Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Chemistry
3 2 0
Measurements
are to the correct All measurements 2 or 3 measurements Less than 2
number of measurements
significant
figures
Units included All measurements 2 or 3 measurements Less than 2
measurements
Answers are
within the range All measurements 2 or 3 measurements Less than 2
of acceptable measurements
error
1. Determine the accuracy and precision represented by each group of darts in the figures
above. Explain your choices using complete sentences.
Precision?
Accuracy?
2. A basketball player throws 100 free-throws; 95 of these balls go through the goal; 5 miss
the goal entirely. Describe the precision and accuracy of the free-throws.
3. The same player is having an off day; 5 balls go through the goal; the other 95 balls
bounce off of the rim. Describe the precision and accuracy of the throws.
2. A basketball player throws 100 free-throws; 95 of these balls go through the goal;
5 miss the goal entirely. Describe the precision and accuracy of the free-throws.
The player has good precision and good accuracy because so many of the balls
go through the goal.
3. The same player is having an off day; 5 balls go through the goal; the other 95
balls bounce off of the rim. Describe the precision and accuracy of the throws.
The player has good precision because so many balls bounce off the rim but poor
accuracy because so few balls make it through the goal.
Matter Homogeneous
Element Mixture
Compound
Muddy Water Na
Solution As
salt water Cl
Metal NaCl
nonmetal Metalloid
MATTER
Can be either
MIXTURE
PURE
SUBSTANCE
Is
Is Can be
Chemically
ELEMENT combine to form COMPOUND HOMOGENEOUS HETEROGENEOUS
Is either
Example Is called Example
Na As Cl SALT WATER
The properties of
the individual
Can be separated
Sample: components are
Homogeneous Heterogeneous into individual
the same as
components
properties of the
sample
Salt
Water
Copper
Copper and
water
The properties of
the individual
Can be separated
Sample: components are
Homogeneous Heterogeneous into individual
the same as
components
properties of the
sample
Salt
X X
Water
X X
Copper
X X
Salt and water
X X X
Copper and
water X X X
Conclusions:
1. Salt (NaCl) is a homogeneous material that can be decomposed into individual elements
(sodium and chlorine). The properties of the salt differ from the properties of the
elements. Salt is a compound.
2. Water (H2O) is a homogeneous material that can be decomposed into elements (hydrogen
and oxygen). Water is a compound.
3. Copper is a homogeneous material that cannot be separated into components. Copper is
an element.
4. Salt and water combine to form a homogeneous material that can be separated into
parts. When the salt and water are mixed, their properties do not change. Salt water is a
homogeneous mixture called a solution.
5. Copper shot and water not homogeneous because the copper and water are easily seen
as individual parts. These parts can be separated easily. When the copper and water are
mixed, their individual properties do not change. This is a heterogeneous mixture.
Conclusion The bubbles contained a gas that escaped into the air. The
tablet was a solid that underwent a chemical change with
the water to produce the gas bubbles. Once the tablet
(reactant) was used up, no more gas bubbles (products)
were formed, and the reaction stopped. There has been a
change in the identity of the material. It is no longer an
effervescent tablet. The production of a gas is evidence of
a chemical change (reaction) taking place.
Observations
1. smaller pieces of paper are formed
Conclusion
The smaller pieces of paper are exactly like the original
piece of paper (reactant). There has been no change in the
identity of the material. It is still paper (product).
1.01 4.00
H He
GISTing
Atomic radii
The atomic radius is ½ the distance between the centers of neighboring atoms. It is the size
of the atom due to the size of the electron cloud.
Group trends
The atomic radii of the main group elements (s & p sublevels) generally increases down a
group. The outermost electrons occupy energy levels that are farther from the nucleus.
Period trends
Atomic radius generally decreases across a period. This is caused by the increasing nuclear
charge of the nucleus as you go across a period. More protons are in the nucleus and more
electrons are in the same energy level. The increasing nuclear charge attracts the electrons
and pulls them closer to the nucleus.
1. Atomic radius means how big an atom is. _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____
2. Atoms get bigger down a group because there are more energy levels. _____ _____ _____
3. Atoms get smaller across a period because more protons attract the electrons pulling them
closer.
