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Historical Review of Ionosphere in Perspective of Sources of Ionization and

Radio Waves Propagation

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 Research & Reviews: Journal of Space Science & Technology
ISSN: 2321-2837 (Online), ISSN: 2321-6506 (Print)
Volume 7, Issue 2
www.stmjournals.com

Historical Review of Ionosphere in Perspective of Sources

of Ionization and Radio Waves Propagation
M. Atiq*
Ph. D. Scholar in Space Science, Institute of Space and Planetary Astrophysics (ISPA),
University of Karachi, Karachi, Pakistan

Abstract
Before the discovery of ionosphere, the electronic communication was not possible at a
distance greater than 100 km due to the curvature of Earth; but after its discovery, the
ionospheric wave propagation made possible the electronic communication at even more than
3000 km via reflection of radio waves through ionosphere. The ionosphere is electrically
neutral, ranging from 50 to 1000 km in altitude and outer limit can exceed to 3000 km
depending upon the geo-magnetic activity. High frequency radiations and charged particles
from the Sun are the major source of ionization in ionosphere. The disappearance of the lower
regions (below or near 100 km) in night is due to the fast recombination rate of molecular
ions: nitric oxide (NO+), oxygen (O2) and nitrogen (N2), while atomic oxygen (O) is dominant
at higher altitude (120 km or above) with longer life time making the presence of F2 layer at
night. Topside sounding from satellites and vertical sounding from ground based sounders are
the two most important active remote-sensing techniques that play key roles in determining
the state of the ionospheres. The high frequency (HF) transmissions depend on the electron
density in ionosphere. In GPS (Global Positioning System) signal, the carrier signal is of
higher frequency as compared to modulating signal, which consequences a greater speed
increase ratio in carrier signal, resulting in phase advance and group delay. The monitoring
of ionosphere in perspective of space weather is very important for the reliable functioning of
HF transmissions and satellite navigation systems.

Keywords: GPS, HF, phase advance, group delay, ionosphere

*Author for Correspondence E-mail: ku.atiq@yahoo.com

INTRODUCTION 3000 km [2]. In ionosphere electrons and

The Earth’s atmosphere is divided into
different layers based on temperature and
compositional changes in the chemistry of
gases. These atmospheric layers are
troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere,
thermosphere and exosphere (Figure 1). The
troposphere extends up to 12 km from Earth’s
surface, stratosphere from 12 to 50 km,
mesosphere from 50 to 80 km, thermosphere
from 80 to 700 km and exosphere from
700 km to outer space around 10,000 km. The
exosphere which is the outermost layer of
atmosphere substitutes a boundary between
Earth’s atmosphere and free space (vacuum).
The ionosphere is the part of the Earth’s upper
atmosphere starting in mesosphere and extends
beyond the thermosphere. Ionosphere is an
ionized region ranging from 60–1000 km in
altitude [1]. The outer limit of the ionosphere
explained by Schunk and Nagy is given as
positive ions exist in significant amount so that
it affects electromagnetic waves passing
through it. These electrons and ions are so
enough that they can effectuate the
propagation of radio waves over the entire
globe [3]. The ionosphere is the region where
most radiations from the atoms and molecules
originate in the visible spectrum. Instruments
have been developed that are capable of
measuring such radiations from the upper
atmosphere [4]. Visible light is emitted
(Aurora) when energetic particles strike the
atmosphere [5].
The two major processes in the ionosphere are
dissociation and ionization. When photons are
incident in the neutral atmosphere then the
larger wavelength photons cause dissociation
while shorter wavelength photons cause
ionization [2]. The high energy photon
provides enough energy for ionizing potential

RRJoSST (2018) 28-39 © STM Journals 2018. All Rights Reserved Page 28
Historical Review of Ionosphere
of natural gas molecules in the atmosphere.
Similarly, the two major sources of ionization
in the neutral atmosphere are photoionization
and corpuscular ionization. The
photoionization process is responsible for the
ionization of neutral gas molecules at low and
mid-latitude regions while the corpuscular
ionization process dominates the high latitude
region. The photoionization creates ion-
electron pairs by the absorption of solar
extreme ultraviolet (EUV) and X-ray radiation
while the corpuscular ionization is the
collision between the energetic particles from
the Sun and neutral particles of the atmosphere
[1]. Even both components of solar radiation
(EUV and X-ray) are involved in the
ionization of neutral atmosphere but the
relative importance of each component is not
accurately known and may vary during the
solar cycle variations [6]. The entire terrestrial
ionosphere exists within the atmosphere and
hence the atmospheric dynamics also
influences the chemical and physical changes
in the ionosphere [7]. Similarly, ions are
driven by electric fields causing them to
convert from one region of the ionosphere to
another, strained by the Earth magnetic field
[4].
