Wireless Pers Commun (2018) 99:651–680

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11277-017-5134-y

Design of Probability Density Function Targeting Energy

Efficient Network for Coalition Based WSNs

Richa Mishra1 • Vivekanand Jha2 • Rajeev K. Tripathi1 •

Ajay K. Sharma1

Published online: 19 December 2017

 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2017

Abstract Energy consumption is one of the important issues in wireless sensor network
that rely on non chargeable batteries for power. Also, the sensor network has to maintain a
desired sensing coverage area along with periodically sending of the sensed data to the
base station. Therefore, coverage and the lifetime are the two important issues that need to
be addressed. Effective deployment of wireless sensors is a major concern as the coverage
and lifetime of any wireless sensor network depends on it. In this paper, we propose the
design of a Probability Density Function (PDF) targeting the desired coverage, and energy
efficient node deployment scheme. The suitability of the proposed PDF based node dis-
tribution to model the network architecture considered in this work has been analyzed. The
PDF divides the deployment area into concentric coronas and provides a probability of
occurrence of a node within any corona. Further, the performance of the proposed PDF is
evaluated in terms of the coverage, the number of transmissions of packets and the lifetime
of the network. The scheme is compared with the existing node deployment schemes based
on various distributions. The percentage gain of the proposed PDF based node deployment
is 32% more than that when compared with the existing schemes. Thus, the simulation
results obtained confirm the schemes superiority over the other existing schemes.

& Richa Mishra

richas.phoenix@gmail.com
Vivekanand Jha
vivekanandjha@igdtuw.ac.in
Rajeev K. Tripathi
rajivtripathi@nitdelhi.ac.in
Ajay K. Sharma
sharmaajayk@nitj.ac.in
1
National Institute of Technology, Delhi, India
2
Indira Gandhi Delhi Technical University for Women, Delhi, India

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Keywords Wireless sensor network  Quality of service specification  Probability

density function  Cluster head

1 Introduction

Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) are the most promising technology that is gaining
importance in applications such as monitoring a large surveillance space [1], health
monitoring [2], temperature monitoring [3] etc. WSN architecture consists of small sized
autonomous sensors that sense, process and communicates the data to the base station.
There are two kinds of network architecture in wireless sensor network namely, homo-
geneous and non-homogeneous architecture. In homogeneous wireless sensor network
architecture, all nodes have same energy and other hardware specification while in
heterogeneous architecture, the nodes may have different energy and other hardware
specification. The battery is the only source of energy for communication through these
sensors. Charging of these batteries may be difficult in situations especially where human
intervention is difficult. In view of this, the energy of these nodes should be intelligently
used to have longer lifetime of the network. The lifetime of a sensor network may be
defined as the duration of time, for which the network remains operational, i.e., it can
perform the assigned task. Moreover, the desired coverage is another important aspect that
is to be taken into consideration in order to effectively monitor the area of interest, detect
and localize the event periodically to report the data to the base station. The effectiveness
of such WSNs depends a great deal on the coverage provided by the sensors. Therefore, the
deployment of sensor nodes in any WSN affects the performance of the network as far as
communication cost and coverage are concerned.
Achieving an energy efficient WSN is the key objective for the network operation as
sensor nodes are equipped with limited battery capacity. Energy efficiency has been
achieved in the past through various approaches like duty cycling, data driven and mobility
based. There exist conflicts among the methods used for balancing energy and coverage in
the network, where these parameters are managed at the cost of each other. Irregular sensor
node deployment in the network causes the development of energy hole and coverage hole
in the network. The energy hole is the inability of the sensor node to report the data to the
base station whereas, the coverage hole occurs in an area which is not covered by any
sensor node. Hence, sensor node deployment is a major challenge in achieving a balance
between the energy efficiency and the coverage of the network. The node distribution
strategy is broadly classified into corona based and non- corona node distributions. The
node distribution using corona based strategy has many objectives such as energy bal-
ancing, achieving full coverage using minimum number of sensor nodes, reducing
redundant data for transmission, whereas the distribution of nodes in areas other than
corona is termed as non- corona based distribution. The aim of this paper is to propose an
energy efficient corona based node distribution strategy that would provide a desired
coverage along with an energy efficient communication of the sensed data to the base
station.
Rest of the organization of the paper is as follows:
Section 2 presents the existing literature on energy efficient node distribution schemes
in the field of wireless sensor network. Section 3 explains formulation of the problem for
the present work. Section 4 describes radio and energy consumption model for the pro-
posed architecture in WSN. Section 5 provides the solution to the formulated problem.
Section 6 provides the analysis of the proposed deployment scheme. It also discusses the

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detailed analysis of the performance evaluation in comparison with the results obtained
through other evaluation schemes. Finally, Sect. 7 presents the overall conclusions of the
work presented in this paper.

2 Related Work

In this section, various coverage optimization protocols and node deployment strategies are
discussed. To address the issue of coverage optimization along with the efficient energy
utilization of sensor nodes, More and Raisinghani [4] have classified the sensing coverage
mechanisms into two categories namely: clustering and distributed protocols.
Low Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy (LEACH) protocol [5] was the first dis-
tributed cluster based protocol that increases the lifetime of the network. In this protocol,
the cluster head is elected probabilistically in the network which in turn collects data from
its member nodes. It further aggregates the collected data and transmits them to the base
station through single hop or multi hop communication [6]. However, if the number of
cluster heads selected is less than the optimal number, some nodes may have to transmit
data far off, leading to energy loss during the process of transmission. Even though this
scheme is highly adaptable in making clusters, the spatial correlation has not been con-
sidered in the clustering process. Similar work has been proposed in paper [7] wherein the
cluster head was elected on the basis of local radio communication. Further, the authors of
that paper proposed the load balancing algorithm in the sensor network. The data gathering
was periodical that may not be suitable in many applications based on real time [8].
Bandyopadhyay and Coyle [9] have proposed randomized and distributed clustering
algorithm. In that algorithm, some nodes volunteer to become cluster head with probability
(p). The members of the cluster heads were chosen based on basis of hop count (k). All the
nodes other then volunteer cluster heads join the volunteer cluster head on the basis of the
distance metric called hop count. The node which is not a part of any cluster is chosen as a
forced cluster head. Based on this criteria, in the proposed algorithm, the optimal number
of cluster head was chosen. Although, the proposed algorithm increased the lifetime of the
network, spatial correlation amongst the data sensed by the sensor nodes had not been
exploited in the formation of the clusters. Kenyers et al. propose the split distributing
computing [10] that splits the network into packs using the average consensus algorithm
[11]. Here each pack is an entity that consists of geographically proximate nodes. Each
pack appoints a head based on the maximum connectivity within the head. The author then
performs numerical experiments with both the tree and random topology and concludes
that the number of transmissions decrease with the increase in packs. Further, the authors
carried out their experimental analysis in [12, 13].
Rahman et al. [14] classified the static node deployment scheme as corona based and
non corona based. In the corona based node deployment scheme, the sensor nodes are
distributed in a circular fashion with a base station positioned at the center. A corona is
further divided into a number of concentric coronas. The node distribution in a corona
based scheme aims to meet objectives such as area coverage, energy balancing, energy
hole avoidance and redundant data transmission reduction. Here, the nodes could be the
sensor nodes or the relay nodes. In non-corona based node deployment scheme, the nodes
are randomly deployed in any shape other than corona. In this kind of deployment, when
node density is uniform throughout the network, it is known as random uniform [15, 16].
Random uniform deployment can be achieved by dropping the nodes through helicopter.

