SCHEDULING

Scheduling refers to establishing the timing of the use of specific resources for an
organization. It relates to the use of equipment, facilities, and human activities.

Scheduling occurs in every organization, regardless of the nature of its activities.

For example, manufacturers must schedule, workers, machines and materials. A
university must schedule classrooms, teachers, and students.

In the decision-making process, scheduling decisions are the final step in the
transformation process before actual output occurs. Which means, Scheduling
decisions are made quite late when decisions about product design, process design,
facilities, capacity and layouts are already settled. Therefore, scheduling decisions
must be made within the constraints established by many previous decisions.

SCHEDULING OPERATIONS
Scheduling tasks are largely a function of the volume of system output. High-
volume systems require approaches substantially different from those required by
job shops In this chapter, we will consider scheduling for high-volume systems,
intermediate-volume systems, and low-volume (job shop) scheduling.

Scheduling in High-Volume Systems

High-volume systems are characterized by standardized equipment and activities
that provide identical or highly similar operations. The objective is to obtain a
smooth rate of flow of goods or customers through the system. High-volume
systems, are referred to as flow systems. Scheduling in these systems is referred to
as flow-shop scheduling.

It is related to continuous or semi-continuous processing. Examples of such systems

are waste treatment, bottles or cans productions, oil refining and for servicing
businesses, cafeteria lines and new broadcasting are its examples.

A major aspect in the design of flow systems is line balancing, which concerns
allocating the required tasks to workstations. Because of the highly repetitive nature
of these systems, many of the loading and sequence decisions are
determined during the design of the system.

These work systems are highly characterized by high levels of work specialization.
Complicated tasks are divided into small, narrow and repetitive jobs. It may also
create a notion of boredom among the works as a side effect.

Despite all these features that boost productivity, some problems are also associated
with high-volume systems. For example, due to high levels of standardizations,
these systems are devoted to production of only one kind of product or service.
Therefore, the systems are characterized by lack of variety in output. Similarly,
since the production is in a continuous flow, any disruption in one part of the
system can easily stop the complete production. Shutdown and Startup costs for
these systems are very high. Consequently, the following factors often determine
the success of such a system:

1. Process and product design. Here, cost and manufacturability are important,
as is achieving a smooth flow through the system.
2. Preventive maintenance. Keeping equipment in good operating order can
minimize breakdowns that would disrupt the flow of work.
3. Rapid repair when breakdowns occur. This can require specialists as well as
stocks of critical spare parts.
4. Optimal product mixes. Techniques must be developed to keep the system
running the scheduling rights products on right time.
5. Minimization of quality problems. Quality inspection can be extremely
disruptive, requiring shutdowns while problems are resolved. This should
be minimized by process control (Studied in previous chapter).
6. Reliability and timing of supplies. Shortages of supplies are an obvious
source of disruption and must be avoided. On the other hand, if the solution
is to stockpile supplies, that can lead to high carrying costs. Shortening
supply lead times, developing reliable supply schedules, and carefully
projecting needs are all useful.

Scheduling in Intermediate-Volume Systems

Intermediate-volume system outputs fall between the high-volume standardized,
continuous processing and low-volume, customized, made-to-order output of job
shops.

Like the high-volume systems, intermediate-volume systems typically produce

standard outputs. However, the volume of output in such cases is not large enough
to match continuous production. Instead, it is more economical to process these
items in intermittent processing
.
However, in order to be productive in intermediate-volume systems, companies are
working to reduce setup times to experience less downtime for equipment
changeover. This will help to avoid the disadvantages of high-volume systems.

The three basic issues in these systems are the run size of jobs, the timing of jobs, and
the sequence in which jobs should be processed.
M10_SLAC0460_06_SE_C10.QXD 10/20/09 9:33 Page 286

Scheduling in Low-Volume Systems :

The characteristics of low-volume systems (job shops) are considerably different
from those of high- and intermediate-volume systems. Different products are made
286 Part Threedifferently
Planning andfor each order according to different customer requirements. Therefore,
control

it is almost impossible to establish

Table 10.4 Advantages a standardized
of forward and schedule.
backward scheduling