Summary: Atomic radius (size of the atom) increases down a group because of more energy
levels and across a period because of a greater attraction between the larger number of protons
and the outer electrons.
After several gisting activities, you will be able to construct summaries. Gisting is a mental
process and not necessarily a written one.
Chemical bond
Ionic bond
Covalent bond
Metallic bond
Electronegativity
Polar covalent
bond
Nonpolar
covalent bond
Formula unit
Molecule
Molecular
formula
1. K2SO4 ______________________________
2. N2O4 ______________________________
3. BaClO4 ______________________________
4. HNO2(aq) ______________________________
5. FE2(SO4)3 ______________________________
6. NH4F ______________________________
7. BaI2 ______________________________
8. CrO3 ______________________________
9. Cu(C2H3O2)2 ______________________________
10. Ag2CO3 ______________________________
11. NaOH ______________________________
12. Ca3(PO4)2 ______________________________
13. ClF3 ______________________________
14. K2SO3 ______________________________
15. AlBr3 ______________________________
16. MgCl2 ______________________________
17. HC2H3O2(aq) ______________________________
18. P2O5 ______________________________
19. FePO4 ______________________________
20. SrBr2 ______________________________
21. Al2S3 ______________________________
22. LiBr ______________________________
23. NH3 ______________________________
24. PbO2 ______________________________
25. MgO ______________________________
Note: A represents the central atom in the molecule. B represents atoms bonded to the central
atom. B can be identical atoms or different atoms.
Directions:
1. Find the other students who have the same color balloons as you. Have someone inflate a
balloon as much as possible without popping it. Inflate your balloon(s) to the same size.
2. Using the patterns below, tie the appropriate number and color balloons together. For
example, for the AB2E model, tie 2 blue balloons and a white balloon together. For
groups of 4 balloons, it is easier to tie 2 balloons together and then the other 2 balloons
together, then twist the two groups together. For five-balloon groups, make sets of 2 and
3 balloons and twist. For six balloons, use 3 sets of 2 balloons twisted together.
3. Attach a piece of string to hang the finished model from the ceiling.
Number
Number of
of atoms Bond Molecular
lone pairs Electron
attached angle of Type of Geometry
around the Pair Example
to the electron Molecule (Shape of the
Central Geometry
Central pairs molecule)
Atom
Atom
Number Number
of lone of atoms Bond
pairs on Example
attached Electron Pair angle of Type of Molecular
the of
to the Geometry Electron Molecule Shape
Central Molecule
Central pairs
Atom Atom
0 2 Linear 180° AB2 Linear CO2
Trigonal Trigonal
0 3 120° AB3 BF3
planar planar
0 4 Tetrahedral 109.5° AB4 Tetrahedral CH4
Trigonal
1 3 Tetrahedral <109.5° AB3E NH3
Pyramidal
2 2 Tetrahedral <109.5° AB2E2 Bent H2O
Trigonal 90°,
1 4 AB4E *See-Saw SF4
Bipyramidal 120°,180°
Trigonal
2 3 90°, 180° AB3E2 *T- structure IBr3
Bipyramidal
Trigonal
3 2 180° AB2E3 * Linear XeF2
Bipyramidal
0 6 Octahedral 90°, 180° AB6 Octahedral SCl6
*Pyramidal
1 5 Octahedral 90°, 180° AB5E IF5
Planar
*Square
2 4 Octahedral 90°, 180° AB4E2 XeF4
Planar
Purpose: To observe characteristics of ionic and covalent bonds and to classify compounds as
ionic or covalent based on those observations.
Modified from http://www.hse.k12.in.us/staff/ebutzin/Documents/ICP/Bonding/bond%20types%20lab.doc
Safety:
• Wear goggles.
• Do not taste or touch any chemicals.
• Follow guidelines pertaining to an open flame.
Materials
• Test tubes • Small foil pie pan • Sodium chloride
• Thin stem pipettes • Calcium chloride • Sucrose
• Iron ring and stand • Citric acid • Conductivity probe
• Candle with foil • Phenyl salicylate • Safety goggles
holder • Potassium iodide
Procedure:
1. Place a few crystals of sucrose, sodium chloride, phenyl salicylate, calcium chloride,
citric acid and potassium iodide in separate locations around the pie pan as shown in
Figure B. Make sure all of the samples are approximately the same size. Do not allow
the crystals to touch.