The ionosphere is not only a phenomenon
related to Earth but also exists on other planets
due to gravitational attraction. The Earth’s
terrestrial ionosphere is considered as weakly
Fig. 1: The Temperature versus Altitude Graph of Earth’s Atmosphere.
RRJoSST (2018) 28-39 © STM Journals 2018. All Rights Reserved
Muhammad Atiq
ionized plasma because of the less
contribution of free electrons and ions,
typically less than 1% of the air. Both the
construction and destruction of electrons and
ions are occurring with the spatial and
temporal variations in the ionosphere;
therefore ionosphere is on the whole
electrically neutral up to large extent [8]. Since
equal number of electrons and ions are
produced in the ionization process, therefore
ion density is approximately equal to the
electron density and generally sometimes also
known as plasma density [5].
The ionosphere mostly coincides with the
thermosphere, more than any other
atmospheric layer of the Earth [3]. The major
constituents in the thermosphere are atomic
oxygen O, nitrogen molecule (N2) and oxygen
molecule (O2) while the minor constituents are
nitric oxide (NO), atomic nitrogen (N), atomic
hydrogen (H) and helium (He) [4].
The ionosphere crosses several meteorological
layers and has most importance for short wave
communication [9]. Sky wave propagation,
i.e., long distance radio propagation merely
depends upon the ionospheric parameters such
as electron density, critical frequency and
virtual height. Although ions give their name
to the region but propagation of radio waves is
adversely affected by the negatively charged
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Research & Reviews: Journal of Space Science & Technology
Volume 7, Issue 2
ISSN: 2321-2837 (Online), ISSN: 2321-6506 (Print)
free electrons because the drift and spiral
movements of electrons are much superior to
ions due to the large difference in their masses.
The neutral molecules absorb the radio signals
up to great extent during the day time. This
effect is noticeable at the lower regions of the
ionosphere. Thousands of commercial radio
operators use the ionosphere to make long
distance communication over the globe.
HISTORICAL REVIEW OF
IONOSPHERE
The ionosphere was completely uncovered
after World War-I in perception of conducting
layer in Earth’s atmosphere which helps out
long distance communication. Several long
distance electronic communication devices
were available in World War-II for military
purposes. It was the concept before the
discovery of conducting layer that electronic
communication is not possible at a distance
greater than 100 km due to the Earth’s
curvature. The ionospheric propagation after
the discovery of ionosphere makes possible
the electronic communication at even more
than 3000 km via reflection of electromagnetic
waves through conducting layer. The Marconi
and Appleton were the two great scientists and
they were awarded the Nobel Prize
individually for their contribution in discovery
(Marconi) and knowledge (Appleton) of
ionosphere on experimental basis. The
Chapman’s theory has been regarded as the
one of the modern theory that successfully
described the ionosphere.
Early Observations
The phenomenon of the visible aurora in the
upper atmosphere was discovered by Galileo
Galilei in 1621 and the same phenomenon
observed by James Cork in 1773 in the
Southern hemisphere was the first
demonstration of the existence of the
conducting layer in the Earth’s atmosphere.
Also, Olof Petrus Hiorter (1696–1750) in
Uppsala observed that a compass needle
changes direction when he sees Northern
lights [10]. The first known proposal of the
vicinity of an electrically conducting layer in
the Earth’s atmosphere came in 1839 when
physicist Carl Gauss observed the small
regular and irregular variations in the Earth’s
RRJoSST (2018) 28-39 © STM Journals 2018. All Rights Reserved
magnetic field [8]. In 1889, Sir Arthur
Schuster (1851–1934) published about every
day geomagnetic variations [10].
Marconi’s Trans-Atlantic Radio Wave
Propagation Experiment
Practically, nobody accepted that radio signals
could be transmitted at thousands of
kilometers over the globe of the Earth. This
theoretical limit was imposed on electronic
communication due to the curvature of the
Earth. It was a typical understanding that
Hertzian waves as, radio waves were called at
the time after their pioneer H. Hertz, could just
go at straight lines and the maximum
separation distance from the transmitter to
receiver cannot exceed 100 km [11]. In 1901,
Guglielmo Marconi got the first Trans-Atlantic
radio signal [10]. Marconi transmitted radio
communication signals across the Atlantic
Ocean from Poldhu, Cornwall, England, to St.
John’s, Newfoundland, Canada, over a ground
distance of approximately 3500 km using
120 m of wire as a receiving antenna and he
was able to receive message over distance in
the order 1000 km during day but up to
3000 km during night. Marconi later found
that so called “short waves” could provide
reliable communication over thousands of
kilometers at much lower power than the
hundreds of kilowatts needed at larger
wavelengths. Marconi was awarded the Nobel
Prize in 1909 in reorganization of his
contributions to the development of wire-less
telegraphy [8].
