INTRODUCTION

Drinking water sources can become contaminated, causing sickness and disease from waterborne
germs, such as Cryptosporidium, E. coli, Hepatitis A, Giardia intestinalis, and other pathogens.
Drinking water sources are subject to contamination and require appropriate treatment to remove
disease-causing agents. Public drinking water systems use various methods of water treatment to
provide safe drinking water for their communities. Today, the most common steps in water
treatment used by community water systems (mainly surface water treatment) include:

1. Aeration:

 Raw water is collected after primary screening in large aeration tanks and the water is aerated
by bubbling compressed air through perforated pipes.
 Aeration removes bad odors and CO2. It also removes metal such as iron, manganese by
precipitating then as their respective hydroxides.

2. Storage or settling:

 Aerated water is then placed in settling tank and stored for 10-14 days.
 During storage about 90% of suspended solids settle down within 24 hours and the water
becomes clear.
 Certain heavier toxic chemicals also settle down during storage.
 Similarly, pathogenic bacteria gradually die and bacterial count decreases by 90% in first in
first 5-7 days of storage.
 During storage organic matter present in water is oxidized by microorganisms. Similarly, NH3
present is oxidized into nitrate by microorganisms during storage.

3. Coagulation:

 Water from storage tank is then placed in coagulation tank and then some precipitating
agents such as alum and lime are added in water and mixed.
 These precipitating agents form precipitate of Al(OH)3 when dissolved in water.
 Suspended solids absorb on the surface of precipitate, so gradually mass of precipitate
becomes heavier and finally settle down.
 This technique is used to remove very light suspended solids that do not settle by themselves
during storage. Furthermore, if negatively charged colloidal impurities are present, they are
neutralized by Al3+ ions and settle down.

4. Filtration:

 Partially clarified water is then passed through sand gravity filter which removes 98-99% of
microorganisms and other impurities.
 Sand gravity water filter:
 Sand filter is a rectangular tank in which filter bed is made up to 3 layers.
 Top layer: fine layer of 1 meter thick
 Middle layer: 0.3-0.5-meter-thick layer of coarse sand
 Bottom layer: 0.3-0.5-meter-thick layer of gravel
 There is a collection tank at the bottom of the filter bed to collect filtered water. During
filtration filter bed soon gets covered with a slimy layer called vital layer.
 Vital layer consists of thread like algae, diatoms, and bacteria.
 During filtration microorganisms presents in vital layer oxidize organic and other matter
present in water. For example, if NH3 is present, it is oxidized into nitrate.
 Vital layer also helps infiltration of microbial cells.
 If water contains unpleasant odor, activated carbon may be placed in filter bed that removes
bad odors.

5. Disinfection:

 The filtered water is finally purified by using disinfectants. E.g. Chlorination

 Disinfectant kills pathogenic as well as other microorganism in water.
 After disinfection water is pumped into overhead tank for subsequent domestic distribution.
 EXPERIMENT 01 – JAR-TEST
Jar testing is a pilot-scale test of the treatment chemicals used in a particular water plant. It
simulates the coagulation/flocculation process in a water treatment plant and helps operators
determine if they are using the right amount of treatment chemicals, and, thus, improves the
plant’s performance.

PROCEDURE
1. The initial pH and turbidity of raw water to be tested were measured.
2. The 6 beakers were filled with 1 liter of the water sample to be tested.
3. The beakers with water were placed in position on the Jar test apparatus.
4. 2ml, 4ml, 6ml, 8ml, 10ml & 12ml of 0.5% Aluminum Sulfate (alum) (5g/l) in each were
placed in 6 test tubes
5. The speed in the jar test apparatus was adjusted to 100 rpm.
6. The alum doses were added quickly and simultaneously to beakers and it was allowed to
run at 100 rpm for 30 sec.
7. Then the speed was reduced to 30 rpm and continued that speed for 20 minutes. After 20
minutes of stirring at 30 rpm, the apparatus switched off and allowed the samples to stand
for 30 minutes.
8. The turbidity and pH in the beakers were measured after 30 minutes of settling period.
9. After that, using another 6 beakers with 1 liter of water and 10ml, 12ml, 14ml, 16ml, 18ml
& 20 ml of 0.5% Alum (5g/l), above procedure was followed as well.

OBSERVATIONS

 Initial PH of the sample = 7.76 pH

 Initial Turbidity = 9.58 NTU
 Alum dose = 5g/l

Jar Alum Dose Residual

pH
No (ml) Turbidity (NTU)
1 4 7.55 6.98
2 6 1.88 6.91
3 8 1.48 6.75
4 10 1.21 6.72
5 12 1.08 6.69
6 14 0.98 6.66
7 16 0.52 6.6
8 18 0.32 6.52
9 20 0.68 6.48
10 22 1.21 6.41
11 24 1.32 6.36
 CALCULATIONS

Alum dose (ppm) in Jar No.1

mg
(
From c 1 v 1=c 2 v 2, 5 x 1000
L )
x 4 ml=c 2 x 1004 ml ( ≈ 1000 ml )

