EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION OF VACHELLIA

NILOTICA SEED OIL WITH SINGLE , DOUBLE AND TRIPLE

HOLE NOZZLES

A PROJECT REPORT

Submitted by

KORSA KARTHEEK (REG NO – 3441750083)

HAREESH . B (REG NO – 3441750070)
GANAPATHY KARTHIKEYAN (REG NO – 3441857534)

in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree

of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
in

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

AARUPADAI VEEDU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

VINAYAKA MISSION’S RESEARCH FOUNDATION
DEEMED TO BE UNIVERSITY
PAIYANOOR, CHENNAI - 603 104

MAY 2019
 AARUPADAI VEEDU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
VINAYAKA MISSION’S RESEARCH FOUNDATION
DEEMED TO BE UNIVERSITY
PAIYANOOR, CHENNAI 603 104

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE
Certified that this project report “Experimental investigation of Vachellia
Nilotica seed oil with single, double and triple hole nozzles is the bonafide work
of Korsa Kartheek, Hareesh.B, Ganapathy Karthikeyan who carried out the project
work under my supervision.

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE

Ms. S.SANGEETHA PROF.L.PRABHU

SUPERVISOR HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Department of Mechanical Engineering,

Aarupadai Veedu Institute of Technology, Aarupadai Veedu Institute of Technology,
Paiyanoor-603 104. Paiyanoor-603 104.
Kancheepuram District. Kancheepuram District.

Submitted the Project Report for B.E. Degree University Project Viva-Voce
Examination held on ________________

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

2
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We would first like to thank our beloved Chancellor Dr.A.S.Ganesan, of

Aarupadai Veedu Institute of Technology, Vinayaka Missions Research
foundation for giving us the opportunity to carry out this project.

We are grateful to our beloved Principal Dr.K.L.SHUNMUGANATHAN

for all the encouragement and support extended to us during the tenure of this
project.

We express our profound gratitude and our heart filled thanks to

Prof.L.PRABHU, Professor and Head of the Department, Mechanical
Engineering, who contributed his valuable time and gave suggestions,
encouragement, support and valuable guidance for the completion of this project.

We thank our project coordinator Mr. K.SURENDRA BABU, Associate

Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering for his espousal and for having
instilled in us the confidence to complete our project on time.

We thank our Guide Ms.S.SANGEETHA, Assistant Professor (Gr-II), Department

of Mechanical Engineering for his espousal and for having instilled in us the
confidence to complete our project on time.

We would also like to thank all Faculty Members and non-teaching staffs of
Mechanical Engineering department for their constant support and encouragement
given to us.

3
 ABSTRACT

This paper reports the production of biodiesel from Acacia nilotica (karuvel) seed
oil for the first time in literature. The karuvel oil has high free fatty acid (FFA)
content; hence a two step process (esterification of FFA followed by
transesterification) has been carried out to produce biodiesel. Sulphuric acid and
KOH are used as catalyst for esterification and transesterification respectively. The
biodiesel produced has been characterized using gas chromatography and
physiochemical properties. It is found that karuvel biodiesel has high amount of
unsaturated fatty acid methyl esters. For the transesterification process, the effect
of Catalyst concentration and reaction time on biodiesel yield have been studied
and reported. It has been found that optimum values of catalyst concentration and
reaction time are 1% w/w and 1 hour respectively. Keywords— Acacia nilotica,
karuvel, biodiesel, high FFA, GC.

An experimental study was conducted on light duty DI diesel engine at single and
three hole injection to study effect on performance and emission by using
conventional diesel future emission regulation will require substantial reductions of
NOX and CO2 emissions from diesel engines .At full load CO and HC emissions
were found same at single hole and three hole nozzle injector

4
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE
NO. TITLE NO.

1. INTRODUCTION 9-23
1.1 Vachellia Nilotica seed oil

1.2 Plant material

1.3 Oil extraction

1.4 Classification of vachellia nilotica

1.4.1 Vachellia nilotica sub-species nilotica

1.4.2 Vachellia nilotica sub-species indica

1.4.3 Vachellia nilotica sub-species

cupressiformis

1.4.4 Vachellia nilotica sub-species tomentosa

1.4.5 Vachellia nilotica sub-species adstringens

1.4.6 Vachellia nilotica sub-species subalata

1.4.7 Vachellia nilotica sub-species kraussiana

1.4.8 Vachellia nilotica sub-species leiocarpa

5
 1.4.9 Vachellia nilotica sub-species hemispherica

1.5 Biodiesel

1.6 Benefits of biodiesel

1.7 Biodiesel Production

1.8 Raw Materials for Biodiesel Production

1.9 Typical Oil Crops Useful for Biodiesel

production

1.10 Usage of nozzles

2. LITERATURE REVIEW 24-32

3. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP AND 33-44

METHODOLOGY
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Experimental Test Setup

3.3 Experimental procedure

3.4 Eddy Current Dynamometer

3.5 Sensor Used

3.5.1 Air Flow Sensor

3.6 Fuel Flow Sensor

3.7 Speed sensor

3.8 Temperature Sensors

6
 3.9 Pressure sensor
3.10 Load cell (Torque Measurement)
3.11 Crank Angle Encoder

3.12 Analog to digital converter

3.13 Emission Analyzer
3.14 Smoke Meter
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 45-52
4.1 Comparision of BTE VS BP
4.2 Comparision of BSFC VS BP
4.3 Comparision of HC VS BP
4.4 Comparision of CO2 VS BP
4.5 Comparision of CO VS BP
4.6 SMPKE DENSITY
4.7 Comparision of NOX VS BP
5. CONCLUSION 53-54

6. REFERENCES 55-56

List of tables
7
Table 1.1 Taxonomic classification of vachellia nilotica
Table 1.2 Mechanical properties of vachellia nilotica
Table 3.1 Specifications of VCR engine
Table 3.2 Specifications of gas analyzer
Table 3.3 Specifications of smoke meter

List of figures
Figure 1.1 Flowers of Vachellia nilotica
Figure 1.2 Different parts of vachellia nilotica plant
Figure 1.3 Different types of nozzles
Figure 3.1 Schematic view of experimental setup
Figure 3.2 VCR engine setup
Figure 3.3 Smoke meter