Theoretical Explanation
J. Zenneck and A. Sommerfield were the two
great scientists of that time and they tried to
explain Marconi’s results on the basis of
surface wave propagation of radio waves but
they were not successful because the
diffraction effect contributing to this
propagation mode was inadequate to explain
the reflection of radio waves in the ionosphere.
On the other hand, radio engineer W. H.
Eccles suggested that number of ions in the
atmosphere increased as a function of height
[8]. Most of the great physicists of the time
suggested that special type of electromagnetic
waves could follow the curvature of the Earth
[11]. 1n 1902, A. E. Kennelly and O.
Heaviside suggested that free electric charges
Page 30
Historical Review of Ionosphere
in the upper atmosphere reflect the radio
waves. This came during an era when region
above the atmosphere was assumed to be a
perfect vacuum, namely outer space. At long
last, J. E. Taylor in 1903 and J. A. Fleming in
1906 were among the first to recommend solar
ultraviolet radiation as a source of the
electrical charges in the ionosphere. They also
suggested that solar radiation actually control
the effect on the propagation of radio waves
[1].
Experimental Evidences
In 1912, radio frequencies above 1.5 MHz
were utilized in USA (United States of
America) resulting in trans-continental radio
communication [10]. Between 1912 and 1914,
engineer Lee de Forest and L. E. Fuller from
the US Federal Telegraph company first
constituted the estimate of the height of the
conducting layer postulated by Heaviside and
Kennelly. Appleton and Barnett demonstrated
the existence of down coming waves by an
interference technique. Near sunset, the height
of reflection was found to change abruptly,
and from this observation, the stratified nature
of the ionosphere was first inferred by
Appleton in 1925. The “pulse sounding”
experiments of Breit and Tuve (1925, 1926)
were also led to estimates of the height of the
reflecting layers. Appleton was awarded the
Nobel Prize in 1947 for this “contribution to
the knowledge of the ionosphere” [11, 12].
Finally on the basis of these experimental
evidences, the explanation by Hulburt (1928)
and Chapman (1931) could be regarded as
starting points of modern theory of the
ionosphere [1]. The term ionosphere was
initially proposed by Sir Robert Watson-Watt
[3].
REGIONS OF IONOSPHERE
The ionosphere is separated into regions
within which there can exist distribution called
ionospheric layers [13]. The most important
characteristics of the ionospheric layers are
their critical frequencies and virtual heights
[3]; while the most important ionizing agents
in the Earth’s ionosphere are alpha, beta,
gamma and cosmic rays. Meteors can also
contribute in ionizing the ionosphere [14]. The
electron density distribution in the ionosphere
is not uniform and it merely depends on the
RRJoSST (2018) 28-39 © STM Journals 2018. All Rights Reserved
Muhammad Atiq
height of the layer. The electron density in the
ionosphere can fluctuate by two or more
orders of magnitude as a function of height
[8]. The production and loss rate of electrons
and positive ions are dominant processes in the
low altitude region of the ionosphere while the
transports mechanism is dominant in the high
altitude regions of the ionosphere.
The three regions of the ionosphere are D, E
and F regions. The D region extends from 50
to 90 km, E region from 90 to 120 or 140 km
and F region above 120 or 140 km [3]. The
altitude limit for ionosphere regions is not
uniform and may vary with the time. These
limits are rather conventional boundaries that
F region can extend even below 140 km in
some circumstances [6]. The boundaries of the
ionosphere are not fixed because solar
radiation and charge particle’s energy are not
precisely confined within the region [4]. The
ionization underneath 50 km is little and is
considered within the field of atmospheric
electricity instead of ionosphere science [1].
The critical frequencies, virtual heights and
maximum electron densities of the ionospheric
layers are worth full sources for monitoring of
physical changes in the ionosphere. They are
good indicators of the short and long term
variations in the ionosphere [15].
The ionosphere can also be divided into the
regions on the basis of magnetic latitude in
both Southern and Northern hemispheres.
These regions are low latitude region, mid
latitude region and high latitude region. The
low latitude region is about 20 to 30ᵒ of the
magnetic equator. The mid latitude region in
both Southern and Northern hemisphere
extends from 30 to 60ᵒ of magnetic latitude.
The remaining is called polar region and is
further divided into auroral region
(approximately 60 to 70ᵒ) and polar cap (from
70 to 90ᵒ) [16].
IONIZATION IN IONOSPHERE
The ionization process in the ionosphere is
mainly controlled by the high frequency solar
radiations (EUV and X-ray) and the particle
precipitation from the Sun that impacts on
Earth’s surface. The ion production rate in the
ionosphere depends on both the intensity of
solar radiation and the concentration of neutral
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Research & Reviews: Journal of Space Science & Technology
Volume 7, Issue 2
ISSN: 2321-2837 (Online), ISSN: 2321-6506 (Print)
gas molecules. The intensity of solar radiation
increases with the height while the
concentrations of neutral gas molecules are
greater at lower regions of the ionosphere [2].