Therefore, new Alum concentration in Jar No. 1 = 20ppm (or mg/L) : Similarly,

Jar Alum Residual

No Concentration Turbidity
. (ppm) (NTU)

1 20 7.55
2 30 1.88
3 40 1.48
4 50 1.21
5 60 1.08
6 70 0.98
7 80 0.52
8 90 0.32
9 100 0.68
10 110 1.21
11 120 1.32

Residual Turbidity (NTU) vs Alum Dosage(ppm) Graph

According to the above graph, the preferable Alum concentration is 34 ppm (mg/l) and the Turbidity
level is 1.5 NTU. In here 34ppm value is selected as the preferable alum concentration, but according
to the graph, the minimum turbidity comes 90 ppm alum concentration. So, the optimum alum
dosage is 90 ppm. But here need to consider the cost as well. Therefore, 34ppm is selected as the
preferred alum concentration considering both Turbidity reduction and cost-effectiveness.

As per WHO (4th edition) and SLS drinking water standards maximum permissible level of the Turbidity
level is 2 NTU and according to the Ambient standard that value is 5 NTU. In our case, according to
the preferable Alum concentration, the Turbidity level is 1.5NTU less than 2NTU and 5NTU. As per
NWSDB, rapid sand filters can reduce the Turbidity level below 0.5 NTU.

DISCUSSION

By performing jar tests, you can try alternative treatment doses and strategies without altering the
performance of the full-scale treatment plant and easily compare the results of several different
chemical treatments for time of formation, floc size, settleability, and, perhaps, filtration
characteristics. One cannot make such comparisons with the full plant’s treatment.” Another
important reason to perform jar testing is to save money. One of the common problems in water
treatment is overfeeding or overdosing, especially with coagulants. This may not hurt the quality of
water, but it can cost a lot of money. One of the easiest things an operator can do for optimization of
the plant is jar testing, and jar testing is a must when looking at best available technologies.

All common iron and aluminum coagulants are acid salts and therefore their addition lowers the PH
of the treated water. Depending on the influent’s PH and alkalinity (presence of HCO 3-, CO32-, CH-) an
alkali, such as lime or caustic may be required to counteract the PH depression of the coagulant.

This is important because PH affects both particle surface charge and floc precipitation during
coagulant. The optimum PH levels for forming aluminum floc are those that minimize the hydroxide
solubility. However, the optimum PH for coagulating suspended solids does not always coincide with
the optimum PH for minimum hydroxide floc solubility. These are above reasons suggesting that we
have to control PH during coagulation. When we add coagulant dosage, floc will form and settle. In
the optimum PH coagulant does will help to achieve best flocculation time and most floc will settle
out. As the coagulation dosage increases, through the effect of destabilization is compromised and
the particles no longer coagulate to form floc. So, it is important to determine the optimum coagulant
dosage.
 EXPERIMENT 02 – DETERMINATION OF RESIDUAL CHLORINE & FINDING THE
BREAKPOINT OF THE CHLORINATION CURVE
Chlorination of public water supplies has been practiced for almost 100 years. Chlorine and its various
forms are powerful oxidants that will kill or inactivate most pathogenic organism that are harmful to
human and animal life. Although the pros and cons of disinfection with chlorine have been
extensively debated, it remains the most widely used chemical for disinfection of water.

Chlorination chemicals are relatively:

• Easy to obtain
• Economical
• Effective
• Easy to apply

Typical forms of chlorine used in wastewater treatment are:

• Elemental chlorine
• Hypochlorite
• Chlorine Dioxide

The presence of chlorine residual in drinking water indicates that:

• A sufficient amount of chlorine was added initially to the water to inactivate the
bacteria and some viruses that cause diarrheal disease
• The water is protected from recontamination during storage.

The presence of free residual chlorine in drinking water is correlated with the absence of disease-
causing organisms, and thus is a measure of the potability of water.

OBJECTIVES

1. Understanding the significance of having residual chlorine in water.

2. Determining the residual chlorine & finding the break point of the chlorination curve.

REAGENT

• Acetic Acid
• Potassium Iodide
• Sodium thiosulphate (0.01N)
• Starch
• Bleaching Powder
 PROCEDURE

1. 6 samples of solution of chlorine were prepared by mixing the following quantities of chlorine
with 200ml of water.
2. Test tube was rinsed with sample, leaving 2 or 3 drops of sample in the tube.
3. 1 tablet of DPD No1 was added and the tablet was crushed.
4. Then the test tube was filled with sample to the 10ml mark & mixed.
5. The absorbance was taken at 520nm using UV-visible spectrophotometer.

