints (Śrāvaka ), the

ascetic with full restrains (Virat), the separator of the passion leading to infinite
births as at this level, one is capable of destroying infinitely binding defilement
(Anantānubandhiviyojak), the destroyer of faith-deluding karma
(Darśanamokṣapāka), the suppressor of conduct-deluding karma (Upaṡamak), the
saint with quiescent passions (Upaṡāntmoh), the destroyer of delusion (Kṡapak), the
saint with destroyed delusion and the spiritual victor (Kṡinmoh and Jin)429. At this
level, where one has already destroyed delusions and achieved level of omniscience.
Saṃvara and Nirjarā describe the ways one can use to prevent the karmic bondage
and to get rid of karma in order to get liberation. If bondage of karma is considered a
disease that afflicts the soul and Āsrava the door through which the disease enters,
Saṃvar is the prevention of the disease and Nirjarā is the cure. As prevention is
better than cure, practice of Saṃvara is given more importance and next is Nirjarā.
9. Mokṡa (Liberation)
Liberation is the last one of the nine fundamentals. It is total liberation of the soul
after complete exhaustion of all karmas. It is also known as salvation, Mokṡa,
Nirvāņā, Mukti or emancipation. Jain Agama430 uses the word “ध्रव
ु स्थान” (permanent

destination):
अन्त्तथ एगम ् ध्रव
ु ं थानम ् I (Uttaradhyayan, 23/81)

Mokṡa is a blissful state of existence of a soul, completely free from the karmic
bondage, free from sansara, the cycle of birth and death. Jainism believes and states
very emphatically that wordly soul has been wandering since infinity due to
ignorance of its true nature and would still continue to wander till it attains

429
सम्यग्दृन्टि श्रावक ववरताननत ववयोजक दर्शन मोहऺऩ कोऩर्मकोऩर्ानतमोहऺऩकऺीणमोहन्जना्

क्रमर्ोऽसंख्येय गुणतनजशरा्। T.S. 9.45

430
Amarmuni, Achārāngasūtra, p.102
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liberation. Now, it is well explained that the soul interacts with pudgal particles
(tangible lifeless matter) and acquires karma. The principles of Jainism show how
the soul can be free from all these karma and get liberated and attain a state of
omniscience.
A liberated soul is said to have attained its true and pristine nature of infinite bliss,
infinite knowledge and infinite perception. Such a soul is called siddha and
considered as supreme soul or God. In Jainism, it is the highest and the noblest
objective that a soul should strive to achieve. It fact, it is the only objective that a
person should have; other objectives are contrary to the true nature of soul. With
right faith, knowledge and efforts all souls can attain this state. That is why, Jainism
is also known as ‘mokṣamārga’ or the ‘path to liberation’.
Tenth chapter of Tattvarthsūtra explains the concept of Kaivalya, a state of pure
nature of the soul, which is inherently imbibed in every soul. This state is similar to
and comparable to the Kaivalya state which is the end result of Aṣṭāṅgayoga as
mentioned by sage Patañjali. Though, it is not manifest in wordly state under the
influence of karma. The defiling karmas like deluding, knowledge obscuring,
obstructing and perception obscuring karmas are the main cause of obstruction on
the way to liberation431. The prime root cause is deluding karma. It is necessary to
stop the acquisition of new karma and eradicate the bondage of old ones (Saṃvara
and Nirjara). Owing to the absence of the cause of bondage and with the functioning
of the dissociation of karma, the annihilation of all karmas leads to liberation.432
Emancipation is attained on the destruction of sūtrachic factors also like quietism
and potentiality.433Total destruction of all karmas is liberation. But, four states

continue to exist even in the state of kaivalya. These are states of infinite
enlightenment, infinite knowledge, infinite perception and perfection434.

431
मोहऺयाज्ऻान दर्शनावरणानतरायऺयार्चच केवऱम ्। T.S. 10.1

432
बनधहे त्तव भावतनजशरार्भयां कृत्तस्न कमशववप्रमोऺो मोऺ्। T.S. 10.2

433
औऩर्ममकाददभव्यत्तवानां च। T.S. 10.3

434
अनयत्र केवऱ सम्यतत्तवऻान दर्शन मसद्धत्तवेर्भय्। T.S. 10.4
 230

A liberated soul regains totally its original attributes of perfect knowledge, perfect
vision, perfect power and total bliss. It travels to the top of universe (Siddhakṡetra or
Lokakaṡ) and remains there permanently in its blissful and unconditional existence.
It never returns to the cycles of birth, life and death. This upward rise occurs by
virtue of Poorva prayog, Asangatva, Bandhchhed and Tathagatiparinam435.
Because of the first precedent cause, poorva prayog, soul separated from the body
continue to move upward through the medium of Dharmastikay till it reaches the top
of Lokakaṣ or the Universe436, where it stops as there is no Dharmastikay beyond
it.It is explained in the scripture by an example of Potter. A potter initially, applies
some force to move the wheel and then gives it up. Like the potter‟s wheel once
rotated, keeps rotating, like gourd with the mud sinks, but comes up once mud is
removed, like castor seed goes upwards on the flower, like flame goes upwards, the

same way upon liberation from the karmas, thesoul goes upwards.437 The force of

Dharmastikay stops and soul moving upwards gets stopped at the top of Lokakaṣ438.
Asangatva means loss of contact. It can be explained by an example of a muddy
gourd, when placed in water, it would initially go down by virtue of weight of the
mud. But as the mud recedes by the impact of the water, the gourd starts coming up.
Similarly the worldly soul stays downward on account of the impact of the karma
and then, starts coming up as the bondage of karma recede by virtue of Nirjara.
Bandhchhed is removal of shell, analogous to the fleeing of castor seed out of the
shell. The seed initially shoots upwardswith the opening of the bud. The soul rises
upwards as it comes out of the embodiment.

435
ऩूवश प्रयोगादसंगत्तवाद्बनधर्चछे दात्ततथागततऩररणामार्चच। T.S. 10.6

436
तदननतरमध्
ू वं गर्चछत्तयाऱोगनतात ्। T.S. 10.5
437
आववद्धकुऱाऱ चक्रबद्व्यऩगतऱेऩाऱांबुवदे रण्डबीजादन्ग्नमर्खाबर्चच। T.S. 10.7

438
धमाशन्स्तकाया भावात ्। T.S. 10.8
 231

Tathagatiparinam is by virtue of the nature. Out of all substances, jīva and ajīva
(soul and pudgal) are mobile ones and continue to move on their own in the presence
of Dharmastikay. Upward movement of the soul is by its inherent nature.
The liberated states of all souls are equal without any difference, but can be
classified in respect of their previous lives in terms of Place (from where it was
liberated: 15 types of karmabhoomis), Time (Rushabhdev got liberated in the
beginning and Lord Mahāvīra attained it at the end of fourth era), Gati (out of four
states of worldy existence, liberation is possible only in the human life), Gender or
Ling (It can be termed as specific number of males or females getting liberated,
though it is irrespective of gender or symbol), Tirtha (some souls get liberated as
Tirthankars and some are not as Tirthankars, only as Siddhas), Coduct (five types of
charitra are mentioned in Tattvārthasūtra, chapter-9), Pratyekbodhita or
Buddhabodhit (liberation with help of others or independently), Jñāna (liberation
attained by howmany types of knowledge out of five), Antar or interval (The order
of liberation can be intermittent or incessant), Number (Minimum one or maximum
108 souls can be liberated in one samay) and Alpabahutva439(means more or less,
different numbers in different states of liberation in defferent era).
By destroying all eight types of karma-s, the liberated souls or siddha-s acquire eight
unique attributes. They are as follows:
ananta jñāna (Infinite knowledge), ananta darśana (Infinite perception),
avyābāddha sukha (Eternal happiness), ananta cāritra (Perfect conduct), akṡaya
sthiti (Immortality), nirākāra svarūpa (Formlessness), aguru laghutva (No Social
Status) and ananta vīrya (Infinite Power and Energy).
All liberated souls are Godly being as per Jainism. Since Tirthankars among them
show us and lead us to the path of liberation, they are considered Gods to whom we
pray and revere.
The short summarization of above details is to understand that Yog of Jainism is the
cause of Āsrav, prevention of Yog or mental and bodily acitivity is the cause of
Saṃvar and Nirjarā and finally, removal of Yog leads to Mokśa or liberation.

439
ऺेत्र काऱगततंमऱग तीथश चाररत्र प्रत्तयेकबद्ध
ु बोधधत ऻानावगाहनानतरसंख्याल्ऩबहुत्तवत् साध्या्। T.S. 10.9
 232

III. Stages of spiritual elevation (Gunasthanaks)440 or jīva-sthanakas441

An aspirant may reach upto various stages or states of virtues called as
“Gunasthanaks” during his journey of spiritual pursuit, which are indicators of his
spiritual progress as per Jain scriptures. In order to understand the spiritual
development of an aspirant, proper knowledge of the Gunasthanakas is of prime
importance. Each one is also an inner state of jīva. Each stage is described below:
Basically, our soul consists of infinite virtues, but is covered with various sheaths of
karmas. The most influencial karmas are Darśana mohaniya and Caritra mohaniya.
These virtues are manifested with progressive purification as these sheaths are
removed one by one and spiritual development takes place step by step. These steps
can be treated as 14 rungs or levels of elevation on the ladder of the spiritual
elevation or ladder to emancipation. Each stage name given below also includes the
original Prakṛt name as mentioned in the Agam.
1. First Stage: Mithyādṛṣṭi guṇasthāna
This is the lowest state and is known as stage of false vision (Mithyātvadṛṣṭi),
impure beliefor the stage of wrong faith and gross ignorance. Most of the people are
at this stage, just waiting on the ground floor for an elevator. The life in this state is
instinctive with impulsive reactions to any given situation. One is busy with the body
and its comforts with hardly any sense of the true discrimination. The person is
under the full sway of the forces of karmaand may get attached to wrong or evil
activities and rituals and comes under influence of wrong guides, teachers or gurus.
He is not interested in finding the truth and unable to discriminate between the right
and the wrong duties (dharma). He might also harbor dislike or disregards for the
true faith. If he can overcome these hurdles of wrong faith on any given chance, he
gets uplifteddirectly to the fourth stage of elevation. This state of mind is comparable
with “Avidyā-kleśa” of Patañjali.
2. Second stage: Sasvadan samyakdṛṣṭi guṇasthāna

440
G.Feuerstein, The Yoga Tradition, Motilal banarsidass Publishers Pvt.Ltd., Delhi, 2002, p.196
441
कम्मववसोदहमग्गणम ् ऩडुर्चच चउददस जीवि्ाणा ऩनणत्तता | (समवायानगसत्र
ू , १४/१)
 233

It means the stage of retaining the taste (right vision). One can not elevate himself
from first stage to this second stage, but he may come down from 4th or higher stage
to this transitory stage, from where he may fall down to first or goes up to the third
stage.Sometimes, jīva while rising up to “Upaṡama ṡreni” also may fall down to this
stage. But in any case, he has to go to first stage from here. He is unable to forget the
taste of higher stages i.e. the right perception, so he is bound to regain that stage and
then, again resort to the higher stages on the ladder of elevation.
3. Third stage: Samyakmithyadṛṣṭi guṇasthāna
It is a mixed stage called as Misra stage. It denotes the mixture of right and wrong
perceptions. Here, mixed Mohaniya karma is emerged out. This stage comes only
after the fourth stage. An entity oscillates between truth and doubt, pure and impure
beliefs. One at this stage is indulged inneither wrong perception (mithyātva) nor is he
imbibed in right perception (samyakatva), but is unable to discrimainate between the
two. He is in doubtful and stressful state. He might have overcome dislike for the
true faith but does not remain steady there. He may practice the right rituals but
unable to understand the true purpose. Normally, it is believed that this state does not
remain for more than 48 minutes442. This state is an indicator of elevation as well as
downfall443.
4. Fourth stage: Avirat samyak dṛṣṭi or Samyakdṛṣṭi guṇasthāna
It is a stage of right perception but lack of self-restraint, a stage of real elevation.
Only a few souls reach up to this stage. Two stages are to be cleared before arriving
at this one. They are Yathapravruttikaran, a stage of right and wrong perception with
potential of going ahead, and Anivruttikaran, which means no turning back. This is
confirmation of reaching this forth stage. The aspirant attains the right perception,
and gets free from perception deluding (darśana mohniya) karma. He knows the true
nature of soul and has right understanding of karma and its bondage. He has brought
under control Anantanubandhi kaṣay (inordinately lasting defiling instinct), but has
not gained control over other types. He may get involved in worldly activities, but

442
Jain Philosophy, p.210
443
Jain Ethics, p.214
 234

does not develop any undue attachment towards them. Though, the aspirant is unable
to get detached from objects of sensual pleasure, unable to protect trast and sthāvar
jīva-s, but has full faith on Jain tattvas. Here spiritual life begins, providing will for
self-control (virati and Samyakdriṣti) is cultivated.
5. Fifth stage: Deṡvirati Samyak or Samyatasamyat guṇasthāna: This is the
stage of right perception accompanied by partial restraints. With the beginning of
Nirjara, the aspirant advances on the path of liberation, he starts loosing bondage of
the character-related deluding karma (caritra mohniya), and developing vigor to
overcome Apratyākhyānavaraniya kaṣay (coming in the way of adopting restraints),
and he adopts laymen‟s restraints. He now strives for a fully restrained life. The
importance of proper moral conduct is realized and desire arises for renounciation.
One starts partially practicing anuvrutta.
6. Sixth stage: Pramatta samyata or Sarva Virati guṇasthāna:
This is a state of full restraints. The ascetic starts following Mahāvruttas in place of
anuvruttas and has almost completely curbed the four vices, which are anger, pride,
delusion and greed (krodha, mān, moha, lobha). He overcomes now,
Pratyakhyānāvaraniya kaṣay that comes in the way of fully restrained life. He can
exercise control over all types of kaṡays except the subtle type, sanjvalan and
nokaṣays. He is capable of leaving the worldly life and may get ready to renounce.
As such, he is not capable of maintaining total vigilance, he may become subject to
the minor pitfalls due to his indolence (pramad). He may fall down or rise up.
Therefore, this stage is also called as Pramatta virati Gunasthan (Stage of restraints
subject to indolence). The aspirant is competent to preach at this stage as he is
following Samyak Cāritra (Right conduct).
7. Seventh stage: Apramattasamyata guṇasthāna:
It is a stage of controlled attention and no indolence. The subtle anger of Sanjvalan
category now comes under control. Subtle kaṣays like pramāda may continue to op-
erate inbetween. The aspirant may swings between 6th and 7th stages for long time till
he achieves the permanent stability in this stage. Then, he acquires the power for in-
tense concentration and meditative absorption. The self follows Kṡayopaṡam attitude
till this stage. One can not get rid of or destroy completely the four anantānubandhi
 235

kaṣayas mentioned earlier and three darśanamohaniya prakrti. But, from next stage,
he gets a unique level of extreme purification from where he has to ascend upwards.
8. Eighth stage: Apoorva-karansamparaya or nivruttibādar guṇasthāna:
It is also called as „Nivruttikarana‟. It leads togross struggle and one succeeds in
cessation. The self enjoys supreme peace here indicating the perfect progress.
Therefore the name is „Apurvakaran‟. This means no return to unprecedented stage.
The path of liberation consists of tri-ratna i.e. right perception, right knowledge and
right conduct. The right perception arises at 4th stage, right knowledge also gained
with it. Inorder to move forright conduct, the aspirant strives to gain control over
defilements from 5th stage onwards till this stage. During 8th stage, he starts gaining
control over subtle and semi-defilements. Only a few aspirants can reach upto this
stage. He cultivates a joy previously not known through a special meditative
technique. The ascent from this stage is quicker as he has reached the state of
Ṥukladhyan, a superior level of meditation. Krodh (anger) and Mān (pride) start
getting destroyed here. The route for advancement from this stage to 10 th stage is
bifurcated. One is kṡapak ṡreni where the subtle defilements are destroyed and the
self can reach upto the final stage of liberation by destroying each element of
Mohniya. And the other is Upaṡam ṡraman, where by making progress by pacifying
these defilements, but one can not proceed beyond 11th level. Ṥreni is the result of
pecification or destruction of Cāritramohaniya karma.
9. Ninth stage: Anivrutti-karan or Anivrutti bādar samparaya guṇasthāna:
It is the symbol of Nirvikalpa Samādhi. „Samparay‟ means afflictions (kaṣaya) and
„Bādar‟ means gross. Here, purification is manytimes more than that of 8th stage. It
is a stage of no returning back. Here, the aspirant gains control over very subtle
forms of Krodh (anger), Mān (ego) as well as Māyā (deception) and emotional
forces but Lobh (greed) still continue to operate at this stage. He also can stay above
subtle sexual instinct.
10. Tenth stage: Sukṡma samparay guṇasthāna:
Itmeans very subtle and finer sense of kaṣaya.The aspirant, overcoming all the
defiling instincts, reaches to a very subtle state. All the remaining semi-defilement,
last traces of worldly interest and the subtle (sukṡma) sense of lobh (greed) which is
 236