The solar zenith angle (SZA) also alters the
ion production rate and the rate is maximum
for low SZA, especially at lower regions of the
ionosphere.
In the ionosphere, the molecular ion nitric
oxide (NO+) dominates the gas in D region
[17], while the molecular oxygen (O2) and
nitrogen (N2) dominates the gas at the next
lower region below and near 100 km, while at
altitudes 120 km or above, the atomic oxygen
reach that of O2 and above 250 km, atomic
oxygen exceeds that of N2 [5]. The E layer is
produced by the ionization of molecular
oxygen (O2) [18].
At the highest altitude in the ionosphere, the
atomic hydrogen dominates the gas and this
region is referred to as the “protonosphere”
[5]. The helium ions sometimes are also
visible at the base of protonosphere above
600 km in the ionosphere; they are less than
the hydrogen.
The appearance and disappearance of layers in
the ionosphere mostly occurs in the lower
regions because the molecular ions dominate
the gas at lower regions as compared to higher
regions where mostly ions are atomic. The
recombination rates of molecular ions with
electrons are much higher than the
recombination rates of atomic ions with
electrons [5], i.e. the life time of molecular
ions are much shorter than the life time of
atomic ions. The electron density distribution
above the F region is influenced by other
processes such as dissociation, inter-
hemisphere flow and neutral winds [5].
Ionization in Lower Regions
The ionization at lower heights just below
within 50 to 70 km is mainly due to the
galactic cosmic rays and the term “C layer” is
used for these lower heights [1]. The
occurrence of D layer in the ionosphere mainly
happens due to the ionization of neutral
molecules. These molecular species are
ionized by hard X-rays. The alpha radiation of
wavelength 121.6 nm ionizes the nitric oxide
RRJoSST (2018) 28-39 © STM Journals 2018. All Rights Reserved
(NO) to produce positive nitric oxide ions
(NO+) and negative electrons [8]. The nitric
oxide is dominant positive molecular ion in the
D region [17]. Solar X-ray radiations from the
Sun and cosmic rays ionize all the atmospheric
gases in D region while alpha radiation ionizes
only neutral molecule nitric oxide (NO). The
D layer is fundamentally solar controlled layer
and the transport process in not very important
in this region of the ionosphere [1].
The D layer can extend from 50 to 90 km from
the Earth’s surface and the thickness of the D
layer is about 10 km [8]. It can reflect some
VLF (Very Low Frequency (3–30 kHz)) and
LF (Low Frequency (30–300 kHz)) waves and
absorb MF (Medium Frequency [300 kHz–
3 MHz) and HF (High Frequency (3–
30 MHz)) up to some extent [14]. The D layer
is a day time layer and it vanishes at night. The
only reason of disappearance of D region at
night is the fast recombination rate of electrons
and positive ions and attachment process.
The lower region of the ionosphere (50–
90 km) is affluent in neutral particles as
compared to the upper E and F regions. Thus
lower region absorbs radio waves energy more
than any other region of the ionosphere due to
the high neutral molecule’s density. Collisions
between the electrons and neutral gas
molecules result into the absorption of radio
waves that penetrate through the ionosphere.
These collisions are important in D region of
the ionosphere but can be neglected at E and F
regions because of little amount of neutral
particles. In E and F regions, these collisions
are infrequent. The absorption of radio waves
in D region varies inversely with SZA. The
collision frequency of electrons with neutral
particles also depends on electron energy [1].
Ionization in the E Region
The E layer in the ionosphere is formed due to
the ionization of molecular oxygen (O2) and
nitric oxide (NO+) [5]. Soft X-rays with
wavelength 0.8–14 nm and EUV radiations are
responsible for the ionization of O2 in this
region. The Lyman-β radiations of 102.6 nm
also make contribution in the ionization
process [8]. The dominant ions in the E layer
are molecular (NO+, O2+, N2+) and the
chemical time constants are short enough that
Page 32
Historical Review of Ionosphere
transport mechanism in nearly negligible [2].
The altitude range for E layer is 90 to 150 km
[5]. The critical frequency in the E layer for
seasonal and diurnal variations is given by [3]:
𝑓𝑜𝐸 = 0.9 [(180 + 1.44 𝑅12) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜒]0.25
The above mathematical equation shows that
E layer critical frequency strongly depends on
the SZA. The exponent may vary between 0.1
and 0.4 for diurnal variations. The critical
frequency of E layer during the night time
reaches a 0.5 MHz for sunspot maximum and
0.25 MHz for sunspot minimum.
The E layer in the ionosphere was first to be
detected [2]. The thickness of the E layer is
nearly 25 km. Also, E layer can reflect some
HF signals during the day time [14]. The
electron density in the E layer is two orders of
magnitude higher than the electron density in
the D region. The E layer also disappears at
night due to the dissociative recombination
between electrons and molecular ions (NO+,
O2+) which completely erode ionization after
sunset.