Advantages of forward scheduling Advantages of backward scheduling

There areHigh
two basic
labour critical
utilization issues in scheduling
– workers Lower material Low-Volume
costs – materials are systems;
not used until 1. Loading
always start work to keep busy they have to be, therefore delaying added value until
and 2. Sequencing. the last moment
Flexible – the time slack in the system Less exposed to risk in case of schedule change by
1. Loading:
allows unexpected work to be loaded the customer
Tends to focus the operation on customer due dates
Loading decisions involve assigning specific jobs to work centers and to various
machinesGantt
in the work centers.
charts
The most common method of scheduling is by use of the Gantt chart. This is a simple device
which
Scheduling represents more
becomes time as acomplicated
bar, or channel, on a chart.
when two Often
orthe chartsjobs
more themselves
are toarebe
madeprocessed
up of long plastic channels into which coloured pieces of paper can be slotted to indicate
and therewhat
areis ahappening
number of work centers capable of performing the required work.
with a job or a work centre. The start and finish times for activities can
Gantt Charts and Load
be indicated on the Charts
chart andare used for
sometimes the this
actualpurpose.
progress of the job is also indicated.
The advantages of Gantt charts are that they provide a simple visual representation both of
what should be happening and of what actually is happening in the operation. Furthermore,
Gantt Chart:
they can be used to ‘test out’ alternative schedules. It is a relatively simple task to represent
The mostalternative
common method
schedules (evenofif itscheduling is by task
is a far from simple usetooffind
the Gantt which
a schedule chart.fitsThese
all were
the resources satisfactorily). Figure 10.10 illustrates a Gantt chart
developed by Henry Gantt in early 1900s. It is a visual representation of time and for a specialist software
developer. It indicates the progress of several jobs as they are expected to progress through
activitiesfive
instages
the ofform of bars. Traditionally, these were made up of long plastic
the process. Gantt charts are not an optimizing tool, they merely facilitate the
channelsdevelopment
into which coloredschedules
of alternative pieces by ofcommunicating
paper can be themslotted to indicate jobs at each
effectively.
work center. But now softwares are used for this purpose. Following is an example.

Figure 10.10 Gantt chart showing the schedule for jobs at each process stage
Load Charts:
Gantt charts are most helpful when the
which hasobjective is to For
gone into its making. schedule various
example, take a activities
Short case
across time. However, in those jobs where the objective is to schedule the work
chicken salad sandwich. Less than 5 days ago, the
The life and times of a chicken chicken was on the farm unaware that it would never
loads of workers or staff, load charts
seeare used. It isTheanGantt
assignment
chart schedule method to assign
salad sandwich – part one7 another weekend. shown
job or tasks to resources. in Figure 10.11 tells the story of the sandwich, and
(posthumously), of the chicken.
Pre-packed sandwiches are a growth product around the From the forecast, orders for non-perishable items are
world asThe mainputtask
consumers of scheduling,
convenience therefore,
and speed above placed forisgoods
to make
to arrive sure
up to a that
week insufficient
advance of numbers of
relaxation and cost. But if you have recently consumed a their use. Orders for perishable items will be placed daily,
people are working at any point ina day
pre-packed sandwich, think about the schedule of events
time to provide a capacity appropriate for the
or two before the items are required. Tomatoes,
level of demand at that point in time. This is also called staff rostering. An example
can be seen on next page.
 consecutive days off every week;
● vacation and other ‘time-off’ blocks are accommodated;
● sufficient flexibility is built into the schedule to cover for unexpected changes in supply
(staff illness) and demand (surge in customer calls).

Figure 10.13 Shift scheduling in a home-banking enquiry service

2. Sequencing:
Although loading decisions determine the machines or work centers that will be
used to process specific jobs, they do not indicate the order in which the jobs waiting
at a given work center are to be processed. Sequencing is concerned with determining
job processing order.

Sequencing decisions determine both;

i. the order in which jobs are processed at various work centers
ii. the order in which jobs are processed at individual workstations within the
work centers.
Work centers are lightly loaded if the all jobs require same time for processing.
They are heavily loaded if each job requires different times. In the later case, order
of the jobs is very important. Operations managers usually develop certain priority
rules to decide about the order or jobs. Some of the most common priority rules are
as following.

o First come, first served: Jobs that arrive at a work station first are processed first.
o Shortest processing time: Jobs with shortest processing time are processed first.
Then it goes on in an ascending order.
o Earliest due date: Jobs with earliest due date are processed first.
o Critical ratio: Jobs are processed according to smallest ratio of time remaining
until due date to processing time remaining.
o Slack per operation: Jobs are processed according to average slack time.
o Rush: Emergency or preferred customers first.

Shortest processing time is generally the best technique for minimizing job flow and
minimizing the average number of jobs in the system. Its chief disadvantage is that
long-duration jobs may be continuously pushed back in priority in favor of short-
duration jobs.