attachment of soul with the body comes under control in this stage. At the end, the
aspirants progressing by Upaṡaman ṡreni go to the 11th stage. While those,
progressing by kṡapak ṡreni skip this stage and go directly to the 12th stage.
11. Eleventh stage: Upaṡant Mohkaṣaya guṇasthāna:
It is the pacification of delusionwhere it is not destroyed. If one becomes subject to
defilement, falls back due to loss of vigilance. If he is unable to regain vigilance,
may fall upto the lowest level. So, this stage is also called as a stage of downfall. He
again has to try to control and destroy all defilements. For jīva with kṡapak ṡreni, it
is not possible to reach upto this 11th level. He directly moves to 12th level as from
this stage it‟s not possible to proceed further.
12. Twelfth stage: Kṡinakaṣaya Moha guṇasthāna:
Here, delusion (mohniya karma) is totally destroyed, so no chance to revert back to
lower stage. Now, what is left is just to get rid of remining Ghātikarma (defiling)
pertaining to Darśanāvaraniya (perception obscuring), Jnānāvaraniya (knowledge
and enlightenment obscuring) and antaray (obstructing) categories. This is usually
done in short time. Immediately after „antamuhurta‟ he moves to 13th stage444. He is
connected or bonded to karma upto this stage (chhadmastha jīva). So, this state is
called “Kṡinakaṣaya vitarag chhadmastha”.
13. Thirteenth stage: Sayogī Kevali:
This is the stage of active transcendence and embodied omniscience, with no defile-
ment. One attains full enlightenment (kevaljnana) and becomes a Kevali (Omnis-
cient). Such omniscients are called as Sayogī Kevalis. They are endowed with
infinite perception (ananta darśana), infinite enlightenment (ananta jnāna), infinite
bliss (ananta sukha) and infinite vigor (ananta virya). These four aspects are called
as Anant Chatuṡtay. Those who reach upto this stage are called as Arihants. All
types of strength get developed fully like a fully grown moon during the night of
Purnima. He still continues all yoga i.e. activities through his body, mind and
speech. They continue to remain embodied till all Aghāti (non-defiling) karma stay
i.e. Ayuṡya, Nām, Gotra and Vedniya. As they are fully devoid of any attachments,

444
Ibid p.217
 237

they do not incur any new bondage. If Aghāti karma terminates along with Ghāti
karmas, the Arihant instantly leaves the embodiment and attains the stage of Siddha.
Such Lords are called as Antahkrut Kevalis. Till they get liberated, they dedicate
their life in propounding the religious tenets. Here, the yoga-activities by body, mind
and speech continue in the form of vihar, upadeṡa (sermons).
14. Fourteenth Stage: Ayogī kevali guṇasthāna:
This is the climax or final destination of spiritual journey according to Jainism.
This is the ultimate stage of inactive transcendence or unembodied omniscience. All
previous stages are the rungs of a ladder and this is the destination, a state of
liberation. When a Sayogī Kevali realizes that he is at the end of life, he relinquishes
his physical, vocal and mental faculties which are Yogīc activities for the purpose of
liberation. The jīva becomes siddha leaving the body with highest kind of
Ṥukladhyāna called “Samucchinnakriyāpratipati”.Now, the soul rises and reaches
the top of cosmos; the Siddhaṡila (abode of the liberated ones). At this 14th stage, the
soul in the form of liberated Lord stays in eternal bliss forever. According to
different philosophies, this is the state of Nirguna Brahma, Purnānanda,
Sacchidānanda, Parmātmanpad, Svaroopsiddhi, Mokṡa, Kaivalya or Nirvāna.
Above mentioned stages represent steps of inner development (ātmanvikas), a
journey from imperfect and undeveloped state of soul towards complete and perfect
state, also a journey from “Mithyattva” to “Samyakttva”. During the journey, stages
8th, 9th and 10th hold special significance as spiritual practitioner gains control over
the passions in all aspects here but the main obstructive karma is Mohaniya.
All these fourteen stages of jīva can be summarized into three states of our soul.
They are Bahirātman (outer soul), Antarātman (inner soul) and Parmātman (Godly
or liberated state)445. First three stages of elevation indicating Avidyā (Mithyattva or
false knowledge) can be clubbed together into first state of soul, Bahirātman. From
the fourth stage, the aspirant after removal of Mithyattva gets uplifted spiritually
through Samyakdarśana. With his great efforts, he starts progressing towards higher
level of Kaivalya. Antarātman includes all stages of efforts (puruṡartha) i.e. stages

445
Adhyātmansaar 7/20, Yogashastra 12/7, Dwatrinshaddwatrinshika 20/17
 238

from 4th to 12th. The last two stages indicate the highest level, the state of perfection,
completeness or Siddhavastha which are described as “Parmātman”. It is
comparable with Patañjali‟s state of kaivalya.
To summarise all above stages, stages 1 to 4 gives us taste of Samyak darśana,
where sapiritual life begins from a deluded view of this world. Stages 5 to 7 make us
realized of self restraints. Stages 8 to 11 indicate suppression and elimination of
karma particles. Stage 12 is for destruction of deluding karma (Obstructive,
intuition-covering and knowledge covering). At stage 13, souls attain full
enlightenment and possess infinite perception, knowledge, bliss and vigor. It is the
stage of „Omniscience with Physical Activity‟, but Aghātiya karma are still present.
Souls at this stage are referred as “Arihant”.
The main instruments governing the progression through these stages of spiritual
attainment are the very instricate ethical rules prescribed in above mentioned various
canonical literature of Jainism.
As per “Mokśprabhrut” (5, 8) by Acārya Kundkund,
Hey: Bahirātman
Upadeya: Antarātman to attain state of Parmātman
Dhyeya: Parmātman

IV. Jain scriptures and Spiritual teachers

Lord Mahāvīra‟s preaching was orally compiled into many texts in the form of
Āgamasūtras or Āgama (gaṇipiṭikā, dvādaṣangi). These scriptures were not
documented in any form but were memorized by ascetics and passed on by oral
traditions to future generations of ascetics. Later on the literature was composed in
Ardhamāgadhi or prākṛta language by his disciples. This language was understood
in the area where Mahāvīra went about during his life. During course of time, as it
became extremely difficult to keep memorizing the entire Jain literature, many
learned Ācāryas or senior scholar monks compiled many commentaries on the
Āgama literature and independent works on various subjects of Jain Philosophy and
religion. Then, during course of time, many learned Ācāryas (seniormost monks),
mainly 5thGanadhara, disciple of Mahāvīra named Sudharma Swāmī and later
 239

Bhadrabahu Swāmī (450 B.C.) compiled many commentaries on the Āgam literature.
Ācārya Sthulibhadra (350 B.C.) and his convention prepared uniform version of all
Agams. In Jain traditions, this is called as the first Vacanā of Agams. One major
conference was held during tenth century by all Jain monks under leadership of
Devardhigani Kṡamasramaṇ. They compiled first time all the sūtras in the form of
written literature called as “Vallabhivacanā”. They could gether 45 Agamas and
other scriptures and hundreds of copies made of each one. They were rewritten by
Lonkashah in 16th Vikram-century446. Later on, printing technology was developed
in the beginning of 19th century and actual printing of Agamas was carried out.
Agamas contain values, ethics, constraints, Do‟s and don‟ts, culture, history and arts
of human being.
The famous holy book in Jainism called “Kalpasūtra” belongs to Chedasutta, which
is the description by Bhadrabahuswāmī, on the life of Mahāvīra and other
Tirthankars. It is the 8th chapter of “Daṡa-kappa-vyavahāra” (sūtra-skandha) text,
which also includes rules about personal behaviour and organizational discipline to
be observed by monks447.
Other Scriptures:
Sri Kundakundāchārya, a Digambar scholar, wrote Samayasāra which is ultimate
consciousness Reality. It is synonymous to right faith and right cognition: the
essence of perfect consciousness. It transcends all dialectics of aspects i.e. conflicts
and controversies. He also wrote “Pravacansār”, “Niyamsār” and “Ashtapāhud
(Mokṡaprabhrut)”.
During second century, Acārya Umaswati, prime disciple of Sri Kundkundāchārya
and the greatest philosopher translated first Agam into Sanskrit. He wrote
“Mokṡaṡāstra – Tattvarthasūtra”, the first literature in Sanskrit. This is the only
composition accepted by all Jains of all the sects even on today. It is considered as
the source book for Jainism. He had written about 500 scriptures. According to
Digambars, he lived during 135 – 219.

446
Madhukar Muni, Gnatadharmakathanga Sutta, Sri Agam PrakĀsana Samiti, Oct.1989
447
K.C.Lalwani (tr.), Kalpa Sūtra, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi ,1979
 240

Tattvārthasūtra and Sarvārthasiddhi, commentary written by Pujyapādswāmi is

treated as Āgam in Digambar tradition. Samantbhadra (1st – 2nd century) was first
Jain writer on Nyāya. He also composed many other scriptures. Siddhasen Divakara
(6th century) wrote important doctrine and other standpoints. Jinbhadra (6th – 7th
century) authored Āvaṡyakasūtra.
Yoga in Jain scriptures:
During 5th and 6th centuries, P. Devnandi wrote “Samādhi tantra448” and “Ishtopa-
desh449” describing his spiritual experiences. These scriptures provide us with details
of Yoga practices for calming down emotions and peace of the mind. Methods and
remedies of Self analysis are profoundly described in “Samādhi Shatak” and its
commentaries are by Prabhachandra, Parvatdharma, Dashchandra and Meghchandra.
During the year 609, Jinbhadragani structured a very important and useful scripture
called Dhyānaśataka which gives us details of Asan, Prānāyam and Dhyāna and
Anuprekṡa. Haribhadrasuri had written commentary on it. During 6th and 7th centu-
ries, Yogendudev wrote Parmātmaprakāśa, Yogasāra and has discussed all
techniques to internalize the awareness and three forms of our soul.
Haribhadrasuri of 8thcentury was a philosopher, logician and artist, who reputedly
wrote more than 1444 works. These include several books on Yoga. Few of them are
listed below:
1. Yoga-bindu450: It contains 527 verses in Sanskrit discussing about eligible and
non-eligible aspirants for Yoga, and five Yoga Anusthānas.
2. Yogadṛṣṭisamuccaya451: It contains 227 slokas in Sanskrit discussing development
of spirituality for aspirants who have intense desire to get liberated. It also mentions
characterisitics of four types of Yogī-s. It is called compendium of views on Yoga.
Few stranzas452 are really comparable with other paths of Yoga. Stranza 9 as trans-
lated by Christopher Key Chapple says,

448
Samādhi tantra, Vir Seva Mandir trust, Sarsava, 1939
449
Ishtopadesha, Paramshrut Prabhavak Mandal, Bambai, 1954
450
“Yogabindu”, Jain Dharma Prasarak Sabha, Bhavnagar, 1921
451
“Yogadṛṣṭisamuccaya”, VijayKamal Kesar Granthmal, Khambhata (Virsamvat 1992)
452
G.Feuerstein, The Yoga Tradition, Motilal banarsidass Publishers Pvt.Ltd., Delhi, 2002, p.204
 241

“There are two types of Yoga practices: renunciation of dharmas (objects), which is
complete annihilation of the desire to be active and another one is renunciation of
Yoga is the karma of the body and so forth”.
The true essence of the human individual is the self (Ātman). The Jains use the term
ātmā and jīva interchangeably, but whereas the former refers to the transcendental
nature, the latter is the Self held in captivity by its own karma-producing actions453.
3. The scripture “Haribhadrīya Aṣṭaka” (chapter 5/1) describes bhikṡā (alms,
begging) of Jain monks and is of three types:
i. Dinavṛtti bhikṡā: Anātha (Handicapped), who are unable to cook, begs due to
disability or unability.
ii. Paurushāghni bhikṡā: Able, healthy persons beg due to lazyness, lethargy
iii. Sarvasampatkāri bhikshā: Detached saints beg whatever is spontaneously
available (sahaj prapta), just to follow non-violence and to observe Saṁyama
(control over senses).
4. “Yogavinśikā454”: It describes developed states of Yoga through the medium of
twenty gathas (stranzas) in prākṛta.
5. “Sodshak455”: Here, 16 chapters contain 256 slokas. It mentions various defects at
mental level in Yogasādhanā.

Some more scriptures are “Sad-darsan samuccaya”, “Yogasatak456”.

Ācārya Gunbhadra of 9th century wrote “Ātmānushashan457” which takes us to our
pure form. During 10th century, Amitgati wrote two scriptures: “Subhasitratna
sandoh458” and “Yogasār prabhrut459” which included Vrutta, Dhyan and conduct

453
Ibid. p.193
454
“Yogavinśikā”, Rushabhdevji Kesrimalji Swetambar Samstha, Ratlam, 1927
455
“Sodshak”, Rushabhdevji Kesrimalji Swetambar Samstha, Ratlam, Virsamvat 2462
456
“Yogasatak”, Gujarat Vidyasabha, Ahmedabad, 1956
457
“Ātmānushāshan”, Jain Sanskriti Samrakshak Sangh, Solapur, Virsamvat 2018
458
“Subhāsitratna sandoh”, Nirnaysagar Press, Bambai, 1903
459
“Yogasār prabhrut”, ed. Jugalkishor Mukhtar, Bharatiya Jnanpeeth, Varanasi, 1969
 242

for monks and laymen. Muni Padmanandi wrote “Jnānasār460” in 1029 on Yoga‟s
spiritual practices.
Ramsenācārya wrote “Dhyānshāstra” or “Tattvānushāsan” which is based on
principles of Concentration, Mantra, Japa and Āsana for Dhyāna. “Jnānārnav461”
written by Shubhchandrācārya in 11th century includes Aṣṭānga-Yoga, Prāṇāyāma,
Nadis, Pavanjay, Japa, Mantra, Hathayoga and TantraYoga.

Ācārya Hemchandra of 11-12th century, who was born in 1088 A.D. in the town of
Dhandhuka in Gujarat, was a great spiritual teacher of King Kumarpal. From the
narration of his mother‟s dreams before his birth, Ācārya Devasuri predicted that she
would give birth to a son who would make great progress in the area of spiritual
knowledge, intuition and conduct. Due to his influence, king Kumarpal accepted
Jainism and implemented vegetarianism and prohibited violence and animal killing
strictly in the state of Gujarat. He had broad minded He composed many literary
masterpiece works and wrote on many original Jain texts and Agams.

