INTRODUCTION

In the beginning, all crops for human sustenance were produced and prepared by
the power of human muscles. Many centuries have passed before the animal power
muscles was used to relieve that of the human being, further it was reduced with the
discovery of iron tools. In the beginning the progress was slow, but slowly and slowly it
has gained momentum. The changes which occurred in the past two decades have so
tremendously affected human values that one wonders. In facts, there has been more
faming progress in the last hundred years than in all the previous history of the world.
Prosperity and economics balance of any country depends upon the ability of its
farmers to release the maximum number of its labourers and provide more than sufficient
food for their countryman and this is only possible through agriculture. Agricultural
engineering is the application of knowledge, techniques and disciplines of various fields
of engineering to the solution of the problem arising in the fields of agriculture and rural
living with the rural living with the object of improve agricultural productivity per
worker. As per international institutions, Agricultural engineering comprises of
(1) Farm machinery and power,
(2) Rural structures,
(3) Soil conservation drainage and irrigation and,
(4) Rural electricity.
In fact Agricultural engineering is a very vast subject and only during the second
and the third five year plans, Agricultural engineering division were added to the
department of agriculture in states and at the center. They started hiring or selling
tractors, implement and pumps ect. Many training institutions and workshops have
started training, and in every state research-cum-testing and training center for
agricultural implements were established. This has opened a chapter of mechanization in
this field.
After that another era started; with the establishment of many agricultural
universities, many agricultural engineering collages have come up to produce graduate
and postgraduate engineers for the country. These units took over research, education and
extension work from the state departments of agriculture. In almost every stat an agro-
industry corporation, financed by the Central Ministry of Agriculture department and to
expand it. On other hand many factories come up for manufacturing tractors with the
financial assistance of the Government and private parties. These three dimensional
progresses quicken the pace of mechanization in the country. To check the pieces of
tractors and implements the Government has fixed the maximum price with the Bureau of
Cost account in the Ministry of Finance.
Now-a-day aviation in Agriculture is becoming very popular in India. At present
the aeroplanes and helicopters are being used for spraying pesticides, insecticides and
liquid fertilizers on the crops. It is only possible on very big farms, which are open and
have no obstruction for the aerial spraying like big trees, electric wires, hill and buildings.
Electronics is also creeping up slowly in the field of agriculture. Remote control tractor
have been developed and successfully tasted in some countries. Computers are also now
helping in many ways and becoming popular day by day. To produce more electricity
many hydro and automatic projects have been taken up, which will definitely gear up the
farm mechanization in the country by increasing the irrigation facilities.

Agricultural Machinery and Implements

Mechanization in India started with improved land tools and implements operated
by human power, and then after animal operated implements were designed, which gave
a big relief to human power. Lot of stress has been given to these tools, implements and
equipment, during first three Five Year Plans. After that during Fourth and Fifth Five
Year Plans many improved and sophisticated implements and equipments were designed,
with the development f tractors, engines and combines. many different types of
operations like ploughings, harrowing, leveling, sowing, irrigation, interculture,
application of fertilizes-manures, insecticides, pesticides, harvesting, threshing,
winnowing, and storing etc. different designs, shapes and sizes of different types
implements were designed to suit different conditions.
India has her own image as far old traditional desi or indigenous implements are
concerned. These indigenous implements very in shapes, sizes, and constructions from
state to state. Before importing implements from foreign countries, a survey by I.C.A.R.
was made to know the different indigenous implements in the country to modify them in
order to increase their efficiency and thus give to the Indian farmers some thing which is
within their means. These implements were modified , fabricated or designed with the
following views:
1. It should be simple in construction and operation, so that it can be handled
easily by illiterate farmers, and can be manufactured or repaired by village level
mechanics, carpenters and blacksmiths.
2. It should be less in cost, so as to suit every farmer, rich or poor.
3. It should be light in weight, so that transportation is easy from village to
field and also less in draft to suit animals of that area.
4. It should be fabricated by the material locally available so that farmers
have no problems for spare parts afterwards.
The I.C.A.R. had made all the possibilities to facilitate farmer s. Tractor, engines,
motors and power operated costly implements were supplied to the farmers on hire or
hire purchase system or on custom bases or on co-operative basis. This created a new
interest in the farmers, which made the mechanization possible.

Ploughs
In India mainly three types of plough are used under primary tillage equipments,
desi plough, mould board, and disc ploughs of western origin. The plough is a device
which cuts or tear open the top crust of the soil in the shape of furrow slice, lifts it, breaks
it, turns or over turns it up side down, there by it buried all the vegetations below the
furrow slice. The very first operation on the field as primary tillage operation has been
done by ploughs.