The sporadic E layer can also exist sometimes
and the ionization in this region is not uniform.
The word “Sporadic” is associated with the
layer due to the reason that it does not occur in
frequent manner [1]. The sporadic E is formed
at low latitude due the plasma instability
whereas at high latitudes, it arises due to the
precipitation of energetic electrons from the
magnetosphere. Unlike the normal E layer, the
sporadic E layer can exist during day or night
and can also exist for short periods of time [8].
It can be seen at all latitudes [11].
The primary ions in the sporadic E layer are
metallic (Fe+, Mg+) [2]. The height of sporadic
E layer can vary from 90 to 120 km. It exhibits
little seasonal variations. It is also believed
that sporadic E layer is due to the ionization by
meteors [3].
Ionization in the F Region
The F layer of the ionosphere is the most
important region for HF communications as
the critical frequency in this region is greater
than any other layer of the ionosphere. The
peak electron density in the F layer can reach
up to 106/cm3 and the factor that limits peak
RRJoSST (2018) 28-39 © STM Journals 2018. All Rights Reserved
Muhammad Atiq
density is the recombination rate of electrons
and positive ions. The dominant atomic ion in
the F region is the atomic oxygen (O+) while
the altitude range for F region is 150–500 km
[5]. The F region is often divided into further
two layers known as F1 and F2. The major
difference between the two layers is that the
F1 is solar controlled layer while F2 variations
do not vary uniformly with solar radiation.
Ionization in the F1 Region: The lowest layer
of the F region where photochemistry
dominates is called the F1 layer and the
dominant atomic ion is atomic oxygen (O+)
[2]. The F1 region extends nearly from 140 to
210 km and the outer limit of F2 region can
reach up to 325 km at night [8]. The thickness
of the F1 layer is nearly around 20 km [14]. F1
layer behavior is approximately that of
Chapman’s layer [1]. According to Allen
(1965), the height of peak production should
be around 150 km [1]. The F1 layer disappears
at night with the exception of small amount of
residual ionization. The following equation is
found to provide a good fit for F1 layer [19]:
𝑓𝑜𝐹1 = (4.3 + 0.01 𝑅12) (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜒) 0.2
The equation shows strong dependency of
critical frequency of F1 layer on the SZA. The
F1 layer disappears at some winter [19]. It is
more pronounced during the summer than the
winter [3].
Ionization in the F2 Region: The E and F1
layers of the ionosphere are often called “solar
controlled layers” because the large-scale
variations of these layers is strongly dependent
on changes in the intensity of solar radiation.
The E and F1 layers vary with cosine of SZA
[6]. The E and F1 layers are more consistent
for high frequency radio propagation but these
layers only support day time operation because
of disappearance of these layers at night [8].
Unlike, the normal E and F1 layers, the F2
layer persists throughout the night which
continues 24 h propagation of electromagnetic
radio waves. The F2 layer is known to be the
most variable layer of the ionosphere and its
dependence on the SZA is relatively weaker. It
is the least Chapman like of the entire layers in
the ionosphere. The F2 layer usually reflects
signals with highest frequency than any other
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Research & Reviews: Journal of Space Science & Technology
Volume 7, Issue 2
ISSN: 2321-2837 (Online), ISSN: 2321-6506 (Print)
layer. The day time critical frequency of the
F2 layer can reach up to 12 MHz and that
maximum useable frequency (MUF) up to
35 MHz. The thickness of F2 layer can reach
up to 200 km [14].
Along with the everyday non-uniform
variations in the electron density, the
variability in F2 layer is very surprising and
may even change appreciably from one hour to
the next hour [20]. The electron density of the
F2 layer may be one or two order of
magnitude higher than that of the E layer [8].
The life time of free electrons in F2 layer is
measured in hours as comparable to the E
layer where the life time is measured of a few
minutes. This is due to the more importance of
vertical drifts of ionization in the F2 region
[6]. It is suggested that photoionization by
EUV radiation can ionize the neutral
atmosphere in the night time at F2 layer
altitude but is quite insufficient to maintain the
F2 layer, so ionization might also be produced
by corpuscular ionization [21]. Probably,
charged particles for corpuscular ionization are
soft electrons or protons of power 102 to
103 eV energy [22].
Unlike the lower regions of the ionosphere, the
dominant process in the F2 layer is transport
mechanism rather than recombination process.
The F2 layer is also pronounced to be
geomagnetic controlled layer because of the
strong influence of Earth magnetic field in this
region. No mathematical expression is
available to explain the ionospheric variations
in F2 region. The F2 layer also exhibits
longitudinal effect [3].