Along with his spiritual progress, Hemchandrācārya always thought of universal

welfare. People awarded him the title,‟Kali-kal Sarvajña‟, meaning „all-knower in
the dark period‟. He died in 1173 A.D. at the age of 84 giving a great culture of
Jainism. He wrote more than 35 millions of slokas462.
He wrote on grammer like “Siddhahemlaghuvṛtti”, “Siddhahem Bruhadvṛtti” (Tatt-
va prakāshika), “Siddhahemshabdānusāsan” and Dhatuparāyan”. He also wrote on
Kosha as “Abhidhānchintāmani”, “Anekārthakosha” and “Deshinamamala”. On li-
terature, his contribution is “Kavyanuśāsana”, “Chandonuśāsana” on Darśana ,
“Pramān mimānsa”, “Vedankusha-Dwijavadanchapeta” on History,
“Prakrutdwayāsraya mahakāvya”and few others like “Vitarāgstotra”, and
“Mahādevstotra” in the field of stuti. Apart from all thesevarieties of books, his

460
“Jñānasāra”, Digambar Jain Pustakalay Kapadia Bhavan, Surat, Virsamvat 2470
461
“Jnānārnav”, Paramshrut Prabhavak Mandal, Shrimad Rajchandra Ashram, Agas, Virsamvat 2037
462
Chimanlal Kaladhar, Jaindarshan, Article appeared in daily “Mid-day” dt.24/02/2013, Mumbai.
 243

work “Yoga-shāstra463”, a treatise on yoga, is very famous and also known as

Adhyātma-Upaniṣad. Many commentaries have been written on it by great scholars.
It contains 12 chapters (prakāśa) of 1012 slokas. He adopted modern approach in
describing the sequence of Patañjali‟s Aṣṭānga-Yoga in coordination with Triratna of
Jainism. It is considered as World encyclopeadia of spiritual knowledge and a guide
on duties of laymen and ascetics and a path to self realization for a true Yoga
aspirant. There are several similarities in Acārya Hemchandra‟s Yoga-shāstra and
Ācārya Shubhchandra‟s Jnānārnav.
Hirvijay Suri was well known scholar of 12th Century. He could impress Emperor
Akbar, who issued a proclamation prohibiting animal slaughter on certain auspicious
days. Pandit Ashadhar‟s “Adhyātma Rahasya464” of 13th century opened up many
misteries of spiritual world. In the same era, “Ārādhanāsār Samucchay” by Ravindra
Muni, “Yogasārsangrah” by Sri Gurudas, “Yogasār465” and “Yogapradip466” by
unknown authors include reach knowledge of ātma-parmātmā (individual and
universal consciousness). All these scriptures467 were written in Sanskrit.
Amongst the common people, who contributed greatly in bringing back the spiritual
practices and to Jain literature, Lonkashah of Ahmedabad was first hired by a monk
to make use of his neat handwriting. Afterwards, through his work, he acquired great
knowledge of scripture and then in 1451 AD, started protest against temple rituals,
mainly of Chatyavasis468.

463
“Yoga-shastra”, a) Rishabhchandra Johri, Kishanlal Jain, Delhi, 1963, b) edited by G.G.Patel, Jain
Sahitya Prakashan Samiti, Ahmedabad, 1938, c) Ek Parishilan, Amarmuni, Sanmati
Jnanpeeth, Agra, 1963
464
“Adhyātma Rahasya”, Virseva Mandir Trust, Delhi, 1957
465
“Yogasār”, Jain Sahitya Vikas Mandal, Bambai, 1968
466
“Yogapradip”, Jain Sahitya Vikas Mandal, Bambai, 1960
467
“Jain sāhitya kā bruhad Itihās” Gulabchandra Chaudhari, Kavya Sahitya series, part-4, Parshvanath
Vidyashram Shodh Samsthan; Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, 1973, p.255
468
“Jain Philosophy and Practice” JAINA Education Committee, North America, 2002, p.130
 244

Other important scriptures469 are “Viseshavāshyak bhāshya” by Jinbhadragani

Kshamasraman, “Syādvād manjari” by Mallisen, “Sammati Tark” by Siddhasen
Diwakar and “Dwādsār Naychakra” by Mallivadi suri.
During 15th century, Muni Sundersuri wrote “Ādhyātmakalpadruma470” which
provides guidance on controlling the mind and developing detachment. For
concentration of our mind, Bhaskarnandi wrote “Dhyānāstav471” in Sanskrit in 16th
century. Sakalchandra wrote “Dhyāndipika472” in 1569 describing various types and
characteristics of Dhyāna. Kavi Rajmalla‟s “Adhyātmakamal mārtand473” of 16th
century includes 200 slokas on Moksha, path of liberation, Dravyas and seventattvas
of Jainism. “Dhyānsvarūpa474” of Bhavvijay (1696) has details of Dhyāna.
Digambars experienced a significant change during late 16th century through a
famous scholar and poet named Banarasidas. He also called for prevention of
offerings as daily rituals in the temples, which resulted into high degree of violence.
The great Jain scholar of 17th century Upadhyay Yoshovijayji wrote about 500 books
in Sanskrit, Prakrut, Gujarati, Hindi and Rajasthani. Out of all these, atleast 108
scriptures are currently available. His contribution was in majority of the fields
including Yoga. It includes “Ādhyātmasāra475”(949 slokas), “Shodasakavṛtti”,
“Dwātrishaddwatrishinka476”, “Ādhyātmopanisad477”, “Patanjal Yogasūtravṛtti”,
“Yogavinsikatika478”, “Jñānasār479”, “Āvashyak Niryukti” and “Viseshavāshyak

469
Chimanlal Kaladhar, Jain Darshan, appeared in Mid-day, daily newspaper dated 24.02.13
470
“ Ādhyātmakalpadrum”, Nirnaysagar mudranalay, Bambai, 1966
471
“Dhyānastav”, Vir Seva Mandir, Delhi, 1976
472
“Dhyāndipika”, Somchandra Shah, Ahmedabad, 1916
473
“Ādhyātmakamal mārtand”, Manikchandra Digambar Jain Granthmala, V.S. 1993
474
“Dhyānswaroop”, Jinratnakosha part-1, p.166
475
“Ādhyātmasār”, Jaindharma Prasarak sabha, Bhavnagar, V.S. 1965
476
“Dwatrishaddwatrishinkā” (Yogavtar Battisi), P.Sukhlal Jain Ātmannand Sabha, Bhavnagar, 1966
477
“Ādhyātmopanisad”, Kesarbai Jnanabhandar sthapak, Jamnagar, V.S. 1944
478
“Patanjal Yogadarsan evam Haribhadriya Yogavinsikatikā”, P.Sukhlal Jain Ātmannand Sabha,
Bhavnagar, 1922
479
“Jnānasār (Ashtak)”, a) Ātmannand Sabha, Bhavnagar, 1971 b) Omprakash Jain, Pratap Market,
Delhi, 1968
 245

Bhāṣya” give lots of details of characteristics and types of Dhyāna and various
related practices.
During 18th century, Devendranandi wrote “Dhyāndipika480” in Gujarati which
included details of twelve bhavnās, Ratnatray, Mahāvrut, Dhyāna, Mantra and
Syād. Pandit Todarmal of Jaipur, who was influenced by Banarasidas emphasized
nishcay and naya (absolute aspect) of Kundkundāchārya writings.
Shrimad Rajchandraji, a great revolutionary scholar born in 1868, was highly gifted
person. He guided Mahātman Gandhi, the greatest leader of Indian freedom fighters
and a true practitioner of non-violence and truth. Rajchandra had written many
letters, devotional songs and explained the true nature of soul. He gave the most
influential literature in the form of „Mokśa-mālā‟ and „Ātmansiddhi shāstra‟. He had
plans to freshly propound true Jainism, but unfortunately, he died early at the age of
33.
“Uttarādhyayana-sūtra” written by Sri Harikesa gives us details of strict codes of
ethics for all four segments of Jain sangh, i.e. Sādhu, Sādhvi, Shrāvaka and
Shrāvikā.
During 1949, Ācārya Tulsi initiated Anuvrutta movements. Swāmī Karttikeya of
Digambara gave “Anupreksa” which describes twelve techniques of meditation for
monks and laity. Western philosopher R.Williams wrote “JainYoga481” in 20th
century and mentioned Śrāvaka ācār i.e. rules for a layman.
Towards the end of 20th century, Acārya Tulsi wrote “Manonushāsanam482” in a
thread of sūtras like Patañjali. At the same time, Muni Nathmal wrote “JainYog483”
presenting the knowledge in a newly modified way. Ātmanramji Maharaj wrote
“Jainagamo me Aṣṭānga-Yoga484” in 1933 and based on it, “Jain Yoga Siddhānta
aur Sādhanā485” was structured during 1983 by him.

480
“Dhyāndipika”, Adhyātman Jnan Prasarak Mandal, 1929
481
“JainYoga”, R.Williams, Oxford University Press, London, 1963
482
“Manonushāsanam”, Jain Swetambar Terapanthi Mahasabha, Gorakhpur, Virsamvat 2021
483
“JainYog”, Adarsh Sahitya Sangh, Churu, 1978
484
“Jainagamo me Aṣṭānga-Yoga”, Ātmanram Jain Prakashanalay, Ludhiyana, (1933)
485
“Jain Yoga Siddhant aur Sadhana”, compiled by Sri Amarmuni, Ātmanjnan Peeth, Punjab,1983
 246

Many other scriptures are found in Jain literature related to spiritual Yogīc practices
without any name of the authers or copies are not available now. Some of them are
Ādhyātmabindu, Ādhyātmabhed, Yogānga, Yogaratnamālā and Yogavivarana.
Thus, from all historical literature it could be concluded that the most important
prime scriptures in Jain Yogasādhanā were given by two main Acāryas namely
Haribhadrasuri from Swetambar sect and Shubhchandrācārya from Digambars. The
other two major contributors are Hemchandrasuri and Upadhyay Yashovijayji.
The true Jain religion, Darśana and culture are based on direct spiritual teachings by
Lord Mahāvīra. In all these scriptures, meaning was given by Tirthankaras and
words were given by Ganadharas. But, main emphasis is put on meaning and not the
words.
There are two catagories of sacred scriptures, those belong to original Āgama series
called as Angpravishta and others written by great Ācāryas called as Angbrahya.
In 455CE, when scripture was written first time, there were 84 texts of Agama and
36 of Nigamas, out of which many got lost and destroyed. Now, according to
Swetambers, only 45 Āgams are available after development of printing
technology486.
To remove the controversy, „Samanasuttam‟ of 756 verses was compiled by all the
sects of Jainism represented by their scholars in presence of Ācārya Vinoba Bhave in
1975 on the 2500th death anniversary of Lord Mahāvīra.
Currently, according to different sects of Jainism, following Agams are accepted to
be in the original form487:

486
Acharya Umaswati, Tattvārthasūtra, JAINA and Shrut Ratnakar, Ahmedabad, July, 2007, p.24
487
http://www.jainworld.com/literature/jainagamliterature/chapter3.asp (Retrieved on 24/09/2015)
 247

Jain Sects Total Anga-sūtras Number of Anga- Number of Anga-

/ Agams (Main) agams Lost agams Survived
Digambar 12 12 0
Swetambar Murtipujak 12 1 11
Swetambar Sthanakvasi 12 1 11
Swetambar Terapanthi 12 1 11
Present status of main Angas and Present Status of Ang-bahya-agams:

Jain Sects Total Ang-bayha Number of Ang- Number of Ang-bayha

Agams bayha agams Lost agams Survived
Digambar 14 14 0
Swetambar Murtipujak 34 0 34
Swetambar Sthanakvasi 21 0 21
Swetambar Terapanthi 21 0 21

Dwādasānga is a group of twelve scriptures, which are main Angas listed by their

Category of Ang-bahya- Swetambar Murtipujak Sthanakvasi and

agams Terapanthi
Upang-agams 12 12
Chhed-sūtra-agams 6 4
Mool-sūtra-agams 4 3
Chulka-sūtra-agams 2 2
Prakirna-sūtra-agams 10 None
Total Ang-bahya-agams 34 21

Sanskrit titles are mentioned below, followed by brief description for each one.
These Angas describes how to minimize and then, finally get rid of Kāma and Artha
out of four puruṣārtha as of Indian traditions. Then, after attainment of higher state,
how to get rid of outer Dharma also to attain mokṣa is nicely explained which is
worth understanding, following and to get uplifted, liberated. The twelve Upāngas
deal with cosmographical, cosmological, astronomical and hagiological themes. Out
 248

of these Upangas, “Rāja Prashniya sūtra” details dialogue between Sage Keshin and
ruler Prasenajit where, Keshin tries to prove that the soul is independent of the
physical body. The four Mula-Sūtras (Fundamental) are primers of ascetics. The ten
“Prakirnas” (mixed scriptures) contain instructions about a variety of subjects such
as prayer, conscious dying, astrology and medicine. The seven “Cheda-sūtras”
(cutting sūtras) deal with monastic rules. Thus, the Jain canon consists of forty five
works in all (12+12+4+10+7)488. The main twelve Angas are listed below. The list of
names is followed by brief description of each one489:
1. Ācāranga sūtra
2. Sūtrakrutāngasūtra
3. Sthānānga sūtra
4. Samvayanga sūtra
5. Vyākhyāprajnāpti sūtra (Bhagvatisūtra)
6. Jnātā Dharmakathāsūtra
7. UpasakadasangaSūtra
8. Antakrid Dasānga sūtra
9. Anuttaroprajnāpti sūtra
10. Prasna vyākarana sūtra
11. Veepāka sūtra
12. Dristivād sūtra (lost, not available now)
1. Ācāranga sūtra: It is the oldest and first scripture written by Sudharma
Swāmī, 5th Ganadhara of Lord Mahāvīra contains 25 chapters and has total 2644
slokas. It contains the maximum spiritual practices among all other Angas. First pada
(Srutakhand) contains nine chapters mainly on principle and practices of non-
violence (अदहंसा). It also talks of knowing self (all types of jīva), Āshrav, Saṃvar and

types of violence (र्स्त्रऩररऻा), forms of world (ऱोकववजय), carnal indulgences,

desires, body and food (मर्तोन्टणय), forms of liberated souls, three types of aspirants

488
G.Feuerstein, The Yoga Tradition, Motilal banarsidass Publishers Pvt.Ltd., Delhi, 2002, p.190
489
Tej Sahebji, Jain Dharmsaar, Tej Sahebji, 2015, pp. 12-22
 249

(संयतत्तव), bodage, liberation and core fundamentals of the worlds of beings (ऱोकसार),

abandoning pride, isolation and cleansing (धत

ु ), renouncing households, ultimate

knowledge, process of critical self-review, ascetics with one or two clothes

(महाऩररऻा), emancipation (अनेकानतवाद), service to others (वैयावत्तृ य), description of

meditational death (संऱेखना), disciplined routine, mental support to help right

conduct, fasting and meditation (उऩधानश्रत

ु ) .
490

The second pada (Srutakhand) has sixteen chapters on non-attachment and non-
accumulation of material and thoughts (वैराग्य, अऩररग्रह) . It also has five chulikās.