Desi ploughs
The desi plough makes a v-shaped furrow and does not turn over the soil. It is
mostly made of hard wood eg. Babool or Kikar. The depth of ploughing is from 10 to
20cm and the width from 13 to 18 cm. The depth of the plough can be adjusted by a
wedge provided in the body of the plough. Repeated and cross ploughings are necessary
to secure a good tilth. They are also used for making a shallow furrow or depositing seeds
and to harvest crops such as potatoes, groundnuts and sweet potatoes. Hence, it is a multi-
purpose implement.
It has certain advantages like:
 1. It is a multipurpose plough used for ploughing, sowing, mixing manures,
interculture in standing crop; and harrowing.
2. Village level carpenters and blacksmith can repair and make the plough.
3. It is very cheap and easily available.
4. It is light in weight; therefore, can be carried from place to place easily.
5. It can work equally in all types of soils.

Mould Board Ploughs

It consists of a share and a mould board of steel. It ploughs a square furrow and
inverts the soil either completely or partially depending on the curvature given to the
mould board. The provision of a vertical or horizontal suction to the share tip is
necessary. In the case of long beam ploughs the beam and handle are made of wood
whereas in the short beam plough the complete implement is made of metal. Heavy
mouldboard ploughs are also used for the eradication of weeds. The shares of the lighter
ploughs should be made of steel instead of cast iron.

Ridger ploughs: There are three sizes-the light, medium and heavy. Some of the
improved ones have an arrangement for adjusting the width of the furrow by changing the
distance between the 2 mould boards. For vegetable orchards the possession of the ridger
is a must.

Surface and Subsoiler plough

Under this category comes special ploughs named as Chiesel plough, Subsoiler
plough and Giant plough.
Chisel plough is having rigid curved or straight shank or standard of nickel- alloy
heat-treated spring steel. The width varies 1.5 to 13.5m and depth 10 cm to 45.7cm. the
spacing between shank varies from 30.5 to 91 cm.
Subsoiler ploughs are built heavier than chisel ploughs working depth ranges
from 50.8 to 91.4 cm the standard is generally long and narrow with a heavy, wedge like
point.
DISC PLOW
Disc plows were introduced to reduce friction by making a rolling bottom instead of
sliding bottom of mould board plow. It has draft without extra weight. It is adopted to the
conditions where mould board plough cannot work, such as:
1. Sticky, waxy, gumbo non-scouring soils and soils having a hard pan.
2. Rough, stony and rooty ground, where disc plow will ride over rocks.
3. Dry, hard ground can be easily penetrated.
4. Peaty and leaf mould soils can be turned easily.
5. Deep ploughing.

Rotary Ploughs
It is a European origin plough. The rotary plough may be divided into three types-
pull auxillary engine, pull power take off driven and self-propelled garden type. A rotary
tiller, also known as a rototiller, rotavator, rotary hoe, power tiller, or rotary plough (in
US: plow), is a motorised cultivator that works the soil by means of rotating tines or
blades. Rotary tillers are either self propelled or drawn as an attachment behind either a
two-wheel tractor or four-wheel tractor. For two-wheel tractors they are rigidly fixed and
powered via couplings to the tractors' transmission. For four-wheel tractors they are
attached by means of a three-point hitch and driven by a Power Take-Off (PTO).

Ridges and Furrowers

A ridger plough consists of ‘V’ shape share and two convex mould boards. It is
used in row crop cultivation for earthing operation, making ridges for potato, sugar beet
crop, etc. a furrower consists of a general type mould board, which are two in number,
joined together in one piece. It is used for making irrigation channels and boundaries of
field.
Harrows
Harrows are secondary tillage equipment, generally used after primary tillage
equipment operations are over on the field. Harrows are used mostly for grater
pulverization, killing weeds reducing evaporation and removing weeds, grasses, and
vines from the fields. There are many types of harrow suitable for specific field
conditions, and soil types. The most common harrows are:
1. Spike Tooth Harrow
2. Disc Harrow Harrow
3. Spring Tyne Harrow
4. Knife or Acme Harrow
5. Triangular Harrow
6. Patela Harrow
7. Blade Harrow or Bakhar

Cultivators
It is also secondary tillage implement but can be used as primary tillage under moist
conditions. The cultivators are mainly divided into two groups as follows:-
(A) ANIMAL DRAWN
(1) Kanpur Cultivator
(2) Mcormic Cultivator
(3) Wahwas Senior Cultivator
(4) Wahwas Jouiner Cultivator
(5) R.N. Cultivator
(6) Care Tool Bar Type Cultivator
(B) POWER OPERATED
(1) Spring type Cultivator
(a) Mounted Type
(b) Semi Mounted Type
(c) Trailed Type
 (2) Rigid Type Cultivator
(a) Mounted Type
(b) Semi Mounted Type
(c) Trailed Type