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Non-corona based node deployment leads to the reduced network lifetime due to unbalance
in energy utilization. Engineering uniform deployment [17] is often necessary in those
applications where the position of the node could affect the performance of the network.
The placement of nodes in engineering uniform deployment is deterministic and therefore,
easier to develop coverage scheme. Projects such as ASN at the University of Australia
[18] and Multiple Sensor Indoor Surveillance (MSIS) in Chicago [19], utilize this
deployment scheme. Although it is better than the uniform random deployment scheme, in
some cases, it may be impossible to deploy the nodes deterministically. In [20] the authors
use a corona- based deployment strategy to mitigate the energy hole problem. This is
achieved by transferring the load of the outer corona to its one hop neighbour in the
adjacent corona. Although, this deployment scheme increases the lifetime of the network,
in some cases such as monitoring the temperature in an area it may not be possible to
deploy the sensor nodes. Ahmad et al. [21] developed a model for the network architecture
in which the deployment of nodes in the ith corona depended upon the circumference and
the radius of the ith corona. The full coverage using minimum number of nodes was
dependent on the communication range of the sensor node. Such strategy may be difficult
to implement in the areas where human intervention may not be possible. In [22] the nodes
are deployed through four different methods and their impact on the performance was
analyzed. The main aim of the authors was to investigate the optimal strategy for the
corona based deployments in WSNs. In [23] the sensor nodes were distributed using a
mathematical model that deployed equal number of nodes in all the coronas. This led to
redundancy in the transmission of data especially in case of the inner most corona.
Wang et al. [24] provided an analytical framework for the coverage and lifetime of the
WSN that followed a 2D Gaussian distribution. Here, the authors present the coverage and
lifetime when Gaussian dispersion (i.e., x, y) assumes different Gaussian parameters. The
authors concluded that higher the probability longer is the lifetime of the annulus ‘i’. The
annulus is defined as the area between two concentric circles. When the number of sensor
nodes to be deployed increase, the sensor lifetime also increases, provided the other
parameters are fixed. It was observed that, there is significant improvement in the life time
by using Gaussian based distribution among the sensor nodes. However, there is a lack of
energy balance at each layer. Subir et al. [25] proposed a PDF and derived its intrinsic
characteristics. The authors showed that the PDF was well suited to model the network
architecture for their work. The PDF provided an energy balance among each annulus and
enhanced the network life while maintaining connectivity and coverage at the same time.
However, the sensor nodes were distributed according to the proposed PDF and the nodes
are randomly distributed within each annulus. In their proposed work, the number of nodes
to be deployed decreased as the area increased. Here the authors do not discuss about
energy hole problem. Gaussian distribution based node deployment [26] is a standard
practice and is widely used. Here the authors conclude that for a given area, energy
balancing takes place amongst nodes when nodes are deployed using customized Gaussian
distribution. This scheme provided an energy balance among sensor nodes at each layer
and variance is identified as the important factor influencing energy balance.
The work discussed in [27] is the extension of [25]. The authors in this paper discovered
that the node density is a major parameter that plays a significant role in controlling the
lifetime of the network. The desired node densities derived out of the aforesaid analysis,
guarantees that all the nodes exhaust their energy at the same time, and hence energy
balancing is achieved. Performance of the scheme was evaluated by qualitative as well as
quantitative analysis. In qualitative analysis, it was analyzed whether the PDF based
scheme was able to achieve the desired objective towards energy hole elimination or not.

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In addition to this, it was also evaluated, through simulation, the extent to which the
proposed PDF was able to achieve the desired network lifetime. Also, the impact of routing
and MAC protocols on the performance of the scheme was worked out. As an extension to
the work discussed in our paper [28], the main objective set in this paper are:
• Propose a PDF for the same on the basis on analysis carried out in [28].
• Develop a node deployment algorithm based on the proposed PDF.
• Evaluate the performance of the scheme through quantitative analysis showing whether
the proposed PDF is able to achieve the desired target through simulation.
• Lastly, compare the proposed node deployment algorithm with the existing algorithms.
The main contribution of the paper is to propose a novel node deployment scheme that
ensures uniform coverage and provides energy efficient operation of the work carried out in
[28]. A PDF is designed based on the analysis carried out in the aforementioned WSN
application. Further, a node distribution algorithm is devised in accordance with the designed
PDF. Lastly, we analyse the performance of the proposed PDF based node distribution
scheme with the existing schemes to validate the superiority of the proposed scheme.

3 Formulation of the Problem

The work presented in this paper is an extension of our previous work published in [28]. In
[28], an energy efficient approach based on Game Theory and Ant Colony Optimisation
(EEAGTACO) was proposed that provided an efficient approach for the entire process
beginning with the data acquisition by the sensor node and ending with data reporting to the
sink pertaining to the WSN. The nodes were randomly placed in the network and could vary
the network lifetime performances as per the variation found in node deployments. The
coalition between the sensor nodes was the key parameter influencing the performance of
EEAGTACO. The coalition formation is condition dependent. The condition is that to what
extent the data are spatially correlated in WSN which, in turn, depends on how the nodes are
placed in the network. In the aforesaid work only the optimization of coalition was performed.
The optimization of the placement strategy of nodes was yet to be done. Therefore in the
present work this optimization has been undertaken with the aim of developing a strategy to
deploy the sensor node judiciously and in predetermined manner rather than randomly. The
judicious placements of the nodes could provide a high degree of correlation in the sensed
data and a better coverage throughout the WSN. In view of this, there is a need to devise a new
node distribution scheme that would be especially suitable for the considered EEAGTACO. It
would be equally suitable for those applications of WSN as well where there is a limited
sensing range of the sensor nodes. Also there is need to design such node distribution
scheme mathematically to demonstrate its correctness and authenticity. To achieve the above
mentioned objectives, a probability distribution function based node deployment scheme is
proposed which would ensures a uniform coverage and provide an energy efficient operation
of the EEAGTACO based wireless sensor network and other applications also.

4 Radio and Energy Consumption Model

In this work a similar radio model comprising of a transmitter and a receiver has been
considered as reported in the literature [5, 28, 29]. The threshold distance, d0 is given by

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sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Efs
d0 ¼ ð1Þ
Emp

where, Efs and Emp are the free space signal loss and multipath signal loss respectively. In
the literature, two types of energy dissipation models have been used which are; free space
loss and multipath loss. If the distance d between the sender and the receiver is less than the
threshold value ‘d’ then the free space model will be applicable. On the other hand, if ‘d’ is
greater than d0 then the multi path model will be applicable. The free space and the
multipath loss models are given by
(
Efs :d2 ; if d\d0
EAmp ¼ 4
ð2Þ
Emp :d ; if d  d0

where EAmp is the energy of the node involved in the transmission in J=bit=m2 . The energy
consumed in transmitting ‘a’ number of bits through a distance ‘d’ is given by

ETX ða; dÞ ¼ ETXelec ðaÞ þ ETXAmp ða; dÞ ð3Þ

where ETX ða; dÞ, ETXelec , ETXAmp are the total transmission energy used in transmitting a
number of bits through a distance d, transmission energy used by the hardware circuit and
the transmission energy used in amplifying the signals respectively. From the Eqs. (2) and
(3), the total energy consumed during transmission is given by
(
a:Eelec þ a:Efs :d 2 ; if d\d0
ETX ða; dÞ ¼ 4
ð4Þ
a:EEelec þ a:Emp :d ; if d  d0

Energy dissipated by the receiver to receive ‘a’ number of bit of the data is given by

ERX ðaÞ ¼ ERXelec ðaÞ ¼ a:Eelec : ð5Þ

where ERXelec and Eelec are the energy consumed in receiving a number of bits of the data
and energy consumed by the hardware circuit respectively.