This scripture describes Sangha system of Jainas managed by Ācāra (disciplines of

life), important rules and conduct for Jain monks and nuns and life of a layman. It
presents a sacred account of Mahāvīra‟s life as a wandering mendicant and his 25
bhavanas.
The virtues of a pure soul described here include non-violence, detachment from all
and equanimity (samatābhāva). Different categories of jīva and methods of
controlling violence to them are explained here. It prescribes place for sitting and
procedure for ascetics to take and consume food, water and clothes. This scripture is
very useful for protection of monk life and providing security to it and to strengthen
our faith and cultivate one for livings like six kāyās (Prithvikāya and others)491
2. Sūtra-Krita (Sūryagadānga sūtra). An aphoristic Composition: It describes
fundamental teachings of Jainism relative to the monastic life and combating non-
Jaina doctrines like non-violence. This sūtra contains the matters concerning 363
gingers who attended the sermon session of Lord Mahāvīra. It includes three
Chulikās. The scripture starts with dos and don‟ts of āhāra, vihāra (body movements
and dietary instructions), applications of Shaiyesana, Irya (location for stay and
sādhanā, speech), clothings and utensils. This scripture helps us in avoiding and

490
Amarmuni, Āchārangasūtra, Motilal banarsidass Publishers Pvt.Ltd., Delhi, chapter-1, sūtra-
92, pp. 5-6
491
Article “Literature of Jain philosophy and Agamas”,
http://www.jain24.org/BookPDF/ENGLISH/Jain%20Agamas.pdf (retrieved on 12/08/2015)
 250

minimizing bondages and for stoppage of influx of karma. It also explains the rare
availability of human life, uncertainty and impermanency of human life and life
span, our duties, significance of non-violence and preachings to 98 sons of
Rishabhdev Tirthankar. It has two Shrutskandhas, first has 16 chapters and the
second one has seven chapters.
3. Sthānāga (Receptacle): The theoretical name of this sūtra is “Thāñānga”. It
was written by Shrutsthaveer. The Sthānāngasūtra is known in Prakṛt as the Tha-
nam, which denotes quantum. Hence, the style of the Sthānānga Sūtra is unique. It is
divided into ten chapters, and each chapter enumerates certain topics realted to
worldly materials and facts according to their numbers. This agama defines and cata-
logues the main substances of the Jain metaphysics. Diverse topics such as the
Dharmakathānuyoga, Caranānuyoga, Karanānuyoga and Dravyanuyoga are cov-
ered. While the focus is on Karanānuyoga, this unique Āgama serves as a huge an-
thology to all branches of Jaina knowledge. The topics are covered in as: - the theory
of numbers, arithmetical operations, geometry, operations with fractions, simple eq-
uations, cubic equations, quartic equations, and permutations and combinations. It
also gives classifications of five types of infinities. It also consists of detailed enu-
meration of the key principles of Jainism, mainly Pudgals, tattvas like jīva and ajīva.
Those great personalities who were contemporaries of Lord Mahāvīra and who with
their great deeds and virtues, made a reservation in the list of future Tirthankaras.
The nine great personalities like Sulsa, Revati, and Shrenik are described in the 9th
sub-division of this sūtra. Lord Mahāvīra himself had given the vow of renunciation
to eight kings. In the 8th sub division we can read a list of these 8 kings. Great
details about Jain views of geography are found in this Sūtra. There are at present
3770 slokas and 12000 pādas492.
4. Samavāyāngasūtra (combination): This is in continuation of the exposition of
the Sthānga. The Sūtra explains briefly the form and structure of 12 Angas. Using
numerics from 1 to 100, matters upto kodā-kodis (high multiples) are described. It
tells us that all 23 Tirthankaras (except Lord Rishabh) got the ultimate knowledge at

492
www.jainworld.jwnet (Retrieved on 18/09/2015)
 251

the time of sunrise and that all these 23 Tirthankaras had knowledge of 11 Angas.
Details of all Kevaljnanis desciples of Lord Mahāvīra, other great cakravartis (super
kings), mount Meru, Jambudwip and Devavimāna-s (aeroplanes) are included in this
scripture. This Sūtra is Brahmi script. All nine Tattvas, numbers and positions are
explained in this sūtra. It has 46 alphabets. The Sūtra has 144000 pādas and 1667
slokas in it.
5. Bhagavati-Vyākhyā-Prajnāpti (Exposition of explanations): It describes
recorded dialogues of Lord Mahāvīra with his disciples like Gautam who asked him
36000 questions and got very explanatory and thorough replies to each of his
question. Many questions were asked by oyher Ganadharas, disciples and non-Jainas
also. It includesin its 288000 pādas,vivid picture of Mahāvīra‟s life, his eleven
Gandharas and his times including information about Gosala, an ascetic who lived
with him for six years.Besides, it also includes Navkar mantra, Brahmi script, and
various questionairs on varities of subjects like consequences of karma, dravya
(particles) and kāl (time) that answered by his disciples and scholars, the question
asked by the householders of Tumgiya city and the replies received on them by the
disciples of Lord Parshvanath traditions.
The Sūtra also contains the story of renunciation of Rushabhdatta and Devananda
and their ultimate liberation. It also includes structuring and other details of lives of
all living beings (jīva) having one to five senses, their types, origin, movements
(gati) and relations. Even today when this Sūtra is read in lectures by Jain Acaryas
(Vyakhyān), a special ceremony is performed in its greetings. It is divided into 41
sections known as shatakas. It follows question and answer pattern.
The questions are raised by Gautama, Makandiputra, Roha, Agnibhuti and
Vayubhuti, Skandaka, Jayanti and others. Briefly, the answers may be categorised
under the following categories:
a) Related to ascetic conduct
b) Related to the six substances
c) Related to ontology
d) Related to reincarnation
e) Related to geography
 252

f) Related to cosmology
g) Related to mathematics
h) Related to obstretics
i) Brief biographies of famous contemporaries of Mahāvīraa
j) Miscellaneous subjects
6. Jñātā-dharma-katha (Stories of knowledge and morality): The original name
of this sūtra is “Nāyādhammkahāo”. It consists of legendary accounts that illustrate
Jaina doctrines in details. Total two divisions of this sūtra have 29 subdivisions,
5500 slokas and 576000 pads. Its part “Tumbak adhyayan” contains several stories
containing distinguished sermons. Through stories, Lord tries to explain how to
practice Ratnatrayi (Jain‟s tri-gems), how and why to maximize faith and practice of
five vrattas, to control senses, increase in inner virtues of self, how not to expect
fruits of deeds, carried forward of karmas of previous births and other virtues for a
pious life. The Thirteenth sub division (Adhyayan) describes how a soul falls down
without compnionship of and the great sermons by the ideal Guru (the true guide).
7. Upāsaka-Dasānga (10 chapters on lay followers): The original name is
„Upāsak-dasha‟. „Upāsaka‟ is true follower of Jainism and „dasha‟ means ten. It
describes life stories of ten such followers of Lord Mahāvīra. It also contains
discussion on duties and life of a layman (srāvakdharma), life scatches of ideal
laymen disciples following twelve vruttas and legends of saintly men and women
from among the laity.The Upāsaka-Dasānga has 7152000 padas, At Present we
have a text of 812 verses.
This is the only scripture based on discussion on shrāvak-dharma (life of an ideal
layman). The concepts of detachment, truth, forgiveness etc. are well explained
through life scatches of ten followers of Lord Mahāvīra, who adopted the dharma
directly from him. They were as under:
1. Anand
2. Kamdev
3. Chulinipita
4. Suradev
5. Chullasatak
 253

6. Kundakaulik
7. Sakdalputra
8. Mahasatak
9. Nandinipita
10. Shalinipita
They all adopted restricted lifestyle, culture and vruttas making minimum usage of
articles and consumables. They slowly developed detachment towards that too. They
followed the principle which says “Truth is big, not the person”. In one of the
incidences, when Anand, the junior disciple got proved right by Mahāvīra, the senior
disciple Gautam apologise Anand. They all followed „shrāvakadharma‟ for twenty
years followed by samlekhanā (fasting till death) for one month and then left
body493.
They used to circulate only one third of their wealth into business keeping one third
as reserve fund to minimise stress and develop detachment.
8. Antakṛt Dasānga sūtra (10 chapters on Kevlis, End-makers): It consists of ten
ascetics who won enlightenment and brought an end to the cycle of rebirths (during
anta-muhurta).Its original name in Prakrut Language is “Antgad Dasa” scripture. It
is divided into 8 divisions and 92 sub divisions, has 900 slokas with 2328000 padas.
The word „Antkṛt‟ has a special meaning attached to it, when the soul attains
Kevaljnān. The ultimate knowledge and immediately thereafter deducting and
destructing all his karmas of eight kinds, and does not live a moment there after, and
immediately goes in to the state of „Siddha‟, such souls in technical terms are known
as antkrut. Life of such ninty monks and twenty three queens of King Shrenik are
described in this scripture. In this sūtra, we have the life stories of all such souls
from all classes who became „Siddha‟ immediately after attaining Kevaljnān the
ultimate knowledge. Each one of those souls had 17years of ascetic life, one month
of Sanlekhana and got liberated to Siddhaloka.
9. Anuttara-Upāpātika-Dasa (Anuttaroprajnāpti, 10 chapters on the highest
risers): The original name is „Anuttaro vavaidasha‟. It contains legends of thirty

493
Madhukar Muni, Upāsakadasāngasutta, Sri Agam Prakashan Samiti, Beawar (Rajasthan), 1989
 254

three saints who ascended to the highest heavenly worlds.It includes 192 ṡloka and
has 4608000 padas describing the life stories of great virtuous souls as well as their
virtuous character that had led the most pure characterous lives and then emerged in
Anuttar Vimān - a well known land of god – “Dev Loka”. It also includes very hard
austerities of Dhanna-Kakandi as was praised by Lord Mahāvīra himself.
10. Prashna-Vyākarana (Questions and explanations): The Prakrut name of this
10th Jin Agam Sūtra in the scripture is „Panha Vagaranani‟. In present time only a
few portion of this Sūtra is available. It comprises of discussions of the good
elements like Non-violence and others, all fivevruttas. It consists of both good and
bad elements i.e. Asrava and Saṃvara from the Jaina code of ethics. As per Nandi
Sūtra version about this Sūtra, it contained 108 problems, 108 non-problems, 108
problems–cum–non-problems several super-intelligence and hymns (Mantras) as
well as the dialogue and discussion of Monks held with Nagkumar and other
Bhavanpati Gods. It also explains bondage of karma, transitoriness, kaṣayas and
unwholesome (aṡubh) Yoga. It has 2300 slokas, 9216000 padas.
11. Vipāka-śruta (Revelation on Repening): The original name is “Vivag Suyam”.
It contains legends that illustrate the karmic consequences of good and evil acts. It
has 2 main divisions (i) Unhappiness DukhaVipāk Sūtra Skandh and (ii) Happiness
Sukha Vipak Sūtra Skandh. Each of them has 10 Sub divisions and total 1216 slokas
and 18432000 padas. One of the best illustrations of Mruga-putra and great monk
Subahu are eye openers to the modern rulers.
12. Drishti-Vada (Instruction about Views): Consists of fourteen purvas, which
have been lost. So, manytimes this is not counted and only 11 Angas have been
made available.
Apart from 12 Angas as mentioned above, there are 12 Upāngas as under:
1. Aupāpaātita: The original name is „Uvvāi‟and isbased on and upānga of
Āchāranga sūtra. It has 2100 slokas. It describes twelve types of external and
internal Tapas, four types of Dhyānas, geographical details of Earth and Siddhas. It
also has interesting details of Mokṡa, the place for liberated souls and story of
Akhanda tapas with his 700 disciples.
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2. Rayprashniya: The original name is „Rau paseniya‟. The scripture is upānga

of Krutatha sūtra and is full of material, related to dramatics, description of the
township, dev-vimans, idols etc. It includes description of 108 Jin-idols, 32 plays as
Suryabhdev, answers by Lord Mahāvīra to six questions on Nastikvad.
3. Jīvājīvābhigama: This scripture is upanga of Sthananga sūtra and has 4750
slokas which include informations about jīva and ajīva, Jin-puja, Jambu Dwip,
Lavan Dwip, islands, oceans, Sun, Moon, stars – all three lokas in the form of
questions-answers.
4. Prajñāpana: This scripture is the biggest upanga, a treasure of gems. It is
upanga of Samvayanga sūtra. The original name of this Upanga is „Pannavana
Sūtra‟. It has 7787 slokas and is based on Samvayangasūtra composed by
Shyamācārya, a disciple of Umaswati. It includes discussion on Karma, nine tattvas,
asrav, saṃvar, nirjara, moksha, forms of lesya and all principles of Jainism.
5. Surya Prajñapti also called “Sur pannati” is upanga of Bhagvati sūtra. It has
2200 slokas. It deals with Astronomy (information on Sun, Moon, planets, galaxies
and their movements) and details of cycles of day-night and seasons. It is also called
as Astrology of Jainism.
6. Jambudvip Prajnapti (based on Shree Gnta Dharm Kathang Sūtra). It is
related to Geography. The seven divisions of this sūtra with 4146 slokas deal as
under:
1st. Bharat Kshetra (Indian Sub continents)
2nd. Kalachakra (The Time Wheel)
3rd. The great emperor Bharat Chakravarti
4th. Chullahimavant: The Varsh Dhar Mountains and area between Ramyak Kshetra
to Airavat Kshetra
5th. Jinjanmabhisheka describes the birth celebration of Lord Tirthankaras.
(Janmakalyanaka)
6th. Jambudvip Gatpadartha sangraha describes 29 subjects including the areas, i.e.
Mountains, Pilgrim, Places, series in Jambudvip.
7th. Jyitishka describes the Astronomy
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Besides this great Sūtra discusses on a topic of mathematics one of the four great
Anuyog – worthy topics.
7. Chandra Prajnapti: Prakrut name of this upanga is Chandapannatti sūtra
based on Upasaka dasanga sūtra. It is similar to Surya Prajnapati having same 2200
slokas except the Moon inplace of Sun. The movements, growth and contraction of
moon, its relation with the Galaxy are the subjects detailed in it.
8. Nirayayaliya: It is upanga of Antakrut dashanga sūtra. It describes the war
between king Konik and king Cheda, where 800million people were killed. They all
went to infernal loka (narak gati). Nirya valika sūtra is a collection of five Upanga
sūtra and stories of king Shrenik‟s ten princes.
9. Kalpavratsika or kalpavatansika or Kappavandasiya sūtra is based on
Anittaraupāpātik sūtra. Stories of sons and grandson‟s of king Shrenik and ten
princes are detailed here.
10. Pushpikasūtra is based on Nirchavilaka and is upanga of shri prashna
vyakarana sūtra. It gives information of planets from Jyotish Shastra and stories of
deities coming to Lord Mahāvīra.
11. Puṇyachulika or Pushpa chulika sūtra (life scatches of ten Goddesses)
12. Vrushni Dasha (based on Nirayavilaka, stories of ten sons of Baldev, elder
brother of Krishna Vasudev)
Above referred Anga and Upanga include religion, darśana, ācāra (do‟s and don‟ts)
culture, discipline, history, art, literature and basic principles.
Ten Payanna are as under:
1. Chatuh Sharan (Chan sharan Payanna or Kushalannubandhi Adhyan by
Virbhadra Gani.)
2. Santhār: It describes critical details of Santhārā, the willful death, its process
and intention.
3. Atur Pratyākhyan: It gives all details ofprocesses and practices to be followed
during the last moments before death, child death and scholar‟s death.
4. Bhakti Parijna: It talks of stoppage of taking food for permanent fasting and
Pandit maraṇa.
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5. Tandul Vaiyaliya: This is full of values of detachment mentioning sufferings

of birth, death, pregnancy and delivery. As the name suggests it says we eat 4608
millions rice grains during 100 years of life span.
6. Chandravedayak: It describes Radha-vedh with one pointed mind.
7. Devendra Stav: It describes details of 32 Indras, their devotions towards God.
8. Ganividya: It gives primary information of Astrology, Palmistry and
Muhurtas for auspicious events.
9. Maha Pratyakhyan: It describes auspicious and inauspicious death in details
and methods of improving it for ascetics.
10. Vir stav (Samādhi maraṇ): It gives details of Samādhi-death, state of mind
during that and some processes and remedies for the same with illustrations.
Six Chedsūtras are given below („Ched‟ is external practice/process that does not
interfere with religion/duties but improves purification. If one commits some
mistakes, processes given to correct and improve, do‟s and don‟ts for monks and
householders):
1. Nishithsūtra: This Achar-prakalpa gives details of dos and don‟ts of ascetics.
2. Mahanishith (written by Sudharma Swāmī, improvised by Sri Haribhadra
suri)
3. VyavaharDasha Kalpa (written by Bhadrabahu Swāmī): It describes all
punishments, taxes, remorse process and other eligibilities for all.
4. Dasashrut skandh (Trḯni Chhedsūtrani or Dashashrutskandha, Brihatkalpa
written by Bhadrabahu Swāmī. It contains 10 chapters including 8th chapter of
Paryuṣana‟s Kalpasūtra)
5. Bruhat kalpa (written by Bhadrabahu Swāmī): It describes the basic
characteristics and virtues of monks and nuns and other details.
6. Jit kalpasūtra (written by Bhadrabahu Swāmī): This is very serious scripture
describing all deficiencies of a monk and 19 types of repentances.
Two sūtras (Āgamchulikā sūtra) are:
1. Nandisūtra (Dev vachak Gani): It gives details of five types of jnanas
(knowledge), Gandhars, Tirthankars and the Sangh.
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2. Anuyog dvār or Anuyogasūtra: (Unique scripture, four Chhedsūtras compiled

and written by Sthaveer Aryarakshit). It facilitates word to join its meaning, process
of expressing the meaning. It is master-key to understand agamas.
Four mulasūtra are:
1. Āvashyak Oghniryukti
2. Dashvaikayik (Shayyambhav suri)
3. Pindniryukti (BhadrabahuSwāmī): It talks of bringing and taking food for
ascetics.
4. Uttarādhyayan: It describes the last sermon of 16 prahars of Lord Mahāvīra in
36 chapters.
Now, only ten Bhasya or niryuktiya is available. They are Avashyaka, Dasvaikalika,
Uttaradhyayana, Acaranga, Sūtrakrutanga, Dasashrutaskandha, Bruhatkalpa,
Vyavahara, Suryapragnapti and Rishibhasita.
The first Srutakandha, “Nav brahmācāryadhyayana” or “Shramanachara” describes
details of principles of Ahiṃsā (non-violence), Samata (equanimity), Anasakti
(detached attitude) and Kaṣayaa-vijaya (victory over efflictions). The second
Srutakandha, “Achar Chula” or “Shramana charya” includes Ahara suddhi (pure
diet), Sthana (place), Gati (movements) and Bhasa (language).
The first Chula contains following seven chapters:
1. Pindesana: Purity of food
2. Shaiyesana: Purity of place for sādhanā/practice)
3. Eryesana: Control of travel movements
4. Bhasajataisana: Control of purity of language
5. Vastraisana: Limitations of clothings and usages of the same
6. Patraisana: Limitations of Vessels and utensils
7. Avagrahaisana: Process of permission for location and place.
Surya Prajnapti – Chandra Prajnapti‟, a scripture on 6th and 7thUpanga has 20
chapters and 108 sūtras and is based on Astrology. It is also called as „Jyotish-Raj-
Prajnapti‟. „Āvashyak Sūtra‟ prescribes list of those duties, one should try to
perform. Our duties should be based on one single principle that “Each animal
desires for happiness and nobody wants miseries.”
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The complete Āgama literature is divided into four Anuyogas as under:

