Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
1. ELECTRICAL SYMBOLS
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ANDHERI / BORIVALI / DADAR / NERUL / POWAI / THANE
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JUNIOR SCIENCE COLLEGE
ANDHERI / BORIVALI / DADAR / NERUL / POWAI / THANE
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JUNIOR SCIENCE COLLEGE
ANDHERI / BORIVALI / DADAR / NERUL / POWAI / THANE
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JUNIOR SCIENCE COLLEGE
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JUNIOR SCIENCE COLLEGE
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JUNIOR SCIENCE COLLEGE
ANDHERI / BORIVALI / DADAR / NERUL / POWAI / THANE
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JUNIOR SCIENCE COLLEGE
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2.
3.
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JUNIOR SCIENCE COLLEGE
ANDHERI / BORIVALI / DADAR / NERUL / POWAI / THANE
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JUNIOR SCIENCE COLLEGE
ANDHERI / BORIVALI / DADAR / NERUL / POWAI / THANE
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JUNIOR SCIENCE COLLEGE
ANDHERI / BORIVALI / DADAR / NERUL / POWAI / THANE
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JUNIOR SCIENCE COLLEGE
ANDHERI / BORIVALI / DADAR / NERUL / POWAI / THANE
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JUNIOR SCIENCE COLLEGE
ANDHERI / BORIVALI / DADAR / NERUL / POWAI / THANE
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CONNECTING ONE LAMP ONE SWITCH, INDICATING LAMP AND FUSE IN A CIRCUIT
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GODOWN WIRING
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ANDHERI / BORIVALI / DADAR / NERUL / POWAI / THANE
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JUNIOR SCIENCE COLLEGE
ANDHERI / BORIVALI / DADAR / NERUL / POWAI / THANE
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JUNIOR SCIENCE COLLEGE
ANDHERI / BORIVALI / DADAR / NERUL / POWAI / THANE
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CONNECT ONE LAMP, ONE HALF POINT FUSE AND INDICATOR IN A CIRCUIT
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ANDHERI / BORIVALI / DADAR / NERUL / POWAI / THANE
AUTO-TRANSFORMER STARTER
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STAR-DELTA STARTER
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DOL STARTER
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3. FUSES
Definition: Fuse is a safety device which is placed in the live wire and fusing element in the fuse melts when
current exceeds its normal rated value and breaks the circuit.
Function of fuse:
1) If a short circuit occurs anywhere in the wiring system excessive current flows through the wire and fuse.
Fusing element melts cutting off the current and protects the appliance and accessories connected in the circuit.
If the fuse fails to operate, the wire may become hot enough to ignite the insulation possibly causing a fire.
2) Fuses also protect the circuit in case of overload. If too many appliances are connected to one circuit more
current will flow through the supply wires then the wires were meant to carry. It will cause the wires to burn
and appliances and accessories connected to the circuit will also be damaged.
Note:
3) Size of the Fuse wire should be according to rated current of the circuit.
4) Current carrying capacity of the fusing element 1.5 times the value of the rated current of the circuit.
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1) Rated current or current rating of fusing element: It is the maximum value of current which the fusing
element can normally carry without melting for indefinite period of time.
2) Minimum fusing current: It is the minimum value of current at which the fusing element melts. Even that
current flows for a fraction of seconds
3) Fusing factor: It is a ratio of Minimum fusing current to rated current of fusing element .its value is always
more than one.
Typesof fuses
NON-
Rewirable[sem
Rewirable[totally
i enclosed]
enclosed]
Round type
fuse or cut Kit-Kat fuse Cartridge fuse H . R. C. FUSE
out
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3) Base is fixed on wooden board with screw. There are 2 terminals on the base in which fuse element
are fitted.
4) Small holes are provided on the cover for air entrance to help the burning of fuse and to provide
passage for gases formed due to melting of fuse element.
Disadvantages:
i) One of the terminals is always energized with live wire. So it is difficult to replace fuse link.
ii) When fuse blows off there is too much arcing and unit may be damaged.
2) KIT-KAT FUSE:-
Parts of fuse:
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1) Fuse link or fuse element: It is the part of fuse which melts if excessive current passes through it.
2) Fuse carrier: It is a removable holder which carries fuse link or fuse element.
3) Fuse base: It is the part of fuse which is fitted on wooden board and which carries fixed contact into which
fuse carrier is fixed.
4) Fixed contact: These contacts engaged with carrier contacts and are connected to fixed terminal.
1) Cost is less.
3) No maintenance.
2) Lack of discrimination.
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Construction:
Operation:
1) when circuit is carrying normal current temp of fusing element is below melting point .
2) when any fault occurs in the circuit temp of fusing elements rises and fusing element melts.
3) In case due to high current if arc struck between the two ends, the quartz sand around fusing element
immediately quenches the arc.
4)It has the advantage that it can carry the short circuit current for a known time period, if in that time period
the fault is removed the fuse does not blow off.
1) Reliable.
DISADVANTAGES:
2) Cost is high.
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4) CARTRIDGE FUSE:
2) In this fuse, fusing element is placed in an peculiar shape just like a bullset called cartridge
3) It is in the form of tube and its ends are enclosed with metallic caps
5) The container is heat resistant, a good insulating material and sealed completely.
7)It has an index circle at the top, under normal condition it is clear and it becomes dark when fuse blows off.
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Properties of conductors:
(i) A good conductor must have high good conductivity and least resistance. e.g. Ag, Cu, Al, Steel.
(ii) It should have high tensile strength.
(iii) It should be malleable and ductile.
(iv) It should have low temperature coefficient of resistance.
1. Silver :
(i) Ag is the best of all conductors.
(ii) It is used in special cases i.e. in H.R.C. fuse.
(iii)It is very costly hence its application is limited.
(iv) Resistivity = 1.59 x 10-8 ohm-m..
(v) Melting point = 961.8deg. C.
(vi) It is malleable and ductile.
2. Copper (Cu) :
(i) Next to silver, Cu is widely used.
(ii)It is malleable and ductile are hence can be hammered and drawn into thin wires.
(iii)It has high resistance against corrosion.
(iv)It can be easily soldered and welded.
(v) Resistivity of pure cu is 1.72 x 10-8 ohm-m.
(vi) Melting point = 1083 deg. C.
(vii) Copper is used in wires, winding’s of Transformers.
3. Aluminium (Al):
(i)Next to Cu. Al is widely used.
(ii) Al is lighter in weight.
(iii)Al is malleable and ductile, hence it can be hammered and drawn into thin wires.
(iv)Since Cu is costly, Al is widely used.
(v)It can be used for cables over head wires (A.C.S.R.)
(vi) Resistivity = 2.65 x 10-8 ohm-m.
(vii) Melting point = 675 deg. C.
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4. Steel :
(i)It is made up carbon and iron.
(ii)It is mechanically very strong.
(iii)It conductivity is poor, hence its use as a conductor is restricted.
(iv)Used in traction as return wire, and used for short distance transmission wire.
(v) Tensile strength = 70 to 75 kg / mm2
(vi) Resistivity =1.18 x 10-8 ohm-m.
Basically there are two types of conductors 1) Solid Conductor 2) Stranded Conductor
1) Solid Conductor :-Single rigid conductor having uniform cross section throughout ts called solid
conductor.
2) Stranded Conductor:- For greater flexibility number of conductors are twisted together are called
stranded conductors. No. of conductors stranded together depends upon current carrying capacity.
Conductor with insulation is called wire. For measuring sizes of wire British standard wire gauge
is used.
S. W. G :-
1)The S.W.G. is an instrument which is used for
determining the size of a wire.
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3. If bare conductor enters the gauge just easily then that gauge no. is gauge of conductor or wire. E.g. If
the conductor enters in gauge no.3 just easy, in gauge no. 4 it is not easily entering and in gauge no. 2 it
is loosely entering, then the gauge of that conduction is 3.
4. Higher the gauge no. lesser is the diameter of that wire.
1/18 wire means
No. of conductor is = 1
Gauge of conductor is = 18
3/20 means
No. of conductors or no. of Strands = 3
Gauge of each conductor is 20
1/18 5 amp
3/22 10 amp
3/20 15amp
7/22 20 amp
Insulators :
(i) The substances through which the current cannot flow are known as insulators.
(ii)A good insulator must have high resistivity and practically nil conductivity.
e.g. Rubber, plastic, wood, porcelain.
Properties of Insulators :
1.Resistivity should be very high.
2.It should be water resistant.
3.It should be fire proof.’
4.It should not be porous.
5.It should not contain any impurities.
6.It should be mechanically strong.
1.Porcelain :
(i) Porcelain is the best of all insulator.
(ii) It is made from chine-clay and quartz.
(iii)It is mechanically very strong.
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2.Mica :
(i)Why mica is used as insulator.
(ii)It has high mechanical strength, high resistance.
(iii)It is fire resistant, moisture resistant.
(iv) It retains elec. and mech. properties at high temp.
(v)It acts as a very good thermal conductor hence used in electric iron for covering the heating element, also
used for making commutator segments.
(vi) Resistivity is 1014 to 1016 − cm
3.Transformer oil :
(i)This oil is obtained by refining petroleum oils.
(ii)It is a very good insulator.
(iii)It is used for cooling purpose.
(iv)It acts as an arc quenching medium.
(v)It is used in transformer, circuit breakers and cables.
(vi) Density is between 087 to 0.89 g / cm3
Properties of transformer oil :
1.It should not contain any impurities.
2.Its viscosity should be low to facilitate cooling.
3.Even after long services no deterioration, oxidation, acid, sludge or moisture formation.
4.No rapid burning.
4.Asbestos :
(i)It has a fibrous structure and found beneath rock.
(ii)It is white and brown in colour.
(iii)It can be given different shapes very easily.
(iv)It is fire proof.
(v)Used in electric iron, regulator etc.
(vi)Specific resistance = 1.6 105 − cm .
5.P.V.C. :
(i) Insulating material is synthetic compound. It is obtained from the polymerization of acetylene. It is
compounded with certain materials known as plasticizers.
(ii) P.V.C. has high insulation resistance, good dielectric strength and mechanical toughness over a wide
range of temperature. It is inert to oxygen and almost inert to many alkalies and acids.
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*Semi-Conductors :The substance which has both the properties of conductor as well as insulators are known
as semi-conductors.
At low temperature, it behaves as an insulator but at high temperature it behaves as a conductor e.g.
Germanium, silicon.
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Types of wires :
a) In this type of wire, single tinned (to prevent rubber sticking to the conductor) copper or aluminum
conductor is used. Conductor is covered with a layer of rubber insulation.
b) Over this rubber insulation is put up a cotton-protective braid which is usually saturated with flame
retarding and moisture resistant compound.
c) Finally it is finished with wax for cleanliness and helping pulling action of it into the conduits.
d) Thickness of rubber insulation depends upon the voltage for which wire is required, they are available
for 250 V or600V.
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a) Such type of wires consists of three layers of fibrous yarn provided over Cu conductor.
b) Before these braids are applied conductors are saturated with waterproof compound.
c) It is used for outdoor purposes, since it can with stand rain, sunlight, chemical action.
d) They are resistant to atmospheric variation.
V] Flexible wires
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WIRING ACCESSORIES
1. SWITCHES
2. LAMP HOLDER
3. CEILING ROSE
4. SOCKET OUTLET
5. PLUG
6. DISTRIBUTION BOX
7. FUSE
8. WIRES
1. SWITCH: A switch is used to make or break the electrical circuit contacts. A switch should so operate
that it should make the contact firmly and break the contact instantaneously. For this action there is a
spring provided to the movable blades.
Types of switches:
A. Surface switch (or Tumbler Switch): These switches are mounted on mounting blocks or directly fixed
over the surface of the wall. Such types of switches project out of the surface of the wall.ss
Classified as:
a. One way switch-
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B. Piano switch (or Flush switch): These switches are enclosed in wooden board or P.V.C. board recessed into
the wall.
Switches do not project out. Current carrying parts are not easily accessible.
C. Pull switches: Pull switches are fixed on ceiling and all live parts are out of reach of operator.
Pull cord is provided with a single pull on the cord for on/off positions.
D. Grid switches: These switches are similar to surface switches, only they are lighter. 4
So, they are useful for portable machines and appliances.
E. Rotary snap switches: These switches consist of an insulated handle to which blades are fixed. These blades
move in steps by the movement of handle and make contact with the terminals.
F. Push button switches: These switches open or close with quick action when pressed. It is used for starting
motors or ringing bells. They are widely used in automatic control applications as Normally Open (Start)
switch or Normally Closed (Stop) switch.
G. Intermediate switch: This switch has four contacts when dolly is up the top and bottom contacts are
bridged and when down, the contacts are cross connected.
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Two types are : i) I.C.D.P. – (Iron clad double pole) It is used in single phase circuit.
ii)I.C.T.P. - (Iron clad triple pole) It is used in three phase circuit.
For domestic installations switches are designed for
Voltage rating : 230v, 440v
Current rating : 16A, 32A, 63A, 100A, 200A so on.
2. LAMP HOLDER : A lamp holder is used to hold the lamp required for lighting purpose. Lamp holders
are either moulded or porcelain interior with a solid or spring plunger and wire terminals.
Types are :
a. Pendant holder
b. Batten holder
c. Bracket holder
d. Edison screw holder.
e. Fluorescent lamp holder
(i) Bi-pin type
(ii) Bayonet caped tube holder
f. Starter holder
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3. CEILING ROSE :A ceiling rose is used to provide a tapping to a pendant lamp holder through a flexible
wire or a connection to a fluorescent tube, ceiling fans. Ceiling rose is consists of circular porcelain or Bakelite
base provided with two or three terminal plates.
To a threaded base porcelain or Bakelite cover is fixed.
4. SOCKET OUTLET : The socket outlets have insulated base having three terminal sleeves. The two thin
terminal sleeves are making connection to the two core cable with the third terminal sleeve thicker in cross
section is used for an earth connection.
5A socket outlets are used for lighting circuits.
15A heavy duty are used for power circuits.
5.PLUG : For tapping power from socket outlets three pin plugs are used. The thicker pin is used in earth
connection.
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Three pin 5A for lighting circuits and 15A three pin plugs are used for power circuit.
6.DISTRIBUTION BOX:
a. Distribution boards are iron-clad and houses fuse bank.
b. Fuses in D.B. can be easily removed.
c. D.B. is used for splitting the circuit.
d. For connecting neutral, D.B. is provided with neutral link.