5 Proposed Solution

This paper proposes a solution to the mathematical model that distributes the sensor nodes
in the network deployment field in order to maximise the energy utilisation through spatial
data-correlation-based approach in the WSN. The deployment field is divided into a
number of concentric circles whose radii have been determined using the geometry
property, i.e., centroid of triangle.
In this arrangement, the area of the innermost circle is set at maximum while the area of
successive annuli between the concentric circles keeps decreasing as one move away from
the center towards the outermost circle. The sink has been considered to be situated at the
center of the network field. Various mathematical expressions have been developed using
the properties of geometry and used to design a proposed probability distribution function
for the network. The proposed PDF distributes the sensor nodes uniformly throughout the
deployment field and provides better coverage as compared to the situation where the
sensor nodes are non-uniformly distributed. The proposed PDF also helps to avoid the
occurrences of both the energy and the coverage holes in the EEAGTACO and other

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application based on limited sensing range in the WSN. After the deployment of the sensor
nodes, a number of clusters were formed in the network field. Thereafter, a number of
coalitions have been formed within these clusters electing representative of each coalition.
A co-operative Game Theory based strategy with permissible accuracy constraint that was
formulated by the authors in their paper [28] has been used in this work to form the
coalition. The size of coalitions has also been optimised using ACO technique and
thereafter, the data sensed by all coalition representatives are routed to the sink through the
cluster heads. The proposed node distribution scheme significantly increases the lifespan of
the network and achieves optimal energy utilization by EEAGTACO protocol. The net-
work lifetime of the wireless sensor network has been analysed both qualitatively and
quantitatively.

5.1 The Network Architecture

The considered network field is in square shape with an area of M  M square units in
which the sink is placed at the center. A scheme is proposed here to map various concentric
circles in the considered network field. The network field ABCD as shown in Fig. 1a is
initially divided into four different equal sized DAOB; DAOD; DBOC and DCOD. The
centroid of a particular triangle is used to determine the radius of the concentric circle
related to that triangle. The centroid (C1 ) of the triangle AOB as shown in Fig. 1a provides
the innermost radius and the centroids of DAOD; DBOC and DCOD also lie on the
innermost circle. As the next step, taking C1 as one of the vertices a new DAC1 B is formed
whose centroid is represented by C2 which has been considered for determining the radius
of next outer concentric circle as illustrated in Fig. 1a. The same procedure is repeated over
and over again and the centroids of successive triangle and the radii of corresponding
circles are determined as R1 ; R2 ; . . .; RL . Using this concept, the resultant proposed network
architecture as shown in Fig. 1b constructed. The last circle is approximated as the border
of the network field and the maximum number of layers is decided on the basis of the
length of the network field and the sensing rage of the nodes to be deployed. The proposed
network architecture obtained through the described procedure in which the area of each

Fig. 1 Division of deployment area. a Formation of corona. b Network architecture

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658 R. Mishra et al.

annulus progressively decreases as one moves away from the sink. Figure 2 explains the
mathematical computation of the radii R1 ; R2 ; . . .; RL using the property of geometry. The
network field is divided into ‘L’ number of concentric circular layers based on the centroids
of the triangles. The radii of circles, width of annuli, the difference of area between two
successive annuli and the maximum number of possible layers are proposed in Lemmas 1,
2, 3 and Theorem 1 respectively.
Lemma 1 From the center, the centroid of ith level is located at a distance of
ð3i  1Þ
Ri ¼ M ð6Þ
2  3i
where Ri denotes the radius of ith circle and M is a side of square shaped deployment field.
Proof It can be proved by using the principle of mathematical induction. From Fig. 1a,
the first radius is the distance of first centroid from the centre. Let the first radius be R1
which is true for i ¼ 1 and calculated as
ð31  1Þ
R1 ¼ M ð7Þ
2  31
Suppose it is also true for i ¼ k, then Rk can be written as,

ð3k  1Þ
Rk ¼ M ð8Þ
2  3k
Now, we check for i ¼ k þ 1. Since a centroid is located at a distance of two-third of the
total length from the centre, Rðkþ1Þ can be written as
 
2 M
Rðkþ1Þ ¼ Rk þ  Rk ð9Þ
3 2
Putting the value of Rk in Eq. (9) and on simplifying, we get

Fig. 2 Dividing the area into circles

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Design of Probability Density Function Targeting Energy... 659

ð3kþ1  1Þ
Rkþ1 ¼ M ð10Þ
2  3kþ1
h
Lemma 2 The width of each annulus is given as
 
M 1
Wn ¼ ð11Þ
3 3i1

Proof The width of the ith annulus is the difference between the radii of ith and ði  1Þth
circles and can be written as,
Wi ¼ Ri  Ri1 ð12Þ

Putting the values of Ri and Ri1 and using Eq. (6) in the above equation, we get
 
M 1
Wi ¼ ð13Þ
3 3i1
Hence proved. h
Lemma 3 The area covered by the ith annulus can be written as
 i2 
3
Ai ¼ p  M2 ð14Þ
32i

Proof The area covered by the ith annulus is the difference between the areas formed by
ith and ði  1Þth circles and can be expressed as
Ai ¼ pðRi 2  Ri1 2 Þ ð15Þ

Using Eq. (6) in the above equation, the area of ith annulus is derived as
 i2 
3
Ai ¼ p  M2
32i
Hence proved. h
Theorem 1 For the considered network architecture, the number of layers (L) in a
square shaped deployment field depends on the length (M) of the side of the square and the
sensing range ðRs Þ of the sensor nodes to be deployed. The relation between them can be
expressed through the following inequality
L M
32  \2  3L : ð16Þ
Rs

Proof Two deployed sensor nodes are said to be redundant if their sensing coverages
overlap each other by more than half of their total sensing coverage and are said to be
optimally placed if their sensing coverage boundaries touch each other in such a way that

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the overlapped region becomes almost negligible. The aforesaid conditions for redundancy
and optimal placement are used here to prove this theorem. Let the sensing radius of the
homogeneous sensor nodes be Rs and the Euclidian distance between any two sensor nodes
be represented by jS1  S2 j, the condition to avoid their redundant placement can be
written as,
Rs
 jS1  S2 j ð17Þ
2
Similarly, the condition to place the nodes optimally can be written as,

jS1  S2 j  2  Rs ð18Þ

Considering the above conditions together, the expected placement of two nodes can be
written as,
Rs
 jS1  S2 j  2  Rs ð19Þ
2
Let us assume that if two sensor nodes are situated at any two neighbouring centroids
which are responsible for the creation of ðL  1Þth and Lth layers, then by using Eq. (6), the
above Eq. (19) can be rewritten as,
Rs
 ðRL  RL1 Þ  2  Rs ð20Þ
2
Using Eq. (11), the Eq. (20) can be written as,
 