1. Charanakarana or Charanuyoga: It mentions Ācara, ethical practices; one has
to follow for spiritual purpose.
2. Dharmakathanuyoga: In includes virtues like Ahiṃsā to be followed as one‟s
own duty.
3. Ganitānuyoga: (Karanayuyoga as per Digambers) Expressed through the
medium of Maths.
4. Dravyanuyoga: It describes the knowledge of all nine Tattvas. It is
„shrutjnana‟, the most important Anuyoga.
Anuyoga is the process of expressing and explaining the meaning. It unites with and
takes us to the higher meanings of knowledge.
Savve pana…… Suhasaya dukkhavadikula (Ācharanga sūtra 1/2/3)
Inorder to proceed on path of liberation, Vyavahar-Nay is the cause that supports and
motivates where as Niscay-Nay is the actucal process.
One of the Jain Āgamas, „Dashvaikalik Sūtra‟ mentions guidelines to be followed by
Shramanas or monks as per “Anga bahya srut”, collection of ten sermons and two
chulikas494. These are as under:
i) Druma Puṣpikā: Two types of true religions are prescribed, laukika
(Gramdharma, Deshdharma and Rajdharma) and Lokottar dharma.
ii) Shramanya purvak
iii) Laghu achar-katha
iv) Satjīvnikay: Self and spiritual control
v) Bhikṣā visuddhi or Pindaisna (Gochari)
vi) Mahāchār katha describes eighteen rules for dharmārtha, study of religions
vii) Vakya suddhi
viii) Ahār pranidhi
ix) Vinay Samādhi

494
Madhukar Muni, Dashvaikaliksūtra, tr. Siddhantacharya Sadhvi Pushpavati, Shri Agam Samiti,
Beawar (Rajasthan), 1993
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x) Sa-bikṣu – winner of senses

Tattvārthasūtra: the summary of Agamas
Acārya UmaSwāmī wrote “Mokshashastra” also called as “Tattvārthasūtra”, in 2nd
century in the form of first translation of Agams in Sanskrit which consists of 10
chapters inclusive of 344 sūtras (as per Digambars, it includes 357 sūtras). The
Bhāṣya includes 2200 slokas. This scripture describes in details and systematic
manners, the path to liberation through integration of Samyak Darśana, Samyak
Jnān and Samyak Cāritra.
33 sūtras of first chapter of Tattvārthasūtra deal with knowledge and describe
Samyak Darśana and Samyak Jnān. Second chapter (53 sūtras) deals with jīva and
describes relation with and types of bodies, life span, senses, birth and related
characteristics. The third (39 sūtras) and fourth (42 sūtras) chapters deal with four
cycles and trilokas of common lives i.e. infernal abodes, middle world and heaven.
Fifth chapter deals with ajīva matter and describes shad-dravyas, soul and non-soul.
These five chapters are considered as Jnan-mimansa, treasure of knowledge.
Chapters 6 to 10 of Tattvārthasūtra are based on good conduct and so called as
Charitra-mimansa. The sixth chapter (27 sūtras) of Tattvarth sūtra describes Āsrav,
causes of influx of Karmas. Seventh chapter (39 sūtras) describes restraints and
duties of laymen including 12 vrattas. Eighth chapter (26 sūtras) deals with
bondages (Bandh) and causes, types and states thereof. Ninth chapter (47 sūtras)
deals with stoppage and eradication of karmas (Saṃvar and Nirjara) and also
conduct of monks. The ultimate objective of human life is well described in 10th
chapter (9 sūtras), Mokṡa-tattva.
Samaṇ Suttam is the religious text created in 1974 by a committee consisting of
representatives of each of the major sects of Jaina to reconcile the teachings of the
sects under the guidance of a great saint Shri Vinoba Bhave. After a gap of about
nearly two thousand years following composition of Tattvārthasūtra by Ācārya
Umasvati, this was the first text to be recognized by all Jain sects. It consists of four
chapters, mainly focused on summary of Agama. It includes following meanings of
few sūtras:
Jama Ichhami Appano…
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 Whatever you wish for yourself, do the same with others. Don‟t do that you
don‟t wish to be done with you.
 That who knows self, can know others.
 Ahiṃsā and hiṃsa totally is a mental intension. Generation of rāga and dveṣa
itself is violence.
 We can‟t stop dravya-hiṃsa, it will continue till we live, but can control or
stop bhav-hiṃsa, which is primary cause of bondage of karma. Deliberate or
intentional hiṃsa should be prevented
 Jain Yoga includes rigorous observance of moral percepts especially Ahiṃsā
(non-violence) with an extensive teaching about the causal force (doctrine of karma)
associated with human behaviour495.
V. Spiritual Practices prescribed for Jain ascetics - monks and nuns:

Śramaṇācāra (श्रमणाचार)

According to Ācārangasūtra496, an ascetic (अनगार) is one who, considering the

consequences of mundane indulgence and passions desists from any desire for the
same and gets free from greed. The one who destroys all karma is called
accomplished (कुर्ऱ).

Third chapter of Ācārangasūtra describes causes and remedies of passions.

Favourable and unfavourable conditions give rise to attachment and aversion.
Remedy is to tolerate them with equanimity. Only wakeful state of consciousness
(जागत
ृ ) is important for spirituality. The precipitation of faith delusive karma is the

deepest slumber497 (सुषुन्प्त). The wakeful and alert ascetic only can shed this karma.

Lord Mahāvīra says that Mohaniya karma (delusion) is the root of all karma and
other seven are like tips498. One should ponder over three types of knowledge: earlier
birth, birth-death and comparative study of one‟s own happiness and sorrow and also

495
G.Feuerstein, The Yoga Tradition, Motilal Banarasidass Publishers Private Limited, Delhi, 2002
496
Amarmuni, Acharangasūtra, sūtra-72, p.92
497
Ibid, sūtra-107, p.154, Dashashrut skandh (5/11-14; 3/2/102)
498
Ibid, sūtra-116, p.175
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those of other beings. Uttarādhyayan (32/5) mentions that attachment and aversion
is root of a tree where tip includes all eight karmas. The various manifestations of
these karmas are like leaves of the tree.
Those who irrigate them continuously are reborn again and again.
ऩाऱीन्र्चहन्नदयन तनतकंमदन्नस499

By completely destroying resultant karma, with Tapa and Saṁyama, soul attains a
state having perception unveiled by karma (तनटकामदर्ॉ), which is interpreted in four

ways:
i. Being free of all karma, soul perceiving (आत्तमदर्ॉ)

ii. Being free of Rāga-dvesha, all perceiving (सवशदर्ॉ)

iii. In absence of consequential activities or effects of karma, inactivity

perceiving (अकक्रयादर्ॉ)

iv. In total absence of karma, liberation perceiving (मोऺदर्ॉ)

A person who has properly understood sound, form, smell, taste and touch is
spiritualist (आत्तमवान), sagacious (ऻानवान) scholar of canons (वेदवान), religious

(धमशवान), and chaste (ब्रह्मवान) is a spiritual unique personality (ववभतू त) in true

sense500. Nirgranth (knotless, without bondages) is one who counters with

equanimity, lack of interest, liking for discipline and austerities501.
An ascetic should come out of sequence of all kaṣāyas: anger, conceit, illusion,
greed, love, hatred, fondness, womb, birth, death, hell, animals and misery502.
Most of the Jain scriptures have mentioned following practices for Ṥramaṇa or
Sadhu:

499
Ibid, sūtra-116, p.175
500
Ibid, sūtra-108, p.157
501
Ibid, sūtra-111, p.161
502
Ibid, sūtra – 129-131, pp.193-195
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1. Mahāvrata: It is very strict and absolute observance of all five vows as

Mahāvrata mentioned earlier. They observe with full awareness through their
actions, speech and thoughts following attitudes while doing routine processes503:
I. Ahiṃsā mahāvrata for Śramaṇa: They have to observe following attitudes:
a) मनोगुन्प्त भावना : Try to maintain balanced state of mind with positivity.

b) एषणासममतत भावना : Limited and proper usage of utensils, place, clothes and

other similar items.

c) आदानसममतत भावना : To take care of all germs, insects and others while

moving, changing clothes and other routine activities.

d) इयाशसममतत भावना : Take care of all kinds of non-violence while walking or

moving.
e) द्रटु िाननऩान ग्रहण भावना : Take care of all kinds of non-violence while taking

food.
The Lord Mahāvīra says that each of jīva 504 like Prithvikaya, Vayukaya, Tevukaya,
Agnikaya and Āpkaya jīva suffers the same way as we do by tortures, cuts with
weapons but it cannot express like us. As we have gone through each of these births,
we should accept the existence of these minute water bodied beings and other forms
of bodied beings, else we deny our own existence.505 Though, water and fire was
worshipped, almost none bothered about violence against them. Only Lord Mahāvīra
has mentioned all details of such violences. Ācārya Shreelank506 says,
“Fire has attributes like light and heat, cannot survive without air and grows
consuming food (oil and wood), gets fritters away when deprived of such food shows
the evidence of it being alive.”
Jugupsa is to abandon violence of air bodied beings.

503
Tattvarthadhigamabhāṣya (7/3, 33), Yogashastra (1/26-30)
504
Amarmuni, Acarangasūtra, sūtra-15, p. 26
505
Ibid, sūtra-23, p.34
506
Ibid, p. 44
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Bhagvatisūtra (16/1/15) says, “One who knows saṃyam, knows non-violence of fire
bodies and vice-versa.” This has same meaning of following sūtra of Ācārangasutta.
जे असत्तथस्स खेयण्णे से ददहऱोगसत्तथस्स खेयण्णे II507

Almost all enjoyables through our senses are of plant origin. So, too much attachment
to various flavours, colours, shapes and sounds (instruments) is violence and causes
harms to our soul. Ācārangasūtra gives two main causes of violence as stupor (प्रमाद)

and desire for mundane pleasure (ववषयामभऱाषा). There are four types of stupor:

intoxication, passions, sleep and opprobrium.

10 types of physical and 14 types of mental passions of karma that cause bondage of
soul are described in Ācārangasūtra. A true ascetic should have knowledge
(ऩररऻातकमश) about such violences.

According to Shreelank Vṛtti of Ācārangasūtra,508 sixteen categories of physical

awareness (अनुभव संऻा) are as under:

1. Eating
2. Fear
3. Sex
4. Possession
5. Pleasure
6. Sorrow
7. Fondness
8. Doubt
9. Anger
10. Ego
11. Illusion
12. Greed
13. Grief

507
Ibid, sūtra-33, p. 42
508
Ibid, p.8
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14. Mundane activities

15. Duty
16. Aggregate
According to Ācāranga Niyukti, five categories of mental awareness (ऻान संऻा) are

already mentioned under the topic of Pramāṇa in this chapter509, subject of “Samyak
Jnāna”.
The first pada of Ācārangasūtra mentions in details all the characteristics of an
ascetic. He should be devoted to spiritual practices510 (तनयाग-प्रततऩनन), straight

forward and upright in conduct (ऋजुकृत), free of deceit (अमाय) and following conduct

related to vigour, knowledge, faith and austerity (ववयाशचार, ऻानाचार, दर्शनाचार, तऩाचार).

II. Satya mahavratabhavna for Shramana:

Ācārangasūtra511explains importance of being firm on truth, which is interpreted in
three different ways from different angles:
a) Discipline which is beneficial for being is Truth
b) The tenets of Arihant in the form of Āgama reveals the true form of the ultimate
truth of anything
c) Resolution: to follow vows faultlessly, accept the truth
Following attitudes one has to maintain,
a) हास्य-प्रत्तयाख्यान: Not to be untruthfull while making fun also.

b) ऱोभ-प्रत्तयाख्यान: Not to to tell lie out of greed.

c) क्रोध-प्रत्तयाख्यान: Out of anger, not to speak lie, bitter or harsh.

d) भय-प्रत्तयाख्यान: For fear of death and to protect somebody, avoid.

e) आऱोर्चय-भाषण: Not to speak bitter unknowingly or without thinking.

III. Asteya mahavrata: Bhāvanā i.e. attitude for monks for this vow should
comply with following:

509
मततश्रुतावधधमन् ऩयशय केवऱातन ऻानम ् । T.S. 1.9
510
Amarmuni, Acharangasūtra, sūtra, sūtra-19, p. 32
511
Ibid, sūtra-118, p. 177
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a) आऱोर्चय-अव्ग्रहयाचन : With full awareness, request the owner to have place

b) अमभऺण- अव्ग्रहयाचन : Don‟t grab, just remind and request the owner

c) ऩररममत- अव्ग्रहयाचन : Demand only as per need and not more

d) साधममशक- अव्ग्रहयाचन : Request the colleague monk also for stay with him

e) अनुऻावऩत ऩान-अनन-अर्नग्रहण : Each time having food only with the permission

of Guru/ elderly monk

IV. Brahmacarya mahavrata: Almost all scriptures and Āgama (Ācārangasūtra
1/5/2/107 and Daṡvaikaliksūtra chapter 4) have strictly laid down disciplinary rules
to follow this vow for monks or Ṥramaṇas. To protect this vow, following attitudes
are prescribed to have maximum control over senses:
a) स्त्री-षण्ढ-ऩर्ुमद्वेश्मासनकुड्यानतरत्तयाग : The aspirant should keep himself away

from places where person of opposite sex stays or where vulgar talks are heard.
b) सरागस्त्रीकथात्तयाग : To avoid talks which excite or provocate the attachments

with opposite sex.

c) ऩूवरश ततववऱासस्मरणत्तयाग : To get rid of past memories of sexual acts.

d) स्त्रीरम्यनगेऺण-स्वानग-संस्कारऩररवजशन : Avoid looking at attractive limbs of

opposite sex and to exhibit self accordingly.

e) प्रतनतात्तयर्नत्तयाग : To stop taking too tasty, spicy and excess food.