8
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

9
1.1Vachellia Nilotica Seed Oil

The objective of this study is to evaluate,non edible Acacia nilotica (Karuvel) seed
oil for bioidiesel production. Acacia nilotica (family Leguminosae) generally
grows to a height of about 15 - 18 m with a 2 - 3 m diameter (see Fig. 1a and 1b).
The bark is slate green in young trees and nearly black in mature trees. The pods
are normally 7 – 15 cm long, green and tomentose when immature and greenish
black when mature. The pods are indehiscent and deeply constricted between the
seed giving a necklace appearance2 . 8 to 12 Seeds are present per pod. The seeds
are compressed, ovoid, dark brown shinning with hard testa (see Fig. 1c). Acacia
nilotica is naturally widespread in drier areas of Africa (Senegal, Egypt) and Asia
(India, Burma and Srilanka). In India it is distributed in forest areas, road sides,
farm lands, tank foreshores, wastelands etc. Acacia niloticaAdhikesavan C et al
/Int.J. ChemTech Res. 2015,8(2),pp 854-859. 855 grows under climatic conditions
ranging from sub tropical to tropical. It can withstand extreme temperatures (> 50o
C) and conditions of drought. It can also grow at any type of soil; saline (soluble
salt content below 3%) or alkaline (up to PH 9). In this work, the process to
produce biodiesel from oil extracted from Karuvel seeds through tranesterification
process is discussed. In addition to this, the effect of different process parameters
like; reaction time and catalyst for production of methyl esters of Karuvel oil
consisted of a heating plate with a magnetic stirrer and thermostat to control the
temperature. A flat bottomed flask with three necks was placed on top of the
heating plate. A reflux condenser has been attached to one

10
 Figure 1.1 Flowers of vachellia nilotica

Kingdom Plantae

Sub Kingdom Tracheobionta

Super Division Spermatophyta

Division Magnoliophyta

Subclass Rosidae

Order Fabales

Family Fabaceae

Genus Acacia

Table 1.1
Taxonomic
classification of Vachallia nilotica

11
 Figure 1.2 Different parts of vachellia nilotica plant

neck of the flask. Another neck was used to add the reactants to the flask. A
thermometer was attached to the third neck to monitor the temperature. The
Karuvel oil produced had a high acid number of about 18.2mg KOH/g repectively.
Therefore esterification of free fatty acids has been done first. Methanol to oil
molar ratio used for esterification . Sulphuric acid was used as catalyst at 1 % w/w
of oil. Sulphuric acid has been slowly added to the methanol and mixed well. The
esterification has been carried out for about 2 hours. The reactant mixture has been
allowed to stand in a separating funnel for 24 hours. The oil layer that got settled at
the bottom has been separated and used for tranesterification. Transesterification
reaction has been carried out in a similar experimental set up. The tranesterification
parameters such as Methanol to oil ratio, reaction temperature and speed of the
stirrer have been maintained as constant for all experiments at 6:1, 60o C and 600

12
rpm respectively. The quantification of methyl esters in Karuvel biodiesel was
done using Gas chromatography (GC). GC analysis was carried out at CSMCRI,
Gujarat, India. Fatty acid profile is given in Table. The percentage of saturated and
unsaturated fatty acid methyl esters in the biodiesel is 19.83 and 79.55%
respectively. Table 2. 99Fatty acid methyl ester composition in biodiesel Fatty acid
methyl ester Composition (%) Palmitic acid methyl ester Adhikesavan C et al
/Int.J. ChemTech Res. 2015,,pp 854-859. 857 .

1.2 Plant material

A. nilotica seeds were collected in August 2014 from Sarkhun village, Bandar
Abbas, Hormozgan Province, Iran (27°23’34” N 56°23’59” E, 100 m.a.s.l).
Specimen was identified by R. Asadpour and voucher was deposited in the
Herbarium of Faculty of Pharmacy, Pharmaceutical Sciences Branch, Islamic Azad
University (IAUPS), Tehran under the code number 409-PMP.

1.3 Oil extraction

Oil extraction was performed with a Soxhlet apparatus using n-hexane as the
solvent. 100 g of powdered seeds was extracted for 6 h and then the solvent was
evaporated by using a rotary evaporator at 40°C. The pure oil was transferred into
a small glass vial, flushed with nitrogen and maintained at –18˚C until analyzed

1.4 Classification of vachellia nilotica

1.4.1 Vachellia nilotica sub-species nilotica

The branchlets of this sub-species are generally glabrous to sub-glabrous or rarely

pubescent. The arrangement of pods is necklace like, regularly constricted between
the seeds having a smooth surface devoid of hair.
13
1.4.2 Vachellia nilotica sub-species indica

The young branchlets of this sub-species may vary from sub-glabrous to thinly
pubescent. Pods are arranged necklace like, narrowly clogged between the seeds
and are densely white-tomentose.

1.4.3 Vachellia nilotica sub-species cupressiformis

This sub-species bears a characteristic crown which make it conspicuous and

identifiable from other sub-species of Acacia nilotica. The tree has a narrow erect
cypress like crown. The branches tend to go upwards and make a narrow angle
with the main stem.

1.4.4 Vachellia nilotica sub-species tomentosa

The young branchlets of this species are densely white tomentose. The pods are
arranged in the form of a necklace, slightly constricted between the seeds.

1.4.5 Vachellia nilotica sub-species adstringens

The young branchlets in this sub-species are very hairy or tomentose and only
rarely pubescent. The arrangement of the pods differ with other species. They are
not necklage like, margins distinctly and often irregularly crenate and its width
varies from 1.2-2.2 cm. The surface of the pod is densely tomentose.

1.4.6 Vachellia nilotica sub-species subalata

The branches are densely pubescent to sub tomentose. The pods are not necklace
like. They are oblong with their margins flattened, straight or sometimes slightly
crenate, usually 1.5-2.5 cm wide, densely and persistently subtomentose all over.

14
The subspecies subalata is close to adstringens but it differs in having longer
indumentum on the branchlets.

1.4.7 Vachellia nilotica sub-species kraussiana

The branches of this sub species are generally more or less densely pubescent.
The pods are not necklace like. They are oblong, with margins more or less
superficially crenate. The seeds of this sub-species are initially glabrescent and
become hairless and shining black when dry.

1.4.8 Vachellia nilotica sub-species leiocarpa

The young branchlets of this sub-species are glabrous and some times puberlous.
Pods are not necklace like. They are oblong with straight margins or rarely crenate,
hairless, narrow, 1-1.3 cm wide.

1.4.9 Vachellia nilotica sub-species hemispherica

The tree of this sub-species have a hemispherical shaped crown; trunk is not
clearly demarcated and the branchlets are for some time pubescent. The pods are
not arranged in the form of a necklace, but oblong with straight margins to slightly
crenate, 1.1 – 1.3 cm wide, with very short simple puberulence.