• Write a brief description of each of the 6 substances in a data table.
2. Testing melting point
• Place the pie pan on the iron ring. Position the ring so it is just above the tip of a
candle flame, as shown in Figure A. Light the candle to check that you have the
correct height.
• Place the candle under the middle of the pan and heat. Record the order in which
the substances melt. If a compound doesn’t melt record N/A.
Cleanup
• Rinse all test tubes with water and scrub with a test tube brush.
• Rinse off the pie pan and scrub with a test tube brush. Dry with a clean cloth.
• Wash hands and put away goggles.
Data Table
Melting
Point Solubility in
Compound Description Conductivity
(1, 2, 3, 4, Water (Y/N)
N/A)
Calcium
chloride
Citric acid
Phenyl
salicylate
Potassium
iodide
Sodium
chloride
Sucrose
Write and defend a conclusion based on a logical analysis of your experimental data.
F – Form (the form the writing will take, as in letter, song, etc.)
R – H2O
A – Oil
F – Letter
Dear Oil,
I know you would really like for us to get together. Unfortunately, my intermolecular
forces are too strong and will always keep us apart.
I am a polar molecule. I am attracted to other polar molecules much more than I am
attracted to your nonpolar structure. I also have hydrogen bonding which really makes me
extremely attractive to other like molecules. I guess you could say that the only thing we really
have in common is a really weak dispersion force. Unfortunately, this will not be strong enough
for us to base any lasting relationship.
Please feel free to look for another molecule with whom to combine. Perhaps you should
look for a nonpolar molecule with no tendency to hydrogen bond.
Sincerely,
Water
Materials:
1. Samples of 5 different types of beans
2. Container for measuring the mass of the beans
3. Balance
4. Calculator
Procedure:
1. Measure the mass of each type of bean.
2. Using a ratio, students are to calculate the relative masses of the other beans by dividing
the mass of the beans by the mass of the smallest bean of the five types used.
3. Count how many whole beans are needed to get the mass in grams equal to the relative
mass calculated in step 2 for each type of bean.
4. Using the data in the relative mass column, place the empty container on the balance and
zero (tare) the balance. Add beans one at a time to count how many whole beans are
needed to get a mass in grams equal to the relative mass for each type of bean. (Mass of
container in this example is 25.6g.)
Average of
Last Column
• Calculate the average number of whole beans in a container by adding the number of beans in 1
container for each type of bean and dividing by 5.
Note: Use the number from the average of the last column box for all calculations.
Use the data and the ratios to solve the following problems:
1. Calculate the number of containers given 350 beans of each type of bean.
2. Calculate the number of beans given 5.5 containers of each type of bean.
Write and defend a conclusion based on logical analysis of the data obtained from this activity.
This activity is designed to help students understand the concept of the mole as a definite number
of particles. Using five varieties of different type beans, students will determine the relative mass
of each type of bean and express the relative masses in grams.
• Have students work in groups and provide each group with five sets of 40 beans, a container,
and a balance.
• Have students determine the total mass of each type of bean. Enter the data into the table
provided.
• Using a ratio, students are to calculate the relative masses of the other beans by dividing the
mass of the beans by the mass of the smallest bean of the five types used.
• Using the data in the relative mass column, place an empty container on the balance and zero.
Add beans one at a time to count how many whole beans are needed to get a mass in grams
equal to the relative mass for each type of beans. (Mass of container in this example is
25.6g.)
Number
Mass of the
Mass of beans Relative mass of beans
Name of bean container and the
(g) (g) from step
beans (g)
3
211.
Red beans 46.7 21.1 = 10.0 19
2.1
Large lima 52.3
77.9 52.3 = 24.9 19
beans 2.1
Chick peas 44.5 18.9 9.0 20
Lentils 27.7 2.1 1.0 19
Black eyes peas 35.3 9.7 4.6 20
Average of last column 19
Note: Use the average number of beans for the beans/container ratio and the relative mass of each type
of bean for the mass/container ratio.