Indulgences are not capable of quenching the thirst for gratification. Carnality is
dangerous. Jain monks have equanimity of alms collection.512
V. Aparigraha mahavrata:
Jain ascetics beg for clothes, food and other necessary items without any attachment.
A man obsessed with possessions fails to stay on true path even if he gets them. Be-
cause of his stupidity, he finds wrong path and sticks to it, unable to cross the ocean
of life to get liberated. Non-greed remedy as prescribed by Ācārangasūtra513 is

512
Ibid, sūtra-87, p.111
513
Ibid, sūtra-73, p.93
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“Abandoning food intake acts as medicine for the fever and abandoning greed acts
as medicine for craving.” To protect this vow, following attitudes are prescribed to
have maximum control over senses:
a) स्ऩर्शनेन्नद्रयववषयराग-द्वेर्वजशन: To get detached from attraction of touching beauties

and aversion of unwanted touch

a) रसनेन्नद्रयववषयराग-द्वेर्वजशन: To follow the same detachment towards attraction and

aversion related to tastes

b) घ्राणेन्नद्रयववषयराग-द्वेर्वजशन: To follow the same detachment towards attraction

and aversion related to smells

c) चऺुररन्नद्रयववषयराग-द्वेर्वजशन: To follow the same detachment towards attraction

and aversion related to sights

d) श्रोत्रेन्नद्रयववषयराग-द्वेर्वजशन: To follow the same detachment towards attraction and

aversion related to sense of hearing

In order to have proper implementation of all these vrattas Jain monks and nuns
follow special rules of conduct (Samyakcāritra) such as five Samitis and three
Guptis mentioned earlier but more strictly. It also includes lifetime practices of not
consuming food or water after sunset or before sunrise, and wait for 48 minutes after
sunrise before even drinking boiled water, which only is allowed to them. They
make use of minimum water for the same purpose by never taking bath and avoiding
usage of detergents or any washing equipment or accessories. Jain monks and nuns
never touch a member of the opposite sex regardless of their age; they don‟t meet
them after sunset. They also do not touch money, jewelry or any electrical or
electronic gadgets. They do not own or have control over any wealth, houses or
movable or immovable property or organization.They observe following six
necessary rules (Ṣadavaṡyaka), the details are discussed later elsewhere:

a) Sāmāyika
b) Caturvimśatistava
c) Vandanā
d) Pratikamaṇa
 268

e) Kāyotsarga
f) Pratyākhyāna
Apart from these observances, Daśavidhā-dharma (ten supreme duties) and
Pariṡahjay (to bear with all the hurdles on the path of spiritual practices) are
mentioned in Tattvārthasūtra.
Some prominent practices for monks and nuns are described further here.
Gochari (Alms): Jain monks i.e. Sādhus-Sādhvis do not cook their food on their own
or by somebody and they do not accept any food, which has been prepared for them.
They go to different house holders and receive a small amount of vegetarian food
from each house irrespective of their taste or likings. This practice is called as
Gochari. Here, householder need not cook again and the monks do not develop taste
of one family only, no attachments. Cooking process involves much violence in the
form of fire, vegetable chopping, water consumption and other related activities.
Digambar monks eat the food given in their palms only.
Vihāra (Travel): The Jain monks and Nuns travel bare footed from one place to
another continuously for eight months in a year to avoid developing an attachment to
the material and people around them at the same place. Remaining four months of
monsoon, they stay at one place to avoid crushing bugs and insects on wet surface.
They never go out in dark or rain. They utilize full time available to them in study
(svādhyāy) scriptures, learning from their Gurus and preaching religion and provide
proper guidance to people.
Loch (Plucking of hair): In their renounced life, monks and nuns do not shave or cut
hair with instruments, but pluck their hair twice in a year, a kind of austerity where
one bears pain of plucking hair calmly. This is also called as “Kesh-lochan”.
Clothing: Digambar Jain monks, as the name suggests, do not wear any clothes.
Swetambar monks wear un-stitched white cotton clothes, not more than two or three
if required, during travelling. They carry a rectangular small mat called “katāsaṇa”
to sit on, a piece of cloth of the size of handkerchief to cover their mouth while
speaking and a stick while walking. They also have “Ogho” or rajoharan (a broom
of woolen threads) to clear insects from the places, where they sit or walk. They
 269

have to keep this Ogho all the time with them, which reminds them of observance of
Maha-Vrata.
Pratikramaṇa (Introspection): Jain monks and Nuns are in Sāmāyik round o‟clock
(wakeful meditation) and in addition, twice a day, morning and evening, they
perform Pratikamaṇa, a thorough introspection to wash out all sinful activities and
repenting for all those from bottom of hearts. Further to this, they add deeper
introspection periodically like fortnightly, Quarterly in a year and yearly as
mentioned earlier.
The above referred ritualistic and unique practices may differ among various sects of
Jains but the essential principles remains the same to limit needs. Their entire life is
dedicated to the spiritual uplift of their souls and others. They show the path of
righteous and disciplined life to every one through discussions, discourses, seminars
and camps to attain spiritual prosperity. As per following sūtra, Tattvārthasūtra
describes five categories of Jain monks and refer them as Nirgranths. Nirgranth
means having no possession. Contemporary Buddhist texts used to refer to Lord
Mahāvīra as Nirgranth.
Following five categories of monks are mentioned in ascending order in the
scripture514.
a) Pulak is the category of those monks who try to stay on the path of detached
Lords, but fail to observe restrains.
b) Bakush: denotes those monks who care for their body, look for physical
comforts and are prone to indulge in faults or transgressions.
c) Kusheel: This includes two types; Pratisevana Kusheel denotes those who
indulge in transgressions under the influence of sense organs and the other type
Kaṣaya Kusheel type indulge in light defilement.
d) Nirgranth denoting those who are close to omniscience.
e) Snātak denotes those who have attained omniscience.
Tattvārthasūtra also describes following eight criteria for evaluating the level of
monks515:

514
ऩऱ
ु ाकबकुर्कुर्ीऱतनग्रशनथस्नातका् तनगशनथा्। T.S. 9.46
 270

a) Samyam: It includes various types of conduct or Cāritra. Depending upon

degree of observance to prevent karma, type of Cāritra could be Sāmāyik,
Chhedopasthapan, Pariharvishuddhi, Sūkṡmasamparay and Yathakhyat. The detail
of it is given earlier under “ways of Saṃvar” in this chapter.
b) Śruta: This relates to the scriptural knowledge of different levels of
Nirgranths. It ranges from knowledge of minimum spiritual codes to infinite.
c) Pratisevana: This relates to possibilities for transgression of restrains. Pulaks
are prone to transgression of all types of restrains, where as Kaṡāy, Kusheel,
Nirgranth and Snātak are not prone to transgression to any restrains.
d) Tīrtha: This relates to the order, where they are found. All five categories can
exist in the order of all Tirthankars.
e) Liṅga: This relates to symbol, which can be physical or modal (intentional).
f) Leṣya: This pertains to color or aura they have.
g) Upāpat: This relates to next rebirth and longevity. Where thay would be
reborn and how much they would live depends on the level.
h) Sthāna: This relates to the level of observing restraints, and varies from
person to person. The highest level, which a Snātak can attain, leads to Nirvana.

VI. Spiritual Practices prescribed for Jain Householders: Śrāvaka and

Śrāvika – Śrāvakācārs:
For those householders, who remain in family life, a broad spectrum of spiritual
practices is prescribed in “Āvaṡyaksutra”. Āvashyak means necessary, must be done
practices. These practices are basically for all i.e. laymen and women, monks and
nuns. It is Chhedasūtra, 32nd agama in the list of Jain scriptures.
For householders, complete avoidance of the five principle vows or implementation
of mahavratas is very difficult. For them, Jain ethics specifies the following twelve
vows to be carried out by them to live a righteous life and to conquer desires. Apart
from five Aṇuvratas (vows), they include three Ṥilvratas and four Ṥikṡavratas
(together, these two groups are “Saptaṡil” or seven conducts).

515
संयम श्रत
ु प्रततसेवना तीथशमऱंगऱेश्योऩऩादस्थान ववकल्ऩत् साध्या्। T.S. 9.47
 271

The first five vows are same main vows as referred earlier, but are of limited nature
called as aṇuvratas. These, as compared to great vows or maha-vratas which are for
ascetics, are somewhat easier. They should be followed in thought, action and
speech, by doing it himself or by getting it done through others. They are namely,
1. Ahiṃsā anuvrata (Limited vow of non-violence also called as sthula
prānātipata virmāna vrata): Lord Mahāvīra says, “One should not injure,abuse,
oppress, insult, subjugate, enslave, torture or kill any living being including animals,
insects, plants and vegetation516.” All living beings are equal irrespective of size,
shape or different spiritual developments. Jainism has classified all living beings
according to the number of senses they posses. It is more sinful if the life of higher
forms (more than one sense) is killed. Hence, they allow laymen to use only
vegetable as food for survival. All non-vegetarian food is made by killing a living
being with two or more senses. Hence non-vegetarian food is prohibited strictly. It is
the intention to harm, absence of compassion, unawareness and ignorance that
makes the action violent.
In reality, it is impossible to survive without killing or injuring someone of the
smaller species. Some lives are killed even when we breathe, drink water or eat food.
Hence, Jainism says, minimum killing of the lowest forms of life should be our ideal
for survival.
Many scriptures like Tattvārthasūtra and Yogashastra have classified the impurities
(atichāras) in following this vow. They are binding; beating, mutilating limbs,
overloading and withholding food and drink are the five transgressions of non-
voilence517as under:
a. Bandha: To tie any animal and not allowing it to move.
b. Vadha: Out of anger, hurting or beating any living being
c. Cheda or Chavichheda: To cut skin or break head of any animal out of anger.

516
Jain Philosophy and Practice-1, The Federation of Jain Associations in North America, 2002, p.24
517
बनधवधर्चछे दाततभारोऩणाननऩानतनरोधा् । T.S. 7.25,

Acharya Umaswati, Tattvārthasūtra, JAINA and Shrut Ratnakar, Ahmedabad, (July, 2007)
 272

d. Atibhararopan: To put abnormal load, over weight or workload on any body.

e. Annapāna nirodha: To deprive anybody of food, or provide less food than
needed.
2. Satya anuvrata (Limited vow of truthfulness also called as sthula mrusavād
virmāna vrata): It says, “Be honest and try to abstain from falsehood”. According to
Tattvārthasūtra, delivery of any speech or words with prejudice or afflictions in mind
is untruthfulness. Following this vow of Satya, a person develops his inner strength
and capacities. Actually, Truth and non-violence are interdependent on each other, as
there can‟t be non-violence without truth and truth without non-violence. Perverted
teaching, divulging what is done under secrecy, proclaiming others‟ thoughts,
misappropriation, and forgery are the five transgressions of truth518 according to Jain
scriptures. Accordingly, while following „Satya aṇuvrata‟, one should avoid all
following atichāras:
a. Sahasa-abhyākhyāna: To put allegation without verifying
b. Rahsya-abhyākhyāna: To disclose someone‟s confidential matter, to praise
somebody out of proportion, to misguide somebody are few examples of „Atichāra‟
or breaking of this anuvrata
c. Svadar-manrabheda: To disclose to others the talk conveyed confidentially by
spouse.
d. Mruṡopadesh: To go against scriptures and religion and indulge into such activities.
e. Kutlekh karana: To write false articles, to make false documents, to witness falsely,
to certify or declare wrongly, to make false signatures and other illegal activities.
Tattvārthabhāshya of Swetamber sect and Digamber version of Tattvārthsūtra state
that there are five aspects of each restraint called as bhāvanās (attitude), primarily
relating to monastic codes. Observance of vigilance during any movements,
restraining mental activity, properly examining food and water before consumption,
and while accepting or shifting any object are five bhāvanās of first restraint or
violence. Exercising discrimination while speaking, avoidance of anger, greed, fright
and laughter are five bhāvanā of second restraint of truth.

518
ममथ्योऩदे र् रहोर्भयाख्यानकूिऱेखकक्रया नयासाऩहार साकारमनत्र भेदा्। T.S. 7.26
 273

3. Achaurya anuvrata (Limited vow of non-stealing also called as sthula

adattadān virmāna vrata or Asteyanuvrata). A person must not steal, rob or
misappropriate others goods and property, must not cheat and use illegal means in
acquiring worldly things. Receiving stolen goods, prompting others to steal,
underbuying in a disordered state, using false weights and measures, and deceiving
others with artificial or imitation goods are the five transgressions of non-stealing519.
Accordingly, these aticāra of stealing are classified as under:
a. Stenarhut: To take or purchase at cheaper rate stolen items out of greed.
b. Taskar prayog: To motivate or give idea or to support somebody to steal
c. Viruddharajyatikrama: To deal against rules of the state or Nation
d. Kutatula-Kutmān: To manipulate the weighing balances or to weigh less and
similar activities
e. Pratirupak-vyavahara: To adulterate or mix cheaper material with the costly
material.
4. Brahmacārya aṇuvrata (Limited vow of chastity also called as Pardartyaga
or sthula maithuna virmāna vrata). Any excessive indulgence of all kinds of sensual
pleasure need to be avoided. Here, the intention is to conquer passion and to impart
the sense of serenity to the soul. Right attitude makes the difference in controlling
the senses. To stay at the higher level of spirituality is also Brahmacārya.
Bringing about marriage of persons other than own family members, intercourse
with an unchaste married woman, cohabitation with a harlot, perverted sexual
practices and excessive sexual passion are the five transgressions of chastity520.
Thus, avoidable acts or atichāras for this Vrata are:
a. Itvaraparigritagamana: To hire or go and pay to a prostitute
b. Aparigritagamana: To grab other‟s spouse or partner and misuse
c. Ananga-kridā: Un-natural acts of sex
d. Parvivahakarana: To get married other‟s children neglecting own

519
स्तेन प्रयोगतदाह्वतादान ववरुद्धराज्याततक्रमहीनाधधक मनोनमान प्रततरुऩक व्यवहारा्। T.S. 7.27

520
ऩरवववाहक रणेत्तवररका ऩररगह
ृ ीता गमनानाङ्गक्र डा कामतीर्व्ामभतनवेर्ा्। T.S. 7.28
 274

e. Kāmātivrabhinivesha: Over indulgence in sexual desires

5. Aparigraha anuvrata (Limited vow of non-attachment also called as Iccha-
Parmana or sthula parigraha virmāna vrata).
वीरया ऩररग्गहाओ, अऩररममआओ अणनततनहाओI (Samanasuttam 315)

Unlimited possession is the cause of innumerable desires.

Desires are unlimited in our mind. And they keep on multiplying as you continue to
fulfil them. But, one must impose a limit on one‟s needs, assets, money and other
possessions. The surplus should be used for the common good. The Jain principle of
limited possession for householders helps the equitable distribution of wealth,
comforts, food, clothes and other necessities in the society.
This leads to socialism, economic stability and welfare of the world. This benefits
the individual in his spiritual growth.
But, exceeding the limits set by one with regard to cultivable lands and houses,
riches such as gold and silver, cattle and corn, men and women servants and clothes
are the five transgressions of non-attachment521.
Avoidable acts or aticāras for this Vrata are:
a. Kshetra-Vāstu-Pramānitakrama: To increase and encroach upon area, plot,
land, house, shop and those items which are not required and don‟t belong to us.
b. Hiranya-Suvarna-Pramānitakrama: To increase the pre-fixed limits of
accumulating Gold, silver, coins and precious items
c. Dhan-Dhānya- Pramānitakrama: To accumulate or store measurable and
weighable materials beyond the limits
d. Dwipada-Chishpada-Pramānitakrama: To keep more than the limits of man-
power, servents, sons and animals.
e. Kupya-Pramānitakrama: To store or keep more than the limits of metal,
furniture, vehicles, farming and other equipment.
Next three limiting vows may be adopted by a person according to his individual
capacity and circumstances with the intent to adopt them. These are called as

521
Ibid, ऺेत्रवास्तदु हरण्य सव
ु णशधन धानय दासीदास कुप्य प्रमाणततक्रमा्। T.S. 7.29
 275

„Ṥilvrata‟ or minor vows and are Dik-vrata, Bhoga upabhoga vrata and
Anarthapdanda virmāna vrata as explained below:
1. Dik-vrata (Limited area of activity vow limiting the directions and distances).
It limits one‟s worldly activities to certain areas in all ten directions, and gives up
committing sins in any place outside this limited area. Exceeding the limits set in the
directions, namely upwards, downwards and horizontally, enlarging the boundaries
in the accepted directions, and forgetting the boundaries set are the five

transgressions of the minor vow of direction522. Asking someone staying outside the

country of one‟s resolve to bring something from there, commanding someone there
to do something, indicating one‟s intentions by sounds, by showing oneself, and by
throwing clod are the five transgressions of the minor vow to abstain from activities

beyond a country523.

2. Bhoga upabhoga vrata (Limited use of consumable and non-consumable

items - luxuries and unnecessary items). Bhoga includes enjoyment of perishable
items which can‟t be used again. Upabhoga means enjoyment of an object, which
can be used several times such as furniture, clothes, ornaments and buildings. One
should use all these limited to his need and capacity only. Taking food containing
(one-sensed) organisms, placed near organisms and mixed with organisms,
stimulants and ill-cooked, are the five transgressions of vow to limit consumbales

and non-consumbales524.

