1.

Vedic culture  
a. Speakers of Indo-Aryan language - Sanskrit - entered NW India from Indo-Iran.
Cattle keeping people -> in search of pastures. Occupied whole of North India by 6th
century BC (Aryavarta). Period bw 1500-1000 BC Early Vedic, 1000-600 BC Later Vedic. 
b. Veda - means superior knowledge. Rig Yajur Sama Atharva. Rig - hymns sung in
praise of various gods. Yajur - rules at time of sacrifice. Sama - purpose of chanting during
sacrifice (book of chants and origins of Indian music). Atharva - details of rituals. Besides
this: Brahamanas (treatises relating to prayer), Upanishads (philosophical texts dealing with
abstract topics - soul et al). Aranyakas  (forest books). Ramayana (Valmiki) & Mahabharata
(Veda Vyas). 
c. Early Vedic / Rig Vedic - (1) Political org - basic unit - kula/family. Several families
joined to form a village (leader gramani). Group of village - visu (leader vishayapati).
Highest political unit - jana/tribe. Tribal groups - Bharatas, Matsyas, Yadus, Purus. Polity -
monarchial and hereditary succession. Sabha - committee of elders, samiti - committee of
all. (2) Society - patriarchal, head of family - grahapati. Women given equal opportunities in
intel/spirit development (Apala, Viswavara, Ghosa, Lopamudra - poets). No child
marriage/sati. No rigid social divisions. (3) Economy - mainly cattle rearing, pastoral ->
agriculture switch. Carpentry popular, spinning, goldsmith, potters. Gold coins called nishka
(no evidence) (4) Religion - worshipped elements such as Prithvi (earth), Agni (fire), Vayu
(wind), Varuna (rain) and Indra (thunder, popular). Female gods - Aditi and Usha. No
temples, no idol worship. 
d. Later Vedic - Period of growth of large kingdoms to eastern Gangetic plains. Kuru
(Parikshit) and Panchala (Jaivali) kingdoms. Kosala, Kashi and Videha followed. 3 divisions of
India - Aryavarta, Madhydesa, Dakshinapatha.  
(1) Political org - amalgamation of janas into janapadas. New officials involved in administration.
Importance of samiti and sabha declined. (2) Economy - agriculture main, rest made progress.
Traded w Babylon, rise of hereditary merchant class. Satamana (gold) krishnala (silver) medium of
exchange. (3) Social - 4 division of society (Brahmin, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas & Sudras) or the varna
system - thoroughly established. Women lost political rights, child marriages common. (4) Religion -
Prajapathi, Vishnu & Rudra become prominent. Importance of prayers down and yagnas up.
Priesthood now a profession and hereditary. Buddhism & jainism direct result of such shenanigans.  
1. Buddhism & Jainism -  
a. Strong republican institutions in 6th century BC -> enabled rise of heterodox sects
against orthodox religion. Complex rites and rituals -> not accepted to common people.
Need of people - simple short and intelligible salvation. Rigid caste system -> tensions cos of
privilege accorded to higher castes. Birth of new merchant class -> supporting new religions
(since Varna system didn't allow enhanced social standing). 
b. Jainism - Vardhamana Mahavira 24th Tirthankara. Attained highest spiritual
knowledge - keval jnana. Followers called Jain and religion Jainism. 3 principles (triratnas,
KFC) - right faith (belief in wisdom of Mahavira), right knowledge (accept there is no god
and all objects possess soul), right conduct (not - injure life, lie, steal, acquire property,
immoral life). Rejected authority of vedas - holy and ethical code of life.  
c. Spread - dedicated work by members of Sanghas. Chandrgupta Maurya, Kharavela
& dynasties - Kadambas, Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas patronized. Sthulabhadra - stayed back in
North and changed code of conduct; svetambaras (white clad). Digambaras (sky-clad) - led
by Bhadrabahu, who predicted 12 year famine and moved to South. He was also last
acharya of undivided Jains. 1st Jain council - Pataliputra around 4th century BC. 2nd - in 5th
century in Valabhi. Twelve Angas written at 2nd council, Digambaras rejected them.  
d.
e. Shrutakevalin is a term used in Jainism for those ascetics who have complete
knowledge of Jain Agama. Agamas are texts of Jainism based on the discourses of the
 tirthankara. Composed of 12 angas (departments). It is generally represented by a tree with
twelve branches. This forms the basis of the Jaina Agamas or canons. 
According to the Digambara sect of Jainism, there were five Shruta Kevalins in Jainism.
Svetambaras believe the last Shruta Kevalin was Acharya Sthulabhadra, but was forbade by
Bhadrabahu from disclosing it. 
f. Buddhism - born Siddharth Gautam - left home at 29 and attained enlightenment at
35 under Bodhi tree in Bodh Gaya, since then known as Buddha or enlightened one. First
sermon - at Sarnath. Imp disciples - Sariputta, Moggallana, Ananda, Kassapa, Upali.
Prasenjit (Kosala), Ajatasatru (Magadh) disciples. Khema and Uppalavanna - his two chief
female disciples. Concerned himself with practical problems concerning man.  
Teachings - Four noble truths - (1) world full of suffering (2) cause of suffering is desire (3) if
desires x -> suffering x. (4) Follow 8 fold path. Right view, resolve, speech, conduct,
livelihood, effort, mindfulness, concentration. Great emphasis on law of karma. Soul doesn't
exist -> emphasized ahimsa. Identical w morality and emphasized purity of thought, word
and deed. Against social distinction and order open to all. Gautama taught a middle way
between sensual indulgence and the severe asceticism found in the śramaṇa movement. He
later taught throughout other regions of eastern India such as Magadha and Kosala. 
g. Spread - two kinds of disciples - monks (bikshus) & lay worshippers (upasikas),
monks org into sanghas.  Rapid progress cos of efforts made by Sanghas. Through missionary
effort -> local religious sect now world religion. 1st council - Rajagriha under Mahakasapa to
maintain purity of teachings. 2nd council - Vaishali. 3rd - Pataliputra - Ashoka patronage,
Tripitakas finalized. 4th council - Kashmir under Vasumitra - new school of Buddhism
(Mahayana). Original - Hinayana. Texts written in Pali known as Tripitakas - Sutta, Vinaya &
Abhidhamma.