15
 Table 1.2 Mechanical properties of Vachellia Nilotica

1.5 Biodiesel

The world’s current petroleum resources are draining out alarmingly fast and every
country is looking for alternative sources. Biodiesel is one such renewable source.
The usage of some percentage of biodiesel blended with petroleum diesel vastly
saves the exchequer on import constrains in developing nations like India. For
example, recent statistics1 shows that blending 5% biodiesel with petroleum diesel

16
can save up to 4000 crore rupees. Furthermore, production of biodiesel may also be
viewed as a potential alternative to speed up rural development and create
employment opportunities. Developed countries like USA and European countries
uses the edible sources like soybean and rapeseed for the biodiesel production.
While in country like India, where the population is huge, biodiesel production
from non ediblesources are viable from the view point of food versus energy
conflict. Jatrophacurcas, Pongamiapinnata (Karanj), Ricinuscommunis (Castor),
Cerberaodullam (Sea Mango), Heveabrasiliensis (Rubber tree),
Simmondsiachinensis (Jojoba), Azadirachtaindica (Neem) and Madhucaindica
(Mahua) etc. are some of the non edible sources that have been tried in the past to
produce biodiesel1

Biodiesel is an alternative fuel similar to conventional or ‘fossil’ diesel. Biodiesel

can be produced from straight vegetable oil, animal oil/fats, tallow and waste
cooking oil. The process used to convert these oils to Biodiesel is called
transesterification. This process is described in more detail below. The largest
possible source of suitable oil comes from oil crops such as rapeseed, palm or
soybean. In the UK rapeseed represents the greatest potential for biodiesel
production. Most biodiesel produced at present is produced from waste vegetable
oil sourced from restaurants, chip shops, industrial food producers such as
Birdseye etc. Though oil straight from the agricultural industry represents the
greatest potential source it is not being produced commercially simply because the
raw oil is too expensive. After the cost of converting it to biodiesel has been added
on it is simply too expensive to compete with fossil diesel. Waste vegetable oil can
often be sourced for free or sourced already treated for a small price. (The waste
oil must be treated before conversion to biodiesel to remove impurities). The result
is Biodiesel produced from waste vegetable oil can compete with fossil diesel.

17
More about the cost of biodiesel and how factors such as duty play an important
role can be found here.

1.6 Benefits of Biodiesel

Biodiesel has many environmentally beneficial properties. The main benefit of

biodiesel is that it can be described as ‘carbon neutral’. This means that the fuel
produces no net output of carbon in the form of carbon dioxide (CO2). This effect
occurs because when the oil crop grows it absorbs the same amount of CO2 as is
released when the fuel is combusted. In fact this is not completely accurate as CO2
is released during the production of the fertilizer required to fertilize the fields in
which the oil crops are grown. Fertilizer production is not the only source of
pollution associated with the production of biodiesel, other sources include the
esterification process, the solvent extraction of the oil, refining, drying and
transporting. All these processes require an energy input either in the form of
electricity or from a fuel, both of which will generally result in the release of green
house gases. To properly assess the impact of all these sources requires use of a
technique called life cycle analysis. Our section on LCAlooks closer at this
analysis. Biodiesel is rapidly biodegradable and completely non-toxic, meaning
spillages represent far less of a risk than fossil diesel spillages. Biodiesel has a
higher flash point than fossil diesel and so is safer in the event of a crash.

1.7 Biodiesel Production

As mentioned above biodiesel can be produced from straight vegetable oil, animal
oil/fats, tallow and waste oils. There are three basic routes to biodiesel production
from oils and fats:

 Base catalyzed transesterification of the oil.

18
  Direct acid catalyzed transesterification of the oil.
 Conversion of the oil to its fatty acids and then to biodiesel.

Almost all biodiesel is produced using base catalyzed transesterification as it is the

most economical process requiring only low temperatures and pressures and
producing a 98% conversion yield. For this reason only this process will be
described in this report.

The Transesterification process is the reaction of a triglyceride (fat/oil) with an

alcohol to form esters and glycerol. A triglyceride has a glycerine molecule as its
base with three long chain fatty acids attached. The characteristics of the fat are
determined by the nature of the fatty acids attached to the glycerine.

  The products of the reaction are the biodiesel itself and glycerol.

A successful transesterification reaction is signified by the separation of the ester

and glycerol layers after the reaction time. The heavier, co-product, glycerol settles
out and may be sold as it is or it may be purified for use in other industries, e.g. the
pharmaceutical, cosmetics etc.

Straight vegetable oil (SVO) can be used directly as a fossil diesel substitute
however using this fuel can some fairly serious engine problems. Due to its
relatively high viscosity SVO leads to poor atomisation of the fuel, incomplete
combustion, coking of the fuel injectors

1.8 Raw Materials for Biodiesel Production

The raw materials for biodiesel production are vegetable oils, animal fats and

19
short chain alcohols. The oils most used for worldwide biodiesel production are
rapeseed (mainly in the European Union countries), soybean (Argentina and the
United States of America), palm (Asian and Central American countries) and
sunflower, although other oils are also used, including peanut, linseed, safflower,
used vegetable oils, and also animal fats. Methanol is the most frequently used
alcohol although ethanol can also be used. Since cost is the main concern in
biodiesel production and trading (mainly due to oil prices), the use of non-edible
vegetable oils has been studied for several years with good results.

1.9 Typical Oil Crops Useful for Biodiesel Production

The main characteristics of typical oil crops that have been found useful for
biodiesel production are summarized in the following paragraphs

Sources of Bio Fuel Biofuel (20% Jathroha + 70% Hippi oil + 10% Ethanol) is a
renewable energy source because the energy is generated by using a resource,
sunlight, which cannot be depleted. Creation of biofuel starts with
photosynthesis causing a feed stock, such as sugar cane or a grain such as maize
(corn), to grow. These feed stocks are processed into bio fuel.

c) Following are methods to produce bio fuel

Fermentation , Distillation , Dehydration , Blending(20% Jathroha + 70% Hippi

oil + 10% Ethanol)

d) Experimental setup The experimental test set up Figure-1 consisted of twin

cylinder diesel engine, four stroke, Forced cooling system, crank start. The setup is
provided with a resistance load bank, Multi gas analyzer made by Netel for
performance and emissions analysis. The engine is cooled using the water jackets

20
on the engine block and cylinder head using a Forced Feed System. While the
recommended injection timing given by the manufacturer is 27º BTDC (static), the
opening pressure of the nozzle was set at 1800bar and the engine speed at
1500rpm.There are a number of transducers used in the engine such as
piezoelectric pressure transducer flush with the cylinder head surface to measure
cylinder pressure. Specifications of engine are shown .

Brake thermal efficiency, shows the variation of brake thermal efficiency with
respect to Biofuel & Diesel at different loads. From the plot it is observed that as
load increases brake thermal efficiency is also increases for diesel as well as
Biofuel. At full load condition, the brake thermal efficiencies obtained are 34.6%
& 55.7% for the diesel & Biofuel respectively. Among these two fuels Ethanol has
maximum BTE i.e 55.7% which is obtained from Biofuel at full load. The BTE
using Biofuel is increased by 31.3% as compared to the diesel at full load
condition. The increment in Brake thermal efficiency is due to low heat value of
Biofuel as compared to diesel & better combustion because of less viscosity of
Ethanol.