OTHER IMPLEMENTS
Many other types of human, power and animal operated implements are used for
different operations indifferent part of country, some are as follow:

Puddlers
It is an implement used for puddling in paddy fields before transplanting.
Puddling is crushing of soil in the presence of excess water. According to the power used,
they are classified as:
(1) Hand operated puddlers

(2) Animal drown puddlers

(3) Tractor operated puddlers

Bund Formers
They are used to form Bunds which prevent run off. it having two plats used to
make soil geather and for forming bunds the concave in shape is made up to either wood
2.5 or 3 cm thick or mild steel or 1.60 mm to 2.00 mm thickness and 45 to 55 cm high
and 90 cm to 150 cm long.

Soil Scoop
It consists of a shallow box like structure with an open front. On its front, a sharp
blade is fixed and 2 hooks are attached to it. The bullocks are yoked to the hooks. Two
wooden handles are provided at the back. The capacity of the soil scoop is 0.056 to 0.084
cu m. This implement is used when the soil is to be carried to a fairly long distance and
for leveling purpose.

Wheel barrow
Common barrows are very useful. The wheels may be of mild steel or rubber. It is
made up of a rectangular tank like scoop; sides are extending outward and have light
height. It is used for leveling work.

Rollers
It is solid cylinder with fixed shaft at the centre attached to the frame bushes or
bearing for smooth and frictionless motion. They are used for compacting the soils,
crushing the clods, leveling the land and bringing the moisture to the plants.

Scraper cum Leveller

It is a M. S. sheet 150 cm long and 45 cm wide given a concave shape along the
length and attached with an iron angle 1 mm ribs at the back of giving strength and
toughness. It is merely a flat log dragged over the clods by the bullocks. The driver stands
on the log to add weight to it. It has a series of pointed hooks to crush the clods and
collect the weeds.

Hoes
It is a versatile form of implement used for all the operations which a cultivator
can do, but is a hand operated and recommended for small farmers. It can be classified as:
Naini hoe, Sharma hand hoe, Rotary hand hoe.

SOWING
Sowing is an art of placing seeds, tubers and sets in the soil (under the soil) to
provide all favorable condition for max-germination to get max crop yield or production.
Among the indigenous implements many seed sowing devices are attached to the
implements such as the desi plough. Tubes are fixed to these implements and on the top
of these a seedling bowl into which the seed is dropped is fixed. The seedling bowl has a
number of holes in it. The construction of the holes is ingenious with the result that the
seed falls right into the holes and into the tines. Sowing in lines ensures the proper
distribution and placing of seeds, resulting in the uniform spacing of the plant with a
concomitant reduction in seed rate. It also helps the seed to germinate regularly, ensuring
a better standard of the crop and also facilitates interculture with bullock-operated holes
thus reducing the cost of cultivation.
The seed drills need a lot of skill in operation. It is necessary in case of automatic
seed drills to caliberate them before sowing to know the exact seed rate it will drop. The
seed drills are to be caliberated for each type of crop separately because of differences in
shape, size and weight of different seeds. Proper care has to be taken in choosing the soil
working part such as the tine.

Classification of Sowing Methods

1. Transplanting
2. Direct Sowing
(a) Broadcasting
(b) Dibbling
(c) Drilling
I. Behind Desi Plow
II. Desi Plow with Mala Bansa
III. By Cultivator With Seeding attachment
IV. By Pain Seed Drill

V. By seed-Cum-Fertilizer Drill
3. Planting

HARVESTING
 It is the process of cutting the standing crops in the field. It is most labours
consuming operation of Indian farming. Although improved implements have been
introduced to a considerable extent in the country, but mode of harvesting has not change
much. Universally sickle is the only tool that is used for harvesting crops in India even
though efforts have been made to introduce reapers, mowers and even combined
harvestors and threshers. Mower is a machine that cuts the herbage and leaves them in
swath. Whereas, the reaper is a machine to cut the grain crop or fodder crops. In the case
of sickles there is less of shattering as compared to harvesting implements and machines
as their impact cause shattering of grains. The sickles are of two types namely plain or
serrated or saw-shaped. The serrated sickles are used for cutting paddy and wheat.
Harvesting can be divided in to three major groups, as per power requirement and
classified as follows:-
(A) Manual Operated
I. Plain edge sickles
II. Surrated edge sickles
III. Hand chopper
(B) Animal Drawn
I. Mowers
II. Reapers
(C) Power Operated
I. Mowers
a. Trailed Type
b. Mounted type
c. Semi mounted type
II. Reapers
a. Trailed Type
b. Mounted type
c. Semi mounted type
III. Reaper Binders
a. Trailed Type
b. Semi-mounted type
 c. Mounted type

