Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Module 1
Analytic Functions
Dr. T. Phaneendra
f (z)− f (0) x
L= z−0 = x+iy ·
Along the real axis, y = 0 and x → 0 as z → 0. Thus L = x/x = 1, while along the
imaginary axis, x = 0 and y → 0 as z → 0. Thus L = x/iy = 0. That is, L is different
along different paths of approach as z → 0. Therefore, f 0 (0) does not exist, and f is
not differentiable at z = 0.
Cauchy-Riemann equations
Theorem 1.1. Consider f (z) = u(z) + iv(z) and z0 = (x0 , y0 ). If f 0 (z0 ) exists, then
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
= and =− at (x0 , y0 ). (1.1)
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
Then
x3 −0
∂u
lim u(x,0)−u(0,0)
∂ x (0, 0) = x→0 x−0 = lim 1x x2 +0
= 1.
x→0
∂u ∂v ∂v
Similarly, ∂ y (0, 0) = 0, ∂ x = 0 and ∂ y (0, 0) = 1. Thus the Cauchy-Riemann equations
hold good at the origin. Write
(1−im) 2
Along the line y = mx: z = (1 + im)x and L = (1+im) 2 · Thus L is different for different
Exercise 1.2. Show that each of the following functions f (z) satisfies the Cauchy
Riemann equations at the origin, but f 0 (0) does not exist:
2
xy (x + iy) , z 6= 0
(a) f (z) = x2 + y4
0, z=0
2 5
x y (x + iy) , z 6= 0
(b) f (z) = x4 + y10
0, z=0
3
x y(y − ix) , z 6= 0
(c) f (z) = x6 + y2
0, z=0
3 3
3 3
x − y + i x + y , z 6= 0
(d) f (z) = x2 + y2 x2 + y2
0, z=0
xy
2 + y2
, z 6= 0
(e) f (z) = x
0, z=0
3 2
x y
, z 6= 0
( f ) f (z) = (x2 + y2 )2
0, z=0
Theorem 1.2. Consider f (z) = u(z) + iv(z) and z0 = (x0 , y0 ) ∈ C. Suppose that
∂u ∂u ∂v ∂v
(a) the partial derivatives ∂x , ∂y , ∂x and ∂y are continuous at (x0 , y0 ), and
∂u ∂v ∂u
(b) satisfy the Cauchy-Riemann equations: ∂x = ∂y and ∂y = − ∂∂ xv .
f 0 (z0 ) = ∂u ∂v
∂ x (x0 , y0 ) + i ∂ x (x0 , y0 ). (1.2)
1 ∂v ∂v ∂u
∂u
∂r = r ∂θ , ∂r = − 1r, and (1.3)
∂θ
f 0 (z) = (cos θ − i sin θ ) ∂∂ ur + i ∂∂ vr = cos θ −i sin θ
r
∂v
∂θ − i ∂∂ θu (1.4)
Example 1.4. Using the polar Cauchy-Riemann equations, let us find the derivative
of f (z) = zn , where n ≥ 2 at z 6= 0.
n−1
∂u
∂ r = nr cos nθ , ∂∂ θu = −nrn sin nθ
n−1
∂v
∂ r = nr sin nθ , ∂∂θv = nrn cos nθ .
We find that
f 0 (z) = cos θ −i sin θ
r
∂v
∂θ − i ∂∂ θu
cos θ −i sin θ
= r (nrn cos nθ + inrn sin nθ )
n−1
= nr [(cos nθ cos θ + sin nθ sin θ ) + i (sin nθ cos θ − cos nθ sin θ )]
n−1
= nr [cos(n − 1)θ + i sin(n − 1)θ ]
= nrn−1 ei(n−1)θ = nzn−1 , z 6= 0.
Analytic Function
Solution. We have
∂u ∂u ∂v
so that u = ex cos y and v = ex sin y. Then ∂x = ex cos y, ∂y = −ex sin y, ∂x = ex sin y,
∂v
∂y = ex cos y. Thus at every point z = (x, y) the Cauchy-Reimann equations (1.1) hold
good. Also, these first order partial derivatives are known to be continuous in the
entire complex plane. Thus, by Theorem 1.2, f = u + iv is analytic throughout the
complex plane and hence entire.
