736885

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MTRXXX10.1177/2379298117736885Management Teaching ReviewMcCauley et al.

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Management Teaching Review

2017, Vol. 2(4) 312­–324
An Andragogical Approach © The Author(s) 2017
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DOI: 10.1177/2379298117736885
https://doi.org/10.1177/2379298117736885
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Kelly Davis McCauley1, Emily Hammer1,

and Amanda S. Hinojosa2

Abstract
Students in today’s college classroom are diverse in age and work, leadership, and life
experiences; hence, students transitioning into adulthood may understand and relate
core leadership knowledge to their own experiences differently than mature adults.
As such, we call upon andragogy, a theory of adult learning, to inform our approach
to teaching leadership. We employ andragogy and its six assumptions (the learners’
self-concept, the role of experience, readiness to learn, orientation to learning,
motivation, and the need to know) as a guiding framework for the selection and
development of leadership instructional tools, thus creating an individualized learning
experience for emerging and full-fledged adults that bridges the leadership theory
and practice gap. We offer examples of leadership instructional tools that align with
andragogical assumptions and provide suggestions for scaling these assignments and
activities to address students’ learning needs at different stages of adulthood.

Keywords
andragogy, curriculum design, leadership, management education, Malcolm Knowles,
emerging adult learners, adult learning

Students vary greatly in their phase of life development, from those just transitioning
into adulthood to mature adults. As professors teach core leadership content (e.g.,
leadership theories and approaches), students’ adulthood experiences can influence the
ways in which and the extent to which they understand and apply leadership course
material to the business setting.

1West Texas A&M University, Canyon, TX, USA

2Howard University, Washington, DC, USA

Corresponding Author:
Kelly Davis McCauley, Department of Management, Marketing, and General Business, West Texas A&M
University, WTAMU Box 60809, Canyon, TX 79016-0001, USA.
Email: kmccauley@wtamu.edu
McCauley et al. 313

To address this issue, we present an approach to teaching leadership that is guided

by research on adult learning and development known as andragogy, the intentional
design of curriculum to engage adult learners at various stages of adult life develop-
ment (Knowles, 1970). We use andragogy to inform our leadership teaching since it
“is adapted to fit the uniqueness of [adult] learners” (Knowles, Holton, & Swanson,
2012, p. 3) and offers a framework applicable to teaching leadership that allows
professors to appeal to student differences in leadership and life experiences, per-
sonalize the students’ educational experience, and tailor leadership education to dif-
ferent types of adult learners. We incorporate recent extensions of andragogy in
management education (e.g., Dachner & Polin, 2016; Forrest & Peterson, 2006) to
advance our andragogical approach to teaching leadership. The andragogical frame-
work guides our selection, delivery, and creation of leadership course instructional
tools with both full-fledged (Forrest & Peterson, 2006) and emerging adult learners
(Dachner & Polin, 2016) in mind. Such an approach to teaching leadership can help
educators manage the challenge of scaling classes to meet the needs of students with
varying levels of leadership and life experience (Dachner & Polin, 2016), thereby
fostering students’ knowledge of leadership along with their personal leadership
development.
In the following sections, we provide an overview of the assumptions of andragogy
and review recent applications of andragogy within the management education litera-
ture. Next, we connect the assumptions of andragogy with corresponding, appropriate
leadership instructional tools (e.g., activities and assignments) that put these assump-
tions into practice. We provide a summarized form of this discussion in Table 1 and
further detail these instructional tools in Appendices A to D. Last, we offer suggestions
for scaling these activities and assignments to meet the needs of different types of
adult learners (e.g., emerging vs. full-fledged adults).