1.10 USAGE OF NOZZLES

The details of the nozzles and fuel injection pressures employed are given in table.
Constant speed performance tests were conducted maintaining jacket water
temperature at 45°C in order to maintain steady state conditions. The fuel injection
pressure was set to 200 bar, 220 bar and 240 bar. Injection pressure was changed
by means of adjusting the injector spring tension as shown in Figure. Each trial
was repeated three times and on different days, enough care was taken to load the
engine accurately at each step of load and also to maintain ambient conditions

21
constant. The results of the three repetitions were averaged to decrease the
error/uncertainty.

Figure 1.3 Different types of nozzles

Diameter of each hole

200, 220 and 240 3 0.28 mm NH2 200, 220 and 240 5 0.20 mmEffect on Brake
Thermal Efficiency (BTE) Effect of nozzle hole geometry for NH1(3 hole nozzle)
and NH2(5 hole nozzle) on brake thermal efficiency is as shown in Figs.3-4
respectively. It was found that, nozzle hole geometry has significant influences on
droplet size (spray) penetration. From Figs.3-4 at corresponding IP say 220 bar, it
was noticed that, rise in thermal efficiency with increase in nozzle hole. This was
due to increase in nozzle hole was responsible to rise in air fuel mixing, fuel
vaporization and improved combustion and heat release rate. Thus, in view of this
BTE rises with number of hole, it was observed that BTE 26.65% and 26.18% was
higher at NH2, 220 bar injection pressure, and full load and 80% load respectively.
The possible reason may be stated as, increase in IP leads to better atomization of
22
fuel, improved spray characteristics and reduced physical delay period; which
improved premixed combustion and rapid combustion rate. Owing to this, increase
in brake thermal efficiency was observed. However too high IP will lead to
delayed injection, negating gain due too high IP. Also, too high IP may responsible
to higher velocity of droplet which will pass away without mixing air properly and
lower brake thermal efficiency due to improper combustion. It has also been
observed that the smaller the orifice, the shorter the ignition delay. The smaller
orifices also improve the mixing, which is shown by shorter combustion duration.
This results in reduction of the heat and time losses, resulting in a higher brake
thermal efficiency, i.e. lower brake specific fuel consumption. One of the nozzles
with smaller orifices (Ø 0.20 mm) has improved combustion for all of the test
cases, resulting in an increase in fuel conversion efficiency compared to the
reference nozzle (Ø 0.28 mm

23
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

Babul (Vachellia nilotica) is one of the most important multipurpose tree species
for afforestation of arid and semi-arid areas. It can grow in varied ecological
conditions, grows fast, coppice readily and fixes nitrogen, thus improves soil

24
fertility. Almost every part of the babul tree is utilized for some purpose. The wood
is strong and durable which is used for various constructional purposes. It is also
used as raw material in several wood processing industries. The stem and branches
are used as firewood, which has high calorific value. The bark of the tree yields
tannin, which isimportant for Indian leather industry. Village artisans engaged in
leather works also use it. The tree yields gum, commonly called as babul gum,
which is used for various purposes. Leaves are good fodder for sheeps, goats, and
camels. Animals also eat the pods. The thorny branches are used as a fencing
material. The tree is evergreen and bears bright yellow flowers, (July to October),
which increase the scenic beauty of the areas. The tree isdeep rooted and root
biomass yields good firewood.

Rising petroleum prices, increasing threat to the environment from vehicle exhaust
emissions and fastly depleting stock of fossil fuels have generated an intense
international interest in developing alternative renewable fuels for IC engines. Bio
fuel is an oxygenated fuel which increases the combustion and makes reduce
exhaust emission. It can be produced from crops with high sugar or starch content.
Some of these crops include sugarcane, sorghum, corn, barley,
cassava,linseedplants, sugar beets etc. Besides being a biomass based renewable
fuel, Biofuel has cleaner burning and higher octane rating than the various
vegetable oils .

Jason and Marc (2002) presented the exergetic environmental assessment of

lifecycle emissions from M-85, E-85 (used for the gasoline engine) and other
alternative fuels . Diesel exhaust is a major contributor to various types of air
pollution, including particulate matter (PM), oxides of nitrogen (NOx), and carbon
monoxide (CO)

25
Shaik et al. (2007) demonstrated VCR engine has great potential for improving
part-load thermal efficiency and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. There were
many attempts made to use Biofuel in compression ignition (CI) engine.

Huang et al. (2008) carried out tests to study the performance and emissions of
the engine fuelled with the ethanol diesel blends . They found it feasible and
applicable for the blends with n-butanol to replace pure diesel as the fuel for diesel
engine. Bhattacharya and Mishra (2002) evaluated the feasibility of preparing
diesel-ethanol blends using 200° (anhydrous ethanol) and ethanol lower proof .
They found that ethanol blends indicated power producing capability of the engine
similar to that of diesel.

Hansen et al. (2001) found that the properties of ethanol-diesel blends have a
significant effect on safety, engine performance, durability and emissions .

Wang et al. (2003) analyzed that the most noteworthy benefits of Ediesel use lie
with petroleum fuel reductions and reductions in urban PM10 and CO emissions
by heavy vehicle operations.

Ajav and Akingbehin (2002) experimentally determined some fuel properties of

local ethanol blended with diesel to establish their suitability for use in
compression ignition engines .

Eckland et al. (1984) presented, State-of-the-Art Report on the Use of Alcohols

in Diesel Engines .

It is proposed to use Bio Fuel in the diesel engine (CI engine).  The emissions
like HC, CO in the exhaust gases are proposed to reduce during the
combustionitself.  To study the performance evaluation of the using Bio fuelas

26
fuel in the diesel engine.  Analyze the exhaust emissions and measurement,
reduction in the exhaust gas.

Ayoub (1985) studied molluscicidal activity of the pods and stem bark of Acacia
subspp. nilotica, tomentosa and astringens against the snail species Bulinus
truncatus and Biomphalaria pfeifferi. The spray-dried powders of the pods and
stem bark of Acacia nilotica subspp. nilotica, tomentosa and astringens prove to be
promising vegetable molluscicides.

Bachaya et al., (2009) determined in vitro anthelmintic activity of methanolic

extract of fruit of Acacia nilotica against Haemonchus contortus by the adult
motility assay, the egg hatch test and the larval development assay. The data
justified their use in traditional veterinary medicine.

Dafallah and Mustafa (1996) tested aqueous extracts of Acacia nilotica for
antiinflammatory, analgesic and antipyretic activities. The phytoconstituents like
flavonoids, polysaccharides and organic acids may be responsible for
pharmacological activities.

Gilani et al., (1999) suggested that antispasmodic action of Acacia nilotica is

mediated through calcium channel blockade and which is responsible for the blood
pressure lowering effect in the in vivo studies.

Kariuki and Njoroge (2011) tested extracts of Acacia nilotica against three test
organism: Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pneumoniae and Escherichia coli
for their antimicrobial properties by bioassay method using the disk diffusion test.
The findings indicated that A. nilotica have antimicrobial property.