The three physical sources of variability in F2
layer are solar flux changes, geomagnetic
activity and meteorological processes, i.e.,
dynamic phenomenon propagation from the
lower atmosphere up to ionospheric altitudes
such as gravitational waves and atmospheric
tides [23]. The day to day ionospheric
variability estimated due to solar flux changes
is small as comparable to meteorological
influence [24]. Studies showed that the
meteorological sources are comparable with
geomagnetic sources [25].
RRJoSST (2018) 28-39 © STM Journals 2018. All Rights Reserved
EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES
FOR THE INVESTIGATION OF
IONOSPHERE
The ionosphere is completely investigated by
experiments based on the propagation of
electromagnetic waves either from ground
based ionosondes or from topside navigation
satellites. These experiments can measure
different ionospheric parameters that drive the
state of the ionosphere such as the electron
density profile, critical frequencies and virtual
heights of ionospheric layers. There are
number of fundamental experimental
techniques that investigate the ionosphere such
as topside sounding, vertical incidence
sounding, measurements of electron content
by GPS satellites, moon echoes etc. [1]. The
first indication that the ionosphere exist in the
Earth’s atmosphere was made by “remote
sensing” technique [2]. Topside sounding from
GPS satellites and vertical sounding from
ground based sounders are the two most
important active remote-sensing techniques
that play key role in determining the state of
the ionospheres.
Topside Sounding
The successful launching of the Canadian
satellite “Alouette” in September 1962
initiated the time of topside sounding [26].
This satellite was launched in circular orbit at
an altitude of 1000 km from the Earth’s
surface. It carried an ionosonde operating
between 0.5 and 11.5 MHz radio frequencies.
The satellite made soundings after every
20 sec which corresponds to interval of about
100 km in horizontal distance. Another topside
sounder “Alouette II” was launched in 1965
into an orbit with Apogee of nearly 3000 km
[27, 1].
The Global Positioning Satellite Systems
(GNSS) is modern approach for topside
sounding and it covers the entire globe of the
Earth. GPS (Global Positioning System),
GLONASS (Global Navigation Satellite
System) and Galileo are the examples of
GNSS operated by USA, Russia and China
respectively. GPS has now become the world’s
most utilized satellite based navigation system.
The first GPS satellite was launched in 1978
and till now, 32 satellites have been launched
in Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) covering the
Page 34
Historical Review of Ionosphere
entire globe for satellite communications. The
GPS satellites are propelled at the 20,200 km
(approx.) height, launched well ordered to
build the coverage area on the Earth's surface.
The signals from the GPS satellites go through
the ionosphere and are affected by the
variations in the electron density. GPS TEC
(total electron content) receiver measures TEC
by using topside signals from satellites [8].
Vertical Incidence Sounder or Ionosonde
Vertical Incidence Sounder (VIS) is the most
widely used technique in investigating the
ionosphere and majorly consists of transmitter,
receiver and an ionosonde display to analyze
the structure and dynamics of the ionosphere.
The ionosphere can be investigated by rockets
and satellites but the state of the ionosphere
has been primarily analyzed by vertical
sounding [6]. Ionosonde or VIS is the oldest
remote sensing device that investigates the
ionosphere [2].
VIS or ionosonde is an instrument that
transmits radio waves of the order of MHz
frequency vertically upward and receives its
echo that is reflected down from the
ionosphere. The ionosonde then measures the
time that signal takes to return to the ground.
The measured time delay between the
transmitted and received signal enables us to
measure the height of the reflected layer while
the critical frequency measured is an indicator
of the electron density in the reflected layer.
An ionosonde is basically a type of RADAR
(Radio Detection and Ranging) and it works
on the principle of reflection of radio waves
through ionosphere. It is capable of obtaining
echoes from the ionosphere over a wide range
of operating frequencies. The technique of
vertical sounding is developed by Breit and
Tuve (1925) [1]. It is still a basic tool to
analyze the structure and dynamics of the
ionosphere and a huge amount of data
concerning to the large scale variability of the
ionosphere has been gained by ground based
ionosondes such as critical frequencies and
virtual heights of ionospheric layers.
The Canadian Advanced Digital Ionosonde
(CADI) shown in (Figure 2) consists of a
transmitter, four receivers and the antenna
system [28]. The transmitter antenna is a delta
RRJoSST (2018) 28-39 © STM Journals 2018. All Rights Reserved
Muhammad Atiq
antenna and the receiver antenna array consists
of four dipoles arranged as a square.
Fig. 2: The Canadian Advanced Digital
Ionosonde (CADI) Transmitter and Receiver
Antenna Systems at Cambridge Bay (Canadian
High Arctic Ionospheric Network [CHAIN]).
The ionosonde operating frequency can be
varied over a range from 1, say, up to 25 MHz.