3. Anarthapdanda virmāna vrata (Avoidance of purposeless sins vow). It limits

activities which include thinking, talking, carrying out activities without any purpose
and not in favour of anybody, preaching evil or ill of others, doing useless acts like
walking on grass unnecessarily, manufacturing or supplying arms for attack, reading
or listening to obscene literature or carelessness in ordinary behaviour. Vulgar jokes,

522
ऊध्वाशधन्स्तयश ग्व्यततक्रम्ऺेत्र ववृ द्धस्मत्तृ यनतराधानातन। T.S. 7.30

523
आनयन प्रेटय प्रयोग र्व्दरुऩानुऩात ऩुद्गऱऺेऩा्। T.S. 7.27

524
सधचत्तत सम्बनधसंममश्रामभषवद्ु ऩतवाहारा्। T.S. 7.27
 276

vulgar jokes accompanied by gesticulation, garrulity, unthinkingly indulging in too

much action, keeping more than required consumable and non-consumable objects,

are the five transgressions of the vow of desisting from unnecessary sin525.

This restriction is of four types as under (The words in brackets are in original Prakṛt
language):
a. Apadhyānacarit (अवज़्झाणायररये): Doing artadhyāna and raudradhyāna without

any reason. It includes day-dreaming, telling bad stories and gossiping.

b. Pramādacarit (ऩमायायररये): Stuporous behaviour with lots of addictions, desires

and carelessness.
c. Hinstrapradan (दहंसप्ऩयाणे): To give weapons or literature related to violence to

others is also anarth-danda.

d. Pāpakarmopadesh (ऩावकम्मोवएसे): To advise and motivate others for

unwholesome activities.
There are four more disciplinary vows to inspire the sense of detachment called
Ṥikṡā-vratas. These are Sāmāyika vrata, Deṡavakasika vrata, Pauṡadha Vrata and
Atithi Samvibhāg vrata as explained below:

1. Sāmāyika vrata (Meditation or Equanimity vow of limited period, training

towards final goal): It means attainment of equanimity, equilibrium or balanced
attitude (सामतयक = सम+आय+इक). In this vrata, one has to sit down on a Āsana for

48 minutes concentrating one‟s mind on religious activities like praying, reading

scriptures or meditating. This is a stepping stone to a life of full renunciation. This
Sāmāyika may be repeated several times a day. During this meditation, one tries to
concentrate on the soul and its relationship with karma to give up or minimize
affection and aversion, to observe equanimity towards all objects and being at peace
with the world526. Misdirected activity of mind, speech and body, lack of

525
कनदऩशकौत्तकुर्चय मौखयाशसमीक्ष्याधधकरणोऩभोग ऩररभोगानथशतयातन। T.S. 7.32
526
Jain Philosophy and Practice-1, The Federation of Jain Associations in North America, 2002, p.26
 277

earnestness, undertaking Samayik without enthusiasm and loosing sight thereof are
the five transgressions of this vrata of concentration527.
2. Deṡavakasika vrata (Limited duration of activity vow): Here, the general
lifelong limitation of doing business in certain area (Dik vrata) and the use of articles
(Bhog-Upbhoga vrata) are further restricted for particular days and times of the
week. One shall not do any activity or travel beyond a certain city, street or house,
during a certain period of time. Overcoming the limitations in the upper, lower or
horizontal direction, increasing or decreasing the limitations or forgetting the same
are the five transgressions of this vrata.
3. Paushadha Vrata (Limited Ascetic‟s life vow): This vow requires a person, to
live the life of a monk for a day or more, renouncing all worldly activities including
food and cosmetics, retire to a secluded place and tries to follow five great vows
doing spiritual contemplation. Thus, one gets promoted and nourished one‟s
religious life and also gets trained for ascetic life. It is a form of prolonged
Sāmāyika. Excreting, moving the articles of use like handling sandal-wood paste,
flowers and spreading mats and sitting or sleeping thereon without inspecting and
cleaning the place and the materials, undertaking paushadh without enthusiasm and
loosing sight thereof are the five transgressions of this vrata528.
4. Atithi Samvibhag vrata (Charity vow): One should give away, with
reverence, food, clothes, medicine and other articles of his own possession to monks,
nuns, pious and needy people. Fourteen types of selfless charity service done without
any expectation to ascetics (Panch mahāvruttdhari nirgranth shramanas) are
prescribed in Āvaṡyaksūtra529. The scripture prescribes full details of all disciplined
processes for giving food, water and other items to ascetics. This practice provides
an inner satisfaction and raises consciousness to higher level. One will rather
preserve goods for these guests. Placing the food on things with organisms such as

527
योगदटु प्रणणधानानाद रस्मत्तृ यनऩ
ु स्थानातन । T.S. 7.33, Acharya Umaswati, Tattvārthasūtra, JAINA and

Shrut Ratnakar, Ahmedabad, July, 2007

528
अप्रत्तयवेक्षऺता प्रमान्जशतोत्तसगाशदानसंस्तरोऩक्रमणा नादर स्मत्तृ यनुऩस्थानातन। T.S. 7.34
529
Avashyaksūtra, Shri Akhil Bharatiya Sudharma Jain Sanskriti Rakshak Sangh, Jodhpur, 2007, p. 244
 278

green leaves, covering it with such things, offer food without respect, and offer food
in an untimely manner, mixing the insentient, covering with the sentient and calling
it as belonging to others are the five transgressions of vow to partake food after

feeding an ascetic530.

Thus, above mentioned five aṇuvratas, three limiting vows and four disciplinary
vows make twelve vows for a household person in the society.
If one follows truly these twelve vows, on one hand, one gets debarred from doing
any harm to himself, to his family, his country, or to humanity by reckless conduct;
on the other hand, by giving up attachments he gradually prepares himself for the
life of ascetics. Apart from these twelve vows, „Sthānāngavṛtti ‟ recommends eleven
resolves (pratijna or sankalpa) for spiritual development. Another scripture,
“Uttarādhyayana sūtra” suggests six regular activities as under:
a) Devpuja = Devotional act towards deity, God
b) Gurusevā = Service to Guru
c) Svādhyāya = Self study
d) Saṁyama = Equanimity of mind, a state of equilibrium
e) Tapa = Austerity
f) Dāna = charity

Each individual by implementing all these values in turn make ideal society. With all
these practices, the true aspirant gets completely detached from the worldly objects
including his own body and gets all passions suppresses during final days of life
leading towards peaceful death called Sanlekhana. Expecting to survive, desire to
die, attachment for the friendly people, hope for the future happiness and bartering
for a particular situation are the five transgressions of Salenkhana531 according to
Tattvārthsūtra (Sūtra7.32).

530
सधचत्तततनऺेऩा वऩधानऩरव्य ऩदे र्मात्तसयशकाऱाततक्रमा्। T.S. 7.36

531
जीववतमरणासंसममत्रानरु ाग सख
ु ानब
ु नध तनदानातन। T.S. 7.37
 279

Ten Cardinal Virtues:

Digambara sect follows “Daśa Lakṣaṇa Mahāparva” (festival of ten cardinal
virtues) for spiritual welfare. They are as under532:
1. Kṡamā (forgiveness, forbearance): Here, five ways of forgiveness are
suggested for cultivating forbearance. By various ways either of considering whether
or not the cause of anger lies in oneself, or the harm that follow from an angry mood,
or the childish nature of the offender concerned, or the whole affair to be a
consequences of one‟s own past karma, or the merits of forbearance.
2. Mārdava (Humility, modesty, humbleness): Lack of pride, ego or selfishness.
To accept what one is.
3. Ārjava (Straightforwardness): Simplicity, lack of fraudulent attitude or
synchrony between thoughts, speech and actions. It is to keep consistency in
thought, speech and action towards wholesome purpose.
4. Śauca (Pure heart, contentment): Lack of greed. This virtue is the purest of all
and for removal of root cause of all sins. It is the sense of removal of attachment that
pollutes the soul.
5. Satya (Truthfulness): Try to know the things as it without differentiating. It is
truthfulness with genuine, clear, helpful and aggreable approach.
6. Saṃyam (Self control, restraint): Control over violence and all worldly
pleasures, which leads finally to liberation.
7. Tapa (Austerity): Penance is the repentance of all sins. Tapa is fire which
burns all forces of karmic dust to ashes. It is observed to gain strength and self-
control to overcome defiling tendencies. Many Jains observe one year long austerity
called “Varṣitapa” consisting of strict fasting on alternate days and one or two meals
on in between days.
8. Tyāg (Renunciation): This is done giving up all external and internal
possessions. It is total renunciation, sacrifice and giving-up.

532
Jain Philosophy and Practice-1, The Federation of Jain Associations in North America, 2002, p.134
 280

9. Aparigraha (Detachment): This is just lack of possession from beginning. It is

also called as „Akincanya‟, absence of possessions or non-attachment to go towards
soul.
10. Brahmacarya (Celibacy): It is absolute restraint for all sensual pleasures by
body and mind.
With observance of all these, with its purity, the soul has infinite perception, infinite
knowledge, infinite vigor and infinite bliss.
Six Āvaṡyakas:
Tirthankars have expounded on many ways to free us from all four Kaṣāyas
(afflictions) to attain this pure form which is Mokṡa. One of these ways is a daily
practice of six Āvaṡyaka (essentials) with true faith. The scripture Āvaṡyaksūtra
prescribes six necessary practices called as Āvaṡyakas for the progress on the
spiritual path of liberation. Usually these are followed by Swetamber sect of Jainism.
All six Āvaṡyakas (essentials) work scientifically. They are described below:
1. Sāmāyika:
Sāmāyika is the first spiritual practice for our mind and soul to attain a state of
equilibrium. It is a foundation of all other spiritual practices towards liberation. This
meditative practice is already described previously under twelve vows of a house-
holder. It is a process of subtle and honest analysis of past and present life in order to
get retired from sinful acts, to move away from influence of attachment and aversion
and to attain a state of equilibrium (sam-avastha). Sāmāyik is a state where the self
remains in the purest form.

When Gautama Swāmī, one of the closest disciples asked Guru Mahāvīra, “What
one gets of Sāmāyika?”
सामातयएणम ् भनते ! जीवे ककं जणयइ ? Samayinna bhante! Jive Kim Janayayi?

Lord Mahāvīra replied explaining that one moves away from sinful acts towards
kind acts and then, towards pure form.
 281

सामातयएणम ् सावज्जजोगववरइम ् जणयइ I

Samayinna savajja jog virayi janayayi533

Jain meditation is also referred as Sāmāyika. The word Sāmāyika means being in the
moment of continuous real-time. This act of being conscious of the continual
renewal of the universe in general and one's own renewal of the individual living
being (jīva) in particular is the critical first step in the journey towards identification
with one's true nature, called the Ātman. It is also a method by which one can
develop an attitude of harmony and respect towards other humans and Nature. By
being fully aware, alert and conscious of the constantly moving present, one will
experience his own pure and true nature, which is the true self, Ātman534.
All twenty four Jain Tirthankars are always seen in meditative posture and have
practiced it deeply and attained enlightenment. The true conduct is Sāmāyika which
includes practice of shubha-Dhyāna (positive meditation), a state of equanimity and
remaining detached from daily activities for 48 minutes. It allows soul to move to-
wards sacred path. Bowing down or surrendering to the pancha-parmeṣthi535 can be
the object of meditation in this state of Sāmāyika. This great prayer, which is beyond
any mantra, includes main three facets of Jainism namely Dev, Guru and Dharma.
We try to avoid feeling of liking, disliking, attachment and aversion in order to go
close to own souls during this period. The entire process of Dhyāna is anhilitation of
Karma.
2. Chaturvimṡati-stava (Logassa sūtra): This practice of praying and
appreciating the qualities of all twenty four Tirthankars is for stabilization and
purification. Logassa sūtra given in Jain scriptures and included in process of
Sāmāyika as a part of kāyotsarga is for this practice. One can purify thoughts and
533
Ref.“UttaraDhyānan” Adhyay-29, Sūtra-9 cited in Avashyak sūtra, Shri Akhil Bharatiya
Sudharma Jain Sanskriti Rakshak Sangh, Jodhpur, 2007, p.10
534
A journey towards your inner self - article published by Jain Yog Dhyan Sadhana Kendra,
2011, http://www.jyds.co.in/6-yoga&dhyan.html# (retreieved on 10/10/2015)
535
Panch-parmeshthi is that established in Samyama and Moksha i.e. Arihant, Siddha, Acharya,
Upadhyaya and all Sadhu-Sadhvis
 282

attain the right perception. Chatuvimshati stava or Adhyayana is explained in reply

to his query by Lord Mahāvīra to his disciple as:
Q. Oh, Lord! What benefits jīva gets by Chaturvimshati-stava?
चउव्वीसत्तथएणम ्, भनते ! जीवे ककं जणयइ?

Chauvisatthaenam bhante! Jive Kim Janayayi?

A. Oh Gautam, Chaturvimshati-stava results into purification of perception.
चउव्वीसत्तथएणम ् दण्सणववसोदहं जणयइ I

Chauvisatthaenam Dansanavisohim Janayayi536

Prayer to Lord, the most detached soul, brings about nirjarā and prevents wrong
thinking and takes one towards samyaktva, equilibrium and vitarāgtā, the detached
attitude like him.
3. Vandanā: It is the physical, mental and verbal expression of humility
(vinaya), surrendering attitude. It is an attitude of respect, salutation, devotion and
service to Guru, the monk or Ācārya. In absence of Tirthankar, they are true
practitioners of the true path of libration. Developing modesty towards all and
minimizing ego are characteristics of Vinay. According to Uttarādhyayan (Adhyāy-
29), Lord Mahāvīra explains the benefits of Vandana as destruction of lower karma
and binding of upper karma. Soul gets surrendering attitude. It creates a devotional
attitude towards all of them and we get inspired to follow them. He gets expertise in
generocity and popularity.
4. Pratikramaṇa: “Prati” means „back‟ and “kramaṇa” means „to go‟.
Pratikamaṇ is to go back, review and confess. It also means going back to the path
of our pure form of nonviolence, truthfulness, non-stealing, celibacy and non-
accumulation. It is to bring back our soul from negligence, stupor, afflictions and
unwholesome activities to right faith-knowledge-conduct. It is a must (āvaśyak) in
Jainism, because it is a penance (आऱोचना) for all the past deed to wash out all faults

with the resolve not to repeat them in future.

536
“Uttarādhyanana” Adhyay-29, Sūtra-10 and Āvashyak sūtra, 2007, p.39
 283

Here, we forgive the faults of others also and seek forgiveness for our faults without
any reservation. Few examples of our faults are: doing such acts which are prohi-
bited in the scriptures, not doing such acts which we are supposed to do, loosing
faith on the words of Vitaragi or Tirthankars, to advice against principles of Jainism.
This attitude helps us in stopping the influx of karmas (Saṃvar). Review daily ac-
tivities and express remorse or repentance (pascātāp) for sinful activities also reflect
upon all wrong deeds. Pratikamaṇ is like a mirror where we see ourselves internally,
the way it is. The entire process and meaning of it is well explained in
Āvaśyakasūtra. It includes various lessons of repentance, forgiveness, truth,
commitments to self, purification and spirituality. It is repentence for the karma done
in the past, self-protection from the current actions and to stop those to come in the
future. It purifies further the practice of Pancācār (five practices of faith, knowledge,
conduct, austerity and strength). The practice acts like a medicine against any
disease and increases stamina, luster, beauty and youthfulness.537 The body and mind
reach in a state of purity to conduct spiritual practices towards liberation.
There is no use of doing only dravya-pratikamaṇ without bhāv-pratikamaṇ. It is one
of the most essential rites, as it covers the other five while performing it as explained
below. It fills up the loopholes in following the vruttas. During this process of bhāv-
pratikamaṇ, the aspirant accepts the shelter of four auspicious entities i.e. Arihant,
Siddha, Sadhu and Kevali. The aspirant seeks forgiveness and forgives whole
heartedly all living creatures, bows down to all Tirthankars while getting detached
from all afflicting karma during pratikamaṇ.
One has to do Sāmāyik before starting Pratikamaṇ ritual in the form of various
sūtras from the scriptures. During the practice, Logassa and Namutthunam sūtras are
recited to salute all Tirthankars and their qualities, which is Chaturvimshati-stava.
By reciting Panchindiya and Khamāsamaṇo sūtras, one salutes the ascetics and their
qualities, Vandana essentials. Kayotsarga is already done when one practice
pratikamaṇ in standing or sitting meditative position. The practice itself includes ob-
servance of Pacchakhāṇ according to one‟s capacity covering Pratyākhyān essential.