27
Kaur et al., (2005) evaluated antimutagenic and cytotoxic effects of different
extracts/fractions of Acacia nilotica prepared by maceration method. The potency
order of different extracts was more or less similar in Ames assay as well as in
cytotoxic assay. The activity of extract partially may be due to the presence of
gallic acid and other polyphenols.

Cetto et al., (2005) studied the hypoglycemic effects of root extracts of Malmea
depressa in streptozotocin induced diabetic rats. Oral application of extracts
significantly lowered the plasma glucose levels in diabetic rats within three hours.

Chakrabarti et al., (2002) investigated antidiabetic and hypolipidemic activity of

Helicteres isora in animal models. Ethanolic extract caused significant reduction in
plasma glucose, triglyceride and insulin levels in diabetic mice.

Chattopadhyay et al., (1992) performed their research with leaves of Vinca rosea
on glucose utilization and glycogen utilization by isolated rat hemi diaphragm.

Chattopadhyay (1999) compared blood sugar lowering activity of four important

medicinal plants (Azadirachta indica, Gymnema sylvestre, Catharanthus roseus
and Ocimum sanctum) against normal and streptozotocin-induced diabetic rat
models. A. indica leaf extract was found to have most potent blood sugar lowering
activity followed by C. roseus, G. sylvestre and O. sanctum.

Damge et al., (2007) evaluated that polymeric nanoparticle for preservation of

insulin's biological activity. The antidiabetic effect was explained by the
mucoadhesive properties of the polycationic polymer.

28
Dhanabal, et al., (2004) reported the hypoglycemic activity of Coccinia indica
Wight & Arn. The alcoholic extract of Coccinia indica was found to be more active
in reducing blood glucose level, this extract was subjected to further fractionation.

Eidi et al., (2006) investigated antidiabetic effect of garlic ethanolic extract

(Allium sativum L.) in normal and streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Oral
administrations of the garlic extract significantly decreased serum glucose, total
cholesterol, triglycerides, urea, uric acid, creatinine, aspartate transminase and
alanine transaminase levels, while increased serum insulin in diabetic rats but not
in normal rats.

Eidi et al., (2007) investigated antidiabetic effect of Trigonella-foenum graecum L

in normal and streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Results revealed that the
antidiabetic effect of the extract was similar to that observed for glibenclamide.

Oke et al., (2009) evaluated antioxidant activities of the essential oil and the
methanolic extract from S. cuneifolia by using DPPH radical scavenging, β-
carotene linoleic acid bleaching and metal chelating activity assays. They
concluded the minimum inhibitory concentration of plant extracts in different
models.

Sharififar et al., (2009) screened crude extracts of Teucrium polium L. and

isolated compounds for their antioxidant and free radical scavenging activities. It
has been found that these compounds possess a broad spectrum of pharmacological
effects including antioxidant, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, hypoglycemic,
hepatoprotective, hypolipidemic, antibacterial and dantifungal properties.

29
Slusarczyk et al., (2009) showed the antioxidant properties of the different
extracts from Lycopus lucidus and to correlate their antioxidant potential to the
composition of polyphenols.

Socha et al., (2009) studied ten herb honeys of various origin revealed differences
in their antioxidant activity and profiles of phenolic acids and flavonoids. Thyme
herb honey had high quercetin content.

Zhang et al., (2009) studied antioxidant phenolic compounds from walnut kernels
(Juglans regia L.) The results of this study suggested that the antioxidant activities
of these phenolic compounds may be influenced by the number of hydroxyls in
their aromatic rings.

Ramkumar et al., (2007) examined the modulatory effects of Gymnema

montanum leaves on glycoprotein levels in alloxan-induced diabetic rats. The
evaluated parameters were blood glucose, plasma insulin, and plasma/tissue
glycoproteins.

Rao and Nammi (2006) investigated the chloroform extract of T. chebula seed
powder for its antidiabetic activity in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats using
short term and long term study protocols. The chloroform extract of seeds
produced dose-dependent reduction in blood glucose of diabetic rats in long-term
study.

Raut and Gaikwad, (2006) evaluated antidiabetic activity of hydro-ethanolic

extract of Cyperus rotundus in alloxan induced diabetes in rats, activity was
attributed due to its in vitro antioxidant activity (DPPH radical scavenging model).

30
Ribnicky et al., (2006) examined the antihyperglycemic activity of an ethanolic
extract of Artemisia dracunculus L. in diabetic and non-diabetic animals. The
extract showed activity by increase the binding of glucagon-like peptide (GLP-1)
to its receptor invitro.

Roy et al., (2008) suggested that glycation-modified hemoglobin in diabetes

mellitus enhanced catalytic iron and free radicals causing pathological
complications. Experimental parameters reverted to their respective normal values
after pelargonidin administration.

Sarkhail et al., (2007) investigated the effects of aerial parts of Phlomis

anisodonta on streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic rats by measuring fasting
blood glucose, serum insulin, change in body weight, ferric reducing antioxidant
power (FRAP), lipid peroxidation (LPO), and liver antioxidant enzymes.

Sarkhail et al., (2010) investigated the effects of methanolic extract of aerial parts
of Phlomis anisodonta on streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic rats by measuring
fasting blood glucose, serum insulin, change in body weight, ferric reducing
antioxidant power (FRAP), lipid peroxidation (LPO), and liver antioxidant
enzymes including superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) and glutathione
peroxidase (GPx).

Satyanarayan et al., (2006) studied the hypoglycemic and antihyperglycemic

effect of alcoholic extract of Euphorbia leucophylla in normal and alloxan induced
diabetic rats. The administration of extracts produced a significant blood glucose
reduction in a dose dependent manner and elevated the serum insulin level in
normal and diabetic rats.

31
Shokeen et al., (2008) had investigated the antidiabetic activity of 50% ethanolic
extract of roots of Ricinus communis (RCRE) along with its bioassay-guided
purification. The results postulated that R. communis seems to have a promising
value for the development of a potent phytomedicine for diabetes.

Singh et al., (2001) detected hypoglycemic activity in dichloromethane: methanol

extract of leaves and twigs of C. roseus (Apocynaceae) in STZ induced diabetic
model. All the parameters of activity were normalized by treatment with the
extract.

Singh et al., (2007) investigated the hypoglycemic and antidiabetic effect of single
and repeated oral administration of the aqueous extract of Cynodon dactylon
(Family: Poaceae) in normal and streptozotocin induced diabetic rats. These results
clearly indicate that aqueous extract of plant has high antidiabetic potential along
with significant hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic effects.

Sokneg et al., (2005) studied the effect of the ethanolic extract and fractions of
Bridella ndellensis stem bark on the blood glucose levels in streptozotocin-induced
types 1 and 2 diabetic rats on different prandial.