INTERCULTURAL IMPLEMENTS
Most of the inter culture in India is done with the hand tool called khurpi which
consists of a sharp edged triangular or sickle-shaped blade. Sometimes weeding is done
with a small spade, hoe or mummuty. Most of these tools have small handles and the
user has to sit on his heels or bend his back while weeding. To increase the efficiency of
weeding, long hand lead hoes which are simple in construction and can be made by the
village blacksmith.
The wheel hoes are a further improvement upon the hand hoes. A wheel hoe
consists of a body, handle and a wheel. To its body many tools like a shovel, a ridger, and
other types of tools can be fixed.
Another implement called the Indore ridger was introduced in Malwa some
years back. This has a sharp beam with sloping ends and a hexagonal share attached to it
with a strong iron bar. The ridger can be used up to a later stage of the crop without doing
physical injury to the plants. It not only eradicates weeds but also produces a good mulch.
For some special crops like paddy, special types of paddy weeders have been designed.
They consist of 2 rollers with pointed fingers and are pushed in between the rows of the
paddy plants when water is standing in the fields. The idea is to bury the weeds in the
mud to decompose them and add organic matter to the soil.

THRESHING IMPLEMENTS
Threshing in the case of paddy is done mostly by beating the harvested plants by
sticks. In the case of other crops it is done by treading the crops with a team of animals.
Stone rollers about 90cm in length and 30 to 60 cm in diameter have also been used in
some areas. However no other thresher has become so popular as the 'Olpad Thresher'
which consists of 14 to 21 serrated discs fixed on a rectangular frame in three lines. A
seat is provided for the driver and also a guard. Threshing with this thresher is not only
cheaper but also quicker and more efficient than treading by bullocks and other methods.
The drum type power operated thresher of 10 to 15 bhp has become very
popular in northern India. This thresher is an example of the machine which the farmers
of the region have readily adopted because of its great utility. Now virtually threshing by
trampling straw is limited to very small farms. The introduction of this machine has
saved much labour and has made threshing very easy to complete before the monsoon.

WINNOWING FANS AND WINNOWERS

Winnowing fans similar to the ceiling fans are operated by a hand or by a pedal,
and the number of revolutions are increased by using a pair of gears or with a sprocket
and chain or a belt. In some cases, the Nilokheri winnowing fan such a drive is not
necessary. The size of the fan is such that it can produce a good breeze. The object of the
fan is to produce breeze only and thus no sieves are provided.
The winnowers are the machines with a series of three to four sieves to do the
preliminary grading. A fan is enclosed in a box-like arrangement and is rotated fast. The
sieves are also provided with a shaking arrangement.

OTHER IMPORTANT EQUIPMENTS:

Processing machines: These are the machines that process the farm produce during
the post harvest period. These machines include sugarcane-crushers, fodder-cutters,
groundnut decorticators, paddy hullers or paddy shellers.

Sugarcane crushers: The farmer cannot dispose of the entire harvest as cane. Part of
it has to be converted into gur or jaggery. Formerly the juice was extracted by the crude
two roller wooden crusher. With the growing of improved varieties of cane a 3 roller cast
iron crusher operated either by bullock power or engine power has been put back into the
market.

Fodder cutters: Two sharp steel blades are fixed to a flywheel. An automatic pushing
arrangement is also provided. In some areas where power is available, farmers are using
the power chaff cutters or fodder cutters. They can also be used for cutting dry jowar
stalks, which is not very easy to cut by hand operated chaff cutter.
Paddy hullers or paddy shellers: Paddy hulling has been done in India with a
dhenkli or a wooden lever. Recently a manufacturer has put into the market hand
operated hullers similar to Japanese types costing 1000 to 1500Rs. but are good for small
holdings. They are operated by 2 persons with levered handles. The shelling or hulling is
accomplished by the impact of the grain on a very fast moving rubber disc. After the
paddy is shelled or hulled the grain is polished with paddy polishing machine.

Improved yokes and harnesses: With improvement of yoke, harness and the
method of hitching the implements are likely to lead to a more efficient utilization of
draught. The yoke is made of babool or kikar wood. Due to its shape and curvature it
rests properly on the necks of bullocks and thus gives a greater draught with comfort to
the animal.

IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE

Another set of implements and machinery used for preparing the land for
irrigation consists of a float, a drag and a leveller.
 Float:-It consists of a rectangular wooden plate to which cross plates are fixed.
The float is used where the land has been levelled fairly well and where it is
required to be further levelled so that the irrigation water flows over it and does
not accumulate in depressions.
 Drag: - A drag is an implement which throws the soil in one direction, making the
channels flat-bottomed.
 Leveler:-The leveller is similar to the keni but is longer for the uniform levelling
of seedbeds.
Water is carried through irrigation channels from wells to the fields and in order
to minimize the loss of water through seepage, it is necessary to line them with bricks
and cement. Recently the workers of the Indian Road Research Institute have made a
cheaper type of chemical out of creosote. This material can be used to plaster earthen
water-channels. A kind of weedicide is also mixed with it to prevent weeds from
growing in the channel.
 One of the major difficulties of the farmers is the raising of water from the wells,
tanks or canals to irrigate the fields. Since time immemorial various indigenous devices
have been used for lifting water, the simplest ones being a dhenkli, a persian wheel, a
mhot, a pikota and dons. The leather mhot or charsa is common in Bihar. The mhots in
northern India are merely big leather bags. The Persian wheels or rahats are extremely
common in northern India.
Now, a very large number of Indian farmers are going in for centrifugal pumps.
The centrifugal pumps are worked with internal combustion oil engines or electric
motors. In operating centrifugal pumps, priming is very important because it works on
the principal of vaccum. The seals should also be tight. Because the pump has a
limitation of raising the water upto the maximum of 7m theoretically it has to be fixed at
a height of 5m from the water level to get the best out of it. For very deep wells the
turbine pumps are recommended. Submersible or floating pumps that rise or go down
according to the fluctuating depth of the well are also used.

Irrigation
Irrigation is an artificial application of water to the soil usually for assisting in growing
crops. In crop production it is mainly used in dry areas and in periods of rainfall
shortfalls, but also to protect plants against frost. Additionally irrigation helps to suppress
weed growing in rice fields. In contrast, agriculture that relies only on direct rainfall is
referred to as rain-fed farming. Irrigation is often studied together with drainage, which is
the natural or artificial removal of surface and sub-surface water from a given area.
Irrigation is also a term used in the Medical/Dental fields and refers to flushing and
washing out anything with water or another liquid.

Types of irrigation
Various types of irrigation techniques differ in how the water obtained from the
source is distributed within the field. In general, the goal is to supply the entire field
uniformly with water, so that each plant has the amount of water it needs, neither too
much nor too little.

SURFACE IRRIGATION

In surface irrigation systems water moves over and across the land by simple
gravity flow in order to wet it and to infiltrate into the soil. Surface irrigation can be
subdivided into furrow, borderstrip or basin irrigation. It is often called flood irrigation
when the irrigation results in flooding or near flooding of the cultivated land.
Historically, this has been the most common method of irrigating agricultural land.

Where water levels from the irrigation source permit, the levels are controlled by
dikes, usually plugged by soil. This is often seen in terraced rice fields (rice paddies),
where the method is used to flood or control the level of water in each distinct field. In
some cases, the water is pumped, or lifted by human or animal power to the level of the
land.

LOCALIZED IRRIGATION

Localized irrigation is a system where water is distributed under low pressure

through a piped network, in a pre-determined pattern, and applied as a small discharge to
each plant or adjacent to it. Drip irrigation, spray or micro-sprinkler irrigation and
bubbler irrigation belong to this category of irrigation methods.

DRIP IRRIGATION

Drip irrigation, also known as trickle irrigation, functions as its name suggests.
Water is delivered at or near the root zone of plants, drop by drop. This method can be
the most water-efficient method of irrigation, if managed properly, since evaporation and
runoff are minimized.[citation needed] In modern agriculture, drip irrigation is often combined
with plastic mulch, further reducing evaporation, and is also the means of delivery of
fertilizer. The process is known as fertigation.
 Deep percolation, where water moves below the root zone, can occur if a drip
system is operated for too long of a duration or if the delivery rate is too high. Drip
irrigation methods range from very high-tech and computerized to low-tech and relatively
labor-intensive. Lower water pressures are usually needed than for most other types of
systems, with the exception of low energy center pivot systems and surface irrigation
systems, and the system can be designed for uniformity throughout a field or for precise
water delivery to individual plants in a landscape containing a mix of plant species.
Although it is difficult to regulate pressure on steep slopes, pressure compensating
emitters are available, so the field does not have to be level. High-tech solutions involve
precisely calibrated emitters located along lines of tubing that extend from a
computerized set of valves. Both pressure regulation and filtration to remove particles are
important. The tubes are usually black (or buried under soil or mulch) to prevent the
growth of algae and to protect the polyethylene from degradation due to ultraviolet light.
But drip irrigation can also be as low-tech as a porous clay vessel sunk into the soil and
occasionally filled from a hose or bucket. Subsurface drip irrigation has been used
successfully on lawns, but it is more expensive than a more traditional sprinkler system.
Surface drip systems are not cost-effective (or aesthetically pleasing) for lawns and golf
courses. In the past one of the main disadvantages of the subsurface drip irrigation (SDI)
systems, when used for turf, was the fact of having to install the plastic lines very close to
each other in the ground, therefore disrupting the turfgrass area. Recent technology
developments on drip installers like the drip installer at New Mexico State University
Arrow Head Center, places the line underground and covers the slit leaving no soil
exposed.