7. FUSE : It is safety device used in the phase wire. When current exceeds its normal rated value fusing
element in the fuse melts and breaks the circuit.
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6. WIRING SYSTEM
Types of Wiring System :
1. Cleat wiring. 3. Casing & caping wiring.
2. Batten wiring 4. Conduit wiring
a. C.T.S system
b. Lead-sheath system
Cleat Wiring
Advantages :-
(i) Very cheap.
(ii) Skilled labours are not required.
(iii) Less time required for wiring.
(iv) Recovery of material can be made when wiring is no longer reqd.
Disadvantages :-
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Application:-
(i) It is used for temporary purpose like Project work.
(ii) Temporary lighting at dry places.
BATTEN WIRING
1. Lead covered or Metal sheathed
2. C.T.S. type of wiring system
1.Lead covered or Metal sheathed
a) This type of wiring system consists of rubber insulated conductor covered with an outer sheath of lead
alloy containing 95% lead which provides protection from mechanical injury and dampness. Wires are
fixed by means of metal clips spaced at regular intervals which must not be more than 30 cm.
b) Metal clips (joint clips) are fixed at an interval of 10 cm horizontally and 15 cm vertically on wooden
batten.
c) Lead sheath must be earthed. This is done to avoid electrolytic action due to leakage current, which
deteriorate the lead covering.
d) Also earthing provides safety against metal sheath becoming live.
Advantages :(i) Protection from dampness.
(ii) Fault finding is easy.
(iii) Semi-skilled workers required.
(iv)Mechanical protection is good.
Disadvantages :(i) Costly.
(ii) Continuous earth wire should run along with lead wire in case of lead sheathed wiring
system.
Application:-
(i) It is used for domestic work.
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a) In C.T.S. types of wiring system, C.T.S. wires are fixed by means of metal clips on wooden beams or
perfectly straight and well varnished wooden batten.
b) Metal clips (joint clips) are fixed at an interval of 10 cm horizontally and 15 cm vertically on wooden
batten.
c) The wiring should not be given any right angle bend.
d) It is preferred to pass the wire through the conduit pipe when passing through the walls, ceiling or floor.
Advantages :(i) Life is long.
(ii) Fault finding is easy.
(iii) Semi-skilled workers required.
(iv)Time required for installation is less.
Disadvantages :(i)Appearance is shabby.
(ii) Fair possibility of fire.
(iii)Maintenance cost more.
Application:-
(i) It is used for domestic work.
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Advantages :-
(i) Life is long.
(ii) Cost is medium.
(iii) PVC capping casing can be used at moist places.
(iv) Mechanical protection is more than cleat & batten wiring.
Disadvantages :-
(i) In wooden casing –capping possibility of fire is more.
(ii) Skilled labours required.
Application:-
(i) It is used for domestic work.
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a) In this system, VIR or PVC wires are run in tubes called conduits.
b) Conduits are of two types:
(i) Metal conduits are made of galvanized iron or High grade steel .
(ii) PVC conduits.
c) Conduits can be either buried under plaster or can be supported over the walls by means of saddles or
pipe hooks.
d) Wiring with conduit on surface of walls is known as surface conduit wiring used for workshops
e) Whereas wiring with conduits buried under plaster is called concealed conduit wiring.
f) Conduits are generally erected first and wiring is done later.
g) Wires are pulled through the conduits with the help of steel wires.
h) This drawing of wires is called fishing .
Advantages :
(i) It provides protection against fire due to short circuit.
(ii) It provides protection against mechanical injury.
(iii) It provides protection against moisture, fumes in chemical industry & factories.
(iv) Concealed conduit wiring do not spoil the beauty of premises.
Disadvantages:-
Application:-
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Precautions:
(i) Use High Grade steel pipe for surface conduit, G.I. for concealed conduit & PVC pipe for general
purpose.
(ii) Work must be done by the skilled persons.
(iii) Earth wire should be continuously run through the conduits.
(iv) Appropriate threading must be done not less than 1.5 cm.
(v) Pipes must be properly supported by saddles.
(vi) Inspection bends &tees must be used at proper places.
Selection of wiring
Factor Affecting wiring.
(i) Durability.
(ii) Safety.
(iii) Appearance.
(iv) Cost factor.
(v) Accessibility.
(vi) Maintenance cost.
Durability :-Type of wiring selected should be durable according to the type of building. Ex: Cleat wiring is
suitable for temporary purpose.
Safety :-While selecting type of wiring one has to look into the safety aspect .Ex: In chemical factory,where
fumes are produced, batten or wooden casing caping should not be used.
Cost :-Type of wiring should meet the consumer’s requirement within available resources.
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1. Total load in the circuit should not exceed 800 watts and number of points should not exceed 10 in one
circuit.
2. Lighting and power devices should have different circuits.
3. For sub-circuits use 1sq mm copper wires or 1.5sq mm aluminum wires.
4. All distribution boards should be marked as power and light as the case.
5. All metallic coverings containing electric supply wires metallic apparatus for ex: Iron clad switches,
distribution boards, refrigerators, energy meters, ovens, electric heaters should be earthed with an earth
electrode.
6. Earthing resistance should not be more than 1 ohm. Insulation resistance should not be less than
50 𝑚𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠
7. In domestic wiring 3 pin plug only should used and should be earthed.
8. Bottom of ceiling fan should have a minimum clearance of 2.5 m. from the ground.
9. Switch boards should be fixed at the height of 1.5 m.
10. Wiring should be done very close to the ceiling.
11. Switches and fuses should be connected to live wire.
12. Neutral should be linked.
13. Provide lightening arresters for high rise buildings. Insulation resistance value must be 1 mega ohm.
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b. Both phase and neutral wires are taken to the first switch and from the switch, these wires go to the
next switch by looping.
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1] Plan or layout is made which decides location of meters, points, switch board.
2]Energy meter should be installed outside the room.
3] Main switch should be provided immediately after the energy meter.
4] Depending upon number of points and their location number of circuits are decided
5] Proper distribution board is chosen considering the future demand.
6] Proper fuses and switches at proper places are installed.
1]POLARITY TEST
2] INSULATION RESISTANCE TEST |: A] Insulation resistance test between conductor and earth.
B] Insulation resistance test between conductors.
3] CONTINUTY OR OPEN CIRCUIT TEST
4] SHORT CIRCUIT TEST
5] EARTHING SYSTEM TEST
POLARITY TEST: Neutral wire should be in the lamp and live wire should be in the switch. With the help of
tester or neon lamp we can test polarity.
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Polarity test with test lamp is as shown in the diagram, in which one end of the testing lamp is earthed and the
other end of the lamp is connected to switch. If the lamp lights, The switch is correctly installed in the live wire
If does not light, it means that the switch has not been correctly installed.
(i) These test is carried out with MEGGER. Megger is a portable instrument used to measure insulation
resistance of electrical equipments, machines and installations.
(ii) This test is conducted to find the value of the insulation resistance between live and neutral conductors .
(iii)On megger test terminals L and E are provided so as to connect a resistance under test and measure the
insulation resistance.
(iv) All the lamps should be removed and the main switch should be put OFF.
(v) All the fuses should be intact and all the switches should be ON. Put in all the fuses in the distribution
board.
(vi) Connect Megger terminals between phase and neutral of main switch.
(vii) Rotate Megger handle with constant speed of 160 r.p.m In this test the result should be less than 3M-
ohms. This is the insulation resistance between live and neutral conductors
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(i) In this test resistance between each conductor and earth is measured to for determining the value
of leakage current .This calculated leakage current should not exceed 1/5000 part of full load
current. And this can be calculated from resistance measured by megger
𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
Leakage current = 𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑚𝑒𝑔𝑔𝑒𝑟
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A.C.S.R. conductors are most commonly used over head line conductor.
An aluminum conductor having a central core of galvanized steel wire is used for high voltage transmission
purpose. This is done to increase the tensile strength of aluminum conductor.
4) Cadmium Copper :Copper alloyed with cadmium for 2 % addition of cadmium increases tensile strength
by 50%, conductivity reduced by 15%.These conductors are costly.
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Poles are grouted in the earth with cement concrete and one sixth of the pole is embedded in the earth.
Types of Poles :
1) Wooden poles
2) Steel Tubular poles
3) R.C.C [Reinforced cement concrete]
4) Steel towers
1) Wooden poles :
a. Used for low voltages distribution purposes
b. Cheap and provide insulating property.
c. Tend to rot, life is short.
2) Steel Tubular poles :
a. Stronger than wood, longer spans are possible.
b. They must be galvanized or painted.
c. For safety they must be earthed.
3) R.C.C. pole – Reinforced cement concrete
a. Mechanically strong
b. Longer life, low maintenance
4) Steel towers : Generally poles are used for distribution. Towers are useful
for long transmission lines. Broad base lattice steel towers are used. Useful for
crossing fields, valleys, railway lines, rivers.
Material of Insulators :
Porcelain Insulators
Glass Insulators
Steatite Insulators
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Types of Insulators :
3 Strain insulators When there is a dead end on the line or there is corner or a sharp curve
or line crosses the river, the line is to withstand great strain, strain
insulators are used.
4 Stay insulators For low voltage line the stays are to be the insulated from ground at a
height not less than 3 meters from the ground. The insulator used in the
stay wire is called as stay insulator.
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Shackle insulators: Shackle or spool insulator is used in low voltage distribution network.It can be used both
in horizontal and vertical position.
Stay insulator: These are used in stay wire to avoid the flow of any leakage of current to earth. These are
provided at a height of 3 meters from the level of ground .
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8. UNDERGROUND CABLES
Cable is any current carrying conductor either of solid or stranded type provided with over all insulation.
Underground cables are being mostly utilized for transmission and distribution of electrical energy. For certain
loads for example air-port, thickly populated areas it is necessary to use underground cable for distribution,
transmission and service connections.
Underground cable can be specified by number of cores, voltage they can withstand or type of insulation.
Principle insulating material used in cables are rubber, vulcanized India rubber impregnated paper, varnished
cambric and polyvinyl chloride.
The type of insulation to used must have following properties.
1) It should have high specific resistance.
2) It should be tough and flexible.
3) It should not be hygroscopic.
4) It should be capable of standing high temperatures.
5) It should be non-inflammable.
6) It should not be attacked by acids and alkalies.
Comparison between Overhead system and Underground system
Overhead Underground
1) Repair-easy to repair Not easy to repair
2) Fault location is easy and quick Fault location is not easy
3) Initial cost is less Initial cost is more
4) Due to more spacing of the conductor charging Charging current is more
current is less in over head system.
5) Jointing is easy Jointing is difficult
6) Maintenance cost is more Maintenance cost is less
7) Safety is less Safety is more
8) Appearance is shabby Compact and invisible.
9) Affected by Lightning and thunderstorm. No effect of lighting and thunderstorm.
10) Interference to Telephone lines. No interference to Telephone lines.
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CONSTRUCTION OF CABLE :
2) Core (Insulation) : Conductor with one layer of insulation is called core. All cables have one centre core
and number of cores. Different insulations used to insulate the conductors are paper varnished cambric
impregnated paper or P.V.C. Thickness of layer depending upon voltage to be with standby the cable.
3) Metallic sheath : A metallic sheath is provided over the insulation so as to prevent the entry of moisture
into the insulating material. The metallic sheath is leador lead alloy. Metallic sheath protect the cable from
moisture, gases, acids and alkalies in the soil.
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4) Bedding : Over the metallic sheath comes a layer of bedding which consists of paper tape compounded
with a fibrous material. Sometimes jute strands or hessian tape is also used for bedding. To protect metallic
sheath against corrosion and mechanical injury due to armouring.
5) Armouring : Armouring is provided to avoid mechanical injury to the cable and it consists of providing
one or two layers of galvanized steel wires or steep tapes.
6) Serving : In order to protect armoring from atmospheric condition layer of fibrous material or P.V.C. is
provided over the armouring.
Laying of Cables
Before laying cable under the ground its route should be surveyed and the positions of water mains or drains
should be ascertained.
1) Direct Laying : In this method a trench of about 1.5 meters deep 0.5 m wide is dug. The trench is covered
with a layer of fine sand of about 10 cm thickness and cable is laid over this sand bed. The sand prevents entry
of moisture from the ground and protects the cable from decay. After the cable has been laid in the trench. It is
covered within another layer of soil of about 15 cm thickness. Bricks or tiles are laid on this layer of soil and
finally trench is filled by soil. When more than one cable is laid in the same trench horizontal, spacing of at
least 30 cm is provided.
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Advantages :
1) Simple, cheap, clean and safe.
2) Favorable condition for dissipation of heat.
Disadvantages :
1) Alteration and extension cannot be made easily.
2) Localization of fault is difficult.
Pipe or duct laying or Draw In system
In this method conduit or duct of cast iron or concrete are laid in the ground with man-holes at suitable
position along the cable route. Cable are then pulled into position from man-holes. The cables to be laid in this
way need not to be armoured. This method is used in workshops, road crossing.
Advantages :
1) Repairs alterations or additions can be made without
opening the ground.
2) Mechanical protection is strong.
Disadvantages :
1) Initial cast is high.
2) Unfavorable conditions for dissipation of heat.
Cable Jointing
Two types of cable joints :
1) Straight through joints.
2) T-joints
General steps are as follows :
i) Marking of cutting point with an allowance of 5 cm overlap approximately. Tie up the ends with
binding wire at 15 to 20 cm from the jointing end.
ii) Removing insulation making conductor open for 3 cm.
iii) Twisting conductor ends.
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iv) Soldering with the help of cotton tape or by pouring molten solder.
v) Insulating the joint with paper tape.
vi) Allow the joint to cool down.
vii) Sealing all the openings with adhesive compound.
viii) Paint the joint with corrosive resistive black paint.
Open circuit, short circuit and earth fault in the cable can be detected with the help of megger or test lamp.
WIRES CABLE
Conductor with insulation is called as wire When insulation is provided over group of wire ,is
cable
Flexibility is more Flexibility is less
Cost is less Cost is more
Mechanical strength is less Mechanical strength is more
Not used for HV or EHT lines Used for HT and EHT lines
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9. ILLUMINATION
Some Important Definitions:-
Light :It is radiant form of energy from a hot or luminous body.
Luminous flux:It is defined as total quantity of light energy emitted per second from a luminous body. Unit of
luminous flux is lumen.