Andragogical Teaching
Through his introduction of andragogical principles, Knowles (1970) altered how edu-
cators and their adult students view the role of the professor. Instead of advocating a
traditional lecture-based model of teaching, Knowles (1975) focused on a self-directed
learning model in which the professor acts as a guide and facilitator for student learn-
ing, and the student is a collaborator in the learning process, making teachers and
learners partners in the educational process. Thus, Knowles’ andragogical approach is
learner-centered rather than teacher-centered, which runs counter to classroom meth-
ods that are based on pedagogical practices (i.e., child learning and development; for
a detailed comparison of the learning assumptions of pedagogy and andragogy, see
Forrest and Peterson, 2006). Note that an andragogical approach to teaching does not
negate the use of “traditional” classroom techniques such as lectures, assigned read-
ings, and summative assessments, but rather an andragogical approach supplements
and enhances teaching techniques by drawing from students’ experiences and helping
them make connections from course material to the work environment (Forrest &
Peterson, 2006).
314
Table 1.  Assumptions of Andragogy: Applications to Adult Learners in Leadership Courses.
Sample instructional tools when
Assumptions of Explanation of how each assumption relates to adult using andragogy as a guiding Instructor guidance for sample
andragogy learners framework for teaching leadership leadership instructional tools

The Learner’s Self- Adult learners need to be able to take control of their Reflective essays See Appendix A
Concept own learning experiences. Self-directed learning
experiences are more effective for adult learners in
developing their self-awareness.
  Leadership portfolio See Appendix B
The Role of Adults have more experiences than children or Encouraging students to share Dependent on the instructor’s guidance
Experience adolescents to draw from and apply learned their leadership/followership of the course discussion
information. experiences during class
discussions
Readiness to Learn Adults want to learn and are primed for learning as Survival scenario/exercise Up to instructor preference since there
they move through various life stages. are many publically available options
for this type of activity (e.g., Lost on
the Moon)
Orientation to Adults are task and problem-focused in their learning Using “real-world” examples The selection of examples and
Learning orientation. Lessons are more effective if they are during class lectures and case studies is dependent on the
presented in the context of real-life situations. discussions instructor’s and students’ specific
learning objectives for the course
  Case studies  
Motivation Adults can be motivated by external factors; however, Proactive goal accomplishment See Appendix C
adults can be more motivated in the long-term by assignment
internal motivators (e.g., job satisfaction, quality of
life).
The Need to Adults must be invested in why learning information is Leader interview project See Appendix D
Know important to them personally within their own life
circumstances.

Note. To address the specific needs of emerging adult learners (ages 18-25), we encourage instructors to refer to Dachner and Polin’s (2016) guidelines for designing courses with
emerging adult learners in mind.
McCauley et al. 315

Defined as the “art and science of helping adults learn” (Knowles, 1970, p. 38),
andragogy is a predominant theory of adult learning (Merriam & Caffarella, 1991).
Adult learning is defined as “activities intentionally designed for the purpose of bring-
ing about learning among those whose age, social roles or self-perception, define them
as adults” (Merriam & Bierema, 2013, p. 11). While many students between the ages
of 18 to 25 do not consider themselves to have reached adulthood (Arnett, 1994), they
can be classified as “emerging adults” (Dachner & Polin, 2016). Since andragogical
principles apply to this unique category of adult learners (Dachner & Polin, 2016), we
include both emerging and full-fledged adults in our approach to teaching leadership.

Assumptions of Andragogy
Recent conceptualizations (Knowles, Holton, & Swanson, 2015) of andragogy assert
the following six assumptions about adult learners:

1. The learners’ self-concept. According to this assumption, the learner’s self-

concept is solidly established, and the learner is self-directing and
autonomous.
2. The role of experience. Adults have an accumulation of unique life experiences
that they can draw upon to shape their learning.
3. Readiness to learn. Adult learners have a desire and readiness to learn, espe-
cially when the learning is highly relevant to real-life situations they face.
Specific events such as the loss of a job or a divorce often trigger the need for
adults to learn something new (Knowles, 1984).
4. Orientation to learning. Adults have a task-centered, problem-focused orienta-
tion to learning that prompts them to search for immediate applications of their
learning.
5. Motivation. Adults are more compelled to learn through intrinsic motivation.
They are driven by the desire for self-esteem, goal attainment, or personal
payoff.
6. The need to know. Adult learners need to know what they will be learning, why
this learning is important, and how they will learn.