537
Avashyaksūtra, Shri Akhil Bharatiya Sudharma Jain Sanskriti Rakshak Sangh, Jodhpur, 2007, p.58
 284

125 types of Aticārs (lessons of repentances of different types of faults incurred

knowingly or unknowingly) are described in Āvaṡyak sūtra. They include 14 types
of knowledge related, five types faith related, 25 attitudes of five Mahavratas, two of
eating in the night after sunset, 65 Aticārs of five Samitis, nine of three Guptis and
five Aticārs of Sanlekhana. Aticārs are part of the process of pratikamaṇ.
A true Jain is supposed to practice Pratikamaṇ minimum for 48 minutes twice a day.
One is „Devasi Pratikamaṇ‟, which is practiced in the evening after sunset for the
purification of sins committed during the day and the other one is „Rāi Pratikamaṇ‟
being practiced in the morning before sunrise for the purification of sins committed
during the night knowingly or unknowingly. There are also bi-weekly (Pakhhi or
Pākśik), quarterly (Chaturmāsiya or Chāturmasik) and the prime one and the annual
(Samvatsarik) Pratikamaṇ which is must for any Jain. So, one can practice any of
the later ones if one cannot do it daily. It is a unique art of contemplation, reverence
and repentance. It is called as lifeline of Jain sādhanā, which sets equilibrium and
makes one introvert. It fills up the gaps or holes on the path of our spiritual practices
removing despair and lazyness. Being the prime practice, the practice of Āvaṡyakas
is also termed as Pratikamaṇ sādhanā. One should continuously improve in attitude
and intentions after each pratikamaṇ.
5. Kāyotsarga- „Kāyā‟ is body and „utsarga‟ is getting detached from. It is
renouncing attachments to the body, its activities and tuning with oneself to attain
Dharmadhyāna and Shukladhyāna.538 The practice of standing or sitting motionless
and meditating is for the non-attachments to the body and liberation from past and
present sins. In Kayostarga, we forget our body by getting detached with increased
awareness towards each and every part of our body, mind and emotions as much as
possible so that we can concentrate on the soul and experience that the soul and the
body are two separate entities. By taking us inward, we get healed and lighter. It
washes our past karma, mainly the faults. One of the meanings of Kayotsarga
according to reply given by Lord Mahāvīra in Uttarādhyāyana is repentance of all
sinful activities done in past or present, knowingly or unknowingly. According to

538
Avashyaksūtra, Shri Akhil Bharatiya Sudharma Jain Sanskriti Rakshak Sangh, Jodhpur, 2007, p.3
 285

Anuyogdvār sūtra, kayotsarga is „vruna cikitsā‟ meaning treating a wound of our

body in the form of atichār (faults in following vruttas). It destroys previous karma,
whereas the next Āvaśyak prevents accumulation of new karma.
6. Pratyākhyāna - प्रतत+आ+आख्यान = Resolves or vows taken in advance against

all adverse attachments. It is also called as Pachchhakhaṇ (ऩर्चछतखाण) in Prakrut,

which is the practice of total purification of the soul, for the benefit of future. It stops
karma which is āsrava. The name of process is Aticār. Here, after purification by
repentance for all sins; one takes religious vows according to one‟s capabilities
renouncing certain activities and certain foods for a set period of time to discipline
his own self. The Śrāvaks (disciples) take partial vows and ascetics take the great
vows. Ten types of Pratyākhyāna are mentioned in the scripture539 depending on the
level and intensity of austerities, and time of taking and period vow. One of the
examples of Pratyākhyāna is „Ekāsaṇa‟ which means deciding to take meal only
once in the whole day including both the nights (previous and next) or eating once
only in one āsana/sitting.
This practice in this sequence is for self purification. Lord Mahāvīra explains it as,
“Pratyākhyāna closes the doors of āśrava, influx of new karma. It prevents future
faults, sins and controls desires. Finally, we start developing detached attitude with
regular practice of Pratyākhyāna and stays in great peace.”540
Essential observances541 of Digambar tradition which are given below differ mainly
in names from above which are in Swetāmbar tradition.
1. Devpujā: To pray and appreciate the qualities of all Tirthankars.
2. Gurupasti: Devotion and service to Guru, monk.
3. Svādhyāya: Studying scriptures
4. Samyama: Total self discipline.

539
Ibid, pp.127-28
540
Ibid, p.127
541
Madhukar Muni, Aavashyak Sūtra, tr. Siddhantacharya Sadhvi, Suprabha, Shri Agam Samiti,
Beawar (Rajasthan),1994, p. 12
 286

5. Tapa: Austerities in the form of Pratikaman, Pratyakhan and Kayotsarga.

6. Dāna: Charity
Jain ethics is meant for all men and women in every walk of life. Contemplation of
the soul is the main part of Jainism, which include thinking, analyzing and
meditating as a part of right conduct.
The rituals are interwoven in the daily life of a pious Jain. Going to the temple and
Upāṡray, listening to Guru, practicing vows, giving alms to sādhu and sādhvis,
performing Sāmāyik and Pratikamana for equanimity and introspection, practicing
non-violence, carrying out charitable acts, living honest life and many similar acts
constitute the daily rituals of a Jain. Ten rituals of the temple which Swetamber Jain
follow in their daily routine promoting towards spirituality, called as “Das-trika” are
as under542:
1. Nissihi: It means renunciation or giving up. It is pronounced three times while
visiting to a Jain temple for darśana of a Tirthankar. Once, while entering into the
temple indicates leaving worldly thoughts outside the temple, second time while
entering into the room of Jin idol sanctum (Gabhāro) and then, after finishing
worship with various substances called “Dravya-Pujā” and at the beginning of
internal devotional worship “Bhāv-Pujā” as mentioned below in fourth ritual.
2. Pradakshinā (Circumambulation): Three rounds are taken around the main
idol in the temple on the right side reflecting on Triratnas of Jainism, which are right
faith, conduct and knowledge. This is done just to remember three remedies to
overcome attachment and hatred, finally to attain liberation.
3. Pranām: Salutation is done three times while visiting a temple, first when you
see the top of the temple (shikhar) or the idol, then, when you enter the sanctum
looking at the idol and third time, while touching the ground with five parts of the
body, the posture called as khamāsaman.

542
Jain Philosophy and Practice-1, The Federation of Jain Associations in North America, 2002, pp.
32-42
 287

4. Pūjā (Worship): Swetamber jains do puja in three ways, the first two called as
Anga pujā and Agra pujā together is called Astaprakāri Pujā (eight-fold worship or
Dravya-pujā) and the third one is Bhāv puja. as mentioned below:
i. Anga pūjā: Anoiting different parts of the idol a) with water called “Jal-pujā”
to wash out our karmas, b) with saffron or sandalwood paste called “kesar-pujā” to
achieve same tranquility in our soul as it is on idol‟s face and then, c) with flower
(ful-pujā) to have full love and compassion.
ii. Agra pūjā: Placing incense (dhoop), lamp (dipak), rice (akṡat), fruit (fal) and
sweets (naivedhya) infront of the idol.
iii. Bhāv pūjā includes Chaityavandan, a combination of Prayer and Meditation.
When one praizes the Tīrthaṅkara from bottom of heart, one gets the right
knowledge and vision, thoughts and soul get purified, gets inspired to become like
him and one acquires a supreme meditative state543.
5. Avasthā Chintan: This is contemplation on different forms of Arihanta,
mainly three forms:
a) Pindastha, which is ordinary embodied soul of Arihanta. It includes Janmāvastha,
Rajyavastha and Shramanāvastha (state of birth, kingdom and laymanship of his
life)
b) Pādastha: This is Omniscient embodied soul. Here we have 34 Atiṡayas of
Arihanta to be contemplated upon. They are super specialties expounding the
immortal doctrines like Anekantvād, Syādvād and Nay.
c) Rupatita is the state of liberated soul.
6. Dishātyag: During practice of Chaityavandan as mentioned above in 4.iii), we
are not supposed to look anywhere, in any direction other than Jin‟s idol.
7. Pramārjana: Before using the floor of the temple or the place of meditation,
the ground should be cleaned properly without hurting any insect or worm.
8. Ālambana: It is a support to our sādhanā or practice. Visualize image of the
Lord while chanting sūtras or stutis with their meaning.

543
“Look n Learn”, Jain fortnightly magazine, dt.25/09/2013, Parasdham, Mumbai, p.7
 288

9. Mudrā or Posture: Adopt Yoga mudrā, Mukta-Shukti mudrā, Jin-Mudrā or

Kāyotsarga.
10. Praṇidhāna: Remain focused or with meditative mind in Bhāv-Pujā
(Chaityavandan).
All these practices are performed simply to strengthen internal devotional thought
process. In Digambar Jain traditions, similar practices are being followed as of
Swetambars, while going to the temple including Pujā, Abhisheka, and Ārti.

VII. Celebrations/ Festivals, Prayers and Prime symbol in Jain traditions:

Most of the Jain festivals, Prayers and symbols are religious and based on the
fundamental principles of Agamas. Some auspicious days are remembered and
celebrated to get inspired from the life-scatches of Tirthankars and their virtues.
Some of them are briefly mentioned here.
1. Mahāvīra Jayanti: It is celebration of birthday of Lord Mahāvīra (Janma-
Kalyānaka). It falls on 13th day of bright half of the month Chaitra, on which he was
born. This sacred event and virtues are meditated upon on this day with Ratha-yātrā
with the idol of Lord Mahāvīra.
2. Diwali Festival: It is celebrated as anniversary of the attainment of Mokṡa
(Nirvāna) Mahāvīra on the last day of month Ashwin. He commenced his last
sermon, the final discourse known as „Uttarādhayan‟, which lasted for 72 hours,
until the night of Diwali. 18 kings of Northern India, present there, decided that light
of their master‟s knowledge should kept alive symbolically by lighting lamps and
celebrated as Deepāvali (Deep is lamp and avali is series). This was just an external
approach. The true Jain should light up internal lamp; awaken the inner vision by
practicing the path preached by Lord Mahāvīra. Like clay bowl, oil and cotton wick
in the Diwali lamp, inner lamp needs right faith, right knowledge and right conduct.
Some aspirants observe two days fast as Lord Mahāvīra had observed. Some recite
Mantras. Thus, Diwali is for enhancing the spiritual wealth.
The pure knowledge is worshipped on fifth day of New Year as “Jnāna panchami”.
The scriptures which impart knowledge are worshipped with religious devotion.
Svādhyāya, meditation and Sāmāyika are practiced on this day. Even a student prays
 289

that let this knowledge, which he or she is acquiring take him to pure and divine
knowledge, Samyak Jnāna.
3. Navpad Oli: Semi fasting called as „Āyambil‟ is observed on consecutive nine
days, twice a year during Chaitra (March/April) and Ashwin (September/October).
Food without any spices, oil, sugar, salt, vegetables and milk is consumed once in 24
hours and meditated upon Panch-parmeshti, Jnān, Darśana, Cāritra and Tapa,
collectively known as Navpad.
4. Maun Agiyāras: Normally, it falls on 11th day of bright half of Māgsirsa
(November/December). Jains observe fast with total silence. Here, inner awareness
gets expanded towards spirituality. Meditation is done towards Tirthankaras, whose
various auspicious life events (Kalyānakas) fall on this particular day.
5. Paryushana: The most important annual festival in Jainism to wash our all
karmas accumulated throughout the year is Paryuṣana. It is celebrated during
August/September in Cāturmās (monsoon) for eight days. Paryuṣana means burning
of all types of karmas: Pari (all kinds) + Uṣan (to burn). For this purpose, twelve
types of austerities like Svādhyāya and Meditation are mentioned in the scriptures to
stay closer to our own soul and to suppress our passions like anger, ego and greed.
Regular ceremonies in the temple or Upāsraya include seventeen sessions of
Pratikamaṇa (meditation), discourses on the Holy Scripture “Kalpasūtra” containing
detailed account of lord Mahāvīra‟s life in addition to other Tirthankars. The reading
explaining the meanings is done by monk. The scripture prescribe five essential
activities during this festival for all common people. These are:
a) Amāri parivartana to spread the message of non-violence
b) Attham Tapa is fasting for consecutive three days
c) Caitya Paripāti is visiting different temples and offer prayers in a group
d) Swāmi Vatsalya is honoring and respecting fellow Jains
e) Kṡamapana is the biggest jewel of Jainism. All followers extend and seek
forgiveness from all including non-Jains during annual meditation. They chant in
each meditation: “Khāmemi Savva jīva, savve jīva khamantu me
Mitti me savva bhuesu, veram majjham na kenai”.
 290

It means “I forgive all the living beings of the universe. May all the living beings
forgive me for my faults! I don‟t have any animosity towards anybody and have
friendship for all.”
This process of forgiveness (Michchhāmi Dukkadam) from bottom of the heart
eliminates hatred and brings humility.
Jain Prayers
Jain followers sincerely believe in true Jinas and Tirthankaras, the perfect beings and
omniscients. They are considered and worshiped as Gods by all followers, who
always make attempts to adopt all possible characteristics. The prime prayer is
Navkār mantra, which is भाव-द्रव्य नमस्कार (two types, two fold physical and mental

let go or obeisance) consists of nine padas, hence Navkar. For these nine padas of
Navkar and meanings, please refer to Appendix-II page no. 349-350.
In short, this five fold obeisance is destroyer of all the vices and so among all the
types and is the foremost among all the auspiciousness. Apart from Navkār mantra,
all other prayers (stūtis) are to adore the virtues of Tirthankars and request for grace
to show the path to liberation. One of them, Bhaktamar Stotra544 is a famous
Sanskrit prayer. It was composed by Ācārya Manatunga (7th century CE). The name
Bhaktamara comes from a combination of two Sanskrit names, "Bhakta" (Devotee)
and "Amar" (Immortal). It is an appraisal of virtues of the first Tīrthaṅkara Adinath.
There are forty-eight verses in total.
Significance of the prime Symbol of Jainism:
The Jain symbol is an arrangement of various spiritual symbols, each having a
significant meaning. This symbol was adopted by all sects of Jainism during 1975
while commemorating the 2500th anniversary of the nirvāna of Lord Mahāvīra.
The outline of the symbol represents the shape of the universe – Loka. The lower
part of the symbol indicates the seven hells (Nāraki), middle part of the universe
contains the Earth and the planets (Manushya-Loka). The upper part contains the
heavenly abodes (Deva-Loka) of all the celestial beings and abode of the Siddhas
(Siddhashilā). The palm or hand facing upward direction indicates us to stop for a

544
http:/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhaktamar Stotra (Retrieved on 17.07.2016)
 291

minute and think twice before doing anything to check if we are not hurting anybody
directly or indirectly by encouraging others by our thoughts, actions or words. This
non-violence is the prime principle of Jainism. The wheel inside the hands indicates
that if we carry on violent activities, then just like the wheel we will go round and
round through the cycles of birth and death.

The four arms of cross (Svastika) suggest us that during the cycles of birth and death,
we may be born into any one of the four realms: heavenly beings, human beings,
animal beings (Tiryanch-gati) inclusive of birds, insects, plants and the fourth hellish
or infernal beings. Our ultimate aim should be liberation and not the rebirth. One of
these four pillars of the four folds Jain Sangha also represented by the same Svastik
provides an opportunity for liberation, first by becoming true śrāvaka or śrāvikā and
then, after overcoming all social attachments, one should renounce worldly life and
follow the path of Sādhu (monk) or Sādhvi (nun) to be liberated. The four arms are
 292

also representative of Dāna (charity), Sheel (virtue), Tapa (austerities) and Bhāva
(noble thoughts/attitude).
The three dots above the Swastika represent the three jewels of Jainism through
which one has to follow the path of liberation as mentioned earlier. They are Samyak
Darśana (Right Faith), Samyak Jnān (Right Knowledge) and Samyak Chāritra
(Right Conduct).
The top part known as „Siddha-Shilā‟ is a small crescent representing the abode of
Siddhas, the final resting place of liberated souls. The text underneath the symbol,
“Parasparopagraho jīvanam” translates as “Living beings (souls) render services to
one another545.

*******

545
Jain Philosophy and Practice, JAINA Education Committee, North America. (2002), p.44