Lumen:It is a unit of luminous flux.If the source is of one candle power,the luminous flux per unit solid angle
from source is one lumen.
Luminous Intensity:It is defined as flux emitted by lighting sources per unit solid angle unit of luminous
intensity is candela.
Illumination: It is luminous flux received per unit area. Its unit is lumen/m2 or also called lux.
Lux:- It is defined as the illumination of the inside of the sphere of radius one meter at the center of which there
is a source of one caddle power.
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c) The bulb is evacuated to prevent oxidation of filament and also to prevent temperature being lowered by
radiation.
d) When electric current is passed through the filament, heat is produced in the filament due to its high
resistance and temperature increases.
e) At low temperature, it gives heat and at high temperature, it gives both heat and light.
f) Tungsten filament is most commonly used due to its
(i) High melting point - 34000 c .
(ii) High resistivity.
(iii) Low temp co-efficient
(iv) Being Ductile.
(v) Mechanically strong to with-stand vibration.
g) Average efficiency is 10 lumens / watt.
h) Normal life is thousand working hours.
i) Advantages
(i) Operates at unity power factor.
(ii) No effect of surrounding air temperature.
j) Disadvantages
(i) If filament lamp is worked beyond 20000 C, it vaporizes quickly and blackens lamp.
(ii) For higher efficiency, it is necessary to use working temperature more than 20000 C which is
possible by filling the bulb with inert gas. They are called gas filled lamp.
1) Fluorescent lamps
2) Sodium vapour lamps
3) Mercury vapour lamps.
4) Neon lamps.
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1) Fluorescent lamps
(xiii) At that instant, choke discharges giving voltage impulse of about 1100 V across tube.
(xiv) Temp gets raised and gas gets ionized.
(xv) A stream of electrons is formed in few such cycles. Due to repetition of this cycle,2-3 times, we
see flickering of tube light. Once conduction begins through the tube, mercury globules are
evaporated and we get bluish light.
(xvi) When tube starts conducting starter circuit is cut off.
(xvii) Even if starter is removed ,tube continues to glow.
Function of Starter : Starter puts the electrodes directly across supply mains and completes the circuit at the
time of starting, so that choke gets charged and electrodes get heated to emit sufficient electrons.
Function of Choke :
1) Provided a voltage impulse for starting.
2) Acts as ballast or stabilizer for running period.
SodiumVapour Lamp
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2) Neon Lamp
a) It consists of glass bulb filled with neon gas with small percentage of helium.
b) The electrodes used are fixed only a few mm apart so that lamps maybe made
for voltage as low as 110 V A.C. or 150 V D.C.
c) This lamp gives orange-pink coloured light. Power consumption is low (about
5 watt).
d) Efficiency is 40 lumens/watt.
Schemes Of Lighting
1) Direct lighting
a. In this scheme more than 90%light is made to fall on the working plane.
b. This is most efficient scheme, but it causes shadows and glares.
c. Used for industrial and general outdoor lighting.
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a. In this lighting scheme,60% of total light flux is thrown to reflector or ceiling for diffused reflection
and rest 40% reaches working plane directly.
b. This lighting scheme is glare free.
c. Used for indoor light decoration purpose.
4) Indirect lighting
a. 90% of total light flux is thrown upwards to the ceiling for diffused reflection by using inverted
reflector.
b. Glare is minimum.
c. Shadows are less prominent.
d. Used for decoration purpose in theatres and hotels.
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The following table shows the Illumination required for different places :
Places Illumination in foot-candles
Cinema, Auditorium, Corridors, Stair cases Night 1 to 5
Clubs, Hospital wards etc.
Dining Halls, Hotels, Conference Hall, Reception 10
room
Street light, Railway bogie, banks 15
Reading, Writing, Office, Store room, Library, 20
Kitchen, Showrooms
Typing work, Design and drawing room, Office, Bank 30 to 50
Counters
For every delicate, precision, minute repairs, Clock, above 50
Watch-repairs, etc.
Laws of Illumination
In case of a point source the illumination of a surface is inversely proportional to the square of
the distance of the surface from the source of light.
1) Space - Height Ratio: It is defined as the ration of horizontal distance between adjacent lamps to height of
their mounting.
𝑆𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐻𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑠
=
ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒
2) Utilization Factor
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒
Utilization factor= 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑏𝑦𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑝
It depends on:
a. Height of Lamps
b. Area of utilization
c. Scheme of lighting
d. Type of lamp
e. Wall paints
For direct lighting scheme, utilization factor is 0.25-0.5
For indirect lighting scheme, utilization factor is 0.1-0.25
Illumination under normal working conditions
3) Depreciation Factor :This ratio =
Illumination when every thing is clean
It is always less than1.
Generally 0.75-0.8
Formula for finding total lumens Required :
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑋𝐼𝑙𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Lumens Required=𝑈𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑋𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
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Flood Lighting
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(b) Working Principle : It work on the principle of heating effect of electric current.
According to joules law, Heat = I 2 .R.t joules.
(c) Construction :
(i) Metallic tube : It is a hollow tube and made of Cu.
(ii) Heating element : It is made of nicrome and is placed centrally in the Cu tube.
(iii) Insulating powder : The gap between heating element and Cu tube is filled with MgO. It is a
good insulator and a good thermal conductor.
(iv) Supply chord : It is a V.I.R. wire connected with 3-pin plug for safety.
Faults :
(i) Short circuit faults : This can be checked by series test lamp by connecting the testing terminal to
the heating coil. If the series test lamp glow very bright it is a S.C. faults.
(ii) Open circuit faults : This can be checked by test lamp by connection the testing terminal to the
heating coil. If the lamp does not glow, it is a open circuit faults.
(iii) Earth faults : This can be checked by test lamp by connecting the first testing terminal to the body
and second terminal to the heating coil if the lamp glows this is an earth faults, this can be removed
by providing earthing to the body.
Precaution :
1. Do not use the heater continuously for a longer period of time.
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2. Electric Geyser :
(a)
(b) Working Principle : It works on the principle of heating effect of electric current.
(c) Construction :
(i) Storage tank : The inner tank is made of tinned Cu in which water is heated and the outer cylinder
is made up of steel.
(ii) Glasswool: The space between the two tank is filled with glass wool which is a good insulator and
a good thermal reflector.
(iii) Heating element : It is made up of nichrome and can be one or two in numbers in the storage tank.
(iv) Thermostat : To control the heating element temperature it, is connected with thermostat in the
storage tank.
(v)Earthing : To prevent electric shock the body of the geyser is earthed.
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(e) Precautions :
1. Make sure the water level is above heating element.
2. Use proper earthing.
3. Use proper supply chords.
ELECTRIC IRON :
(a) Circuit Diagram :
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(c) Construction :
(i) Sole plate / Base plate : Made up of nickel plated steel. It is used to iron the cloths
(ii) Heating element : Made up of nichrome and placed above the sole plate between Mica sheet.
Properties of Heating Element ( Nichrome ) i) High Resistance, ii) High melting point, iii) Low
temperature coefficient of resistance, iv) Low oxidation.
(iii) Mica : The mica is good insulator and good thermal conductors and has very high melting
points. Mica sheets are used to cover the heating element.
(iv) Asbestos sheet : This sheet is placed above the mica sheet, it is a good insulator and a good
thermal reflector to reflect the complete heat to the base plate.
(v) Pressure / Weight plate : If the weight plate is placed over the asbestos sheet for uniform
distribution of heat.
(vi) Handle : Made up of wood or ebonite. It is used to hold the iron.
(vii) Thermostat : This is connected in series with the heating element to control the heat.
(viii) Switch : To On or Off the supply.
(ix) Chord : To Supply electricity to coil. It is covered with cotton layer.
(d) Faults :
(i) Short circuit faults :- Short circuited coil or burnt coil
(ii) Open circuit faults :- Due to brakeage in heating elements, loose connection, disconnection of
Heating elements from the supply terminals.
(iii) Earth faults :- Due to damaged insulation coil may touch the body.
CELING FAN
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(v) Regulator
i) Bolts and shackle : They are used to hold the hanging rod onto the ceiling.
ii) Canopy : There are two canopies, 1. Upper canopy is used to cover the bolts and shackle, while the
lower canopy is used to cover the capacitor housing.
iv) Motor : The motor used in ceiling fan is the single phase, permanent capacitor type motor.
a) Stators : The stators has two winding, one is main winding and other is starting winding. Both the
winding are displaced from each other by 90 0 in the space. A capacitor connected permanently in series
with the starting winding. Since the capacitor is connected permanently in the circuit, it is continuous
duty rated time having its value in between 2 to 20 F .
b) Rotor : Rotor surrounds the stator. The rotor is of squirrel cage type. The rotor winding are skewed
to avoid humming sound and magnetic locking between stator and rotor fields.
v) Blades : There are generally three blades connected to the rotor shaft. The blades are slightly
curved. If the blades would have been flat, the air would have circulated only in the area right below the
fan.
vi) Terminal Connector : They are used to connect the supply wires with the windings.
vii) Regulator : The speed of fan is controlled by speed regulator. The regulator consists of a number
of resistance steps in series. It is connected to the fan motor in series of the supply. The applied voltage
to the motor is varied by changing the resistance in steps till the fan works on the desired speed.
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Common faults and Remedies : Open circuit fault, short circuit fault and earth fault are checked as usual by a
series test lamp as explained earlier
The fan becomes very hot, or the blades rotate slowly : This may be due to the capacitor damaged or burnt,
blade angle might be disturbed, short circuited or an earth fault, worn out brushes and bearings.
The fan produces noise : This may be due to defective blade angle, no proper lubrication, bending of shaft,
bearings damaged.
The fan body is not revolving : There may be a defect in the gear or the oscillating rod.
Electric Toaster
In auto toaster is a domestic electrical device which is used to bake the slices of bread .
Parts :- 1. Metal body 2.Bakelite base
3.Heating element 4.Lifting knob 5.Automatic adjustment knob
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Constructional details
1. Heating element is made up of nicrome. It is ribbon shaped and wound on a mica sheet .
2. Elements are mounted on the sides of slices kept vertically. Elements are connected in parallel.
3. Thermostat is used for temperature control in automatic toaster. Thermostat houses bimetallic strip it
functions on the principle that different metals have different rate of expansion when heated.
For ex. Brass has a greater coefficient of expansion than iron. If a strip is made of bimetal (i.e. Brass and iron)
and heated beyond the certain temperature it will bend downwards.
Working :
As soon as the toaster is switched on, current passes through the element and the bimetallic strip is heated .If it
is overheated it bends to a certain extent and breakes the ckt through timer switch. After sometime it cools and
comes to a original position pushing the lever and releasing a spring device, which carries the slices upwards.
This action completes the toasting of bread pieces by breaking the ckt, main supply and the timer switch.
1. spirally wound heating element made up of nicrome is embedded in between an insulating cemented
material like plaster of paris or fire clay.
3.Heating element is independently controlled by a separate switch. When either switch is in ON position it
gives half of the full heat and when both switches are on the full heat is available.
4. It works on the heating effect of electric current. When current flows to heating elements heat is produced.
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PAPER-2
11.TRANSFORMERS
Magnetic effect of Electric current:
When an electric current flows through a conductor a magnetic field is immediately brought into existence in
the space surrounding it.
The strength of magnetic field depends on the :
i. Number of turns of coil.
ii. Current in the coil.
Field strength No .turns x Current.
If such a coil is wound on a piece of iron rod, it behaves like a magnet. This simple arrangement of iron rod
wound with a coil is electromagnet.
Acc to Faraday’s First Law of electromagnetic induction ,statically induced e.m.f. is defined as, whenever
stationary conductors are placed in changing magnetic field, e.m.f. is induced in the conductor.
Dynamically induced EMF can be defined as whenever conductor is made to rotate in magnetic field EMF
is induced in it.
Acc to Faraday’s second Law, Magnitude of induced EMF depends on rate of change of magnetic flux.
Whenever flux linking with coil changes due to change of current in coil itself, then e.m.f. induced in coil is
called self induced.EMF
SELF INDUCTION :
d
e = −N
dt
1. When an AC potential is applied to coil A, current starts following in the coil.
2. The magnetic flux linking with coil changes according to Faraday’s fast law of electromagnetic
induction E.M.F. is induced in the coil.
3. Since the E.M.F. induced in the coil is due to the change in current in the coil itself the E.M.F. is called
as self induced E.M.F.
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MUTUALLY INDUCED EMF : Emf. induced in second coil due to change of current in first coil is
called mutually induced e.m.f.
1. Whenever another coil B is kept near or over the coil A. If A.C. supply is given to coil A. Alternating
magnetic flux will be produced in coil A. The flux in coil A links with the coil B also.
2. According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction. E.M.F. is induced in the coil B.
3. The E.M.F. induced in the coil B is due to the change in current in coil A. The E.M.F. induced in coil B
is known as mutually induced E.M.F.
𝑁1 𝑑∅ 𝑑∅
es∝ where es=self induced emf, N1=Number of turns of coil, =rate of change of flux
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑁2 𝑑∅
em∝ where N2= Number of turns of 2 coil , em – mutually induced e.m.f.
𝑑𝑡
Flux increase from 0 to its max value m in one quarter of cycle ie in 1 sec.
4f
Avg. rate of change of flux = m = 4 f m Wb / s or volt
14f
Rate of change of flux=induced e.m.f./turn(By Faraday’s Law)
Avg.e.m.f. per turn=4f m volts.
If flux varies sinusoidally, then r.m.s value of induced e.m.f. is obtained by multiplying avg valve with form
factor
𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑣𝑒
Form Factor= 𝐴𝑣𝑔𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑣𝑒 = 1.11
r.m.s. value of induced e.m.f. / turn = 1.11 4 f m = 4.44 f m volt
r.m.s. value of the induced e.m.f. in the whole of primary winding = Induced e.m.f./turn x N1in primary
E1 =4.44f m N1 volts
Similarly r.m.s. value of e.mf. induced in secondary is
E2 =4.44f m N2 volts
Transformation Ratio:
From e.m.f. equation,
E1 =4.44f m N1
E2 =4.44f m N2
𝐸2 4.44𝑓∅m N2 𝑁2
= =
𝐸1 4.44𝑓∅m N1 𝑁1
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𝐸2 𝑁2
=
𝐸1 𝑁1
𝐸2 𝐼
E1I1=E2I2 =𝐼1
𝐸1 2
*We know that,
V1 = E1 + voltage drop
E2 = V2 + voltage drop
When k=1;N2=N1
k>1;N2>N1 Step of transformer
k<1;N2<N1 Step down transformer
Numerical:
Example : 1
One winding of transformer has 400 turns and other has 1000 turns. State which is L.T. winding and which is
H.T winding .the L.T winding is connected to 500V supply find primary and sec voltage.