Sprinkler irrigation
In sprinkler or overhead irrigation, water is piped to one or more central locations
within the field and distributed by overhead high-pressure sprinklers or guns. A system
utilizing sprinklers, sprays, or guns mounted overhead on permanently installed risers is
often referred to as a solid-set irrigation system. Higher pressure sprinklers that rotate are
called rotors and are driven by a ball drive, gear drive, or impact mechanism. Rotors can
be designed to rotate in a full or partial circle. Guns are similar to rotors, except that they
generally operate at very high pressures of 40 to 130 lbf/in² (275 to 900 kPa) and flows of
50 to 1200 US gal/min (3 to 76 L/s), usually with nozzle diameters in the range of 0.5 to
1.9 inches (10 to 50 mm). Guns are used not only for irrigation, but also for industrial
applications such as dust suppression and logging.
Sprinklers may also be mounted on moving platforms connected to the water
source by a hose. Automatically moving wheeled systems known as traveling sprinklers
may irrigate areas such as small farms, sports fields, parks, pastures, and cemeteries
unattended. Most of these utilize a length of polyethylene tubing wound on a steel drum.
As the tubing is wound on the drum powered by the irrigation water or a small gas
engine, the sprinkler is pulled across the field. When the sprinkler arrives back at the reel
the system shuts off. This type of system is known to most people as a "waterreel"
traveling irrigation sprinkler and they are used extensively for dust suppression,
irrigation, and land application of waste water. Other travelers use a flat rubber hose that
is dragged along behind while the sprinkler platform is pulled by a cable. These cable-
type travelers are definitely old technology and their use is limited in today's modern
irrigation projects.
Sprinklers
When a zone comes on, the water flows through the lateral lines and ultimately
ends up at the irrigation Sprinkler heads. Most sprinklers have pipe thread inlets on the
bottom of them which allows a fitting and the pipe to be attached to them. The sprinklers
are usually installed with the top of the head flush with the ground surface. When the
water is pressurized, the head will pop up out of the ground and water the desired area
until the valve closes and shuts off that zone. Once there is no more water pressure in the
lateral line, the sprinkler head will retract back into the ground.

DRAINAGE
Good drainage is complementary to irrigation. Water accumulates in the soil
either from rains or from seepage from canals. The high sub soil, water table damages
agricultural land in many ways, leading to the accumulation of undesirable salts in the
root zone or on the surface of the soil involving drainage problems. Thus, a good
drainage system is the utmost necessity for a sustainable agriculture.
 In the case of the sugarcane growing areas the farmers are using mole drains.
They are made at a depth of 0.45 to 0.6m and are quite effective. The tractor-mounted
trenching machines are very useful in digging the channels for putting the tile drains.

TRACTORS
A tractor is a 'prime mover'. For attachment to the tractor we must provide the
farmers with different types of implements to carry out different types of operations.
Because of the higher horse power used the tractors can do more work than the bullocks.
The tractor is sturdy so it can work in rough fields and arrangements have to be made to
attach different implements to it and for stationary machinery by using the power take
off. Thus the tractor is a modification of a motor car to perform agricultural operations
including bund-making etc.

The crawler tractor or track layer: - These are suitable for relatively high draft and
low speed work. They can also be used on uneven ground or soft marshy land where
wheels would not work. These tractors are heavier but their weight is evenly distributed
on a larger area; hence they do not compact the ground as much as the wheel type tractors
do. The horse power ranges from 60 to 500. They are employed for large pieces of barren
land to make it fit for cultivation, for preparing barriers or bunds, desilting of tanks,
levelling of land for draining away excess water.

Four wheeled tractors of 15-60 horse power: - Most of the agricultural tractors
of horse power 30-35. They are fitted with pneumatic tyres. They can be used for
ploughing, harrowing, sowing, harvesting, transport and belt work. They can also be used
for intercultivation by changing the width between the wheels. By using trailors they can
be used for transporting seeds, manure, fertilizer etc. They are also used for belt work like
cutting chaff, lifting water and for working a wheat thresher.