Rs M 1
  2  Rs ð21Þ
2 3 3i1
On simplifying the above equation, we get
L M
32  \2:3L ð22Þ
Rs
Hence, the theorem proved. h

5.2 The Proposed PDF Based Node Distribution Scheme (PDFBNDS)

In this sub-section a PDF is proposed using the aforementioned lemmas and theorem for
the considered network architecture. If L is the total number of layers existing in the
network having the radius of the innermost circle as R1 ¼ R, the Probability Distribution
Function at any point Z(x, y) lies in the ith annulus and is derived as
bð3i  2Þ
f ðx; y; M; Ri ; LÞ ¼ 8 Ri1 2 \x2 þ y2  Ri 2 ð23Þ
32i2
where, b is the proportionality constant that is given by the following equation
1
b¼ M 2 n 72  L 22 o ð24Þ
p  3  1 þ 9 þ    þ 333L2

The derivation of b is presented in the proof of Theorem 2 given at the end of this

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section. Using the proposed PDF, the number of nodes to be deployed in the ith annulus
can be given by

Ti ¼ Pi  NTotal ð25Þ

where, Pi is the probability of a node being deployed in the ith annulus given by Eq. (23)
and NTotal is the total number of nodes contained in the entire network field.
Illustrative Example Consider a 100  100 square unit deployment area of the network
that has been chosen in accordance with the proposed PDF with NTotal ¼ 100, the sensing
range of each node being Rs ¼ 3 units. The value of maximum number of layers ‘L’ that
are possible in such a network and calculated using Eq. (16), and the value of propor-
tionality constant ‘b’ as calculated using Eq. (24) are 3 and 0.0000168 respectively. The
node distribution results obtained through the proposed PDF are presented in Table 1.
The proposed probability distribution function is designed on the basis of continuously
decreasing widths of the successive annuli from the innermost to the outermost annulus.
This provides a uniform node distribution throughout the network to obtain a uniform
coverage across the network. Also, it is expected to achieve better degree of data corre-
lation amongst the deployed nodes by virtue of their efficient placement that would result
in efficient coalitions. After the node distribution across the layers is achieved through the
proposed PDF, they would be deployed within their respective layers with equal
probabilities.
Theorem 2 For the square shaped deployment field with side ‘M’ in the considered
network architecture having ‘L’ number of layers, the value of the proportionality constant
‘b’ is determined by
1
b¼ M 2 n 72  L 22 o ð26Þ
p  3  1 þ 9 þ    þ 333L2

Proof Let Pi be the probability of a pointZ(x, y) lying in the ith annulus. Then Pi can be
given by
ZZ
b  ð3i  2Þ
Pi ¼ f ðx; yÞdxdy ð27Þ
32i2
RR
where, f ðx; yÞdxdy is the area of the ith annulus which, using Eq. (14), is given by
ZZ  2  i 
M 3 2
f ðx; yÞdxdy ¼ p   2i2 ð28Þ
3 3
From Eqs. (27) and (28), we get

Table 1 Distribution of nodes

Layer ðLi Þ L1 L2 L3

Probability ðPi Þ 0.5881 0.3558 0.0056

Node distribution (Ti ) 59 36 6

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662 R. Mishra et al.

 2  i 
b  ð3i  2Þ M 3 2
Pi ¼  p   ð29Þ
32i2 3 32i2
P
By using the fundamental law of probability, i:e:; ð Pi ¼ 1Þ, the above equation can be
re-written as
(  2  i )
X L
b  ð3i  2Þ M 3 2
p  2i2 ¼1 ð30Þ
i¼1
32i2 3 3

On simplification, we get
1
b¼ M2 nPL  3i2 2 o
p 3  i 32i2

Hence proved. h

5.3 The Proposed Algorithm

The proposed algorithm in this work consists of seven steps to achieve the energy efficient
operation of the wireless sensor network. The proposed algorithm is given as Algorithm 1.
This algorithm is augmentation of the work discussed in [28]. In the first step, a node
deployment scheme based on the proposed PDF is executed. The rest of the six steps
represent the EEAGTACO protocol and these are named as initialization, cluster head
election, coalition formation, optimization, association and data aggregation respectively.
The proposed node deployment scheme is presented in Algorithm 2 and is used to provide
the node distribution across the annuli of the considered network architecture. In the
Algorithm 2, the number of layers in the concentric circles is evaluated on the basis of
putting the values of ‘M’ and ‘Rs ’ in the Eq. (16). Thereafter, for each layer of the annulus,
the number of nodes to be deployed is estimated using the proposed PDF. The remaining
steps from 2 to 7 of Algorithm 1 are discussed in the forthcoming sub-sections.

5.3.1 Initialization

In this step, all the parameters of the sensor node such as initial energy ðE0 Þ, pheromone
density of the sensor nodes, pheromone evaporation rate ðqÞ, QSS (q), negotiation constant
ðkÞ, total number of sensor nodes ðNTotal Þ, percentage (p) of cluster heads and radio range
ðRc Þ are initialized.

5.3.2 Cluster Head Election

In this step, the cluster heads are elected using LEACH protocol as was discussed in [28].
In LEACH, the probability p for the election of the cluster head depends on the threshold
value T(n) which is given by
2 3
p
TðnÞ ¼4  5 ð31Þ
1  p  r mod 1p

where, p is the probability of the desired number of cluster heads and r is the current
number of iterations. The energy model of LEACH has been discussed in Sect. 4.

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Design of Probability Density Function Targeting Energy... 663

5.3.3 Coalition Formation

In this step, the coalitions are formed using the GT approach [30] as discussed in [28]. All
the non cluster head nodes participate in the formation of coalition. The procedure of
coalition formation is as discussed below: initially, all the nodes are singleton nodes. The
singleton nodes are the ones that consist of only one node. The coalitions are represented as
Gðw; vÞ, where w is a coalition with u number of nodes such that u 2 U, where, U ¼
1; 2; 3; . . .; z and v is the representative of the coalition. A representative node is the one
that communicates on behalf of its coalition. Each singleton node initiates the formation of
coalition. Neighbours of each singleton nodes are discovered and are stored for further
computation. For every w 2 W, where w is the coalition belonging to the set of coalitions
W. Each node identifies an edge node e 2 E. Each ant now sends an ant packet proba-
bilistically to its one hop neighbour. The node that starts the negotiation operation is
termed as the starter node. A negotiation operation is performed between two neighbouring
nodes on the basis of utility function as given by
Uðek ; hi Þ ¼ ðjr  rjÞ  o:f ðmðhi ; ek Þ; qÞ ð32Þ

where, r is the standard deviation of the energies to which the nodes belong and is the
standard deviation of the energies after a node joins the coalition. The difference between
the standard deviation thus calculated should be greater than the offset o that is calculated
as

o ¼ k  averageðERes Þ ð33Þ

where, ERes is the average residual energy of the network and k is a constant known as
negotiation constant. The measurements reported by the two nodes are known as dissim-
ilarity metric [31] and is given by
Xi  Xs
mðhi ; ek Þ ¼ j j ð34Þ
Xs
where, Xc and Xs are the measurements reported by the two nodes ‘i’ and ‘s’ respectively.
The accuracy constraint known as QSS is user defined and is given by

1  mðhi ; ek Þ; mðhi ; ek Þ  1  q
f ðmðhi ; ek ; qÞ ¼ ð35Þ
1; mðhi ; ek Þ [ 1  q
where, q is defined as QSS. If the negotiation between the two nodes is successful then the
ants mark the visited node with a pheromone and add it to the partial solution of the starter
node. The pheromone density is calculated by
q
d/ ðhi ; ek Þ ¼ 1   d/ ð36Þ
ex
where, d/ ðhi ; ek Þ is the pheromone value associated with a node edge joining an edge ‘e’, q
is the evaporation rate, x is the transmission delay of the ant packet and d/ is the initial
pheromone value.