First come first served does not score well on most criteria ( but neither does it score
particularly poor). It has the advantage, however of appearing fair to the customers,
which is important in service systems.
Earliest due date minimizes tardiness, which may be necessary for jobs that have a
very heavy penalty after a certain date.

If these priority rules are developed only for a specific workstation, they are known
as local priority rules. However, if the rules apply to all the workstations, they are
known as global priority rules.
.
FORWARD AND BACKWARD SCHEDULING
Forward scheduling involves starting work as soon as it arrives. Backward
scheduling involves starting jobs at the last possible moment to prevent them from
being late.

For example, assume that it takes six hours for a laundry to wash, dry and press a
batch of coats. If the coats are collected at 8.00 am and is due to be picked up at 4.00
pm, there are more than six hours available to do it. Following table shows the
different start times of each job, depending on whether they are forward or
backward-scheduled.

Task% Duration% Start%Time%(Forward)% Start%Time%(Backward)%

Wash% 3"Hour" 8:00"am" 10:00"am"
Dry% 2"Hour" 11:00"am" 1:00"pm"
Press% 1"Hour" 1:00"pm" 3:"00"pm"

Advantages of Forward scheduling are 1. High Labor Utilization; labor is highly

utilized because workers always start work to keep busy and 2. Flexibility; the time
slack in the system allows unexpected work to be loaded.

Advantages of Backward scheduling are 1. Lower material costs – materials are not
used until they have to be, therefore delaying added value until the last moment.
And 2. Less exposed to risk in case of schedule change by the customer

SCHEDULING CRITERIA
The correct scheduling technique depends on the volume of orders, the nature of
operations, and the overall complexity of the jobs, as well as the importance placed
on each of four criteria. These four criteria are:

1. Minimize completion time: This criterion is evaluated by determining the

average completion time per job
2. Maximize utilization: This is evaluated by determining the percent of the
time the facility is utilized.
3. Minimize work-in-process (WIP) inventory: This is evaluated by
determining the average number of jobs in the system. The relationship
between the number of jobs in the system and WIP inventory will be high.
4. Minimize customer waiting time: This is evaluated by determining the
average number late days.
 Johnson’s rule:
Johnson’s rule applies to the sequencing of n jobs through two work centres.
Following figure illustrates its use. In this case, a printer has to print and bind six
jobs. The times for processing each job are shown in the figure. The rule is simple.
First look for the smallest processing time. If that time is associated with the first
work centre (printing in this case) then schedule that job first, or as near first as
possible. If the next smallest time is associated with the second work centre then
0_SLAC0460_06_SE_C10.QXD 10/20/09 9:33 Page 284
sequence that job last or as near last as possible. Carry on with this, go from
smallest time to longest time, all jobs related to first work centre are scheduled near
first in the timeline, jobs related to second work center are scheduled towards the
end of timline.
284 Part Three Planning and control
An example can be seen in the following figure.

Figure 10.9 The application of Johnson’s rule for scheduling n jobs through two work
centres
DRUM, BUFFER, ROPE CONCEPT
The drum, buffer, rope concept comes from the theory of constraints (TOC). It is
Johnson’s rule5
an idea that helps to decide exactly where in a process control should occur. Most
Johnson’s rule Johnson’s rule applies to the sequencing of n jobs through two work centres. Figure 10.9
processes do not have the same amount of work loaded to each separate work
illustrates its use. In this case, a printer has to print and bind six jobs. The times for process-
centre (that
ing each is,job
they are the
through notfirstperfectly
(printing)balanced). This means
and second (binding) thereareis shown
work centres likelyinto be a
part of the process
the figure. The which is acting
rule is simple. First as a bottleneck
look for the smallest onprocessing
the work flowing
time. through
If that time is the
process.associated
Goldratt withargued that centre
the first work the bottleneck
(printing in thisin case)
the then
process should
schedule that jobbefirst,
theor control
point ofasthe
nearwhole
first as possible.
process. If the
It isnext smallest
called thetime
drum is associated
becausewith the second
it sets work centre
the ‘beat’ for the rest
then sequence that job last or as near last as possible. Once a job has been sequenced, delete
of the process to follow. Because it does not have sufficient capacity, a bottleneck is
it from the list. Carry on allocating jobs until the list is complete. In this particular case,
(or should
the smallestworking
be) all the
processing time time. Therefore,
is 35 minutes for printing jobitB.isBecause
sensible
this isto keep
at the a buffer of
first pro-
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cess in front job
(printing), of Bitis to make
assigned firstsure that
position it always
in the hasnext
schedule. The something to work on.
smallest processing
Becausetime
it limits the output
is 40 minutes of the
for binding (jobwhole process,
D). Because any
this is at the time
secondlost at the
process bottleneck
(binding), it is will
sequenced last. The next lowest processing time, after jobs B
affect the output from the whole process. So parts of the process before bottleneck and D have been struck off the
list, is 46 minutes for binding job A. Because this is at the second work centre, it is sequenced
do not aswork at as
near last full capacity.
possible, which inThey produce
this case onlyprocess
is fifth. This that continues
work which until allistherequired
jobs at
bottleneck point. It is illustrated in following figure.
have been sequenced. It results in a schedule for the two processes which is also shown in
Figure 10.9.