Use the data to solve the problems as you would solve mole problems.
1. Calculate the number of containers given 350. beans of each type of bean.
2. Calculate the number of beans given 5.5 containers of each type of bean.
Sample Calculations:
1 cup
1. 350. beans X = 18.4 cups
19 beans
19 beans
2. 5.5 cups X = 104.5 beans
1 cup
1cup 21.1g
3. 350 red beans x × = 388.7 g
19 red beans 1cup
1cup 24.9 g
350 lima beans× × = 458.68g
19 lima beans 1cup
1 cup
4. 400. g X = 19.0 cups
21.1 g
Write and defend a conclusion based on logical analysis of the data obtained from this activity.
Regardless of the type of bean used, the number of beans per cup is consistent (within an
acceptable margin of error). Although the mass of each bean is different, the average number of
beans per cup is also consistent. The data supports the idea that a cup of beans contains 19
whole beans regardless of the type of bean used or its relative mass.
When using this activity as an introduction to mole problems, the container will be used as an
analogy to a mole.
For example:
Calculate the number of containers when given 350 beans of each type of bean.
Calculate the number of moles when given 350 atoms of any element.
Procedure:
4. Pour enough silver nitrate solution into the tube to cover most of the
wire.
5. Place the test tube into the test tube rack and observe for one
minute.
6. Record observations.
7. Empty the test tube contents into the large beaker (waste
container).
4. Record observations.
5. Empty the contents of the microplate into the large beaker (waste
container).
Reaction Number
Oxidation
Reduction
Redox reaction
Oxidizing agent
Reducing agent
Skeleton
equation
Half- fill each well in the column with the indicated solution.
Column 1: Zn(NO3)2
Column 2: Pb(NO3)2
Column 3: Cu(NO3)2
1. Place one piece of zinc shot in each filled well in row 1.
2. Place one piece of lead shot in each filled well in row 2.
3. Place one piece of copper shot in each filled well in row 3.
Column
1 2 3
Row
1
1. Half- fill each well in the column with the indicated solution.
Column 1: Zn(NO3)2
Column 2: Pb(NO3)2
Column 3: Cu(NO3)2
2. Place one piece of zinc shot in each filled well in row 1.
3. Place one piece of lead shot in each filled well in row 2.
4. Place one piece of copper shot in each filled well in row 3.
Column
1 2 3
Row
1
LEO the lion says GER (loss of electrons is oxidation, gaining electrons is reduction)
Redox equations:
Zn + Pb(NO3)2 → Pb + Zn(NO3)2
Zn + Cu(NO3)2 → Cu + Zn(NO3)2
Pb + Cu(NO3)2 → Cu + Pb(NO3)2
Cu + Zn(NO3)2 → NR
Cu + Pb(NO3)2 → NR
Conclusion: Oxidation is the process by which electrons are removed from atoms or ions.
Zn is oxidized by the other two ions. Pb is only oxidized by the Cu2+ ion. Cu is not
oxidized by either ion. Zn gives up its electrons more easily than the other ions.The
element that is oxidized is the reducing agent therefore Zn is the strongest reducing
agent, followed by Pb and lastly, by Cu.
Reduction is the process by which electrons are added to atoms or ions. The element that
is reduced is the oxidizing agent. Cu is the strongest oxidizing agent, followed by Pb and
then Zn.
Oxidation and reduction must take place at the same time because the number of
electrons lost must equal the number of electrons gained.
Gas State
Cp (g)
Boiling
Point (Hv)
Melting
Point (Hf)
Solid State Cp(s)
Heat is added to a substance in the solid state. The energy added will increase the temperature of
the substance to its specific melting point. The amount of energy required to raise the
temperature depends on the specific heat (Cp) and the state of the substance. Specific heat is the
amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of one gram of a substance by one degree
Celsius.
At the melting point, the temperature stops rising and the substance starts to melt. The energy
supplied is used to weaken the intermolecular forces of attraction and the temperature remains
constant. The amount of energy needed to melt a substance depends on its heat of fusion (Hf).