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Example 2 :
A transformer has Primary Voltage 6600v and secondary voltage 250v. It has 56 sec. turns. Find primary
number of turns.
Data 2 : V1 = 600
V2 = 250
N 2 = 56
N1 = ?
Since we know the formulae
E2 N N I
= 2 = 2 = 1 = K by using this formulae we can find the secondary number of turns.
E1 V1 N1 I 2
250 N
= 2
6600 56
250 56
N2 =
6600
250 56
=
6600 N1
56 6600
N1 =
250
N1 =1373.approx
Example 3:
A 30KVA transformer has 500 turns on the primary and 50 turns on the secondary side the primary is connected
to 3000 volt 50 Hz ac supply calculate
Calculate: 1) I1and I2 at full load and half load
2) E2 3) Maximum Flux(Neglect Drop)
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Data 3: P = 30 KVA
N 2 = 50
N1 = 500
V1 = 3000V
N = 50 Hz.
Calculate: I1 , I 2 , @full load and half load.
E2 ,
V I
Solution: KVA = 1 1
1000
1)
1000 * KVA 1000 * 30
I1 = = = 10 A
V1 3000
I F . L. = 10 A
10
I I . H . L. = = 5 Amp
2
50 10
=
500 I 2
1 10
=
10 I 2
100
I 2 F . L. = 100 Amp I 2 H . L. = ,50 Amp
2
E V
2) Since we know that 2 = 2
E1 V1
E2 = V2
V N
2= 2
V1 N1
V2 50
=
3000 500
V2 = 300 volt
V2 = E2
E2 = 300
3)Now,
E2 V2
=
E1 V1
300 300
=
E1 3000
3000 300
= E1
300
E1 = 3000 volts
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E1 = 4.44 m f N1
3000 = 4.44 m 50 500
3000
=
4.44 50 500
3
=
4.44 25
= 0.027 wb
Numerical:
1) A 2000/200V, 10 KVA,60HZ transformer has 66 turns in sec. Calculate N1 and current I1 and I2
2) A 1phase transformer 250/125V, 1KVA 50HZ connected to 250 V supply Calculate full load primary
and secondary currents.
3) A 1phase transformer has N1=8000,N2=2000 if primary winding is connected to 500V- Find out
secondary emf(Neglect Drop)
4) For 30KVA 250/6000V, 1 transformer find rated current of L.T. .H.T. winding turns are 4800,find
L.T. turns.
5) The maximum flux density in the core of a 250/3000V, 50HV, 1 Transformer is 0.00012 wb/cm2. If
the e.m.f. induced per turn is 8.0V. Find number of turns and net cross-sectional area of the core.
(Hint :- Φmax = Bmax X A )
Classification of transformer:
1) Acc .To type of supply
i)1 phase transformer ii)3phase transformer
a) V2>V1 V2< V1
Secondary voltage greater than Secondary voltage less than primary voltage.
primary voltage.
b) N2>N1 N2 <N1
No of turns on sec greater than prim Number of turns on secondary less than primary
c) I2<I1 I2>I1
Sec current less than primary current Sec current greater than prim current
d) K>1 K<1
Where k =transformation Ratio
e) Symbol Symbol
According to construction:-
Core Type transformer Shell transformer
Transformer:
Core Type transformer
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Explanation
1) This type of transformer has magnetic cores in the shape of rectangular frames
2) The transformer core consists of laminations arranged is group which radiate out from the center
3) It has more number of magnetic paths compare to other transformers.
Advantages
1) Relatively more rigid
2) Lesser weight and size per KVA rating
3) Lower iron losses at higher operating flux densities
4) Lower cost
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Auto transformer
Instrument transformer:
a) It is not practical to measure very high voltages & current of E.H.V. (Extra high voltage) or
E.H.T.(Extra high tension) lines.
b) To measure these quantities specially constructed accurate ratio instrument transformers are used.
c) Instrument transformer are of 2 types-
(i) Current transformer (C.T.)
(ii) Potential transformer (P.T.)
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(i) Current transformer is step up transformer used in conjunction with low range ammeter to
measure current in high voltage A.C circuits.
(ii) This transformer steps down the current in a known ratio.
(iii) C.T has primary coil of one or more turns of thick wire, connected in series with the line whose
current is to be measured.
(iv) Sec consists of large number of turns of thin wire and is connected to ammeter terminals.
(v) According to voltage this transformer is step up transformer.
(vi) But it’s obvious that current will be step down.
(vii) Tong tester or clip-on type C.T. are most commonly used.
(viii) Precaution
(1) Secondary should not be kept open, otherwise high voltage is induced in circuit and damage
the core.
(2) If ammeter is taken out, the sec terminals must be shorted.
Potential transformer (PT):-
(i) These transformers are highly accurate ratio step down transformers and used in conjunction with
standard low voltage voltmeter.
(ii) When sec voltage is divided by transformation ratio it gives actual voltage on H.V. side.
(iii) Generally they are shell type oil immersed transformers.
(iv) Appropriate earthing & insulation should be provided for safety.
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a) In all types of transformers, core is of silicon steel laminations assembled to provide a continuous magnetic
path.
b) Steel has high silicon content of high permeability and low hysteresis loss.
c) Laminations are provided to reduce eddy current loss.
d) Laminations are insulated by each other by varnish or oxide layer.
e) Thickness of lamination is 0.33-0.5mm.
f)Around the core there is an insulation drum around which winding of transformer are positioned.
g)Windings are made up of copper or Aluminium.
h)Generally paper insulation is provided to insulate the windings.
i)In large transformers, to extract heat produced ,proper cooling system is adopted.
j)Supply and load terminal of transformer are brought out through porcelain bushing ,for mechanical and
electric protection.
a) Large scale generation electric power is usually 3-Phase .
b) Instead of using interconnected 3 single phase transformers, Application of single three phase
transformer is economical.
c) As compared bank of 3 single phase transformers the main advantages of 3 transformers are:
(i) It occupies less floor space for equal rating.
(ii) Weight is less.
(iii) Cost is also 15%less.
d) To reduce the number of wires 6 terminals of 3 wires can be connected in star or wye connection[ ] or
in delta or mesh connection .
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a) In star connection terminals either starting or finishing of all the three windings are joined together.
b) From junction of this point a wire is taken out. This point is called as star point or neutral point. And
/wire is called neutral wire.
c) From remaining 3 terminals 3 wires are taken .Such a system is called 3 Phase 4 wire system.
d) 3 coils or 3 phases mounted on same axis and displaced from each other by 1200.
e) Voltage measured across 2 terminals of a coil is called phase voltage Vph.
f) Voltage between any 2 lines is called line voltage demoted by VL
g) VL= √3Vph
IL = Line current
Iph=Phase current
h) IL=Iph
Power = √3VLILcos
Delta connection:
a) If the finishing terminal of first winding is connected to starting of second winding to form a closed
mesh is called delta or mesh connection.
b) It is also called 3 -3 wire system.
c) Vph=VL
IL = √3Iph
Power = √3VLILcos
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3 transformers connections
Types Application
22,000V
Pr i Sec
Load
1. Primary winding
2. Secondary winding
3. Transformer oil
4. Cooling Tubes
5. Tank
6. Primary terminals
7. Secondary terminals
8. Drain cock
9. Earth point
10. Explosion vent
11. Temperature gauge
12. Buchholz Relay
13. Conservator
14. Breather
15. oil level indicator
1) Primary Winding:
a) It is made of copper either star or delta connected.
b) Supply is given to this winding
c) Sets up magnetic field
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2) Secondary windings:
a) It is made of copper either star or delta connected.
b) According to number of turns,
c) emf is induced in it.
3) Transformer oil:
a) Transformers are generally housed in tightly fitted sheet metal tank filled with special insulating
oil(Even after long services no deterioration, oxidation, acid ,sludge or moisture formation and no
rapid burning)
b) Transformer oil is mineral oil, clean hydrocarbon oil obtained by refining crude petroleum.
c) Transformer oil is used for insulation purpose having high dielectric strength (3kV/mm)
d) It is also used for cooling purpose.
4) Cooling Tubes:
Tubes are connected to tank to carry away heat produced and to keep transformer cool.
5) Tank :
Sheet metal tanks are used for housing transformer.
8) Drain Cock:
a) It is used at bottom of tank.
b) It is used to replace transformer oil for filtration.
9) Earth Point:
Transformer body is earthed for safety and providing path for leakage current.
12)Buchholz Relay
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13) Conservator:
a) It is a sort of drum mounted on top of transformer
b) Conservator is connected through a pipe on transformer tank containing oil
c) This oil expands and contracts depending upon the heat produced and so oil
level in conservator rises and falls. Thus conservator provides space for oil expansion.
d)Pipe connected to conservator is left open to atmosphere through a breather so that extra air may go out or
come in.
14) Breather:
a) Presence of small amount of moisture in transformer oil is highly detrimental from insulation point of
view because it lowers the dielectric strength of oil considerably.
b) In very small transformer air tight construction is possible but not in large transformer
c) When transformer oil contracts, oil level falls and air enters in side. So Breather is provided
d) Breather is a box containing silica gel or calcium chloride which absorbs moisture from air entering
conservator.
e)The atmospheric moisture is entrapped in this breather and is not allowed to pass on to the oil.
f) Silica gel crystals are blue in colour when dry and whitish pink when damp.
15) Oil level indicator.
It is a glass tube which shows the oil level in conservator tank-
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Losses in transformer:
Two main types:
1) Core loss or ironloss or No load loss.
2) Copper loss or winding loss.
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a) The purpose of this test is to determine no load loss or core loss and no load primary current.
b) One winding of transformer generally HV winding is kept open and other is connected to supply of
normal voltage and frequency.
c) Wattmeter W, Ammeter A, voltmeter V are connected to L.V. winding.
d) With normal voltage applied to primary normal flux will be set up.
e) Normal iron losses will occur in the core which are recorded by wattmeter.
f) As primary no load current Io is small copper losses are negligibly small in primary& nil in secondary.
g) Hence wattmeter reading represent core loss.
h) High resistance voltmeter is connected across secondary.
i) The reading of voltmeter gives induced emf in secondary.
j) This helps find out Transformation ratio k.
Observation Table :
a) In this test, one winding; generally low voltage; is solidly short circuited by a thick conductor or through
an ammeter.
b) A low voltage usually 5 to 20% of normal voltage is applied to the primary winding.
c) Since in this test applied voltage is small % of normal voltage, flux is also small % of normal value.
d) Core losses are small and wattmeter represents full load copper loss.
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Observation table :
Efficiency of transformer:
a) Efficiency of transformer at a particular load and power factor is defined as ratio of output power to
input power.
Output Power
b) Efficiency =
Input Power
c) Iron loss is independent of load.
d) These losses are produced due to flux
e) But flux is constant at all loads.
f) Hence iron loss is constant at all loads.
g) Copper loss is variable loss.
h) It varies in square proportion of current of load.
2
x KVA
Culoss at x load=Cu loss at full load
Rated KVA
In this test primary is connected to the rated voltage and secondary is loaded by lamp banks.
Output Power W
% Efficiency = 100 = 2 100
Input Power W1
The above direct loading test is suitable for small capacity transformers. But for bigger capacity
transformer indirect methods are adopted for testing.
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Regulation of transformer
a) When transformer is loaded with const primary voltage, sec voltage decreases because of its leakage
reactance and internal resistance.
b) Definition :
Change in sec terminal voltage from no load to full load expressed as a % of no load sec voltage is
called regulation of transformer.
V − VL
% Regulation = NL 100
VNL
Where V NL =No load sec voltage
V L =sec terminal voltage at full load.
c) Lesser the regulation better is the transformer.
d) Regulation is negative when the power factor is leading.
e) For resistive and Inductive circuits the secondary terminal voltage falls but for capacitive load the
secondary terminal voltage increases.
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Why the efficiency of transformer is always higher than any other rotating machine?
Ans. :
1.Transformer essentially consists of iron core and copper winding. Therefore, it has only Cu. loss and
Fe. loss.
2. Where as in other rotating machines in addition to copper loss and iron loss there is a third loss known
as mechanical loss (friction and windage loss). Hence efficiency of transformer is always higher than
any other rotating machine.
Numerical :
output
* Efficiency ( ) = 100
Input
output
(eta) = 100
output + loss
o/ p
% = 100
o / p + (Cu + Fe) loss
*Output in Kw = KVA cos
2
x KVA
*Culoss at x load=Cu loss at full load
Rated KVA
VNL −VL
*% Regulation = VNL X 100
1.100 KVA transformer has full load copper loss 800 watt and Iron loss 600w calculate efficiency of
transformer at 25% full load, Power factor is 0.8 lag.
Ans.
Given : Rating = 100 KVA, o/p = 100 cos = 100 0.8 = 80 k w
Culoss = 800 w Iron loss = 600 w
Power factor = cos = 0.8
Solution :
Output in kw = KVA P.F. = 100 0.8 = 80k w
= 80 100 = 80,000 w
25
i) o/p at 25% = 80000 = 20, 000 w
100
2
25
ii) Cu loss at 25 % = 800 = 50W
100
iii) Fe loss at 25 % = 600 ( it is a constant loss)
o/ p
% =
o / p + (Cu + Fe) loss
20000
% = 100
20650
= 96.85%
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2. A 100 KVA transformer has F.L. Cu. Loss of 3 KW and F.L. Iron of 2 KW. Find the efficiency of the
transformer at half load.
Ans.: Given : o/p = 100 KVA
Cu = 3 kw
Fe = 2 kw
To find = half of full load.
Solution : o/p in kw = op cos
= 100 0.5
= 50 kw
1
i) O.P. at half load = 50 = 25 kw
2
1 3
ii) Cu loss at half load = 3 = kw
4 4
iii) Fe at half load = 2 kw
( Fe loss is a constant loss)
Now, ' ' at half load
25
% efficiency at half load = 100
25 + 0.75 + 2
25
= 100
27.75
= 90 .09 %
3. 10kva transformer is on no load for 16 hrs/day and for remaining hours is fully loaded. Calculate the
all day efficiency at unity p.f. Full load cu loss=iron loss=1KW
Full day efficiency or all day efficiency
O.P. in KWH for 24 hr.