When originally introduced, Knowles’ (1970) conceptualization of andragogy only

included Assumptions 1 to 4. However, later iterations (1980, 1984, 1990) of Knowles’
andragogical framework added Assumptions 5 and 6 (Henschke, 2010). Since these
additions were made, the major assumptions of andragogy have remained relatively
unchanged. Within the andragogy literature, the six-assumption framework is com-
monly used (e.g., Chan, 2010; Dachner & Polin, 2016; Knowles et al., 2015; Taylor &
Kroth, 2009). We employ the six-assumption model of andragogy in our approach to
teaching leadership since it is more comprehensive than the initial framework and thus
provides greater opportunities to meet the unique and varying needs of adult learners.
These assumptions have directly informed the practice of management education in
more recent years (e.g., Dachner & Polin, 2016; Fornaciari & Lund Dean, 2014;
316 Management Teaching Review 2(4)

Forrest & Peterson, 2006). Forrest and Peterson (2006) introduced these concepts to
the management literature through their comparison of andragogy and pedagogy and
the instructional tools and underlying philosophies that guide each. Fornaciari and
Lund Dean (2014) provide examples of how to incorporate andragogy into a course
syllabus, while Dachner and Polin (2016) provide a number of useful questions to
consider when adapting andragogical methods to meet the needs of emerging adult
learners transitioning from adolescence to adulthood.

Using Andragogy in Leadership Instructional Tools

The Learner’s Self-Concept
The self-concept assumption of andragogy holds that adult learners need to take con-
trol of their own learning experiences since self-directed learning experiences are
more effective in forming an awareness of their self-concept (Knowles et al., 2015). To
appeal to the learner’s self-concept, we require students to complete a series of reflec-
tive essays on topics such as their personality and how it influences their leadership,
the values that undergird their ethical and moral stance, and their life story and how it
has shaped them (see Appendix A for sample questions). To encourage students to
engage in these self-awareness experiences without fear of judgment, we consider the
evaluative part of this assignment to be more formative rather than summative in
nature. Continuing to reinforce the development of students’ self-concept, we task our
students with creating a leadership portfolio (see Appendix B for the portfolio require-
ments). This assignment requires students to create the following components: their
own mission statement/leadership philosophy along with an explanation of why it
guides their leadership; a leadership development plan that includes a discussion of
their strengths and weaknesses as a leader; and an assessment of their developmental
needs to become a better leader. Both of these assignments—the reflective essays and
the leadership portfolio—assist students in refining their self-concept in terms of who
they are as leaders currently and what types of leaders they want to be in the future,
since they require students to engage in deep self-reflection.

The Role of Experience

Andragogy holds that adults have more experiences than children or adolescents to
draw from and apply information to; thus, effective learning will draw upon these expe-
riences (Knowles et al., 2015). While some students may not have leadership experi-
ences within a work setting to draw upon (Dachner & Polin, 2016), they are familiar
with leadership concepts from other points of view such as serving as a role model for
their siblings and peers, participating in student organizations and sports teams, and
observing leadership in action at different societal levels. Therefore, rather than assume
that our students lack leadership knowledge and experience, we assume the opposite;
that is, we believe that our students have a wealth of experience to bring to our class
discussions, and we try to draw out those experiences. To do so, we encourage students
McCauley et al. 317

to reflect upon their own leadership/followership experiences and how they correspond
to course material. We offer students opportunities to share their experiences with their
classmates, thereby deepening the learning process for themselves as well as their
peers.

Readiness to Learn
Based on the readiness to learn assumption, adults desire information that is immedi-
ately applicable to their everyday experiences at work and in their daily lives (Knowles
et al., 2015). To capitalize on adult readiness to learn, we try to demonstrate how the
subject matter is both relevant to the course and personally beneficial to students. For
example, when we discuss the benefits of teamwork, we place students into teams to
participate in a role-play survival exercise in which they are lost on the moon (Hall &
Watson, 1970). During the exercise, students individually rank which supplies they
think will be the most useful to them during their time on the moon. Then, we instruct
students to make the same decisions together as a team. Upon completion, we compare
the individual and team rankings to the rankings of the supplies from survival experts.
In almost all iterations of the exercise, the teams perform better on this task than indi-
vidual team members. This activity segues into a class discussion on how leaders can
utilize teams to enhance group and organizational effectiveness. While the survival
scenario itself does not immediately relate to students’ everyday lives, the lessons
learned from this exercise have direct bearing on students’ experiences within the
work environment. Since students will most likely be required to work in or lead a
team (or may even be currently doing so) as part of their job or class requirements, this
exercise illustrates in a clear way the benefits of teamwork, thus helping students
develop an appreciation and readiness for learning about this topic as well as others in
the course.