The molar heat of fusion is the amount of energy required to melt one mole of a substance at its
melting point.
After the phase change is complete, the temperature rise will follow a different rate than that of
the solid because the liquid state has a different heat capacity.
At the boiling point, the temperature stops rising and the substance starts to boil. The energy
supplied is used to break the intermolecular forces of attraction and the temperature remains
constant. The amount of energy needed to boil a substance depends on its heat of vaporization
(Hv). The molar heat of vaporization is the amount of energy required to boil one mole of a
substance at its boiling point. The Hv is higher than the Hf because of breaking the forces of
attraction.
After the phase change is complete, the temperature rise will follow a different rate than that of
the liquid because the gaseous state has a different heat capacity.
A phase diagram is a graph of the conditions of temperature and pressure at which the solid,
liquid, and gaseous phases of a substance exist. The lines separating the phases are called phase
boundaries. Each point on the phase boundary show the conditions under which the two phases
exist in dynamic equilibrium.
Each point along the solid/liquid phase boundary represents the temperature and pressure
combinations where the rate of the solid melting is equal to the rate of the liquid freezing. Each
point represents a melting point.
Each point along the liquid/ vapor phase boundary represents the temperature and pressure
combinations where the rate of the liquid boiling is equal to the rate of the vapor condensing.
Each point represents a boiling point.
Each point along the solid/gas phase boundary represents the temperature and pressure
combinations where the rate of the solid subliming is equal to the rate of the vapor condensing to
a solid (called deposition). Each point represents a sublimation point.
The triple point indicates the only temperature and pressure conditions where the solid, liquid,
and vapor phases are all in equilibrium.
The critical point (Pc) is the point above which a substance will always be a gas regardless of the
pressure and temperature. The critical temperature is the highest temperature a substance can
exist as a liquid. The critical pressure is the lowest pressure required for the substance to be a
liquid at the critical temperature.
Heat of reaction (ΔH) is the amount of heat released or absorbed during a chemical reaction.
ΔH = H products - H reactants
Example:
Example:
For a reversible reaction, the activated complex is the same. The activated complex occurs at the
maximum-energy position along the reaction pathway. The activation energy of the forward
reaction is lower than the activation energy of the reverse reaction in this energy diagram. The
ΔH is the same amount for both reactions but the sign of ΔH is negative for the forward reaction
and is positive for the reverse reaction.
Solution
Solute
Solvent
Soluble
Electrolyte
Nonelectrolyte
Colloid
Solubility
Saturated
solution
Unsaturated
solution
Supersaturated
Solution
equilibrium
Miscible
Immiscible
chromatography
molarity
molality
Colligative
property
Vapor pressure
Nonvolatile
Volatile
Freezing-point
depression
Boiling-point
elevation
moles of solute
Molarity (M) =
liter of solution
Example 1:
Example 2:
Example 3:
Calculate the volume of solution that can be made using a 6.00 M solution using 45.0 g C6H12O6.
45.0g C 6 H 12 O 6 1mol C 6 H 12 O 6 1L
Volume = X X = 0.400 L
180.0g C 6 H 12 O 6 6.00 mol C 6 H 12 O 6
moles of solute
Molality (m) =
kg of solution
Example 1:
Calculate the molality of a solution containing 50.0 g of HC2H3O2 dissolved in 500.0 g Hm=O.
Example 2:
Calculate the mass of solute needed to make a 0.450 m NaOH solution containing 750.0 g H2O.
Example 3:
Calculate the mass of solvent needed to make a 2.50 m H2SO4 solution containing 150.0 g of the
acid.
Example:
Determine the mole fraction of glucose, C6H12O6, in a solution containing 425 g glucose
dissolved in 750.0 g H2O.
Moles of glucose:
Moles of water:
750.0 g H 2O 1mol H 2 O
X = 41.7 mol H 2 O
18.0 g H 2 O
X = molglu cos e
Mole fraction of C6H12O6:
Recipe for 40 pint size bags of ice cream (1 bag per student):
Additional materials needed: spoon, large pot, several boxes of ice cream salt; two rolls of duct
tape, several large bags of ice, enough newspaper for each student to have a section, plastic bags
from grocery or discount stores
Combine all ingredients in the pot to make the ice cream mixture and heat until the sugar is
dissolved. Stir the mixture often to prevent the mixture from scorching. Pour into the empty
milk container. There may some extra mixture, so have a smaller container or zip top bag handy
also.