Soon and Tang (2002) investigated the hypoglycemic and anti-oxidant activities
of the dried roots of Morinda officinalis in streptozotocin induced diabetic rats.
The results indicate that the extracts possess hypoglycemic, hyperglycemic and
anti-oxidant properties.

Srinivas et al., (2003) studied antidiabetic activity of leaves of C. roseus and

produced dose–dependent reduction in blood glucose of both normal and diabetic
rabbits by enhancing the secretion of insulin from the beta cells.

32
 CHAPTER 3

EXPERIMENTAL SETUP AND

METHODOLGY

3.1 OBJECTIVES
1 Emission test is carried out in a computerized diesel engine. Initially it is
run by B20 then B40 and finally B60 of yellow oleander oil.
33
 2 Exhaust gas analysis (CO, CO2, HC, NOx, and O2) carried out for both fuel.

3.2 EXPERIMENTAL TEST SET UP

A 3.5 kW, 1500 rpm, Kirloskar diesel engine is used in this investigation as
shown in The detailed specification given in Two separate fuel tanks with a fuel
switching system are used, one for diesel (D100) and the other for biofuel (B100).
Fuel consumption is measured using optical sensor. A differential pressure
transducer is used to measure airflow rate. Engine is coupled with an eddy current
dynamometer to control engine torque through computer. Engine speed and load
are controlled by varying excitation current to eddy current dynamometer
usingdynamometer controller. A piezoelectric pressure transducer is installed in
engine cylinder head to measure combustion pressure. Signals from pressure
transducer are fed to charge amplifier. A high precision crank angle encoder is
used to give signals for top dead centre and crank angle. The signals from charge
amplifier and crank angle encoder are supplied to data acquisition system. An AVL
exhaust gas analyzer and AVL smoke meter are used to measure emission
parameters and smoke intensity respectively. Thermocouples (chrommelalumel)
are used to measure exhaust temperature, coolant temperature, and inlet air
temperature.

34
 Figure 3.1 Schematic view of Experimental Set-up

3.3 Experimental procedure

Experiments were initially carried out on the engine using diesel as fuel in order to
provide base line data. The Bio fuel were prepared and made to run on the engine.

1st Case:-The engine was started using neat diesel and allowed to run for at least
30 minutes before taking observations. After engine conditions stabilized and
reached to steady state, the base line data were taken. Load was varied using the
alternator load bank and the same was recorded. Gaseous emissions, fuel
consumption were also recorded from the respective sensor.

2nd Case:-The engine was started on diesel and when engine became sufficiently
heated; the supply of diesel was slowly substituted by Bio fuel for which a two
way valve was used. After engine conditions stabilized and reached to steady state,
the base line data were taken. Load was variedusing the alternator load bank and
the same was recorded. Gaseous emissions, fuel consumption were also recorded
from the respective sensor.

35
 Figure 3.2 VCR ENGINE SET UP

3.4 EDDY CURRENT DYNAMOMETER

36
 An eddy current dynamometer of 3.5 kW (1500 rpm) capacities is directly
coupled with the engine. The engine and air cooled eddy current dynamometer are
coupled using tyre coupling. The output shaft of the engine is connected to the
dynamometer through a torque transducer for measuring torque. A torque
transducer provides an electrical signal that is proportional to torque. A load cell is
an electronic device (transducer) that is used to convert a force into an electrical
signal. The load to the engine can be varied by operating the potentiometer
provided on the panel or through computer.

3.5 SENSOR USED

3.5.1 Air Flow Sensor

The air flow to the engine is routed through cubical air tank. The rubber
diaphragm fixed on the top of the air tank takes care of neutralizing the pulsation
for airflow measurement. The inlet air tank is provided with an orifice. The
differential pressure of air was measured in the computer using a differential
pressure transducer (0-99 m3/hr) calibrated to indicate volume airflow. The
pressure ports are connected to instrumentation panel using smooth flexible hose.
The pressure drop across the orifice is measured using a differential pressure
transducer. The output of the differential pressure transducer is amplified using an
instrumentation amplifier and fed to the data acquisition card. The differential
pressure sensor use state of the art silicon micro machined pressure sensor in
conjunction with stress free packaging techniques to provide highly accurate,
amplified, calibrated and temperature compensated pressure readings.

3.6 Fuel Flow Sensor

37
 The fuel from the tank was connected by way of a solenoid valve to a glass
burette and the same is connected to the engine through a manual ball valve. The
fuel solenoid of the tank will open and stay open for 30sec, during this time fuel is
supplied to the engine directly from the fuel tank and also fills ups the burette.
After 30 sec the fuel solenoid closes the fuel tank outlet, and now the fuel in the
burette is supplied to the engine.

When the fuel level crosses the high level optical sensor, the sequence
running in the computer records the time of this event. Likewise when the fuel
level crosses the low level optical sensor, the sequence running in the computer
records the time of this event and immediately the fuel solenoid opens filling up
the burette and cycle is repeated. Now, volume of the fuel between high level and
low level optical sensors (20 cm3) is known. The starting time of fuel consumption,
i.e. time when fuel crossed high level sensor and the finish time of fuel
consumption , i.e. time when fuel crossed low level sensor gives an estimate of fuel
flow rate i.e., 20 cm3/difference of time in sec.

3.7 Speed Sensor

A non contact PNP sensor (0-9999 rpm) is used to measure the engine
speed. A PNP sensor gives a pulse output for each revolution of the crankshaft.
The frequency of the pulses is converted into voltage output and connected to the
computer.

3.8 Temperature Sensors

38
 K-type thermocouples are located at appropriate places to measure the
following temperatures. The output of the temperature transmitters is connected to
data acquisition card.

 Combustion peak temperature

 Inlet water temperature in calorimeter
 Outlet water temperature in calorimeter
 Inlet exhaust gas temperature in colorimeter
 Outlet exhaust gas temperature in colorimeter
 Inlet water temperature to the engine cylinder
 Outlet water temperature from the engine cylinder
 Lube oil temperature

3.9 Pressure Sensor

Piezoelectric transducer (water-cooled type) is used to measure cylinder

pressure.

3.10 LOAD CELL (TORQUE MEASUREMENT)

Torque is measured using a load cell transducer (0-100 kgs). The transducer
is strain gauge based. The output of load cell is connected to the load cell
transmitter. The output of load cell transmitter is connected to the USB port
through interface card.

3.11 CRANK ANGLE ENCODER

39
 11 bit 2050 step crank angle encoder (Air-cooled type) is mounted on the
cam shaft to measure engine crank angle. The crank angle encoder contains a
precision maker disk with a trigger mark and 360o angle marks which are scanned
by a transmission photoelectric cell encased in a dust proof housing. It is powered
by a 24V DC power supply and supplies one corresponding analog output between
0° and 360°.