The equipment is designed to measure directly
the time t taken for a pulse of radio waves to
travel up to the ionosphere and back as a
function of frequency. The measured virtual
height of the ionosphere is given by Davies:
1
ℎ′ = 𝑐𝑡
2
The ionosphere can also reflect the high
frequency signals higher than the critical
frequency at oblique incidents. The frequency
of the signal reflected at oblique angle is called
MUF (maximum useable frequency) and
mathematically, MUF=fc secθ, Where, θ is the
incident angle with normal to the terrestrial
surface [14].
The terrestrial ionosonde can investigate the
ionosphere only up to an altitude which
corresponds to the maximum plasma
frequency (Figure 3). The transmitted radio
waves with frequency greater than the
maximum plasma frequency cannot be
reflected and will penetrate the ionosphere.
Therefore topside soundings from satellites are
used to investigate the topside ionosphere [29].
Digisonde (Digital Ionospheric Goniometric
Ionosonde), on the other hand is an advanced
ionosonde. It is a kind of radar that uses high
frequency electromagnetic waves to get
reflected from the ionosphere that evaluate
angle of arrival, polarization and Doppler’s
frequency shift of sky wave signals reflected
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Volume 7, Issue 2
ISSN: 2321-2837 (Online), ISSN: 2321-6506 (Print)

from the ionosphere. The digisonde is also
used to determine the range to the reflection
point.
Ionogram
Ionogram is actually the output display of
ionosonde which gives the trace of time of
flight versus frequency of the received radio
signal reflected down from the ionosphere.
Ionogram trace obtained enables the
determination of the layer critical frequency
parameters foE, foF1, foF2 and virtual height
parameters h’E, h’F1, and h’F2 for E, F1 and
F2 layers respectively (Figure 3). Signals of
frequency less than certain minimum
frequency do not produce perceivable echoes
due to the significant absorption in the D
region. This type of received signals
effectively represents the sole index of
absorption [8]. The frequency greater than the
critical frequency of the F2 layer cannot be
reflected and signal with this frequency will
penetrate the ionosphere completely. The
critical frequency of the F2 layer is the most
widely studied parameter of the ionosphere.
IONOSPHERE AND SPACE WEATHER
Our Sun is the major source of variations in
the Earth’s ionosphere. The electromagnetic
radiations and energetic particles from the Sun
influence the magnetic field of the Earth and
hence the chemical composition of
constituents of the ionosphere. It is important
to monitor the variations occurring in the
ionosphere for reliable electronic
communications. These variations in the
ionosphere because of the Sun and cosmic
radiations constitute weather for upper
atmosphere and it is known as space weather.
The space weather is different from our
atmospheric weather as it is more significant
for radio operators and ground based satellite
receiver stations. The monitoring of space
weather is very important for reliable
functioning of high frequency (HF)
transmission and GPS signals. HF
transmissions and satellite communications
adversely depend on the space weather. The
space weather is monitored for the reliable
operations of HF transmissions and
measurement of range error in GPS signals.
The effects of ionosphere on HF transmission
and GPS signals are separately discussed
below:

Fig. 3: A Typical Ionogram Display at Sydney Station Height versus Frequency Graph of Ionospheric
Layers: Available at SWS (Space Weather Services) of Australian Government, Bureau of
Meteorology.
High Frequency (HF) Transmissions ionosphere between transmitter and receiver
There is a propagation technique of radio for long distance communication. This
waves which uses multiple reflections from technique merely depends on the electron

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Historical Review of Ionosphere
density in the ionosphere and is called sky
wave propagation or ionospheric wave
propagation. The sky wave propagation is very
important for long distance communication
and it uses short wave frequencies extending
from 1.7 to 30 MHz. In some favorable
conditions this propagation technique can also
adopt frequencies even above 150 MHz. It is
also called ionospheric wave propagation
because these waves after reflecting from the
ionosphere reach the receiver antenna. HF
signals are reflected back to the Earth’s
surface due to the electrons and ions present in
sufficient amount in the ionosphere. The signal
is actually refracted not reflected but it seems
to be reflected because it moves downward
after refraction. The refraction process takes
place due to the changing refractive index with
respect to the height when signal is passing
through the ionosphere. Initially bending
effect is produced and the signal is
continuously bending due to the changing
refractive index. If the rate of changing
refractive index with respect to the height is
reasonable, then eventually the signal will
become parallel to Earth’s surface and then it
will move downwards and emerge out from
the ionospheric layer. This refraction is
required for long distance communication and
it is responsible for the communication over
the globe by using sky wave propagation.
During the time the HF radiation is refracting
through the ionosphere, the speed and
wavelength of the signal changes. HF radio
waves can be reflected through upper layers of
ionosphere (F1 and F2 layer) for long distance
communications.