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Algorithm 1 Proposed Algorithm

Input : Set of nodes, NT otal over M × M area
Output : Efficient node deployment and energy efficient clustering using coalition and ACO

Step 1. Node Deployment ( )

Step 2. Initialization ( )
Step 3. Cluster Head Election ( )
Step 4. Coalition Formation ( )
Step 5. Optimization ( )
Step 6. Association ( )
Step 7. Data Aggregation ( )

Algorithm 2 Node Deployment ( )

Input : Deployment area M × M , Center (Xc , Yc ), Sensing Radius (Rs ), Total number of
nodes (NT otal )
Output :Number of nodes to be deployed in each annulus
Calculate L from the Equation (16);
for i = 1 to L do
Calculate β using Equation (24);
Calculate Pi from the Equation (23);
Calculate Ti using Equation (25);
end for

5.3.4 Optimization

The partial solution along with the pheromone [32] deposited has been used in this step to
optimize the size of coalition. If the pheromone deposited on a node is greater than the
average value of the pheromone deposited in the partial solution, then such a node is
selected and added to the optimized solution. Once a node becomes a part of the optimized
solution, it ceases to be a part of any other coalition.

5.3.5 Association

In this step, the node with the highest energy is elected from each coalition and is termed as
the representative node. Each representative node so elected is made to associate with its
nearest cluster head. The cluster head upon receiving the beacon messages from the
representative nodes allocates TDMA (time division multiple access) schedule for all the
representative nodes.

5.3.6 Data Aggregation

The representative nodes from each coalition send the data as per its allocated schedule to
their respective cluster heads. The cluster heads than aggregate the received data from the
representative nodes and communicate it to the base station.

5.4 Network Lifetime Analysis

In the considered network architecture, the maximum number of concentric circles or

layers (L) is determined by using Eq. (16). The total number of nodes deployed in the

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Design of Probability Density Function Targeting Energy... 665

network can be calculated as sum of the number of nodes distributed in each layer and is
given by
X
L
NTotal ¼ Ti ð37Þ
i¼1

where, Ti is the number of nodes distributed in the ith layer and is obtained using Eq. (16).
Let NCluster be the total number of clusters in the network. Then the average number of
nodes in each cluster is NNCluster
Total
. For each cluster one node is elected as the cluster head and
rest of the nodes are termed as non cluster head nodes. Hence, the number of non cluster
NTotal
head nodes in a cluster is NCluster  1 . Let us assume that NRound is the total number of
rounds in which the network is capable to perform the required operation and a variable
NCluster ðiÞ represents the number of clusters in ith round of the network operation. Hence,
average the number of clusters in each round can be expressed as
PNRound
Avg NCluster ðiÞ
NCluster ¼ i¼1 ð38Þ
NRound
Avg
If NCH ðiÞ is the number of cluster heads in ith round and NCH is the average number of
cluster heads in each round, than it is evident that NCH ðiÞ ¼ NCluster ðiÞ and also
Avg Avg
NCH ¼ NCluster . If the number of non-cluster head nodes is denoted by NNonCH ðiÞ, the
number of nodes participating in the coalition process of ith round of the network is given
by

NNonCH ðiÞ ¼ NTotal  NCluster ðiÞ ð39Þ

Similarly, the average number of nodes that participate in the coalition process is given by
Avg Avg
NNonCH ¼ NTotal  NCluster ð40Þ
Avg
In any ith round, if the average size of each coalition is CSize ðiÞ , then the number of
coalitions in the current round is given by
NNonCH ðiÞ
NCoalition ðiÞ ¼ Avg ð41Þ
CSize ðiÞ
As one coalition representative is elected from each coalition the number of coalition
representatives in ith round will be equal to the number of coalitions in ith round of the
iterations i.e., NCoalition ðiÞ. The coalition representative is responsible for the transmission
of its sensed data on behalf of its coalition members to its respective cluster head. Each
cluster head receives the sensed data from the coalition representative nodes associated
with it, performs data aggregation and finally communicates the aggregated data to the
sink.
To analyse the data flow across the network, it is assumed that the data sensing rate by a
live sensor node is a constant and is denoted by k bits per round. Denoting the total data
generated by coalitions and clusters in the ith round of the network by DCoalitions ðiÞ and
DClusters ðiÞ respectively, the data generated by a coalition will be equal to that generated by
its representative. Therefore, the total number of data generated by coalitions in the ith
round is given by

123
666 R. Mishra et al.

DCoalitions ðiÞ ¼ k  NCoalition ðiÞ ð42Þ

Hence, the total data generated by all the coalitions during the entire operation of the
network can be given by
NX
Round NX
Round

DCoalitions ðTotalÞ ¼ DCoalitions ðiÞ ¼ k NCoalitions ð43Þ

i¼1 i¼1

The data generated by all the cluster heads in a particular round is the sum of the self
generated data and the forwarded data.
Data sensed by a cluster head in the ith round is given by
DClustersSelf ðiÞ ¼ k  NCH ðiÞ ð44Þ

Hence, the total data sensed by all the cluster heads during the whole network lifetime
containing NRound number of rounds is given by
NX
Round NX
Round

DClustersSelf ðTotalÞ ¼ DClustersSelf ðiÞ ¼ k NCH ðiÞ ð45Þ

i¼1 i¼1

Data forwarded by the representatives of a particular cluster head in the ith round is given
by

DClustersForward ðiÞ ¼ DCoalitions ðiÞ ¼ k  NCoalition ðiÞ ð46Þ

Hence, total data forwarded by all the cluster heads during the whole network lifetime
containing NRound number of rounds is given by
NX
Round NX
Round

DClustersForward ðTotalÞ ¼ DClustersForward ðiÞ ¼ k NCoalition ðiÞ ð47Þ

i¼1 i¼1

Now the total data available with a cluster head in the ith round is given by

DClusters ðiÞ ¼ DClustersSelf ðiÞ þ DClusterForward ðiÞ ð48Þ

Hence, the total data available with all the clusters during the entire network lifetime
containing NRound number of rounds is given by
NX
Round

DClusters ðTotalÞ ¼ DClusters ðiÞ ð49Þ

i¼1

Using Eqs. (45), (47) and (48), the above can be rewritten as
NX
Round

DClusters ðTotalÞ ¼ k ½NCH ðiÞ þ NCoalition ðiÞ ð50Þ

i¼1

Therefore the net data transmitted across the network during the network lifetime can be
written as

DNetwork ¼ DCoalitions ðTotalÞ þ DClusters ðTotalÞ ð51Þ

Using Eqs. (43) and (50), the above equation can be rewritten as

123
Design of Probability Density Function Targeting Energy... 667

NX
Round

DNetwork ¼ k ½NCH ðiÞ þ 2  NCoalition ðiÞ ð52Þ

i¼1

The sensor nodes considered in the network are homogeneous having same initial energy
EInitial . The total energy dissipated per unit bit of communication i.e., EDissp can be written
as