Example 1.6. The trigonometric sine f (z) = sin z is analytic in the entire complex
plane
Solution. We have
∂u ∂u
so that u = sin x cosh y and v = cos x sinh y. Then ∂x = cos x cosh y, ∂y = sin x sinh y,
∂v ∂v
∂x = − sin x sinh y, ∂y = cos x cosh y. Thus at every point z = (x, y) the Cauchy-Reimann
equations (1.1) hold good. Also, these first order partial derivatives are known to be
continuous in the entire complex plane. Thus, by Theorem 1.2, f = u + iv is analytic
throughout the complex plane. Also,
∂u ∂v
f 0 (z) = +i = cos x cosh y + i [− sin x sinh y]
∂x ∂x
= cos x cos(iy) − sin x sin(iy) = cos(x + iy) = cos z
Solution. We have
2 −y2 2 −y2
so that u = ex cos 2xy and v = ex sin 2xy are real and imaginary parts of f . Since
f is a composition of the entire functions ez and z2 , it will also be analytic, and by the
chain rule of differentiation, we have
2 2 2
f 0 (z) = d
dz ez = ez (2z) = 2zez
z
Example 1.9. Identify the real and imaginary parts of f (z) = ee , and hence show
that f is everywhere differentiable
z x cos y x cos y
We see that ee = ee [cos(ex sin y)+i sin(ex sin y)] = u+iv, so that u = ee cos(ex sin y)
x cos y z
and v = ee sin(ex sin y), and f 0 (z) = ez ee
Example 1.10. Show that f (z) = e1/z is analytic at all z 6= 0, and hence find its deriva-
tive
2 +y2 )
h i 2 2
y y y
For z 6= 0, e1/z = ex/(x cos x2 +y2 − i sin x2 +y2 = u+iv so that u = ex/(x +y ) cos x2 +y 2
2 +y2 )
y
and v = −ex/(x sin x2 +y2
so that real and imaginary parts of F are u(r, θ ) = log r and v(r, θ ) = θ respectively.
We find that
∂u
∂r = 1r , ∂∂ θu = 0, ∂∂ vr = 0, ∂∂θv = 1.
Thus u and v satisfy the Cauchy-Reimann equations (1.3). Since u, v and their first
partial derivatives are continuous at all points z = x + iy ∈ C in the domain (1.7), it
follows that F is analytic in this domain. Also, the derivative of F is given by
f 0 (z) = (cos θ − i sin θ ) ∂u
+ i ∂∂ vr = e−iθ 1
+ i.0 = 1/reiθ = 1/z
∂r r
Exercise 1.3. Identify the real and imaginary parts of f (z) = (z2 − 2)e−z , and show
that f is entire. Then find f 0 (z).
Exercise 1.4. Explain why f (z) = 2z2 − 3 − zez + e−z and g(z) = 3z2 + 5z − 6i are
entire
Exercise 1.5. Explain why f (z) = x + sin x cosh y + i(y + cos x sinh y) is analytic at
every point of the complex plane
Exercise 1.6. Show that each of the following functions f (z) is entire, and find the
derivative at each point z of the complex plane:
Exercise 1.7. Find the choice of the constants (mentioned in brackets) such that each
of the following functions is entire:
Exercise 1.8. Show that each of the following functions f (z) is analytic in an appro-
priate domain, and find its derivative in the domain:
(a) x−1
(x−1)2 +y2
− i (x−1)y2 +y2
x3 +xy2 +x 2 3 −y
(b) x2 +y2
+ i x xy+y
2 +y2
Remark 1.4. Analyticity at a point implies the differentiability at a point, but the
converse is not true. In fact, there are functions which are differentiable at a point
but are nowhere analytic
Example 1.12. Consider f (z) = |z|2 = x2 + y2 for all z = (x, y) ∈ C. Then ux ≡
∂u ∂u ∂v ∂v
∂x = 2x, uy ≡ ∂y = 2y, vx ≡ ∂x = 0, vy ≡ ∂y = 0, which are continuous functions and
ux = vy , vx = −uy only if x = 0 = y. That is, the Cauchy-Riemann equations are satis-
fied at z = (0, 0) only. Thus, by Theorem 1.2, f is differentiable only at z = 0. Since
the Cauchy-Riemann equations are not satisfied at z 6= (0, 0), there exists no neigh-
borhood of (0, 0), in which f is differentiable, except at (0, 0). That is, f is not analytic
at 0.