% ' ' = 100
o / p(24 hr ) + Cu loss(24 hr ) + Feloss(24 hr )
Ans. : o/p = 10 KVA
@ no load = 16 hr
At full load = 24 hr – 16 hr = 8 hr
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80
% All day efficiency = 100
80 + 8 + 24
% All day efficiency = 71.4%
4. A 60 KVA S.P.T. has an iron loss of 1.25 KW and F.L. Cu. Loss of 2 KW. Calculate the all-day
efficiency if the transformer is on ‘no’ load for 16 hours and on half-load unity p.f. for 8 hrs.
Ans. :
Given :Rating = 60 KVA, F.L. Cu loss = 2 KW, cos = 1 , Iron loss = 1.25 KW
Solution :
Output in KWH = KVA × cos hours
No load for 16 hours
Output for first 16 hours = 0
60
Output for next 8 hours = 1 8 = 240 KWH
2
Total output for 24 hours = 240 KWH
Iron loss for 24 hours = 1.25 24 = 30 KWH
2
Cu loss for 8 hours = 8 = 4 KWH
4
output in KWH
All day efficiency =
Input in KWH
output in KWH
= 100
output + losses
240
= 100
240 + 4 + 30
240
= 100
273
% = 87.91 %
2. A 5 kvA,2300/230 v 50 H2 transformer has iron loss=40 watt, cu loss=112 watt at full load calculate
efficiency of transformer at 0.8 p.f for following KVA out put.
(i) 1.25 KVA
(ii) 2.5 KVA
(iii) 3.5 KVA
(iv) 5 KVA
(v) 6.25 KVA
(vi) 7.5 KVA
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3. A 5 KVA transformer has 35 watt core loss and 40 watt cu loss at full load. It operates at rated KVA and
0.8 p.f lag for 6 hours. Half rated KVA and 0.5 p.f. lag for 12hrs and no load for 6 hrs.
Find all day efficiency.
4. A 100 KVA transformer has full load loss as of 3kw. Loss as equally divided be to transformer iron
and cu loss. During a day operates on full load for 3 hours. On half load for 4 hours and no load for
remaining. calculate all day efficiency.
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1 When a 1 a.c. supply is given to stator of a 1 motors only alternating flux is produced in stator.
It is not of rotating type .
2 .Hence rotational torque is not produced.
3. Alternating magnetic flux cannot move the rotor.
4. Therefore the motors are not self starting.
Broad Classification of 1 motors
1 Motors
main / running
wdg
I Im
P
Is
starting
wdg sq.cage rotor
1 A.C
C.S
N
foundation
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(b) Construction
(i) Stator : It is made up of silicon steel stamping having internal slots for receiving single phase stator
winding.
(ii) Stator winding : - It is made up of good quality enameled copper and is splitinto starting winding
and running winding.
(iii) Rotor : It is a round cylindrical part having slots on the periphery for Round Cu bars and is made
of siliconsteel stamping.
(iv) Rotor conductors: These are round Cu bars embedded in the rotor slots& permanently short
circuited(squirrel cage rotor)
(c) Working .
(i) When an A.C supply is given to the stator of the motor, the current ( I ) splits into Im& Is flowing in
the main winding& starting winding.
(ii) The current (Im) lags the applied voltage by greater angle since more inductive & (Is) lags the
applied voltage by a smaller angle since more resistive less inductive.
(iii) The currents Im and Is produces it own flux m & S having a phase angle difference which interact
and r.m.f is set and the rotor start rotating.
(iv) When the rotor reaches 70 – 80% of the normal speed, the centrifugal switch is operated and
the starting winding is disconnected electrically from the circuit. Hence the name (resistance start
induction Run motor)
(v)As starting torque is proportional phase angle between Im& Is , starting torque is less.
D.O.R: can be changed by interchanging the connection of either starting winding or running winding
notboth
2. Capacitor motors
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main / running
wdg
I Im
P
Is
C.S
N
foundation
(ii) Construction
(a) Stator. It is made up of silicon steel stamping having internal slots for stator winding.
(b) Stator winding : it is made up of good Quality enameled Cu & split as starting winding and running winding
(c) rotor: It is round cylindrical part having slots for round copper bars and is made of silicon steel.
(d) rotor conductors:These are round copper bars embedded in the rotor slots and permanently short circuited
(squirrel cage rotor).
(iii) Working
(a) when an AC supply is given to the motor, the current (I) splits into Im and Is flowing in the main winding and
starting winding.
(b) The Current (Im) lags by a greater angle since more inductive and Current (Is) leads by a smaller angle
since more capacitive and less inductive.
(c) The current (I m ) and (I s ) produces its own flux m and s having a phase angle difference which interacts
and rotor starts rotating.
(d) when the rotor reaches 70- 80% of the normal speed, the centrifugal switch is operated and starting winding
is disconnected electrically from the circuit.
D.O.R Can we change by making starting winding as running and vice versa.
Uses
(i) Refrigerator (ii) drilling machine (iii) lathe machine (iv) pumps (v) cooler (vi) printing press
main / running
wdg
I Im
P
Is
foundation
(ii) Construction
(a) Stator : It is made up of silicon steel stamping having internal slots for stator winding.
(b) Stator winding: It is made up of good quality enameled copper and is split into starting winding and running
winding
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(c) Rotor : It is round cylindrical part having slots for round copper bars and is made up of silicon steel
stamping.
(d) Rotor conductors: These are round copper bars embedded in the rotor slots and permanently short circuited
(Squirrel cage rotor).
(iii) Working
(a) when an AC supply is given to the motor, the current (I) splits into Im and Is flowing in the mainwinding and
starting winding.
(b) The Current (Im) lags the applied voltage by a greater angle since more inductive and Current (Is) Leads
the voltage by a smaller angle since more capacitive and less inductive.
(c) This create a phase angle difference between main winding flux and starting winding flux and rotating
magnetic flux is set up .Thus rotor starts rotating.
(d) The capacitor remains permanently in the circuit even in the running condition
D.O.R Can be change by making starting winding as running and vice versa.
Uses
main / running
wdg
I Im
P
Is
C.S
foundation
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(ii) Construction
(a) Stator. It is made up of silicon steel stampingof having internal slots for stator winding.
(b) Stator winding : it is made up of good Quality enameled Cu and is split as starting winding and running
winding
(c) rotor: It is round cylindrical part having slots for round copper bars and is made of silicon steel.
(d) rotor conductors: These are round copper bars embedded it the rotor slots and permanently short circuited
(squirrel cage rotor).
(iii) Working
(a) The two capacitors are used Cap1 and Cap2. Cap1 is of higher value but short duty and Cap2 is of lower
value but continuous duty.
(b) When the supply is switched on the current (I) splits into splits into Im and Is flowing in the mainwinding
and starting winding.
(c) The Current (Im) lags by a greater angle since more inductive and Current (Is) leads by a smaller angle since
more capacitive and less inductive.
(d) This create a phase angle difference between main winding flux and starting winding flux and rotating
magnetic flux is set up .Thus rotor starts rotating.
(e) when the rotor reaches 70- 80% of the normal speed, the centrifugal switch is operated and the cap1 is
disconnected from the circuit whereas Cap2 remains permanently in the circuit
(iv) Uses (I) Room Cooler (II) Refrigerator (III) Compressor
(V) Specialty
(i) p. f. is improved
(ii) higher efficiency
(iii) higher torque
(iv) Start quickly
D.O.R Can be change by making starting winding as running and vice versa.
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A slot is cut in the pole and a Cu. Coil is placed at one corner. Copper coil is known as shading
coil. This part of the pole is known as shaded part and the remaining as unshaded part.
(ii) Stator winding[ field winding]: It is made up of good quality enameled copper and wound on salient
poles.
(iii) rotor : It is cylindrical part made up of silicon steel stamping having slots for rotor bars.
(iv) rotor conductors: Made up of round copper bars which are placed in rotor slots and are
permanently short circuited (sq. cage)
(iii) Working
M.A
When the supply is switch “ON” the field current is rapidly increasing along OA in the field winding
produces flux in the poles. According to transformer action e.m.f. is induced in the shading coil causing heavy
current to circulate it according to Lenz’s law in such a direction as to oppose the rise of field current .Hence
flux shifts mostly to the unshaded part and the magnetic axis lies along the middle of unshaded part..
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M.A
Consider the moment when field current is near its peak value Change in exciting [ field current ] is less. So the
induced current in the shading coil is very less. Hence the flux is uniformly distributed over the pole face. So
the magnetic axis lies to the center of the whole pole.
At one instance the current in the shading coil decreases very rapidly and hence the M.A shifts towards
The shaded pole . It seems as if the M.A is moving from the unshaded pole to shaded pole and the rotating
magnetic field is setup and the rotor starts rotating.
D.O.R.It is not possible to change the D.O.R. of these motor as the position of the copper rings are fixed.
Uses
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Brush axis
N
Rotor winding
Commutator
S
Jumper
(II) Construction
(i) Stator : It is made up of silicon steel stamping having non salient poles for stator winding.
(ii) Stator winding: It is made up of good quality enameled copper and is wound on the stator pole.
(iii) Rotor : It is round cylindrical part having slots for copper winding and is made up of silicon steel
stampings .It is same as the armature of D.C..motor.
(iv) Rotor winding: These are made up of good quality enameled cu and placed in the rotor slots the
ends of which are connected to the carbon brushes.
(v) Commutator: It consist of alternate layers of copper and mica segments
(vi) Brushes: Made up of carbon or graphite placed in the holder and ride against commutator .The
brushes are shorted by connecting them directly with a cu wire ( jumper).
(iii) Working
(i) When current is given to the stator winding field is set up .Let an instant the field is such that N
pole is at the top and S pole is at the bottom and the MA lies vertical
(ii) The Brush Axis is neither horizontal nor vertical, but at an intermediate angle .
(iii) The like poles of the stator and rotor repel each other and the rotor starts rotating.
(iv) since the rotor rotates because of repulsive force it is called Repulsion Motor.
(v) The speed of this motor can be changed by shifting the position of brushes.
The D.O.R can be change by shifting the brushes in reversed direction
Uses
(i) Refrigerator (ii) mixing machine (iii) Floor polishing machine (iv) lifts (v) compressor
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AC series Motor
Introduction:-
Universal Motor is a small version of a.c. series motor. It works on a.c. supply as well d.c. supply.
(II) Construction
A.C. series motor is similar in construction as d.c. series motor and has the main parts.
(i) Field pole
It is made up of silicon steel stamping and salient type for field winding.
(ii) Field winding
It is made up of good quality enameled copper and is wound on the field pole.
(iii) Armature
It is round cylindrical part having slots on the periphery for the armature winding.
(iv) Armature winding
It is made up of good quality enameled copper placed in the armature slots the ends of which are
connected to the commutator.
(v) Commutator
It consist of alternate layers of copper and mica segments.
(vi) Brushes
There are made up of carbon or graphite.
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(iii) Working :
(i) If D.C. series motor is connected to AC. supply. It will rotate with unidirectional torque which can be
explained as follows.
(ii) For the instantaneous polarity the direction of the current in the series field coil and armature coil is as
shown in figure (a). As per the theory, When a current carrying conductor is placed in the magnetic field
it experiences a force in certain direction and its direction is given by Flemings Left Hand Rule.
(iii)In the first case, armature starts rotating in anticlockwise direction.
(iv) In the next half cycle of a.c. instantaneous polarities are changed as shown n the figure (b).the direction
of field as well as direction of current in the armature is also changed.
(v) By Flemings left hand rule, we find that direction of rotation of armature is same that is anticlockwise.
Thus we can conclude that to the d.c. series motor even if a.c. supply is given the motor develops at
unidirectional torque.
(vi) But for the good performance of a.c. series motor or universal motor some modifications are to be made
in the motor.
Sr. No. Problems Modification
1 As magnetic field is alternating large Structure is made of silicon steel Stamping
eddy current and hysteresis loss
D.O.R - Can be changed by reversing the terminals of armature with respect to field coil.
Application:-
(i) Vaccum cleaner (ii) Mixers (III) Sewing Machine (iv) Drill Machine
(v) cinema projector.
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1. Resistance Method :Motor speed is controlled by connecting a variable resistance R in series with the
motor.
2. Tapping –field method : Field pole is tapped at various points and speed is controlled by varying the field
strength.
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When two or three phase supply is given to stationary coils wound for two or three phase a uniformly
rotating magnetic flux of constant value is produced.
1. A 2 phase – 2pole stator having two identical windings, having phase difference between them is of 900.
2.Magnetic flux produced due to current flowing in each phase is assumed sinusoidal. The assumed positive
direction of fluxes are as shown in fig.(a)
Fig. (a)
i) When = 0
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1 = Maximum positive
2 = 0
m
1 = - positive
2
2 = m - Positive
2
Resultant flux r = m shifted clockwise by another 450.
v) When
=180
1 = 0
2 = Maximum positive
Resultant flux r = m shifted through 1800 from its position at the beginning.
Hence we conclude :
1. Magnitude of the resultant flux is constant.
2.The assumed positive direction of the fluxes. Let the maximum flux due to any one of three phases be
m .
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The resultant flux r at any instant is given by the vector sum of the individual fluxes 1 2, 3 due to three
,
phase. We will consider values of at four instants corresponding to points marked 0, 1, 2 and 3.
When = 0
When =1200
3
1 = m = Positive
2
2 = 0
3
3 = m = Negative
2
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When = 1800
1 = 0
3
2 = m = Positive
2
3
3 = m = Negative
2
We conclude them :
1. Resultant flux is of constant value i.e. 1.5 times the maximum value of the flux
due to any phase.
2.Resultant flux rotates at synchronous speed given by N s = 120 f / P .
1. Stator: It is made up of silicon steel stamping having internal slots for stator winding.
2. Stator winding: It is made up of good quality enameled copper and is either star or delta connected.
3. Rotor: It is a round cylindrical part having slots on the periphery to receive round copper bars or rotor
winding.
There are two types of rotor : 1) Squirrel Cage Rotor used in squirrel cage induction motor.
2) Phase wound rotor used in slip ring induction motor.