EDissp ¼ ETx þ ERx ð53Þ

The energy consumed in a particular round by the network depends on the extent to which
the data are communicated by the live nodes taking part in data communication in the
round. The total energy dissipated in the process of transmitting data is the sum of the
energy dissipated due to transmission by the coalitions and transmission by the cluster
heads. Mathematically, the total energy dissipated due to transmission in the ith round of
the network can be expressed as
i
ETx ¼ ETx  ½DCoalitions ðiÞ þ DClusters ðiÞ ð54Þ

Using the Eqs. (42) and (48), the above equation can be modified as
i
ETx ¼ ETx  k  ½NCH ðiÞ þ 2NCoalition ðiÞ ð55Þ

In the same way, the energy dissipated in the ith round of the network due to receiving of
all the data can be mathematically expressed as
i
ERx ¼ ERx  DCoalitions ðiÞ ¼ ERx  k  NCoalition ðiÞ ð56Þ

Hence, the total energy dissipated in the ith round of the network is the sum of energy
dissipated during transmission and that dissipated during receipt and is given by
i i i
EDissp ¼ ETx þ ERx ð57Þ

Substituting Eqs. (55) and (56) in the above equation, we get

i
EDissp ¼ kfETx ½NCH ðiÞ þ 2NCoalition ðiÞ þ ERx ½NCoalition ðiÞg ð58Þ

As there are NRound number of rounds during the whole network lifetime, the total energy
dissipated during the entire network lifetime is given as
NX
Round
i i
EDissp ðTotalÞ ¼ EDissp ð59Þ
i¼1

Substituting Eq. (58) in the above equation, we get

NX
Round
i
EDissp ðTotalÞ ¼ k fETx ½NCH ðiÞ þ 2NCoalition ðiÞ þ ERx ½NCoalition ðiÞg ð60Þ
i¼1

In the considered network the network lifetime is defined as the time till the last node dies
out. A node is said to be dead if its energy level is below a threshold value. The threshold
value is the minimum energy required for transmitting the required data through a specified
distance across the network. If the residual energy of a node is less than the threshold
value, it is unable to communicate data and remains unused. Its residual energy is denoted

123
668 R. Mishra et al.

by EUnused . The total initial energy of all the nodes, their unused energies after they die out
and total energy consumed by them in all the rounds can be considered to define the
network life time.
The network lifetime can be expressed as
NTotal  ðEInitial  EUnused Þ
TNetwork ¼ i ð61Þ
EDissp ðTotalÞ

Using Eq. (60) in the above equation, we get

ðNTotal  ðEInitial  EUnused ÞÞ
TNetwork ¼ PNRound : ð62Þ
k i¼1 fETx ½NCH ðiÞ þ 2NCoalition ðiÞ þ ERx ½NCoalition ðiÞg

5.5 Coverage Analysis

The whole network is divided in to ‘L’ number of concentric layers. The coverage density
of a layer is defined as the sensing coverage of its nodes per unit area of the layer.
Therefore, the coverage density of the ith layer can be written as
ðNumber of nodes in ith layer  Sensing area of a nodeÞ
LiCoverage ¼
ðTotal area of ith layerÞ
Or

Ti  p  R2S Ti  p  R2S 32i  Ti  R2S

LiCoverage ¼ ¼ 3i 2 ¼ 2 ð63Þ
Ai 32i  pM
2 M  ð3i  2Þ

The condition LiCoverage ¼ 1 [33] indicates that the area of a layer is covered with minimum
number of nodes and is termed as 1 coverage while the condition LiCoverage [ 1 indicates
that the area of the layer is covered in such a way that a point lying in the layer is covered
with more than one node and such a condition is termed as K-coverage. The coverage of
the entire network can, therefore, be mathematically expressed as
P  2i L 2

3 Ti RS

NetworkAvgCoverage ¼
i¼1 M 2 ð3i 2Þ ð64Þ
L
From the Eq. (63), it is clear that the coverage density decreases as one moves away from
the inner most annulus to the outer most annulus.

6 Results

The architecture considered in this work consists of M  M square unit area. This area is
divided into a number of concentric circles in accordance with the lemmas and theorems
described in the Sect. 5. The nodes are distributed in each annulus according to the
PDFBNDS provided in the Algorithm 1. The nodes are assumed to be static and homo-
geneous in architecture. The simulation parameters are as given in Table 2.

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Design of Probability Density Function Targeting Energy... 669

Table 2 Simulation parameter

Parameter symbol Meaning Value
and its meaning
Area (M) Deployment area 100 sq. units
Nodes (TTotal ) Sensor nodes to be deployed 100
d/ Initial pheromone 1
q Evaporation constant 0.01
Eo Initial energy 0.01
q Accuracy constraint 0.8
k Negotiation constant 0.25
p Probability of cluster head 0.1
Rc Radio range 10
Rs Sensing range 4

6.1 Analysis of PDF Based Node Distribution Scheme

Area covered by the layer 1, 2, 3 and 4 are illustrated graphically in the bar graph shown in
Fig. 3. It is observed that maximum region is covered by layer 1 as compared to the layers
2, 3 and 4 for three cases in which the areas that are considered are 150  150 and
200  200. Similarly, the region covered by the layer 2 is larger than that covered by the
layers 3 and 4 for the same cases. It is clear from the Fig. 3 that the deployment area is
divided in such a way that the area nearer to the base station is larger and it keeps
decreasing as one moves away from the base station.
The number of nodes deployed in 3 and 4-layer architectures are plotted in Fig. 4. It is
observed that approximately 5060% nodes are deployed in layer 1 for both the 3 and 4
layer architectures. Also, the percentage of nodes deployed in layer 2 is less as compared to
that in layer 1. Same is the case with layers 3 and 4. The considered architecture for the
node deployment is divided into a number of layers on the basis of the mathematical

14000
Area=200 × 200
Area=150 × 150
12000
Area covered by each layer

10000

8000

6000

4000

2000

0
1 2 3 4
Number of layers

Fig. 3 Area covered by each layer

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670 R. Mishra et al.

60
3 Layer architecture
4 Layer architecture
50
Number of nodes

40

30

20

10

0
1 2 3 4
Number of layers

Fig. 4 Number of nodes deployed in 3 and 4-layer architectures

relations discussed is Sect. 5. The deployment area is divided in such a way that the area
nearer the base station, considering the base station situated at the center of the field, is
large and keeps decreasing as one move away from the base station. The node distribution
is area specific, i.e., larger the area more are the number of nodes distributed. In both the 3
and 4-layer architectures, the layer 1 is closer to the base station as compared to layers 2, 3
and 4. Therefore, the number of nodes deployed in the layer 1 is large as compared to that
deployed in layers 2, 3 and 4 in both the 3 and 4-layer architecture networks. Same is the
case with layers 2, 3 and 4. Also, it can be seen that the layer 3 in the 3-layer architecture
and the layer 4 in the 4-layer architecture are deployed with minimum number of nodes as
compared to the other layers in the network. In the case of both the 3 and 4-layer archi-
tectures, the areas covered by the third and fourth layers respectively are less as compared
to that by other layers in the network. As these two layers are the farthest layers having the
smallest regions in the 3 and 4-layer architectures respectively, these two layers are
deployed with minimum number of nodes when compared with its other layers namely;
layer 1 and layer 2 in case of 3-layer architecture and layers1, 2, 3 and 4 in 4-layer
architecture network. Same is the case with 3 and 4 layer architecture.
Number of nodes distributed in each layer is plotted in Fig. 5. Considering the base
station situated at he center of the deployment field, it is observed that the node densities
are at its maximum at the center and keeps decreasing as one move away from the center in
all the three cases where the number of nodes considered are 100, 200 and 400. The
maximum number of nodes distributed is towards the center and keeps decreasing in outer
annuli. Approximately 5060% of total nodes in all the three cases, where the numbers of
nodes are 100, 200 and 400, are deployed in layer 1 around the base station. The curve in
the figure confirms that the node density is more towards the base station and keeps
decreasing as we move in outer subsequent layers.
The coverage densities of both the EEAGTACO protocol and the PDFBNDS are
graphically shown in Fig. 6a, b respectively. It is noticed that the coverage density is at its
maximum in the 4th layer in the case of EEAGTACO protocol while in the case of