Scheduling
Having determined the sequence that work is to be tackled in, some operations require
a detailed timetable showing at what time or date jobs should start and when they should end
 Chapter 10 The nature of planning and control 291

Figure 10.16 The drum, buffer, rope concept

Bottlenecks: An operation that limits output in the production sequence
Therefore, some form of communication between the bottleneck and the input to the process
Drum: Is the beat of the system. It provides the schedule – the pace of
is needed to make sure that activities before the bottleneck do not overproduce. This is called
production.
the rope (see Figure 10.16).

Buffer: The buffer is the resource, usually the inventory, necessary to keep the
Critical
constraints commentary
operating at capacity.
Most of the perspectives on control taken in this chapter are simplifications of a far more
Rope:messy
It provides the
reality. They aresynchronization necessary
based on models used tomechanical
to understand pull the systems
units through
such as the
system.
car The rope
engines. Butcan be who
anyone thought of asinkanban
has worked signals.knows that organizations
real organizations
are not machines. They are social systems, full of complex and ambiguous interactions.
Simple models such as these assume that operations objectives are always clear and
agreed, yet organizations are political entities where different and often conflicting objectives
compete. Local government operations, for example, are overtly political. Furthermore,
the outputs from operations are not always easily measured. A university may be able to
measure the number and qualifications of its students, for example, but it cannot measure
the full impact of its education on their future happiness. Also, even if it is possible to
work out an appropriate intervention to bring an operation back into ‘control’, most
operations cannot perfectly predict what effect the intervention will have. Even the largest
of burger bar chains does not know exactly how a new shift allocation system will affect
performance. Also, some operations never do the same thing more than once anyway.
Most of the work done by construction operations is one-offs. If every output is different,
how can ‘controllers’ ever know what is supposed to happen? Their plans themselves are
mere speculation.

The degree of difficulty in controlling operations

The simple monitoring control model in Figure 10.15 helps us to understand the basic func-
tions of the monitoring and control activity. But, as the critical commentary box says, it is
a simplification. Some simple technology-dominated processes may approximate to it, but
many other operations do not. In fact, the specific criticisms cited in the critical commentary
box provide a useful set of questions which can be used to assess the degree of difficulty
associated with control of any operation:9
● Is there consensus over what the operation’s objectives should be?
● How well can the output from the operation be measured?
● Are the effects of interventions into the operation predictable?
● Are the operation’s activities largely repetitive?
Figure 10.17 illustrates how these four questions can form dimensions of ‘controllability’.
It shows three different operations. The food processing operation is relatively straightforward
to control, while the child care service is particularly difficult. The tax advice service is some-
where in between.
ADDITIONAL MATERIAL
Scheduling Process Focused Facilities.
Process-focused facilities (also known as intermittent or job-shop facilities) are high-
variety, low-volume systems commonly found in manufacturing and service
organizations.
1. Process-focused facilities (job shops): The scheduling focus is on generating a
forward-looking schedule that is initially achieved with MRP due dates and
refined with the finite capacity scheduling techniques.
2. Material Requirements Planning (MRP): A dependant demand technique
that uses a bill-of-material, inventory, expected receipts and a master
production schedule to determine material requirements.
3. Dependant Demand: Dependant demand means that the demand for one
item is related to the demand for another item.
4. Work cells (focused facilities that process families of similar components):
The scheduling focus is on generating a forward-looking schedule. MRP
generates due dates and subsequent detail scheduling/dispatching is done at
the work cell with Kanbans.
5. Repetitive facilities (assembly lines): The scheduling focus is on generating a
forward-looking schedule that is achieved by balancing the line with
traditional assembly-line techniques such as pull techniques, JIT technique
and Kanban.
6. Product-focused facilities (continuous): These facilities produce very high
volume and limited variety products. Scheduling generates a forward-
looking schedule that can meet a reasonably stable demand with the existing
fixed capacity. Since the capacity in such facilities is usually limited by long-
term capital investment so this makes facility rather straightforward.