Orientation to Learning
According to this assumption of andragogy, adults are life-centered in their learning
orientation; thus, lessons are more effective if they apply to real-life situations
(Knowles et al., 2015). To meet the needs of students with varying levels of life experi-
ence, we use a variety of approaches to make leadership concepts “real.” First, we
encourage students without work experience (primarily emerging adult learners) to
relate course material to their membership and/or leadership of student organizations,
sports teams, and volunteer groups. Second, we use examples of leadership within
organizations that our students are likely to be familiar with. These examples vary
from discussions of presidential language to illustrate charismatic rhetoric to differ-
ences in the ways in which a football coach may interact with a quarterback (stroking
his ego) versus a defensive lineman (yelling at him to tackle) as an illustration of the
idealized consideration component of transformational leadership (Burns, 1978).
Professors can alter examples based on student interests and understanding expressed
throughout the course. Third, we reinforce what students are learning through case
318 Management Teaching Review 2(4)

studies, allowing students to apply course material to solve business-oriented, leader-

ship problems. Last, when teaching full-fledged adult learners, we encourage them to
relate lessons in the course to their own previous and current work experiences, which
immediately corresponds with their life-focused learning orientation. Taken together,
these instructional strategies permit us to appeal to the problem-centered, life-oriented,
immediately applicable learning orientation of adult learners in a variety of ways,
making the course material highly relevant to real-life leadership problems in the work
environment.

Motivation
Knowles et al. (2015) argue that while adults are responsive to some external motiva-
tors like power, prestige, and financial rewards, they ultimately are motivated by
internal pressures such as a higher quality of life, job satisfaction, or high self-esteem.
To capitalize upon this principle of andragogy, we assign a proactive goal accom-
plishment assignment (Covey, 1989; see Appendix C). We require students to select
a challenging goal to complete by the end of the semester. Students then submit prog-
ress logs or journals and write a reflective essay regarding their learning from this
assignment. This assignment appeals to adult learners’ motivation, particularly their
intrinsic motivation, since students select their own goal and chart their own path
toward completing that goal. Hence, students have significant control and autonomy
throughout the proactive goal achievement assignment. The completion of the goal
centers upon the student’s intrinsic (rather than extrinsic) motivation since we do not
offer any credit in the course for completing the goal. Thus, this assignment encour-
ages students to grow and develop their intrinsic motivation in an area of their life
that may have been previously blocked by barriers such as negative self-concept,
inaccessibility of opportunities, time constraints, and restrictive learning environ-
ments (Knowles et al., 2015).

The Need to Know

According to this assumption of andragogy, adults must understand why learning is
important to them personally and how such learning applies to their own life circum-
stances (Tough, 1979). To apply the need to know assumption of andragogy in our
courses, we assign a leader interview project (see Appendix D). Students are tasked
with interviewing leaders across a variety of industries, experience levels, and back-
grounds. Rather than just having students report the content of the interviews, we have
students analyze the content of their interviews for similarities between what the lead-
ers discussed and the material presented in the classroom. When making these com-
parisons, students consistently find that while the leaders they interviewed may not
have used the specific terminology taught in a leadership course, they did discuss the
major issues and concepts in the course material. This project allows students to see
that the course content is highly relevant to them because it is readily applicable to
their current and future work experiences (especially when students interview leaders
McCauley et al. 319

within their desired positions and/or industries). Furthermore, after interviewing sev-
eral leaders, students can easily identify the benefits of knowledge of the course mate-
rial coupled with “real-world” examples of its application, thus addressing students’
needs to know the value of what and why they are learning.

Conclusion
Since students vary in the ways in which they integrate leadership course material and
leadership experiences according to their stage of adulthood (e.g., emerging vs. full-
fledged, mature adults), we adopt andragogy as a framework to help us bridge the gap
between students’ leadership knowledge and experience through our teaching.
Therefore, we draw upon the six assumptions of andragogy (the learners’ self-concept,
the role of experience, readiness to learn, orientation to learning, motivation, and the
need to know) to inform our selection, design, and delivery of leadership course
instructional tools. These assumptions guide our approach to teaching leadership since
they allow us to customize our leadership curriculum to uniquely address scalability
issues specific to adult learners at various life stages.