3.12 ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER (ADC)

An ADC/data acquisition system (12-bit) captures data about an actual

system and stores that information in a format that can be easily retrieved for
purposes of engineering or scientific review analysis. Another requirement of a
data acquisition system should be that it captures information programmatically or
automatically – in other words, without any hands-on human intervention or
guidance. The seven key functions of the data acquisition systems are follows:

 Data collection
 Measurement
 Trimming and triggering
 Real time clock
 System control
 Data communication
 Data retrieving
All seven elements must be in place for a structure to be considered a data
acquisition system. There must be a series of sensors (input channel) to a data
acquisition board. In addition, there must be a trigger to synchronize the sensors
inputs, as well as a control for the data acquisition board.

Make Kirloskar –TV1

40
 Power and Speed 3.5 kW and 1500 rpm
Type of engine Single cylinder, DI and 4 Stroke

Compression ratio 17.5:1 to 12:1

Bore and Stroke 80 mm and 110 mm
Method of loading Eddy current dynamometer
Method of starting Manual cranking or Self Starter

Method of cooling Water

Type of ignition Compression ignition
Inlet valve opening 4.5° before TDC
Inlet valve closing 35.5° after BDC
Exhaust valve opening 35.5°before BDC
Exhaust valve closing 4.5° after TDC
Fuel injection timing 23° before TDC
Nozzle opening pressure 210 bar

Lube oil SAE40

Table 3.1 Specification of VCR engine

3.13 EMISSION ANALYZER

Exhaust Gas Analyzer A 5G – 10, Five gas analyzer (AVL 444 Di-gas
Analyzer) as used to measure HC, CO, CO 2 , O2 and NOX emissions. A non-
dispersive infrared measurement for HC, CO and CO2 emissions while for NOX
41
and O2 electrochemical measurement method is given in the exhaust analyzer. The
measurement resolution of HC: 1ppm, CO: 0.01%, CO 2: 0.01%, O2: 0.01%, NOX:
1ppm. When the probe is inserted into the exhaust pipe of the engine the exhaust
gas is passed through a metal mesh screen to filter the soot and dust particles after
which it is allowed to pass through a fine Fiber element which filters the entire gas
for any foreign particles and also cold traps are provided to prevent moisture from
entering the exhaust gas analyzer. After which the clean and cool sample gas enters
the direct sensor measurement through filter arrangement and the readings are
displayed on the screen and saved.

EXHAUST GAS MEASUREMENT

RANGE
CO 0–10 vol.%
HC 0–20,000 ppm
CO2 0–20 vol.%

O2 0–22 vol.%
NOx 0–5000 ppm

Table 3.2 Specifications of gas analyzer

3.14 SMOKE METER

AVL 437 C Smoke meter Shown in figure is used to measure the smoke
opacity of the present test engine (in the measurement chamber of a defined
measurement length). The opacity is the extinction of light between light source
and receiver. The engine exhaust gas is fed into a chamber with non-reflective
inner surfaces. The effective length of the light absorption track is determined

42
depending on the type of the light source and the photocell employed in the
instrument. The effective length is 0.430 ± 0.0005m. Light scatter on the photocell
from reflections or diffused light inside the chamber is reduced to a minimum by
the use of matt black light traps. The light source is an incandescent bulb with a
color temperature between 2800 °K to 3250 °K. The response time of the electrical
circuit, specified as the time within which the indicator reaches 90% of the full
scale .

Figure 3.3 Smoke Meter

Make Avl 437c smoke meter

Type Ip 52
Accuracy and reproducibility 1 % full scale reading
Measuring range 0 to 100 opacity in %, 0 to 99.99
absorption m-1

43
Measurement chamber Effective length 0.430 m ± 0.005m
Heating time 220 v approximately 20 min.
Light source Halogen bulb 12 v/5w
Maximum smoke temperature 250 °c
Power supply 190 -240 v ac, 50 hz, 2.5 a
Dimensions 570 mm x 500 mm x1250 mm

Table 3.3 Specifications of smoke meter

CHAPTER 4
44
 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

4.1 Comparision of BTE VS BP

45
 35
SINGLE HOLE
30 DOUBLE HOLE
TRIPLE HOLE
25
DIESEL
20
BTE(%)

15

10

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
BP(KW)

Figure 4.1 BTE VS BP

Bake thermal efficiency is defined as break power of a heat engine as function of

the thermal input from the fuel .It is used to evaluate how well an engine converts
the heat from the fuel to mechanical energy. However , mechanical efficiency
decreases as compression ratio is increased due to higher loads on the pistons ,
rings , and bearings of the engine Break thermal efficiency is the product of
indicated thermal efficiency and mechanical efficiency.In SI engine thermal
efficiency is equal to 40% and ci engine is equal to 42-45%approximate .The value
of single hole nozzle is 1.0 and for double hole nozzle is 2.0 and for triple hole
nozzle is 4.0

The value of single hole nozzle 1.0 is closer when compared with diesel and so it
can be selected for using in the experiment .
4.2 Comparision of BSFC VS BP

46
 0.5 SINGLE HOLE
0.45 DOUBLE HOLE
0.4 TRIPLE HOLE
0.35 DIESEL
BSFC(Kg/Kw-hr)

0.3

0.25
0.2
0.15

0.1
0.05

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
BP(KW)

Figure 4.2 BSFC VS BP

Break specific fuel consumption is a measure of the fuel efficiency of any prime
mover that burns fuel and produces rotational or shaft power. It is typically
comparing the efficiency of internal combustion engines with shaft output. It is the
rate of fuel consumption divided by the power produced. It may also be thought of
as power specific fuel consumption ,for this reason .BSFC allows the fuel
efficiency of different engines to be directly compared . BSFC numbers change a
lot for different engine designs and compression ratio and power rating The value
of single hole nozzle is 0.02 and for double hole nozzle is 0.04 and for triple hole
nozzle is 0.06

The value of single hole nozzle 0.02 is closer when compared with diesel and so it
can be selected for using in the experiment .
4.3 Comparision of HC VS BP

47
 9
SINGLE HOLE
8 DOUBLE HOLE

7 TRIPLE HOLE
DIESEL
6

5
HC(ppm)

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
BP(KW)

Figure 4.3 HC VS BP

In organic chemistry a hydrocarbon is an organic compound consisting entirely of

hydrogen and carbon. Hydrocarbons are examples of group 14 hydrides.
Hydrocarbons from which one hydrogen atom has been removed are functional
groups called hydrocarbyls. Because carbon has four electrons in outermost
shell .Most hydrocarbons found on earth naturally occur in crude oil where
decomposed organic matter provides an abundance of carbon and hydrogen. .The
value of single hole nozzle is 2.0 and for double hole nozzle is 2.2 and for triple
hole nozzle is 2.5

The value of single hole nozzle 2.0 is closer when compared with diesel and so it
can be selected for using in the experiment .