123
Design of Probability Density Function Targeting Energy... 671

250
N =100
Total
NTotal=200

200 N =400
Node density Total

150

100

50

0
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
Number of Layers

Fig. 5 Node density in 3 and 4-layer architectures

14 14
N =100 NTotal=200
Total
12 NTotal=200
12 N =100
Total
N =300 N =300
Total Total
10 N
Total
=400 10 N =400
Total
NTotal=500 NTotal=500
Coverage

Coverage

8 8

6 6

4 4

2 2

0 0
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
Layer Layer
(a) (b)
Fig. 6 Coverage density for varying nodes. a EEAGTACO. b PDFBNDS

PDFBNDS it is maximum in the 1st layer of the considered network architecture. The
coverage density [33] must be at its maximum near the sink area in order to avoid the
energy-hole problem. The behaviour of the coverage density by EEAGTACO protocol is
random while it is predictable in case of PDFBNDS. The coverage density uniformly
decreases from the innermost to the outermost annulus thus resulting in the better coverage
density as obtained by PDFBNDS in comparison with that obtained by EEAGTACO
protocol.
A PDF targeting desirable coverage and energy efficient node deployment for the
coalition, compared with random node deployment (RND) [28] and Non uniform node
deployment (NUND) [34] has been implemented using MATLAB. Parameters such as the
number of message transmissions, lifetime of the network and percentage gain has been
considered for the purpose of comparison.

123
672 R. Mishra et al.

Definition Lifetime of a sensor network is defined as the maximal duration of time in

which the nodes deployed in the sensor network have the ability to perform the specific
task.
The number of dead nodes for each round is plotted in Fig. 7. It is observed that the
distribution of nodes through the PDFBNDS increases the lifetime of the network when
compared with the node distribution through the RND in the network. The PDFBNDS
divides the area in concentric circles in such a way that the area nearer the base station,
considering the base station at the center, is larger and decreases as one approaches to the
boundary of the deployment field. The number of nodes distributed is more towards the
base station and keeps decreasing in the outer annulus. The nodes are distributed in such a
way that the coverage of the network is ensured considering each sensor node having
limited sensing range. The node deployed using such a scheme provides the desired
coverage along with the energy efficient communication between the nodes and the base
station thus increasing the lifetime of the network.

6.2 Performance Comparision of the Proposed Algorithm

The curve in the Fig. 8 depicts the number of representative nodes elected in each round
for all the three schemes namely PDFBNDS, RND and NUND. It is observed that the
number of representative nodes elected in the case of node distribution through PDFBNDS
and RND are similar for the first twenty rounds. The number of representatives is more in
later iterations in the case of node distribution through PDFBNDS than that of the rep-
resentative elected in the case of node distribution through RND. This shows that the
number of coalitions in the case of node distribution through PDFBNDS is more than that
of node distribution through RND. In NUND scheme, the deployment area is divided in
such a way that the area near the base station, considering the base station at the center, is
smaller and it keeps increasing as we move away from the center. Also the node

100
PDFBNDS
90 RND

80
Number of Dead Nodes

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Number of Rounds

Fig. 7 Comparision of the number of dead nodes

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Design of Probability Density Function Targeting Energy... 673

100
PDFBNDS
90 RND
NUND
Number of Representative Nodes 80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Number of Rounds

Fig. 8 Comparision of the number of representatives

distribution is maximum in the innermost area i.e., the number of node distributed are more
towards the area nearer to the base station. Here, the number of node distribution is
inversely proportional to the area. Due to which the data sensed by the sensor nodes is
largely correlated near the base station resulting in less number of coalitions with each
having large number of member nodes. Therefore, the numbers of representative nodes are
less in the innermost area. As the node distribution in the case of NUND is inversely
proportional to the area, it can be well understood that in the case of nodes having smaller
sensing range, the node distribution through NUND scheme may fail to provide the desired
coverage in some application [3, 28] in the wireless sensor network.
Number of nodes covering areas 50  50; 100  100; 150  150 and 200  200 is
shown in Fig. 9. Here, the numbers of nodes are distributed using the PDFBNDS and the
NUND schemes in the above mentioned areas. Considering the total number of nodes 100
and sensing range Rs as 4 units, it is observed that the number of nodes covering an area of
50  50 is more in the case of node distribution through the PDFBNDS scheme while the
number of nodes covering the same area are less in case of NUND assuming each point is
covered by 1-coverage. Same is the case with the area 100  100, 150  150 and
200  200. It can be said that, the areas covered are less by the node distribution through
NUND than that when the nodes are distributed through PDFBNDS. is inversely propor-
tional to the area, the area covered by the nodes is less with small sensing range. It is clear
from the results obtained that the area covered through the node distribution using
PDFBNDS is more than that of the node distribution using NUND.
Number of packets sent in each round considering all the three cases is plotted in
Fig. 10. It is noticed that the number of packets sent is the same for the first few rounds in
the case of node distribution through both the RND and the PDFBNDS schemes, while the
number of packets sent is less in case of node distribution through PDFBNDS scheme. The
number of coalitions formed in NUDS is less, with each coalition having large member
nodes. As the representative nodes communicate on behalf of its coalitions, the number of
packets sent in case of NUDS is less. A steep curve is noticed in case of RND indicating

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674 R. Mishra et al.

100
PDFBNDS
90
NUND
80

70
Number of Nodes

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
50 100 150 120
Area in square units

Fig. 9 Area covered by the nodes

100
PDFBNDS
Number of Packets sent to the base station

90 RND
NUND
80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Number of Rounds

Fig. 10 Comparision of the proposed algorithm along with other algorithm

sudden death of all the nodes in wireless networks whereas a gradual decay is noticed in
case of PDFBNDS. This clearly indicates that the nodes deployed using PDFBNDS
scheme provides better energy efficient communication between the base station and
nodes.
In Fig. 11b, the number of dead nodes against the number of rounds is plotted. It is
noticed from the figure that the nodes deployed in case 50  50 provide better lifetime as
compared to the other two cases namely 100  100, considering fixed number of nodes.