Small tractors and power tillers: - A small tractor can be defined as a machine
having four wheels and 2 axles. A power tiller has 2 wheels or one axle. The horse power
ranges from 2 to 15. The Indian farmers are showing a good deal of interest in the small
tractors as the price of a good pair of bullocks is alarming and they require expensive
maintenance. They use machines in the range of 5 to 10 hp costing Rs.2000-3000. The
main jobs that the machines would be performing are ploughing, harrowing, puddling,
transport, pumping water and spraying insecticides. Such small machines are also very
useful because of the reduced sizes of land holdings. Apart from the types of tractors
mentioned above there are half track tractors as well as baby track layers.

TRACTOR DRAWN IMPLEMENTS

The tractor drawn implements can be classified into 2 categories:
1. One set for tillage- the implements are ploughs, harrows, seed drills combined
with harvestors and threshers.
2. Other for stationary operations-it comprises of pumps, stationary threshers,
winnowers, graders etc.
In addition the tractor can be used for transporting fertilizers, manures, or produce
by attaching a trailor to it.

Ploughs: - These are of two kinds, the mouldboard and the disc plough. They cut 2 -5
furrows at a time.

 Mould board Plough: The best inversion is secured with mouldboard ploughs
when the depth is less than two-thirds of the width of the cut of each bottom. A
working depth of less than one-fourth of the bottom width would result in poor
quality of work. A mould board plough is more efficient than a disc plough if
much of surface vegetation is to be buried.
 Disc Plough: A disc plough cuts a furrow whose width varies with the operating
depth. The optimum depth is that which gives a width of cut equal to one-third the
diameter of the cut. . Unlike a mould board plough the penetration is influenced
also by weight of the implement. So there is always some provision made for
adding weight to secure the desired penetration in stiff soil. The shape of the discs
and concavity affects inversion and pulverization.
Cultivators and harrows:
Cultivators are used for heavy work and for breaking large clods and the harrows
are used for lighter operations.
 Cultivators are either spring-tined or rigid-tined. The former have fine
pulverizing effect the latter are good for deep cultivation to light soils. Heavy
cultivators fitted with wide shares can be used for stubble clearance.
 Harrows are equipped with discs or spring tines or spikes. Disc harrows are
used mainly for tillage in heavy or hard soils, but can also be used for a variety of
other operations such as the covering of seed and destruction of weeds.

Rotary cultivators small types carried on two wheels and operated by 5-8 hp engines are
likely to prove useful for small holdings and market gardens. They produce the combined
effect of ploughing and cultivating.

Seed drills and planters

The seed drills can sow all kinds of small seeds eg. wheat, oats, barley, jowar and
paddy and can be adjusted for variations in the size of the seed, depth of seeding , seed
rate and the distance between the rows. Drawn by wheel type or light crawler tractor they
can sow upto about 12ha in a day depending on soil conditions.
Planters are employed to sow seeds in rows far enough to permit mechanical
inter-cultivation. Depending on the crop they are designed to sow they are called corn,
cotton, peas, bean, potato, and vegetable-planters.

Multipurpose pipe frame implement:

The improved new implement that serves as an efficient and rugged primary
ploughing implement over and above providing two parallel furrows, which is presently
not obtainable with the local implement. For making an implements from this
multipurpose implement like plough, ridger, harrow , cultivator, seed drill, digger,
leveler, bund former etc. they can be made as per the requirement for different crops. It
replaces more than seven local implements and two to three improved implements.
Bullock cart high capacity sprayer for groundnut and vegetable crops:
To control the insects and diseases in the crops, different types of
insecticides/pesticides are sprayed using manual sprayers, knapsack sprayer and tractor-
mounted sprayer. Thus manual sprayers and knapsack sprayers are less powerful than the
tractor-mounted sprayer, but the latter is not affordable by all the farmers. Therefore, a
bullock cart sprayer is designed by which twelve lines in farm can be sprayed
simultaneously; i. e. there can be a spray the crop distance of 3 feet, in the width of 36
feet. If it is run for about 8 hours a day, insecticides/pesticides can be sprayed in 15 to 16
acre of area, i.e. such a spray is equal to nine persons doing the spray in a day (manually).
On every nozzle the liquid comes out at the pressure of 38 pound per square inch, which
is considered to be qualitatively enough. The power needed to drag this sprayer (bullock
cart sprayer) is more than that of dragging the simple bullock cart. A pair of bullocks can
run this sprayer. It can be very much useful in a spray especially on the crops of
groundnut, cotton, castor, pigeon pea, vegetables, and orchards etc.