OBSERVATION

% Residual
Chlorine Dose
Bottle No. Transmittance chlorine
Volume (ml) (mg/l)
at 520nm (mg/l)

1 0.5 3.81 65 0.50

2 1.0 7.62 55 0.70
3 1.5 11.43 42 0.98
4 2.0 15.24 28 1.46
5 2.5 19.05 48 0.85
6 3.0 22.86 62 0.55
7 3.5 26.67 67 0.46
8 4.0 30.48 75 0.32
9 4.5 34.29 54 0.72
10 5.0 38.10 32 1.31
11 5.5 41.91 18 2.16

CALCULATION
 Volume of the Chlorine solution used = 5 𝑚𝑙
 Volume of the titrant required = 8.6𝑚𝑙
 Normality of 𝑁𝑎2𝑆2𝑂3 = 0.025 𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝑑𝑚3

mol
8.6 ml ×0.025 ×35.45 g /mol
The concentration of Cl solution = l
=1.524 g /l
5 ml

mg
1.524 × 0.5 ml
Dose = ml
=3.813 mg/l
200 ml
 BREAKPOINT CHLORINATION CURVE
2.50

2.00 Breakpoint
RESIDUAL CHLORINE (mg/l)

1.50

1.00

0.50

0.00
0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00 30.00 35.00 40.00 45.00
CHLORINE ADDED (mg/l)

 The breakpoint of chlorine = 30.5 mg/l

DISCUSSION
There are a number of ways of improving the quality of drinking water. The most common are
sedimentation and filtration followed by disinfection. Disinfection (the killing of harmful organisms)
can be achieved in a number of ways but the most common is through the addition of chlorine.
Chlorine will only work correctly, however, if the water is clear.

When chlorine is added, it purifies the water by destroying the cell structure of organisms, thereby
killing them. The process only works, however, if the chlorine comes into direct contact with the
organisms. If the water contains silt, the bacteria can hide inside it and not be reached by the
chlorine. Chlorine takes time to kill all the organisms. In water above about 18 0C the chlorine should
be in contact with the water for at least 30 minutes. If the water is colder than the contact time must
be increased. It is normal, therefore, to add chlorine to water as it enters a storage tank or a long
delivery pipeline to give the chemical time to react with the water before it reaches the consumer.
The effectiveness of chlorine is also affected by the pH (acidity) of the water. Chlorination is not
effective if the pH is above 7.2 or below 6.8.

Chlorine is a relatively cheap and readily available chemical that, when dissolved in clear water in
sufficient quantities, will destroy most disease-causing organisms without being a danger to people.
The chlorine, however, is used up as organisms are destroyed. If enough chlorine is added, there will
be some left in the water after all the organisms have been destroyed, this is called free chlorine.
Free chlorine will remain in the water until it is either lost to the outside world or used up destroying
new contamination. Therefore, if we test water and find that there is still some free chlorine left, it
proves that most dangerous organisms in the water have been removed and it is safe to drink. We
call this measuring the chlorine residual. Measuring the chlorine residual in a water supply is a simple
but important method of checking that the water that is being delivered is safe to drin

The graph shown in figure 2 shows what happens when chlorine (either chlorine gas or a hypochlorite) is
added to water. First (between points 1 and 2), the water reacts with reducing compounds in the water, such
as hydrogen sulfide. These compounds use up the chlorine, producing no chlorine residual.

Figure 2: A typical graph of initial chlorine added vs. residual

chlorine

Between points 2 and 3, the chlorine reacts with organics and ammonia naturally found in the water.
Some combined chlorine residual is formed - chloramines. Note that if chloramines were to be used
as the disinfecting agent, more ammonia would be added to the water to react with the chlorine.
The process would be stopped at point 3. Using chloramine as the disinfecting agent results in little
trihalomethane production but causes taste and odor problems since chloramines typically give a
"swimming pool" odor to water.

In contrast, if hypochlorous acid is to be used as the chlorine residual, then chlorine will be added
past point 3. Between points 3 and 4, the chlorine will break down most of the chloramines in the
water, lowering the chlorine residual.

Finally, the water reaches the breakpoint, shown at point 4. The breakpoint is the point at which the
chlorine demand has been totally satisfied - the chlorine has reacted with all reducing agents,
organics, and ammonia in the water. When more chlorine is added past the breakpoint, the chlorine
reacts with water and forms hypochlorous acid in direct proportion to the amount of chlorine added.
This process, known as breakpoint chlorination, is the most common form of chlorination, in which
enough chlorine is added to the water to bring it past the breakpoint and to create some free
chlorine residual.
 REFERENCES

 http://www.waterhelp.org/wv/basics/resources/TB32_JarTesting.pdf
 https://nptel.ac.in/content/storage2/courses/105104102/Lecture%2010.htm
 https://www.dober.com/greenfloc/resources/jar-testing
 https://www.owp.csus.edu/glossary/jar-test.php#:~:text=A%20laboratory
%20procedure%20that%20simulates,are%20placed%20in%20six%20jars.
 https://ca-nv-
awwa.org//CANV/downloads/2015/afc15presentations/ImprovedJarTesting.pdf
 https://cdn.ymaws.com/www.isawwa.org/resource/resmgr/training/free_chlori
ne_presentation.pdf
 https://springatewatercoop.myruralwater.com/documents/527/Chlorination_an
d_ammonia__Aaron_Jenzen_.pdf
 http://stpnq.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/Chlorine-Analysis-EN.pdf
 http://files.dep.state.pa.us/Water/BSDW/OperatorCertification/TrainingModule
s/ww05_disinfection_chlorination_wb.pdf
 https://blog.orendatech.com/breakpoint-chlorination-explained