4. Rotor winding: (a) Squirrel Cage. These are round copper bars which are embedded in rotor slots and are
permanently short circuited.
(b) Slip ring: This is made up of good quality enameled copper and is star connected. The ends
of which are connected to the slip rings through which external resistance can be added.
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5. Slip rings: These are mounted on the shaft and are made of phosphor –bronze.
6. Brushes: These are made of carbon and kept touching to the commutator under the tension of the springs.
(a) Squirrel cage motor
Stator rotor
Star connected
I.C.T.P switch
R
Y Rotor
Delta connected
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Explanation: The poles are not present physically it is shown for simplicity.
1. When 3 supply is given to the stator , magnetic flux of constant magnitude but rotating at
120f
synchronous speed.(Ns= ) is set up. Let an instant (a) stator field is acting downwards and
p
rotating in clockwise direction
2 The flux passes through air gap and cut the stationary rotor conductor. Due to Relative speed
between rotating flux and stationary conductors EMF is induced in rotor conductors.
2. The direction of this e.m.f. can be found by Fleming’s Right Hand Rule.
3. This causes current to circulate in the rotor conductor, whose direction is shown by dot.
4. This current carrying conductor produces magnetic field according to right hand thumb rule is shown
in the fig ( b).
5. It is seen that the effective field on the L.H.S is stronger as they are in same direction whereas the
effective field on the R.H.S is weaker as they are in opposite direction.
6. This produces force on the R.H.S which can be proved by Flemings Left Hand Rule.
8. Hence The rotor starts rotating in the clock wise direction. [ in the same direction as stator rotating
field.].
Synchronous speed : When 3-phase supply is given to 3-phase stator rotating magnetic field is produced in
stator.
The speed of rotating magnetic field in stator is called synchronous speed.
NS is synchronous speed of the stator magnetic field.
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120 f
Ns =
P
F = Frequency
P = No. of poles.
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Rotor
Stator
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Explanation
1.It is a simple manually operated starter which connects the stator to the supply. At the time of starting
the stator windings are connected in star.
1
2. These reduces the voltage, per phase by times VL
3
3. This, motor starts with a safer value of current.
4. Once the motor gains speed back e.m.f is developed and current gets automatically limited.
5. The handle is moved to ‘RUN’ position and the windings are connected in delta . In delta phase
voltage is equal to line voltage . Thus rated line voltage is applied to the motor in running condition.
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Explanation:
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1. At start the three equal resistances in the form of a circular arrangement are connected in the rotor
circuit.
2. As external resistance is added in the rotor circuit,. the motor starts with safe current .
3. When motor catches speed the handle is moved from ‘START’ to ‘RUN’ position gradually, cutting
off the resistances from the rotor circuit.
4. There is a switch which prevents starting the motor directly in ‘RUN’ position of the handle.
1 This is called direct on line starter because when the starters is switched ‘ON’ the motor is connected
directly to the supply lines.
2. The working voltage of N.V.C is 440 V
3. It is suitable for motors upto 5 H.P
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4. The starter has a magnetic coil ‘A’ wound on the attracted armature type of relay. When switch is on it
gets energized and the armature ‘B’ is attracted. The set of contacts ‘C’ in the contactor are made ‘on’
and supply is given to the motor.
5. If supply fails the coil releases the armature and motor is disconnected from supply.
6. If motor is over loaded the strips ‘D’ bend downwards disconnecting the motor from the supply.
Starting torque :
The torque develop by motor at the instant of starting is called starting torque.
K Er 2 R r
Tst =
Rr 2 + X r 2
3
K = constant =
2 N s
Er = Rotor E.M.F.
1. Tst Rr
2. Tst Er 2 or Tst V 2
Running torque :
It is the torque which is required to run the motor at the normal speed and normal load.
KSEr 2 Rr
TR = 2
Rr + S 2 X 2
When slip is S the rotor E.M.F. changes to SEr and rotor reactance will be X r = SX r
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1
1. Tr =
Rr
To obtained maximum running torque for a given motor, rotor resistance must be less.
2. Tr V 2
In squirrel cage I.M the rotor resistance is low and we can not add external resistance in squirrel cage
rotor.
Therefore it has low starting torque.
The double cage motor is so developed that it overcomes the above difficulty (i.e it has high starting
torque with reasonable starting current and which maintains high efficiency and good speed regulation under
normal operating condition)
Double cage motor :
1. The outer cage is of high resistance iron or brass cage whereas the inner cage is of low resistance
copper
2. At the time of starting, the frequency of rotor current is = supply frequency (i.e 50 Hz) ( F ' = SF )
X L = 2 fL
3. Therefore the copper cage becomes more inductive, therefore it accepts only a small amount of
current and the motor is started by the high resistance brass or iron cage.
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4. As the motor gains speed, the frequency of the rotor current decreases, therefore the copper cage
accepts greater proportion of current, hence the motor runs with low resistance of copper cage.
5. Thus, this motor has high starting and running torque as well.
Important formula
120
1. NS = f Where, Ns = synchronous speed f= frequency P = number of stator poles
2. Slip speed = N S − N .
It is the difference between synchronous speed (Ns) and the rotor speed (N).
NS − N
3. Slip (S) =
NS
NS − N
3. % Slip = X 100
NS
f ' = sf
Examples
(1) A 12 pole, 3 50 Hz I.M runs at a speed of 475 r.p.m. find the following
(i) Ns (ii) Slip speed (iii) % slip (iv) frequency of rotor current at this speed
Solution: Data = 12 , N = 475 R.P.M.
120
Solution: (i) NS = f
120
= 50 = 500 R.P.M.
12
(ii) Ns – N = Slip speed
Slip speed = 500 – 475 = 25 r.p.m
N −N
(iii) % Slip = S X 100
NS
500 − 475 25
100 = = 5%
500 5
(iv) f ' = Sf
= 0.5 50 = 2.5 c / S
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2. WEEKLY MAINTENANCE
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3. MONTHLY MAINTENCE
4. QUARTERLY MAINTENCE
6. ANNUAL MAINTENANCE
2. Gone fuses.
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2. Overload
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4. But half a period later, stator poles having rotated around interchange their position. Ns attracts S and Ss
attracts N. Hence, rotor tends to rotate clockwise as shown in (a)
5. Rotor is not subjected to unidirectional torque owing to large inertia. Rotor cannot respond to such
quickly reversing torque with the result it remains stationary.
1. Damper winding consist of copper bars placed in slots provided on pole faces of salient rotor poles.
2. These copper bars are short circuited with the help of short circuiting ring on both the ends.
4. At starting, field winding is kept unexcited and motor is not loaded. Three phase voltage is applied to stator
winding.
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5. The rotating flux produced links with short circuited damper winding and induces emf in it as per Faradays
first law of electromagnetic induction.
7.When it acquires near to synchronous speed the D.C. excitation is switched ON and the motor is pulled into
synchronism and runs as synchronous motor. This motor is called as Induction start synchronous run motor.
2. USE OF PONEY MOTOR – It is a small induction motor which can be geared to the synchronous motor.
This induction motor drives the synchronous motor and when the speed is nearly synchronous speed the
D.C. excitation is made on to the rotor, the motor pulls up into synchronism at the same time the
induction motor is switched off and may be disconnected detaching its gearing.
3. EXCITER USED AS A D.C. MOTOR – Exciter can be run as a D.C. motor. Supply may be separately
available. This will drive the synchronous motor up to the required synchronous speed then the exciter is
switched ON and the rotor is pulled into synchronism.
4. D.C. GENERATOR AS A LOAD OF SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR CAN BE RUN AS D.C. MOTOR – The
(load)D.C. generator is run as a D.C. motor to drive the rotor of synchronous motor, when the rotor of
synchronous motor reaches synchronous speed the exciter is switched ON and the rotor is pulled into
synchronism. Now the same synchronous motor drive this D.C. generator.
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1. V-curves of synchronous motor show how armature current varies with its field current (exciting
current) when motor input is constant.
2. Armature current is more for low values and high values of excitation (though it is lagging for low
excitation and leading for high excitation).
3. It has minimum value corresponding to certain excitation.
4. Variation of armature current with excitation is known as V-curves because of its shape.
INVERTED V-CURVE
1. For the same input armature current varies over a wide range and so causes the power factor to vary
accordingly.
are copper bars provided on rotor pole shoes and short circuited on both sides.
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Absolute instruments are those which give the value of the quantity to be measured in terms of the constant of
the instrument and their deflection only. The example is tangent galvanometer.
Secondary instruments are those ,in which the value of electrical quantity to be measured can be determined
from the deflection the instruments , only when they have been pre calibrated by comparison with a standard
instrument. Without calibration,the deflection of the instrument is meaningless.
*Calibration : “Calibration means comparison with the standard instrument to find out the error in the
instrument throughout its range.”
(ii) Calibration by comparison method : The given meter can be calibrated by comparing its readings with the
readings of an accurate meter throughout its range. The meters are connected in parallel in case of volt meters
and are connected in series in case of ammeters. The number of readings are taken by varying voltage or current
accordingly.
Vs - standard voltmeter
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V f - Faulty voltmeter
Formula used :
Error = Vs − V f
Vs − V f
% Error = 100
Vs
(b)
Vs − V f
% Error = 100
Vs
Accordingly the values can be added or added or subtracted from the readings obtained after using faulty meter.
The following Graph can be plotted :
One mare graph can be plotted by taking standard value along x-axis and % error along y-axis
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As − Af
% Error = 100
As
(e) If the error is negative the faulty meter is fast.
(g) Graph :
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W – watt meter
E – Energy meter
E − Ef
% Error = S 100
ES
W = Watt-meter, E = Energy-meter.
If the energy meter has the constant of 1000 revolutions/KWH, then for its 10 revolution it will record
the energy :
1 1
= 10 = KWH
1000 100
1 3600
= 1000
100 1
= 36,000Watt.sec.
Then adjusting the load, say 1 ampere and counting the time for 10 revolutions and taking the watt-
meter reading the true energy ES is calculated.
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Is Shunt
When such an instrument is used as an ammeter then range can be extended with the help of a
low-resistance shunt. This shunt is connected in parallel with the winding and therefore part of the
current passes through this shunt and thus higher currents can measured. Shunted ammeter or
galvanometers can be made to record currents many times greater than their normal full scale
deflection current.
The ration of a maximum current (with shunt) to the full scale deflection current (without
shunt) is known as a “multiplying factor” of a shunt.
v
VL
VL −
The range of the instrument when used as a voltmeter can be increased by using a high
resistance in series with it. Total voltage of the line to be measured is divided in two:
1. P.D across volt meter coil.
2. P.D. across the series resistance, and therefore the voltmeters can be made to record
voltage many times greater than the full scale deflection voltage.
The ration of the maximum voltage (with series resistance) to the full scale deflection voltage
without (series resistance) is known as a “Multiplying factor”.
Example:
1. A. D.C. galvanometer has 0.1 resistances and reads 10 Amperes giving full scale deflection. Find
out the value of the shunt resistance if it is to be used for measuring 100 Amperes.
Solution:
Ig = 10A
G
I L = 100A 100A
IS = 90A
As the shunt limit of the coil is 10 Amp, the voltage drop across the coil-
= Current Resistance of coil.
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= 10 0.1 = 1 volt.
The shunt resistance is connected in parallel to the galvanometer coil and hence voltage drop across
shunt is also = 1 volt.
Voltage
Resistance of hunt =
Current
1
= = 0.01111.
90
2. A moving coil instrument has a resistance of 3 and gives full scale deflection when carrying 30
mill amperes.
Show how it can be adopted to measure voltage upto 300 volts?
Solution:
I = 30 ma
−
v
VL = 300
R VL −
I = 30ma
Voltmeter as well as series resistance R carries the same current as 30 milli Amp i.e.
−3
30 10 A .
Voltage drop across voltmeter coil = V
V = resistance current.
=3 x (30/1000)
= 0.09 Volts.
Remaining voltage is to be dropped across R.
Voltage drop across R = VL − V
= 300 − 0.09
= 299.91 V.
Voltage drop
Resistance R =
Current
= (299.91/0.03)
= 9997 ohm.
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(ii) Explanation :
(a) Energy meter has two laminated electro magnets.
(b) The one magnet is called as the series magnet which is connected in series with the load and produces flux
according to load current.
(c) The other magnet is called as shunt magnet connected across the supply and produces flux which lags the
flux produced by series magnet because of copper shading band. Shading band is provided on shunt
magnet. Position on shading band can be adjusted such that angle between two fluxes is 900.
(d) A thin aluminum disc is placed between shunt and series magnet.
(e) These two fluxes interact with each other and a rotating field is set up and the aluminium disc rotates.
(f) Rotating Aluminum disc cuts magnetic flux produced by braking magnet and e.m.f. is induced in it and
eddy current flows.
(g) Thus eddy current damping is provided by breaking magnet.
(h) The register mechanism records the energy which is directly proportional to the revolutions.
(i.) It consist of worm wheel mounted on the spindle. The worm wheel is connected to trail gears which is
connected to counting mechanism.
Error :
1. Error due to temperature variations.
2. Frictional error.
3. Creeping error : i.e. slow but continuous rotation even if the load is not connected.
4. As the coils are not purely inductive the flux of shunt magnet do not lag exactly by 900 .
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Explanation :
1. It consists of amalgamated Cu disc mounted on the spindle and kept in the vessel filled with mercury.
2. The mercury reduces the pressure of bearings and acts as a conductor.
3. The current passes through the mercury , then to the Cu disc radially and then to the external circuit.
4. Thus a force is produced on the disc and it rotates . The magnitude of this force depends upon the strength of
the field and current { F = BIL }and direction of force is according to Flemings left hand rule.
5. The disc is moved between a pair of breaking magnets. E.M.F. is induced, hence eddy current is produced
and breaking effect is observed .
6. No. of revolutions of AL disc are proportional to the amount of current flowing through the circuit and the
time duration for which observations are being taken.
7. Recording mechanism records the energy in ampere-hours.
8. This is mercury motor type D.C. meter.
*Frequency Meters: These meters are used to measure the frequency of A.C. There are two main types of
frequency meters.
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Construction :
1. There is an electromagnet on which the coil is wound and connected to the A.C. supply whose frequency is
to be measured.
2. The metallic reeds 4mm wide and 0.5mm thick are arranged in row and are mounted side by side on a
common and slightly flexible base. as shown in the figure.