Developed groundnut cum castor sheller grader:

Mostly sowing seeds are prepared few days before the sowing time. During the
peak period of sowing time there is a shortage of labors. Breaking the shell by hand or
mouth does shelling of groundnut, while this is not a proper method. In oil mills some
power-operated machines are available to break the pods and to get kernels. Through
these machines chances of damage and breakages in kernels are higher, resulted low
percentage of germination. The developed manually operated decorticator machine was
found to be the most efficient in decortications with least breakages and economical also.
The capacity of the machine is 50 kg/hr. 3 persons are required to complete the operation
with this machine. This machine can also be used for castor.

Improved bullock drawn groundnut digger:

Farmers in groundnut growing region use multipurpose pipe framed implement
for groundnut digging. During this operation difficulty like clogging of vines, jerks on
bullock’s neck, non-uniform depth and pod losses are common. In order to overcome
these difficulties, the bullock drawn groundnut digger for harvesting the groundnut crop
was developed and recommended for the use of farmers. The average pull and field
capacity were found to be 130 kg. and 0.19 ha/hr.

Self propelled reaper:

The improved design of star wheels, inter rows and main crop dividers, provision
of adjustable third belt system, reversing mechanism and pneumatic tyres has been found
efficiently for IRRI design of self propelled vertical conveyor reaper in harvesting of
cereals and fodder crops .A reaper if fitted with improved design features results in an
average 30 per cent saving i.e. Rs.250/- per hectare in cost of harvesting as compared to
manual harvesting. The improved design features are recommended for benefit of farmers
and commercial exploitation.

Single tyne subsoiler:

This implement subsoil groundnut field to a depth of 30-40cm, in the alternate
inter row spacing. This results in more water intake and moisture conservation and
thereby increase crop yield and net gain depending upon the severity of draught.

Two tyne subsoiler:

The two-bottom tractor mounted subsoiler attachment developed by Farm
Engineering Department, Gujarat Agricultural University; Junagadh is recommended to
be used for subsoiling operation. Its working is better than conventional single bottom
subsoiler with added advantage of capacity to subsoil in every furrow (chass). It is
substantially cheaper as compaired to the conventional subsoiler. It is recommended for
the benefit of farmers and implements manufacturers.

Tractor drawn groundnut pod exposure:

This groundnut pod exposure can be used in the freshly harvested field with
considerable amount of pods left out in the soil and above soil surface. The pod losses
were 8-10% that is pod exposing efficiency was 90-92%. The saving in man-hours
requirement and in term of cost of harvesting are quite substantial and justified the use of
machine.

COTTON PICKER
The mechanical cotton picker is a machine that automates cotton harvesting. It
was first invented in the 1920s, but was not made practical until the 1950s, and even then,
it was not immediately implemented on most farms.
The first pickers were only capable of harvesting one row of cotton at a time, but
were still able to replace up to forty hand laborers. The current cotton picker is a self-
propelled machine that removes cotton lint and seed (seed-cotton) from the plant at up to
six rows at a time. There are two types of pickers in use today. One is the "stripper"
picker, primarily found in use in Texas. It removes not only the lint from the plant, but a
fair deal of the plant matter as well (such as unopened bolls). Later, the plant matter is
separated from the lint through a process dropping heavier matter before the lint makes it
to the basket to the rear of the picker. The other type of picker is the "spindle" picker. It
uses rows of barbed spindles that rotate at high speed and remove the seed-cotton from
the plant. The seed-cotton is then removed from the spindles by a counter-rotating doffer
and is then blown up into the basket. Once the basket is full the picker dumps the seed-
cotton into a "module builder". The module builder creates a compact "brick" of seed-
cotton, weighing in at approximately 21,000 lb (16 un-ginned bales), which can be stored
in the field or in the "gin yard" until it is ginned. Each ginned bale weighs roughly 480 lb
(218.2 kg).

AUTOMATIC POTATO PLANTER

 No labour required
 Planting two rows with band farmer
 Fully auto adjustable like Size, Potato distance, Fertilizer
 1 Hours 1.5 acres planting capacity.
 Automatic potato machine with two rows that are the Brand name Ganesh
Automatic Potato Planter is a mounted type machine. Potato lumps which are put in the
case rise with the help of ladleses on an infinite rubber band that moves between two
pulleys vertically. While the ledleses are turning down from the highest point, they go on
their action by dropping the potato lumps in them and the potato lumps that go down in
this way fall on the soil surface from the turning point below. The potato lumps are
covered by the coverings discs that from backwards.
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20. DIY instructions for making sel-watering system using ropes