Appendix A
Reflective Essay Questions
Learning Objectives.  After completing these essay assignments, students should:

•• Have a deeper self-awareness of their own strengths, weaknesses, values, and

perspectives on leadership
•• Be able to apply leadership course material to their own lives in a way that is
personally meaningful to them
•• Have more ownership in their leadership development journey

Summary.  The reflective essay questions allow students to consider the course topics
on a more personal level without having the pressure to share their thoughts and expe-
riences with the entire class. The questions could be used as a low-stakes in-class writ-
ing assignment to get students to take more control of their learning experience within
the classroom setting, as a homework assignment, or could be expanded upon for a
larger written assignment.

Sample Reflective Leadership Essay Questions

1. From your experiences to-date, how do you define leadership?
2. In your opinion, are leaders born or made?
3. What does it mean for you to be an authentic leader?
4. How does your life story influence the ways in which you view your self and
your leadership?
320 Management Teaching Review 2(4)

5. What have the challenges in your life taught you that applies to leading
others?
6. Describe an experience when you were leading others and you felt that you
were at your personal best.
7. What are your personal values? Why do you hold these values?
8. What did you learn from the proactive goal accomplishment assignment and
how can you apply what you learned in the future?

Suggested Modifications Based on Learner Needs.  We have found that these essay ques-
tions work best with undergraduate students, or those that Dachner and Polin (2016)
refer to as emerging adult learners. For students in graduate courses and/or for those
with more life experience, we suggest drawing essay questions from Bill George’s
2007 book, True North. In this book, George discusses the characteristics and actions
of great leaders and then allows for application and personalization of these concepts
by providing a number of questions and guided activities for self-reflection and
increased self-awareness.

Appendix B
Leadership Portfolio Information
Learning Objectives. After completing the leadership portfolio assignment, students
should:

•• Be better prepared to discuss their leadership experiences, skills, and strengths

with others (including potential employers)
•• Have a clear plan for developing and enhancing their own leadership skills
•• Possess a greater self-awareness of who they are as a leader

Summary.  The leadership portfolio assignment allows students to summarize and syn-
thesize their understanding of leadership and provides them with opportunities to iden-
tify next steps in their own leadership development. It also requires students to organize
their thoughts about their own leadership as well as how they can present their leader-
ship strengths, experiences, and skills to others, which is particularly important for
students who are engaged in the job search process.

Portfolio Components
•• Personal statement and explanation: This component includes the student’s
personal definition of leadership, leadership philosophy, or broader mission
statement for their life. Students must then discuss why this personal statement
is meaningful to them and will help guide their leadership in the future.
•• Summary of leadership experiences: Students may list the leadership experi-
ences or positions that they have held to-date along with an explanation of their
learning and skill development that occurred as a result of these experiences.
McCauley et al. 321

This approach is good for those who have had significant opportunities to lead
in student organizations or in a work setting. Students could also detail the
leadership skills/components that they have developed from various work,
team, and leadership experiences and then provide examples to briefly illustrate
how this skill developed. This approach is appropriate for those who may not
have yet held formal leadership positions but have had chances to develop or at
least practice specific leadership components discussed in various theories.
This learning may have occurred through working with others in team projects
or from various life experiences.
•• Leadership development plan: This part of the portfolio could incorporate feed-
back from formal assessments/developed instruments or it could be more of an
informal self-reflective assessment of the students’ strengths and weaknesses as
a leader. Students consider what leadership experiences they need to develop as
a leader and describe these experiences. Students could also consider the fol-
lowing questions:
|| Do you need any specific skills to be a leader in your field?

|| How can you gain these skills?

|| What resources do you need to work on developing these skills?

|| Do you need a mentor in a specific area? How can you identify a mentor and

get them excited about taking you on as a mentee?

|| How will you track your progress regarding your leadership development?

Suggested Modifications Based on Learner Needs.  This assignment can be modified to

meet student and instructor needs. For example, other components that could be
included in the portfolio include a resume, formal answers to the leadership essay
questions listed in Appendix A, and a 5-year plan. Additionally, as described above,
each component can have more detailed requirements (e.g., building assessments into
the leadership development plan) or less extensive requirements to meet the needs of
students at all levels of ability and experience.