3.Upper free ends are bent at right angles and painted white.
4. The natural frequency of vibration of each reed differs by half cycle.
Working :
1. When the coil is energized . The electromagnet exerts attracting force on each reed once every half
cycle.
2. All the reeds vibrate but only that reed whose natural frequency is exactly double the supply frequency
will vibrate the most due to mechanical resonance.
3. The supply frequency is read directly by noting the scale mark opposite the white painted flag which is
vibrating the most.
Construction :
1. A fixed coil is mounted on the laminated core and connected to supply whose frequency is to be measured.
2. A moving coil is fitted on the spindle with pointer. Capacitor ‘C’ is connected to the moving coil.The value
of capacitance is such that when the frequency is at its normal value the coil occupies the mean position on the
iron core.
3. Pointer is attached to the spindle.
4. Dial shows normal/high/low frequency.
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Working:
1. When the frequency is more than normal the fixed coil has more inductive reactance ( XL = 2 fL )
therefore less current through fixed coil and more current through moving coil as capacitive reactance ( XC =
1/ 2πfc ) is less. The moving coil moves away from the fixed coil such that Xc becomes equal to XL and pointer
show high frequency.
2.. When the frequency is low the X C > X L therefore the moving coil moves towards the fixed coil such that
Xc becomes equal to XL and the pointer shows low frequency.
*Multimeter :
* P.F. Meters :
These meters are used to measure the p. f. of the lagging, leading or unity. There are two main types of p. f.
meter :
(a) Electro dynamometer type.
(b) Moving iron type.
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Construction :
1. Fixed coil (f. f.) called as current coil and is divided into two sections into sections F1and F2. Being
connected in series with the supply ,it carries load current.
2. Moving Coils C1 and C2 attached to the spindle to which the pointer is also attached.. C1 has series
resistance R and C2 has a series inductance L such that R= ωL .
3. I1 is in phase with supply voltage V . whereas I2 lags behind V by 900 .
4. Moving coils C1 and C2 are wound in such a way that torques produced by them at any instant opposes each
other.
Working:
1.Consider the case when load power factor is unity. I1is in phase with load current whereas I2 lags behind .
2. Consequently a torque will act on C1 which will set its plane perpendicular to common magnetic axis of F1
and F2. Pointer shows unity power factor.
3. When load power factor is lagging, load current lags V. Current I2 is in phase with load current and I1 will be
90 degrees out of phase. As a result torque acting on C2 will bring its plane perpendicular to common magnetic
axis of F1 and F2 (anticlockwise direction). Pointer will thus show lagging power factor on the scale.
4. When load power factor is leading, load current leads V. Current I2 is 180 degrees out of phase with load .
As a result torque acting on C2 will bring its plane perpendicular to common magnetic axis of F1 and F2
(clockwise direction). Pointer will thus show leading power factor on the scale.
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Explanation :
1. Current coil (C. C.) are placed 1200 apart from each other and are fixed.
2. Pressure coils (P. C.) are placed at 1200 connected between live and neutral and fitted on the spindle to which
the pointer is attached. Resistance R is connected to the p.c.
3. On energizing two magnetic fields are produced .They rotate in one direction .Due to the action and phase
difference of the fields, the assembly of moving coil moves and gets deflected on one side. The pointer moves
on the dial marked as unity, lagging and leading.
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4. These three coils are to be connected to the 3-phase A.C. supply whose phase sequences are to be verified.
5. There is an aluminium disc. The rotating magnetic field produces Eddy currents in this aluminium disc. And
the aluminium disc starts rotating.
6. Clock wise rotation of the aluminum disc indicates that the phase sequence of the supply is R-Y-B.
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Electric Heating has the following advantages over conventional heating methods.
Drawbacks.
1) Initial cost is high.
2) Due to load shading reliability of operation is less.
3) Controlling equipments are costly.
Electron
Resistance Heating Arc Furnace
Bombardment
Direct Indirect
Direct Arc Indirect Arc
Resistance Resistance
Furnace furnace
Heating Heating
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Resistance Heating
In resistance heating, the body is heated by passing current directly through it. It is based on I2R effect.
Applications :
1) Salt bath furnace
2) Electrode boiler
3) Hardening steel rules
4) Carbonizing
5) Tempering
6) Quenching of tools.
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Applications :-
1. Electric ovens
2. Room Heaters
3. Electric kettles
4. Electric iron 5.Water heaters
5. Soldering iron.
Arc Furnaces
When high voltage is applied across an air gap, the air gets ionized under the influence of electrostatic forces
and becomes conducting medium. Current flows in the form of continuous spark known as arc. Temp -3000 To
35000C
Induction Heating
Applications :-
1. Surface hardening for parts like hack-saw, blades, gears,
axels etc.
2. Deep hardening.
3. Tempering
4. Soldering
5. Melting of metals and extracting metals from the ores.
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DIELECTRIC HEATING
When non-metallic substances such as wood, plastics are subjected to an alternating current, dielectric loss
occurs. The dielectric loss is utilized to heat the non-metallic substances.
When charge in the form of sheet is kept between the two plates connected across supply, electric
capacitance is formed. The heat dissipated due to capacitance is best utilized.
Wooden sheets are glued together by this method. It is also used for food processing .The contents of tinned
food can be easily processed by dielectric heating, without producing much heat, avoiding any possible
damage to the contents.
Applications:-
1. Processing of wood.
2. Textile Industry.
3. Dyeing process.
4. Sterilizing medical material
5. Processing of food:
(i) Roasting of seeds
(ii) Chocolate industries
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1. If the load demand of electric power is increased then 2nd ,3rd set of alternator can be switched on for sharing
the increased demand of power.
2.This is economical to run two smaller units with full capacity at higher efficiency rather than one larger unit
on low load with lesser efficiency.
3. For repair and routine maintenance work stand - by alternator may be switched on.
4. In case of fault stand by machine can be introduced and faulty machine can be disconnected.
1. Phase sequence of the incoming machine must be the same as phase sequence of the running machine or
bus-bars.
Phase sequence can be checked by synchronoscope or phase sequence indicator or 3-lamp methods. Frequency
can be checked by frequency meter. Voltage can be checked by suitable for voltmeter.
Methods of Synchronization :
3. By Synchronoscope
(a) A1 Alternator is already on the bus-bars supplying the load, 2nd alternator A2 is incoming alternator to be
synchronized.
(b) Lamp L1 , L2 and L3 respectively are connected across the poles of the switch.
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(c) If phase sequence of incoming alternator is opposite to bus-bar lamp L1 , L2 and L3 become bright or dim
one after the other. In this case phase sequence is to be corrected.
(d) If 3-lamps are becoming bright at one time or 3 lamps are becoming dark at a time this shows the
satisfactory situation.
(e) The switch of the incoming alternator be made ‘ON’ at the correct moment at the middle of the dark period
of the lamp.
1. It does not show whether the incoming machine is slow/fast and hence frequency is same or not.
2. It is difficult to judge the moment exactly the middle of the dark period for making the switch ‘ON’.
(a) In this methods, two Lamps L1 and L2 are cross connected and L3 is connected to pole no. 3.
(b) If the incoming machine is slow light wave from lamps seem to travel in anticlockwise direction and if
incoming machine is fast that will travel in clockwise direction.
(c) As per the above indication the speed of the prime-mover be adjusted.
(d) Observe the moment that lamp Light Wave moves very slow and switch on when Lamp L3 is completely
dark and L1 and L2 are equally bright.
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3. By Synchronoscope :
(f) If frequency of incoming alternator is same as bus bar frequency two fields will rotate with same speed.
Indicator of synchronoscope will not rotate and it will be on zero position (vertical).
(g) If there is a difference between frequency of incoming alternator and bus bar, rotor of synchronoscope will
rotate with the speed equal to difference between speeds of the two rotating fields. Thus indicator will show
slow or fast accordingly. According to that the speed of prime-mover of the incoming machine will be adjusted.
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Station earthing system: One of the main feature of any substation is the earthing system. A number of earth
plates or earthing pipes at different points can be installed and coupled to the main earth bar.
If a power station building has a steel frame, the columns should be connected at a number of points to
the earth system and thus a low value of resistance is obtained via foundations and reinforcements. Electrical
machine frames thus be connected to the steel structure of the station building.
Earth resistance and therefore the effectiveness of the earthing will depend on dampness of the soil.
All main earth bars should be inter-connected and also to be connected to station earth.
1] Insulation resistance test:- a)Insulation resistance between H.V. and L.V. windings .
b) Insulation resistance between windings and earth measured by megger. should not be below 2000M 𝛺
2] High voltage Di-electric test:-Windings should be capable to withstand abnormal voltages due to transient
surges. Impulse voltage test is carried out.
3]Di electric strength of transformer oil should not be less than 3kv/mm.
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4]Drying out test:-Generally transformer received from the manufacture is completely coming with oil filled but
if not then drying out test be carried out.
5]Merz price protection system should be provided to safeguard the bigger transformers for faults.
6]Connecting and phasing out test.
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19. MAINTENANCE
Maintenance :-In order to obtain reliable service from the machine over a long period of time giving proper
attention, Inspection, repairs and over hauling of a machine is called maintenance of the machine.
FAILUERS
1] Mechanical failure due to misalignment, vibration, unbalance fatigue, worn out bearings.
2] Thermal failure due to overheating resulting from lack of lubrication or insufficient cooling.
TYPES OF MAINTENANCE
Maintenance
Planned Unplanned
Maintenance maintenance
Break down maintenance :-Repairing and overhauling the machine after the occurrence of fault.[After the
shut down]
Preventive Maintenance:-Testing, observing, Inspecting and rectifying abnormality at primary stage and
improving the performance of machine is called preventive maintenance .
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TESTING
PURPOSE OF TESTING
1] The machine suits the purpose
2] It is as per specification.
3] Operation is smooth and noiseless.
4] Temperature rise is within limits.
5] protective devices are operating.
6] Loss of power is less and efficiency is maximum.
TYPES OF TEST
1] Routine test: Prior to dispatch the electric machine, each item is tested and checked.
2] Type test: Quality of the product is to be tested.
Specification should match the design
Assembly should be perfect.
Abnormality should be rectified at the primary stage.
Special test: These tests are not applicable to each product or machine but are carried out on the request of the
purchaser.
This is done before the fault has occurred This is done after the fault has occurred
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(2 Marks questions)
1. Draw conventional symbols for (MAR 2019)
(i) Choke
(ii) Fan regulator
(iii) Three phase induction motor
(iv) Earthing
Chapter-3 (fuses)
6. …… Fuse unit allows a predetermined time to remove in short circuit. (MAR 2016)
(i) Kit-kat (ii) HRC (iii) Cartridge
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(2 Marks Questions)
(3 marks questions)
1. Explain the kit-kat type fuse with neat sketch & advantages. (MAR 2016,2017)
2. Define:
(1) Current rating of fuse
(2) Minimum fusing current
(3) Fusing factor (MAR 2012,2015,2016,2019 OCT 2014)
(2 marks questions)
2. Write short notes on standard wire gauge what is mean by 3/20 wires. (MAR 2011,20,OCT 2014)
3. Draw a neat and labeled diagram of 3 point starter with DC shunt motor?
4. Draw neat labeled constructional diagram of moving iron attraction type Instrument?
5. Draw a neat and labelled panel wiring Diagram of DC compound Motor with a 4 point starter?
6. Draw a neat and lebelled diagram of PMMC Instrument?
7. Draw neat and labeled constructional circuit diagram of single phase energy meter
8. Draw a neat and labelled diagram of four point starter?
9. Draw a neat and labeled panel wiring diagram of 3 point face plate starter for operating DC shunt Motor?
10 Draw constructional diagram of Energy Meter. (MAR 2019)
11 Draw constructional diagram of Energy Meter. (MAR 2019)
12 Which insulating materials would you select for:
(3 marks questions)
1. The current carrying capacity of 3/20 wire is ….... the current carrying capacity of 3/22 wire.
(MAR 2012)
(i) More than (ii) Equal to (iii) less than
2. The current carrying capacity of 1/18 copper wire is …. Amp (MARCH 2011)
(i) 10 (ii) 5 (iii) 28
3. The conductors of VIR wire are tinned because ….. . (MAR 2016)
(i) By tinning the corrosion is restricted.
(ii) By tinning the rubber is prevented to stick up with the conductor and also avoids chemical
reactions.
(iii) The tinning makes the conductor stronger and increases its thickness to carry more current.
4. Weather proof wires are used for ….. wiring. (MAR 2017)
(i) Outdoor (ii) Indoor (iii) Underground
5. The Specific resistance of copper is ………… the specific resistance of Aluminium. (MAR 2020)
(i) Equal
(ii) More than
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(iii)Less than
(2 Marks Questions)
1. Name different types of wires with their uses. (OCT 2014) (MAR 2020)
2. Explain the meaning of 7/22 copper wire. Write the current capacity for the same. (MAR 2016)
(3 Marks Questions)
(2 Marks Questions)
1. Write precautions to be observed while carrying out metal conduit wiring. (MAR 2012)
2. Explain how cleat wiring is installed? State its limitations. (MAR 2015)
3. State advantages and disadvantages of casing capping wiring system. (MAR 2015)
4. State the precautions to be taken while installing surface conduit wiring. (MAR 2016)
6. Draw a neat and labeled circuit diagram of staircase wiring. (MAR 2020)
(3 Marks Questions)
2. What are the points to be considered before selecting a wiring system? (MAR 2011,2015,2016)
6. List any six accessories used in surface conduit wiring. (MARCH 2014)
7. Explain installation process of CTS wiring system state advantages & disadvantages of this wiring.
(MAR 2016)
8. State advantages of cleat wiring and metal conduit wiring. (MAR 2016)
9. What are the different types of domestic wiring systems? Write the applications of any two.(MAR 2017)
(6 Marks Questions)
1. Compare the various types of wiring system in tabular form (MAR2017 2019, 2020)
2. State advantages of G.I conduit wiring system. Also state the necessary Precautions.
(2 Marks Questions)
2. Compare between overhead line system & underground cable system .(MAR 2011,2019)
3. Write short note on direct underground (Trench laying) cable laying system .(MAR 2017)
(3 Marks Questions)
1. What are the methods of laying U. G cable? Explain any one .(MAR 2012,2015,20 OCT 2014)
2. What are the points to be considered for selecting U.G cable? (MAR 2011,2019
Chapter – 8 (Illumination)
2. The losses due to dust and dirt are taken into consideration by ……… .(OCT 2014)
(i) Utilization factor (ii) Depreciation factor
4. Luminous intensity of carbon filament lamp is ………. tungsten filament lamp of same rating.
(MAR 2015)
(i) Equal to (ii) Less than (iii) Greater than
6. ……… is most common material used for filament of lamps. (MAR 2016)
(i) Nichrome (ii) Tungsten (iii) Tantalus
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(i) improve pf (ii) reduce radio interference (iii) increase the capacity
9. Neon Sign Lamps are used for ………. Purpose. (MAR 2020)
(i) Indicating (ii) Street Lighting (iii) Advertising
(2 Marks Questions)
2. Draw a neat & labeled diagram of Neon sign tube. (MAR 2011,2019, 2020)
(3 Marks Questions)
2. Draw a neat and labeled circuit diagram of fluorescent lamp and explain its working. (MAR 2012)
3. What are the different lighting schemes? Briefly describe any one. (MAR 2011,2015,2017,OCT 2014)
6. Write short note on Incandescent lamp with sketch. (OCT 2014,MAR 2016,MAR 2017)
1. ……….. conductor is used for high voltage overhead transmission line. (MAR 2014)
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2. To checks insulation resistance between conductor and earth, in wiring installation …… is used.