4.4 Comparision of CO2 VS BP

48
 3.5
SINGLE HOLE

3 DOUBLE HOLE
TRIPLE HOLE
2.5
DIESEL
2
CO2(ppm)

1.5

0.5

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
BP(KW)

Figure 4.4 CO2 VS BP

Carbon dioxide is colorless gas with density about 60% higher than that of dry air.
Carbon dioxide consists of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen
atoms . It occurs naturally in earth’s atmosphere as trace gas . The concentration is
about 0.04% (410 ppm) by volume ,having raisen from pre-industrial levels of 280
ppm. Carbon dioxide is soluble in water ,it occurs naturally in ground water ,rivers
and lakes, ice caps , glaciers and sea water. It is present in deposits of petroleum
and natural gas. .The value of single hole nozzle is 0.7 and for double hole nozzle
is 0.8 and for triple hole nozzle is 0.9

The value of single hole nozzle 0.7 is closer when compared with diesel and so it
can be selected for using in the experiment .

4.5 Comparision of CO VS BP

49
 0.07 SINGLE HOLE
DOUBLE HOLE
0.06
TRIPLE HOLE
0.05 DIESEL

0.04
CO(%Vol)

0.03

0.02

0.01

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
BP(KW)

Figure 4.5 CO VS BP

Carbon monoxide (CO) is colorless, odorless and tasteless flammable gas that is
slightly less dense than air. It is toxic to animals that use hemoglobin as an oxygen
carrier when encountered in concentrations above about 35 ppm, although it is also
produced in normal animals metabolism in low quantities and is thought to have
some normal biological functions .Carbon monoxide consists of one carbon atom
and one oxygen atom connected by triple bond that consists of two covalent bonds
as well as one dative covalent bond. .The value of single hole nozzle is 0.02 and
for double hole nozzle is 0.022 and for triple hole nozzle is 0.026

The value of single hole nozzle 0.02 is closer when compared with diesel and so it
can be selected for using in the experiment .

4.6 SMOKE DENSITY

50
 100 SINGLE HOLE
DOUBLE HOLE
90
TRIPLE HOLE
80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
0 1 2 3 4 BP(KW)
5 6 7 8 9 10

Figure 4.6 SMOKE DENSITY

The smoke density chamber is used to measure propensity of building materials to

generate smoke when exposed to heat source. The smoke propensity is quantified
by measuring the obscuration of a light beam travelling through the smoke
generated within the chamber. It is used for measuring and observing the relative
amount of smoke produced . Smoke is a general term used to describe the cloudy ,
hazy , emanations that result from the burning of organic substances . It consists of
solid or liquid particles or droplets that are so small that they tend to remain
suspended in air for extended periods of times varying from seconds to years. The
smoke density test measuresthe amount of smoke given off by a material that is
burning or smoldering . The material is tested when begins to smolder and again
when a flame source is added

4.7 Comparision of NOX VS BP

51
 250 SINGLE HOLE
DOUBLE
HOLE
200 TRIPLE HOLE
DIESEL
150
NOX(ppm)

100

50

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
BP(KW)

Figure 4.7 NOX VS BP

In atmospheric chemistry , NOX is a generic term for the nitrogen oxides that are
most relevant for air pollution , namely nitric oxide(NO) and nitrogen dioxide
(NO2) . These gases contribute to the formation of smog and acid rain , as well as
affecting tropospheric ozone. NOX gases are usually produced from the reaction
among nitrogen and oxygen during combustion of fuels , such as hydrocarbons in
air especially at high temperatures such as occur in car engines. In areas of high
motor vehicle traffic , such as in large cities , the nitrogen oxides emitted can be a
significant source of air pollution .The value of single hole nozzle is 42 and for
double hole nozzle is 52 and for triple hole nozzle is 70

The value of single hole nozzle 42 is closer when compared with diesel and so it
can be selected for using in the experiment .

52
 CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, the present study revealed that the seed oil of Vachellia nilotica
growing in south of Iran could be a new source of high phytosterol-rich edible oil

53
and its full potential should be exploited. The use of oil from the seeds is of
potential economic benefit to the poor native population of the areas where it is
cultivated. Despite that previous studies reported that the different parts of the
plant were not toxic to human , the seed oil of A. nilotica could be a new source of
edible vegetable oil after the future toxicological studies. The 26-ethylcholesta-
5,25(Z)-dien-3.β-ol structure was elucidated just by mass spectra and the most
possible and inexhaustible structure was determined for this phytosterol. Further
phytochemical investigations are suggested to elucidate the exact molecular
structure.

The BTE value when compared with diesel the single hole nozzle is considered to
be closer. The BSFC value when compared with diesel the single hole nozzle is
considered to be closer. The HC value when compared with diesel the single hole
nozzle is considered to be closer. The CO2 value when compared with diesel the
single hole nozzle is considered to be closer. The CO value when compared with
diesel the single hole nozzle is considered to be closer. The NOX value when
compared with diesel the single hole nozzle is considered to be closer

Therefore value of single hole nozzle is considered closer to the diesel and it can
be used for better performance

REFERENCES

54
1. Jason and Marc (2002) presented the exergetic environmental assessment of
lifecycle emissions from M-85, E-85 (used for the gasoline engine) and
other alternative fuels .
2. Wang et al. (2003) analyzed that the most noteworthy benefits of Ediesel use
lie with petroleum fuel reductions and reductions in urban PM10 and CO
emissions by heavy vehicle operations.
3. Hansen et al. (2001) found that the properties of ethanol-diesel blends have a
significant effect on safety, engine performance, durability and emissions .
4. Shokeen et al., (2008) had investigated the antidiabetic activity of 50%
ethanolic extract of roots of Ricinus communis (RCRE) along with its
bioassay-guided purification.
5. Shokeen et al., (2008) had investigated the antidiabetic activity of 50%
ethanolic extract of roots of Ricinus communis (RCRE) along with its
bioassay-guided purification.
6. Ajav and Akingbehin (2002) experimentally determined some fuel
properties of local ethanol blended with diesel to establish their suitability
for use in compression ignition engines .
7. Singh et al., (2001) detected hypoglycemic activity in dichloromethane:
methanol extract of leaves and twigs of C
8. Soon and Tang (2002) investigated the hypoglycemic and anti-oxidant
activities of the dried roots of Morinda officinalis in streptozotocin induced
diabetic rats.
9. Damge et al., (2007) evaluated that polymeric nanoparticle for preservation
of insulin's biological activity.
10.Rao and Nammi (2006) investigated the chloroform extract of T. chebula
seed powder

55
11.Ayoub (1985) studied molluscicidal activity of the pods and stem bark of
Acacia subspp. nilotica, tomentosa and astringens against the snail species
Bulinus truncatus and Biomphalaria pfeifferi.
12.Socha et al., (2009) studied ten herb honeys of various origin revealed
differences in their antioxidant activity and profiles of phenolic acids and
flavonoids. Thyme herb honey had high quercetin content.

56