Since the Cauchy-Riemann equations are not satisfied at the points z 6= 0, f is not
differentiable and hence not analytic at z = 0. Thus f is nowhere analytic.
∂u ∂u ∂v ∂v
ux ≡ = 2xy2 , uy ≡ = 2x2 y, vx ≡ = 0, vy ≡ = 0,
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
ux = vy , vx = −uy only if x = 0 or y = 0.
That is, the Cauchy-Riemann equations are satisfied at all points on the coordinate
axes. Then by Theorem 1.2, f will be differentiable on the coordinate axes. But there
is no neighborhood of any of the points on the axes, on which f is differentiable.
Hence it is nowhere analytic.
Exercise 1.9. Show that f (z) = eiz̄ and g(z) = 2x + ixy2 are nowhere differentiable and
hence nowhere analytic
Exercise 1.10 (HOT). Show that
Exercise 1.12. Show that each of the following functions is nowhere analytic but is
differentiable along the indicated curve(s)
Exercise 1.17 (HOT). Show that f (z) = sin (z̄) is nowhere differentiable and hence
nowhere analytic
2 Applications
Theorem 2.1. If f (z) is an analytic with constant modulus (that is, | f (z)| = constant)
on a domain S, then f (z) will also be constant on S.
Theorem 2.2. If f (z) is an analytic with f 0 (z) = 0 on a domain S, then f (z) will be
constant on S.
Harmonic function: A function ψ(x, y) which has continuous partial deri-vatives of
second order on a domain S is said to be harmonic, if it satisfies the Laplace’s equation
∂ 2ψ 2
∇2 ψ ≡ ∂ x2
+ ∂∂ yψ2 = 0 on S.
Theorem 2.3. Let f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) be analytic on a domain S. Then the real
and imaginary parts u ≡ u(x, y) and v ≡ v(x, y) will be harmonic on S, that is
∂ 2u 2 ∂ 2v 2
∂ x2
+ ∂∂ y2u = 0 and ∂ x2
+ ∂∂ y2v = 0 on S.
Let f be an analytic function with the real part u. Then u is harmonic. The imaginary
part v of f is the conjugate harmonic of u, and is determined by integrating the total
derivative
∂v ∂v ∂u ∂u
dv = ∂x dx + ∂y dy = − ∂y dx + ∂x dy.
Exercise 2.1. Given a harmonic function u ≡ u(x, y), determine its harmonic conju-
gate v ≡ v(x, y) and the analytic function f (z) = u + iv:
sin 2x x
(e) cos 2x+cosh 2y , e (x cos y − y sin y)
Remark 2.2. Let f be an analytic function with the imaginary part v. Then v is har-
monic. The real part u of f is determined by the short-cut formula
Z Z
∂v ∂v
u ≡ u(x, y) = ∂y dx − ∂x dy + constant (2.2)
y−constant x−free
Milne-Thomson method: Given the harmonic function u(x, y), to find the corre-
sponding analytic function f whose real part is u, first we write
f 0 (z) == ∂u
∂x − i ∂∂ uy .
Exercise 2.2. Without finding the real parts, find the analytic functions whose imag-
x−y
inary parta are ex (x sin y + y cos y) and x2 +y2
, respectively.
Exercise 2.3 (HOT). Determine the analytic function f (z) = u + iv where u and v
satisfy the following relations:
cos x+sin x−e−y
(a) u − v = 2(cos x−cosh y)
x−y
(b) u + v = x2 +4xy+y2
Theorem 2.4 (Analytic Function and Orthogonal Curves). Suppose that f (z) = u(x, y)+
iv(x, y) is analytic at a point P. Then the curves u(x, y) = a and v(x, y) = b are orthog-
onal at P.
1. If f (z) is an entire function, is f (z) analytic at at least one point of the complex
plane? If both f (z) and f (z) are analytic, what can you say about f ?
5. If u(x, y) is a harmonic function and v(x, y) is its harmonic conjugate, show that
φ (x, y) = u(x, y)v(x, y) and ψ(x, y) = u2 − v2 are harmonic.