(MAR 2015,2017)
(i) Meggar (ii) Clip on meter (iii) Synchronoscope
3. As per IE rule,the leakage current in a wiring installation should not exceed……….part of full load
current.
4. The insulators used to support the conductors of 400KV transmission lines are ……….. insulators (MAR
2019) (i) Pin (ii) Shackle (iii) Suspension
(2 marks questions)
(3 Marks Questions)
1. Name different types of O.H line insulators and give their specific uses. What are they made of?
(MAR 2012)
2. With a neat diagram explain insulation resistance test between the phase and neutral conductors in a
wiring installation.(MAR 2012)
3. With a neat diagram explain insulation resistance test between conductors and earthing of wiring
installation .(MAR 2011,2015)
4. Name any four overhead line insulation and explain any one with neat diagram (MAR 2016, 2020)
Write down the types and properties of overhead insulation .(MAR 2017)
( 6 Marks questions)
1 State any 12 indian electricity rules for general wiring work. (MAR 2019. 2020)
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2. ………….. is used to control temperature of automatic electric iron .(MAR 2011,OCT 2014,2015)
(i) Regulator (ii) Thermostat (iii) Pilot lamp
(2 Marks Questions)
1. Explain use of mica and asbestos in electrical iron. (MAR 2012) (MAR 2020)
3. A table fan runs slow and become hot also state any four reasons.(MAR 2015)
4. Explain with circuit diagram the working of thermostat in electric iron.(MAR 2016) (MAR 2020)
5. Draw the circuit diagram of electric iron and write down the working principle. (MAR 2017)
6. Short Note on Electric Geyser. (MAR2019)
(3 Marks Questions)
1. Explain with a diagram construction and working of electric hot plate. (MAR 2011,2017)
5. A ceiling fan does not start. State any six reason.(MAR 2015)
6. Explain with neat sketch the construction of immersion heater state any two common faults in it.
(MAR 2016)
7. Give reason: (MAR 2017)
(i) The fan rotates slowly.
(ii) Automatic electrical iron becomes very hot
(iii) Immersion heater giving shock.
(6 marks questions for all paper- 1 topics)
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2. What are the different systems of wiring? Compare than in a tabular form. (MAR 2012,OCT 2014)
3. Explain continuity test and short circulation test between conductor and Earth by megger for a new
wiring installation.(OCT 2014)
5. What test are to be carried out before energising new electrical wiring installation? Explain any two
test in details. (MAR 2017)
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i. One
ii. two
iii.three
i. self Induction
i. step down
ii. Isolation
iii. step up
I. core
ii. shell
iii. Berry
i. only current
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i. step up
i. conservator
ii. Breather
9. In A transformer emf /turn in primary winding is …….. emf / turn is secondary winding.
i. less than
ii. equal to
i. eddy current
ii. hysteresis
iii. copper
i. Core
ii. Copper
iii. Friction
(2 Marks Questions)
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1 Explain with neat sketch the construction and working of an autotransformer (M 2011, 2015)
2 Find out the full load primary current & transformation Ratio of a single phase 10 KVA , 22200 v/ 110 V
transformer (M 2011)
3 Explain short circuit test of a transformer (M2011)
5 Compare power transformer with Distribution transformer (M 2011)
6. Compare core type transformer with shell type transformer (M2012, 2017 )
7. Write a short note on Berry type transformer. (M 2012)
8 Explain the functions of C.T & P.T ( M 2012)
9. What is transformer? Why is it a called a static device (M 2012)
10. Classify transformers according to ( M 2012,2019)
i. Number of phases
ii. Voltage (Pri & Sec )
iii. core
11. A single phase transformer of 2000/200V, 200KVA has 66 turns in the secondary calculate
primary turns & primary & secondary full load current (M 2013)
12. Write a short note on current transformer (M 2013)
13. Explain functions of Breather & Buchholz Repay (M 2015)
14.Compare step up transformer with step down transformer (M 2015)
i. Construction
19. Define
25. A 20 KVA, single phase,50Hz transformer gives the following test result:
Iron loss=0.2KW Cu loss=0.24KW Determine the % efficiency at full load, 0.8 pf.
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(3 Marks Questions)
1. Name various methods of finding losses in transformer , Explain any one with neat circuit diagram .(M – 2017)
2. Compare core type transformer with transformer with shell type transformer. (M 2017,2011)
3. Describe 3 phase core type transformer with neat sketch. (M 2013)
4. The maximum flux density in the core of 250V / 3000 V , 50 Hz , transformer is 0.00012 Wb/ cm2 ,If the emf
induced per turn is 8.0V . find number of turns & net cross – sectional area of core . (M – 2013)
5. Write short note on Annual checking of 3phase transformer (M 2013)
6. Write down function of Buchholz Relay , Conservator & Breather (M – 2012)
7. A 200 KVA step down single phase transformer has full load iron loss is 800 watt & copper loss is 2000 Watt.
i.find efficiency at F.L. unit P.F
ii.Efficiency at half load 0.8 pf (M 2012)
8. A 30 KVA 6.6 KV/0.4 KV distribution transformer has F.L CU loss 1kw & Iron loss 800 W . Calculate
efficiency on F.L at 0.9 P.F. (M. 2011 )
9. A 1 phase , 500 V/ 250 V , 100 KVA transformer has full load copper loss 1200 W & iron loss of 800 W
.Calculate efficiency of transformer at half & full load at 0.9 pf. (M- 2015)
10. Write the emf equation of transformer .What do you mean by transformation ratio.(MAR2019)
11. A single phase 230/460V transformer has 180 turns in the secondary winding.Find the primary number of turns
when the transformer is connected to full load, the terminal voltage falls to 437V,Calculate % Voltage
regulation.
12. Define 1) all day efficiency 2) Voltage regulation 3)Ordinary efficiency
(6 Marks Questions)
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ii.16 A
iii.18 A
i.less
ii.more
( 2 Marks Questions)
2. Explain why single phase induction motor is not self starting ? How it is made neat self start.
( M- 2011)
4. Name any two methods of speed control of Universal motor. Explain anyone.(M 2011)
6. How will you change direction of rotation of :(1) Split phase Induction motor.(M 2015,2012)
7. Explain the function of centrifugal switch in a capacitor start induction run motor. (MAR2019)
9. Single phase induction motor fails to start. State possible reasons (MAR2019)
(3 Marks Questions)
(6 Marks Questions)
1.Name any 6 types of single phase motors. Write down construction & working of single phase motor used in
table fan.(M2013)
1.The winding in 3-phase Induction motor are placed …………electrically apart from each other.(M 2016)
i) 180°
ii) 120°
iii) 360°
2.The rotor current frequency of induction motor ………… with increases in speed.(M 2015)
i) Increases
ii) Decreases
iii) Remains same
i) DOL
ii) Star-delta
iii) Rheostatic
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i) f'=sf
ii) f'=s/f
iii) f'=f/s
5.In 3 phase squirrel cage type induction motor the starting torque is …………running torque
(M 2012)
i) equal to
ii) less than
iii) greater than
i) 5HP
ii) 10HP
iii) 20HP
7. Three phase slip ring induction motor has ……… rotor
i) Short circuited ii.Double cage iii. Wound Type
(2 Marks Questions)
3.Explain the construction of squirrel cage rotor with net sketch.(M 2016)
4. how will you change direction of rotation of 1) 3 phase induction motor (M2015,2012)
8.Explain necessity of starter for 3phase squirrel cage induction motor. Name starter to
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12. Define percentage slip. A motor is having 1440rpm rotor speed with 0.04 slip. Calculate its synchronous speed.
(MAR2020)
13. A 3 phase induction motors fails to start. What are the possible reasons? (MAR2019)
(3 Marks Questions)
1. A 3 phase ,4 pole ,440V, 50Hz induction motor is running with 2% slip. Calculate rotor speed and rotor
2. Compare slip ring induction motor with squirrel cage induction motor (M 2017,2016,013,2012)
3. Explain the working of star –delta starter with neat circuit diagram.(M 2017
5. Explain with neat circuit diagram the working of DOL starter. (M 2015,2020)
7.What are the main parts of 3 phase induction motor? Explain in short each with construction sketch
(M 2012)
8. Why starter is necessary for starting of 3 phase induction motor. Name different types .
9. An 8 – pole, 3 phase , 50 Hz induction motor runs at the speed of 725rpm find the following 1.synchronous speed
2.Slip speed(MAR2019)
3.% slip
10. explain working of double cage motor with a neat labeled diagram (MAR2019)
(6 Marks Questions)
1. Write down the maintenance schedule for 3 phase induction motor (M 2017)
2. State the necessity of the starter for induction motor. Explain the construction & working of
4. SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR
1 mark questions
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2. The slip speed of a 4 – pole 50 Hz Synchronous motor at its full speed is ………… (M2016)
i. Under excited
iii.100%Excited
(2 Marks Questions)
1.State various methods of starting synchronous motor . explain any one of them. (M 2017,2011,2012)
2. Compare 3 phase induction motor with synchronous motor (M 2016)
3. Describe 3phase synchronous motor (M 2011)
4. Explain why synchronous motor is not self starting ? (M 20111)
(6 Marks Questions)
1. Explain why synchronous motor is not self starting ? what are various methods of starting synchronous motor ?
Explain each in brief. (M 2015)
MEASURING INSTRUMENT
(1 Mark Questions)
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(2 Marks Questions)
1 Write a short note on vibrating reed type frequency meter (M 2017)
2. How will you calibrate D.C. voltmeter (M 2017,2016,2020)
3.Explain the working of P.M.M.C. type instrument with neat sketch (M 2017)
4. Draw neat circuit diagram of single phase energy meter (M 2015)
5. Describe resonance type frequency meter (M 2013,2019)
6. Write a short note on multimeter. (M 2013,2020)
7. Write a note on reed type frequency meter.
(3 Marks Questions)
1. Write a note on megger with neat circuit diagram (M 2016)
2. what is meant by calibration. How will you calibrate D.C. ammeter (M 2015)
3. How will you calibrate 1phase KWH meter ? (M- 2013,2012)
4. Explain with neat circuit diagram the constrction & working of single phase KWH meter (M 2011)
5. A moving coil instrument has a resistance of 5 𝛺 & gives full scale deflection when , 100mA current show carrying
how it can be used to measure current upto 10A (M 2011)
ELECTRIC HEATING
1. …………. Heating is not dependent on supply frequency (M 2017)
i.Resistance ii.Dielectric iii.Induction.
2. ……….. is used as a heating element in resistance oven. (M 2016)
i. Tungsten ii.Nichrome iii. Eureka
3. Immersion water heater works on the basis of ………. (M 2013)
i. induction heating ii Arc heating iii Indirect resistance heating
4.The core type induction furnace can be used for heating ……….. (M 2013)
i. Non-metals ii. Metals iii. Metals & non metals.
5.In welding work …………. Heating is used (M 2011,2020)
i. resistance ii. Arc iii. dielectric
6. Indirect arc turnace is used for melting …………… metals (M 2012)
i. steel ii. ferrous iii. non-ferrous
7. An electric iron works on the basis of ……..
(i) indirect resistance heating (ii) dielectric heating (iii) direct heating
8. ………. Is used as a heating element in elecytic oven (MAR2020)
i. Tungsten ii. Nichrome iii. Eureka
(2 Marks Questions)
1. Write any four types of electric heating (m 2017, 2016,2020)
2. Write any four application of dielectric heating (M 2017, M 2011,2019)
3. Write a short note on core type Induction furnace (M 2016)
4. Write a short note on direct arc furnace (M 2015)
5. Compare core type induction furnace with core less type induction furnace (M 2012)
6. Classify electric heating (M 2013)
7. Explain direct arc furnace.
8. Short note on Induction Heating (MAR2019
Q 3 (3 Marks Questions)
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190
JUNIOR SCIENCE COLLEGE
ANDHERI / BORIVALI / DADAR / NERUL / POWAI / THANE
(1 Mark Questions)
1……………. is used for parallel operation of 3 phase alternators (M 2015)
i. Synchrnoscope
ii. tong tester
iii. megger
2. Synchronoscope is used for parallel operation of…………………. (M 2012)
i. Transformer
ii.alternator
iii.Induction motor
(3 Marks Questions)
1. Explain synchronoscope method of synchronizing (M 2017), 2013.
2.State the necessity of synchronizing 3 phase alternators (M 2017)
3. Explain dark lamp method of synchronizing (M 2011)
4. State the conditions to be fulfilled while synchronizing two 3 phase alternators (M 2011)
(6 Marks Questions)
1.What is the necessity of synchronizing 3 phase alternators ? Explain Lamp methods (both ) of synchronization with
ckt diagram (M 2012,2020)
2.Explain the necessity of parallel operation of 3 phase alternators. State the conditions to be fulfilled for parallel
operation of 3 -phase alternators. Explain Bright lamp method with neat circuit diagram (M – 2015,16,19,20)
MAINTENANCE
(3 Marks Questions)
(6 Marks Question)
H.V. SUBSTATION
1. List out the equipments used in H.T Substations.
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191