Effect of Ionosphere on GPS Signal
The two types of effects of ionosphere on the
GPS signal are phase advance and group
delay. In GPS signal, the carrier signal is of
much high frequency as compared to
modulating signal and this result into a change
in speed when these signals passing through
the ionosphere. The modulating or message
signal contains useful information for
positioning or navigation purpose. As
modulated signal enters the ionosphere, it
experiences a dispersive effect which is
analogous to the visible white light passing
through a prism. While passing through
ionosphere, carrier and message signal
RRJoSST (2018) 28-39 © STM Journals 2018. All Rights Reserved
Muhammad Atiq
contained in the composite modulated signal
move with different speeds. This speed is
directly proportional to the electron density
and frequency of the signal.
In dispersive medium, the speed of the
electromagnetic waves is a function of the
wave’s frequency. The phase refractive index
“n” and group refractive index “ng” are related
by:
𝑑𝑛
𝑛𝑔 = 𝑛 + 𝑓
𝑑𝑓
This equation shows that the group refractive
index is always greater than phase refractive
index because the phase speed of a wave in the
ionosphere is slightly greater than the vacuum
speed of light, while the modulation or group
speed is slightly smaller. As we know that the
refractive index depends upon the wavelength
of signal, therefore changing speed is
associated with the change in wavelength and
hence two signals phase and group contain
different refractive indices when passing
through the ionosphere. As a result of that the
carrier signal moves faster as compared to the
message signal and arrives at the receiving end
earlier than the modulating signal. This effect
is called phase advanced. On the other hand,
message signal containing GPS C/A code and
P code arrive with group delay. This delay is
equal to the phase advance by magnitude but
different in sign. The refractive index for
phase speed is less than 1 while for group
speed, it is greater than 1, for vacuum, it is
equal to 1 for electromagnetic signal.
As a remedy of this delay, selective
availability (SA) technique is used. Basically
GPS satellite transponder at the GPS space
station transmits signal at two different
frequencies commonly known as L1
(1575.42 MHz) and L2 (1227.60 MHz). Both
these frequencies are available for the military
grade GPS receivers whereas the civilian GPS
receivers can receive signals at L1 frequency
only.
In SA technique, the GPS receiver receives the
signals at both L1 and L2 frequencies,
computes their phase advance and group delay
individually and then compares the results. On
the basis of this comparative analysis, almost
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Research & Reviews: Journal of Space Science & Technology
Volume 7, Issue 2
ISSN: 2321-2837 (Online), ISSN: 2321-6506 (Print)
all of the ionospheric effect on the GPS signals
that produce pseudo range error is removed. In
the absence of selective availability as in case
of civilian grade GPS receiver, the algorithm
based ionospheric models that are based on
ionospheric coefficients are used to decrease
the ionospheric effects. These models reduce
the ionospheric effect by nearly 50% [30].
If no correcting technique (either SA or
ionospheric models) is used, the range error in
the signal will cause error in position. Under
certain conditions, vertical range error can
cause error of 30 m for the observation at
nearly 5°. Under certain conditions, delay of
100 ns could cause the range error of around
30 m which in certain cases is unaffordable.
CONCLUSION
The ionosphere can be regarded as weak
plasma in the Earth’s atmosphere and it
coincides with the thermosphere more than
any other layer of Earth’s atmosphere. The
outer boundary of the ionosphere is not
fixed and it can vary with the geomagnetic
activity. The temporal variations in the
ionosphere are also the good indicators of
sunspot activity. Solar radiations (X-rays
and EUV) are the major sources of
ionization in ionosphere. Marconi and
Appleton were the two great scientists
regarding the discovery and knowledge of
ionosphere which helps out in the
adaptation of wireless communication for
long distances. The wireless
communication facilitate in very quick
way after the discovery of ionosphere for
both civilian and military purposes. The F2
layer of the ionosphere is most important
layer because of its 24 hours availability
make ease for both radio operators and
researchers in the field of ionosphere. The
HF transmissions and satellite
communications signal are adversely
affected by the chemical and physical
dynamical changes in the ionosphere. For
reliable frequencies of transmissions in
ionospheric wave propagation and
accurate positioning and ranging in
satellite navigation systems it is important
RRJoSST (2018) 28-39 © STM Journals 2018. All Rights Reserved
to monitor the spatial and temporal
variations in the ionosphere in perception
of space weather.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
"Alhamdulillah, I am very thankful to
almighty Allah who granted me strengths and
blessings to have this opportunity of writing
review article with hard work and constancy. I
would like to thank everyone who always
encouraged and motivated me for research
work especially my friends and all the faculty
members of Institute of Space and Planetary
Astrophysics (ISPA), University of Karachi. I
am also thankful to all my family members,
especially my parents for backing me up day
and night".
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Cite this Article
Atiq M. Historical Review of Ionosphere
in Perspective of Sources of Ionization and
Radio Waves Propagation. Research &
Reviews: Journal of Space Science &
Technology. 2018; 7(2): 28–39p.
Page 39