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Design of Probability Density Function Targeting Energy... 675

100 100
Total number of packets sent
Area = 50 x 50 Area = 50 x 50
90 Area = 100 x 100 90 Area = 100 x 100
Area = 200 x 200 Area = 200 x 200

Number of dead nodes

80 80
70 70
60 60
50 50
40 40
30 30
20 20
10 10
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Number of Rounds Number of Rounds
(a) (b)
Fig. 11 Transmission of packets and lifetime of the network. a Number of packets sent with varying area.
b Lifetime of the network

The inter-nodal distance between any two sensor nodes decrease with the decrease in area.
In such cases, the spatial co-relation amongst the data sensed by the sensor nodes is high
resulting in less number of coalition. Similarly, when the same number of nodes are
distributed in larger area, the inter-nodal distance between the sensor node increases,
resulting in less correlation amongst the data sensed by the sensor nodes. Therefore, the
number of coalitions formed in this case are more as compared to the earlier case. The
numbers of transmissions increase with the increase in the number of coalitions, resulting
in more number of packets in the network as shown in Fig. 11. The more the number of
packets sent across the network, the more is the energy consumed by the sensor nodes thus
resulting in decrease in the lifetime of the network as shown in Fig. 11b.
Number of dead nodes in each round is plotted in Fig. 12a. It is observed that the sensor
nodes having sensing range 4, has increased lifetime than that with the sensor nodes having
sensor range as 10 in the network. The area is divided into more concentric circles in the
case of sensor nodes having Rs ¼ 10, as compared to that with sensors having Rs ¼ 4. This
leads to the number of node distribution further away from the base station in case of

100 100
R =4 R =4
Total number of packets sent

s s
90 Rs = 10 90 Rs = 10
Number of Dead Nodes

80 80
70 70
60 60
50 50
40 40
30 30
20 20
10 10
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Number of Rounds Number of Rounds
(a) (b)
Fig. 12 Transmission of packets and lifetime of the network. a Number of Dead nodes. b Number of
packets sent in each round

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676 R. Mishra et al.

Rs ¼ 10. The nodes form more number of coalition resulting in more number of packets
sent across the network as shown in Fig. 12b unlike the case with Rs ¼ 4. In case of
Rs ¼ 4, the nodes are more closer to the base station therefore resulting in less number of
coalition formation. Hence, number of packets sent are less across the network thus
resulting in increase in the network lifetime with the sensing range Rs ¼ 4 when compared
with the sensing range Rs ¼ 10 as shown in Fig. 12a.

6.3 Comparison of Percentage Gain

To analyze the percentage gain of EEGTACO [28] when nodes are deployed using both the
proposed PDF and the Random Deployment was considered. The data obtained for the
comparison purpose is given in Table 3.
24  20
% gain ¼  100 ¼ 20 % ð65Þ
20
30  25
% gain ¼  100 ¼ 20 % ð66Þ
25
39  28
% gain ¼  100 ¼ 32 % ð67Þ
28
It is observed that at 20% nodes run out of their energies in round 20 and 24 in the case of
node distribution using RND and the node distribution using PDFBNDS schemes
respectively. Therefore, the percentage gain in case of 20% node death is 20%. Similarly,
at 50 and 100% node death the percentage gain obtained is 20 and 30% respectively.

7 Conclusion

In this paper, the node distribution based on probability distribution function for coalition
based WSNs is proposed. The considered area in the proposed work has been divided into
concentric circles with the base station situated at the center of the deployment field. The
area of each annulus decreases as one move away from the base station. The node dis-
tribution scheme, targeting energy efficient communication along with the desired cov-
erage based on the probability distribution function, has been designed The proposed node
distribution scheme is than compared with the other existing node deployment schemes.
The performance of the proposed node distribution scheme is evaluated in terms of the
network coverage with limited sensing range, the number of transmission of the packets to
the base station and the life time of the network. The results obtained through simulation

Table 3 Gain compare to random deployment

% Node death Number of rounds in Number of rounds in Gain (%)
random deployment proposed deployment

20 20 24 20
50 25 30 20
100 28 39 32

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Design of Probability Density Function Targeting Energy... 677

confirms that the node distribution scheme based on the probability distribution function
increases the network lifetime along with the desired coverage when compared with the
other existing node distribution schemes. Hence, it can be concluded that the proposed
node distribution scheme increases the lifetime of the Wireless Sensor Network.

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Richa Mishra received M.E. degree from University of Mumbai, India

in the year 2008. She is currently pursuing her Ph.D. Degree from
National Institute of Technology, Delhi, India. She has served 5 years
as Assistant Professor in Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University
and Delhi Technological University (Formerly known as Delhi College
of Engineering), India. Her current area of interest includes energy
efficient protocols in wireless sensor network.

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Design of Probability Density Function Targeting Energy... 679

Vivekanand Jha received the B.Tech. degree in Computer Science

and Information Technology (CSIT) from I.E.T Bareilly, Rohilkhand
University, U.P, India, in 2001 and the M.Tech. degree in Information
Technology from Indian Institute of Information Technology, Gwalior,
India, in 2006. He is working as Assistant Professor in Department of
Computer Science and Engineering at Indira Gandhi Delhi Technical
University for Women, Delhi, India from 2007. His research interests
include wireless sensor networks, Algorithm Design, and Cloud
Computing.

Rajeev K. Tripathi received Ph.D. degree from Indian Institute of

Technology, Kanpur, India. He is currently working as an Assistant
Professor in Electronics and Communication Engineering at National
Institute of Technology, Delhi, India. His current area of interest
includes clustering algorithms for Wireless Sensor Networks.

Ajay K. Sharma is working as Director at National Institute of

Technology (An Institute of National Importance), Ministry of Human
Resource Development, Government of India, New Delhi since
October 2013. He received his BE in Electronics and Electrical
Communication Engineering from Punjab University Chandigarh,
India in 1986, M.S. in Electronics and Control from Birla Institute of
Technology (BITS), Pilani in the year 1994 and Ph.D. in Electronics
Communication and Computer Engineering in the year 1999. His
Ph.D. thesis was on ‘‘Studies on Broadband Optical Communication
Systems and Networks’’. After serving various organizations from
1986 to 1995, he has joined National Institute of Technology (Erst-
while Regional Engineering College) Jalandhar as Assistant Professor
in the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering in
the year 1996. From November 2001, he has worked as Professor in
the ECE department and thereafter he has worked as Professor in
Computer Science and Engineering from 2007 to 2013 in the same
institute. His major areas of interest are broadband optical wireless communication systems and networks,
dispersion compensation, fiber nonlinearities, optical soliton transmission, WDM systems and networks,
Radio-over-Fiber (RoF) and wireless sensor networks and computer communication. He has published 290
research papers in the International/National Journals/Conferences and 12 books. He has supervised 22
Ph.D. and 52 M.Tech. theses. He has completed two R&D projects funded by Government of India and one
project is ongoing. He was associated to implement the World Bank project of 209 Million for TEQIP-I
programme of the institute. He has been appointed as member of technical Committee on Telecom under
International Association of Science and Technology Development (IASTD) Canada for the term
2004–2007 and he is Life Member of Optical Society of America, USA, (LM ID-361253), Computer
Society of India, Mumbai, India, (LM-Associate: 01099298), Advanced Computing and Communications

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680 R. Mishra et al.

Society, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India, (L284M1100306), SPIE, USA, (ID: 619838), Indian
Society for Technical Education (I.S.T.E.), New Delhi, India, (LM-11724), Fellow The Institution of
Electronics and Telecommunication Engineers (IETE), (F-224647).

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