Per student:
Directions:
Fill the gallon bag half full of ice. Add 1/2 inch layer of ice cream salt. Put 1/2 cup of ice cream
mixture in small bag. Seal the small bag and place duct tape over the sealed end. Put the small
bag inside of large one. Add enough ice to fill the gallon bag. Seal and duct tape the sealed end
of the large bag. Wrap the large bag with several layers of newspaper. Place the wrapped bag in a
couple of plastic bags. Tie the ends of the plastic bags. Shake or rotate the bags gently for about
15 min. Have a large container such as a dish pan handy to empty the water/ salt mixture into.
The water can be evaporated and the salt reused, if desired.
Powdered drink mixes can be made according to the directions on the package and used in place
of the ice cream. A “slush” will be formed.
Lab Carousel 1: At each station place: a microplate, red litmus paper, blue litmus paper,
universal indicator and phenolphthalein (and any other available indicators), and stirring rod.
Pipettes containing:
Station 1: vinegar Station 4: household ammonia solution
Station 2: distilled water Station 5: colorless soda
Station 3: KOH solution Station 6: HCl solution
Instruct students to test each solution with the indicator papers and indicators at each station and
identify each of the solutions as acids or bases. Data should be recorded in a student –generated
data table.
Lab Carousel 2: At each station place a microplate, pH paper and/ or pH meter, and stirring rod.
Pipettes containing:
Station 1: vinegar Station 4: household ammonia solution
Station 2: distilled water Station 5: colorless soda
Station 3: KOH solution Station 6: HCl solution
Instruct students to determine the pH of the solutions and rank them in order of increasing pH.
Data should be recorded in a student –generated data table.
Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons (compounds containing only carbon and hydrogen) with the
formula CnH2n+2, where “n” represents the number of carbon atoms. “Saturated” means that all
C-C bonds are single bonds.
Names of organic compounds follow the rules of IUPAC (International Union of Pure and
Applied Chemistry). Notice that each compound differs from the previous one by a –CH2 group.
A homologous series in one in which the compounds differ from each other by a specific unit.
The pattern for the first 10 alkanes is shown below.
Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structural formulas.
1. Pick out the longest continuous chain of carbon atoms and name it.
2. Number the carbon atoms from the end that will give the lowest numbers possible to the
branches.
3. Name the branches by adding –yl to the stem name and adding a number to indicate the
carbon atom the branch is attached to. The number will be followed by a dash. All
branches must have a number with it. Numbers are separated by commas.
*If branches are different groups, they appear alphabetically in the name.
4. If more than one of an alkyl group appears, a number prefix is used to denote the total
number of groups.
5. Dashes between carbon atoms do not need to be shown.
Examples:
6 5 4 3 1 2 3 4 5
CH3 ⎯ CH2⎯ CH2⎯ CH⎯ CH3 CH3⎯ CH⎯ CH2⎯ CH⎯ CH3
| | |
2 CH2 CH3 CH3
|
1 CH3
Name: 3-methylhexane Name: 2,4-dimethylpentane
CH3
CH3 CH3 |
| | CH2
CH3CHCHCH2CHCH2 CH3 |
| CH3CHCHCH3
CH2 |
| CHCH2CH3
CH3 |
CH3
Name: 3-ethyl-2,5-dimethylheptane Name: 3,4,5-trimethylheptane
Name the isomers for pentane and hexane that were drawn on the previous sheet.
2. CH3CHCH2CH3 2- methylbutane
|
CH3
3. CH3 2,2-dimethylpropane
|
CH3CCH3
|
CH3
1. CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3 n-hexane
2. CH3CHCH2CH2CH3 2-methylpentane
|
CH3
3. CH3CH2CHCH2CH3 3-methylpentane
|
CH3
CH3
|
5. CH3 C CH2 CH3 2.3-dimethylbutane
|
CH3