Appendix C
Proactive Goal Accomplishment Information
Learning Objectives.  At the conclusion of this assignment, students will:

•• Have a better sense of what motivates them intrinsically

•• Experience (hopefully) the feeling of success and accomplishment that is the
result of hard work
•• Have practice at being proactive and goal-directed in their own lives

Summary.  The purpose of this assignment is to illustrate what it means to be proac-

tive through the accomplishment of a goal within a brief time frame. The proactive
goal accomplishment assignment requires students to select a goal that is difficult,
measurable, and attainable within the semester. Students declare their goal in front
322 Management Teaching Review 2(4)

of the entire class to encourage accountability, and students with similar goals (e.g.,
fitness and health-related, scholastic, relationship-oriented) are paired together to
discuss strategies for pursuing their goals and to act as accountability partners
throughout the process. Students are required to sign a goal contract and are informed
that they may be called on at the beginning of any class to provide an update of their
progress on achieving their goal. Students also provide logs of their progress on their
goals throughout the semester and complete a reflective essay about what they
learned from their proactive goal accomplishment experience.

Suggested Modifications Based on Learner Needs.  Since this instructional tool is highly
personalized, students are able to fully utilize self-directed learning to meet their
needs. The instructor may consider altering the number of student checkpoints in class
to match student needs. For example, the instructor might incorporate more frequent
checkpoints in class to encourage emerging adult learners to be proactive throughout
this assignment. The instructor could also provide more or less guidance for individual
students about how to complete their goal, depending on the needs of each student.

Appendix D
Leader Interview Project Information
Learning Objectives.  At the conclusion of this project, students will:

•• Have an understanding of how various course concepts and theories (e.g.,

authentic leadership, transformational leadership, the role of experience) apply
to leadership in a variety of industries and in varying situations
•• Have practice working and communicating within a team
•• Have experience networking with local professionals

Summary.  The purpose of the leader interview project is for students to see how the
leadership theories discussed in the classroom translate to leadership “in the real
world.” Students are assigned to teams, and each team completes interviews with five
organizational leaders with at least 10 or more followers. The team then identifies
themes and commonalities in the interview content and writes a team paper summariz-
ing their knowledge gained from the interviews as well as from the process of working
in a team.

Interview Paper Components

•• Interview synthesis: The student teams can present the findings from their anal-
ysis of their interviews in a variety of formats. These include:
A. Comparative analysis: Students compare the information in the interviews
to the material discussed in class to determine the extent to which the lead-
ers interviewed mentioned course concepts and how strongly the course
concepts were supported or refuted in the interviews.
McCauley et al. 323

B. Creating a model of leadership: In this format, students create their team’s

own model of leadership based on the content of the interviews.
C. Developing a hybrid model of leadership: Student teams develop a hybrid
model of leadership that includes established theories of leadership pre-
sented in the course with additions to the model based on content from their
interviews.
•• Statement of learning from the project: Students discuss what content from their
interviews was most salient to the team’s understanding of leadership; what
insights from the interviews were the most surprising, enlightening, or thought-
provoking; and what the team learned about working together throughout the
project.
•• Appendices: Information appropriate for appendices includes leader inter-
viewee information (leader name, company, position, and contact information),
a listing of which team members interviewed each interviewee, and the team’s
list of interview questions.

Suggested Modifications Based on Learner Needs.  Instructors can modify this assign-
ment by providing more or less structured requirements for the interview synthesis.
For emerging adult students uncomfortable with self-directed learning, instructors
might specify the acceptable format(s) as listed above. For graduate students and/or
students more comfortable with self-directed learning, instructors might encourage
students to decide on their own how best to synthesize their interviews. In this sce-
nario, the instructor might discuss sample formats only as one of many possible suc-
cessful outcomes, with an emphasis on the idea that students may come up with other
formats as they see fit. Another modification that would be appropriate to scale this
activity more toward advanced graduate students is to make this an individual assign-
ment rather than a team assignment.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship,
and/or publication of this article.

Funding
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this
article.

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