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METHODOLOGY
STAR-CD VERSION 4.12

CONFIDENTIAL — FOR AUTHORISED USERS ONLY
© 2009 CD-adapco
Version 4.12 i
TABLE OF CONTENTS
OVERVIEW
1 BASIC CONSERVATION EQUATIONS
Fluid Flow .....................................................................
............................................ 1-1
Constitutive relations .........................................................
.............................. 1-1
Sources ........................................................................
.................................... 1-2
Fluid Heat Transfer ............................................................
....................................... 1-3
Static enthalpy ................................................................
................................. 1-3
Total enthalpy .................................................................
................................. 1-4
Rothalpy .......................................................................
................................... 1-5
Diffusional flux relations .....................................................
............................ 1-5
Energy sources .................................................................
................................ 1-6
Solid Heat Transfer ............................................................
....................................... 1-6
Mass Transfer in Fluid Mixtures ................................................
............................... 1-6
Diffusional flux relations .....................................................
............................ 1-7
Thermophysical Properties ......................................................
................................. 1-7
Equations of state (density) ...................................................
.......................... 1-8
Viscosity-temperature relation .................................................
....................... 1-9
Gaseous mixture properties .....................................................
........................ 1-9
Specific heats and enthalpy-temperature relation ...............................
........... 1-15
Liquid mixture properties ......................................................
........................ 1-15
Generic Scalars ................................................................
....................................... 1-17
2 TURBULENCE MODELLING OPTIONS
Introductory Remarks ...........................................................
.................................... 2-1
Eddy Viscosity models ..........................................................
.......................... 2-1
Reynolds Stress models .........................................................
.......................... 2-3
Large Eddy Simulation models ...................................................
.................... 2-3
Detached Eddy Simulation (DES) models ..........................................
............ 2-4
Eddy Viscosity Models ..........................................................
................................... 2-4
Constitutive relations for linear models .......................................
................... 2-4
Constitutive relations for non-linear models ...................................
................ 2-5
Governing equations ............................................................
............................ 2-8
k-ε mod l variants ...............................................................
............................ 2-9
k-ω mod ls .......................................................................
............................. 2-17
To-lay r mod ls ...............................................................
........................... 2-20
R ynolds Str ss Mod ls .........................................................
................................. 2-21
Conv ction t rm ................................................................
............................ 2-21
Diffusion t rm .................................................................
.............................. 2-21
ii V rsion 4.12
Production t rm ................................................................
..............................2-22
Dissipation t rm ...............................................................
..............................2-22
Pr ssur -strain t rm ...........................................................
............................2-23
Gov rning quations for k and ε ..................................................
..................2-25
DES Mod ls .....................................................................
.......................................2-26
Spalart-Allmaras Mod l .........................................................
........................2-26
k-ω SST Turbul nc Mod ls ........................................................
..................2-29
k-ε Turbul nc Mod l .............................................................
.......................2-30
Bl nding Function ..............................................................
............................2-30
LES Mod ls .....................................................................
........................................2-32
Smagorinsky mod l ..............................................................
.........................2-32
Sub-grid k mod l ...............................................................
.............................2-33
En rgy quation ................................................................
.............................2-34
Filt r idth ...................................................................
..................................2-34
Discr tisation Practic s .......................................................
....................................2-34
STAR-CD Impl m ntation .........................................................
.............................2-34
3 GEOMETRY AND COMPUTATIONAL MESH CAPABILITIES
Introductory R marks ...........................................................
.....................................3-1
M sh Topology ..................................................................
........................................3-8
Main c ll options ..............................................................
................................3-8
Emb dd d r fin m nt ............................................................
..........................3-8
Arbitrary m sh int rfac s ......................................................
...........................3-9
Baffl s ........................................................................
....................................3-10
M sh G n ration Faciliti s .....................................................
.................................3-11
M sh Morphing ..................................................................
.....................................3-12
Symm try plan / Fix d plan conditions ........................................
..............3-13
Solution st ps .................................................................
................................3-14
Poor-Quality C lls .............................................................
......................................3-15
4 DISCRETISATION PRACTICES
Data Structur .................................................................
...........................................4-1
G n ral Formulation ............................................................
......................................4-1
T mporal Discr tisation ........................................................
....................................4-3
Fully-implicit Eul r sch m ....................................................
.........................4-3
Thr -tim -l v l sch m ........................................................
..........................4-4
Spatial Discr tisation .........................................................
........................................4-5
Conv ctiv flux formulation ....................................................
........................4-6
Multi-dim nsional limit rs for scalar bound dn ss ..............................
...........4-8
Final FV Equations .............................................................
.......................................4-8
Tr atm nt of Poor-Quality C lls ................................................
...............................4-9
V rsion 4.12 iii
5 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
Th Availabl Options ..........................................................
.................................... 5-1
Application ....................................................................
............................................ 5-2
Inl t Boundari s ...............................................................
......................................... 5-3
Pr scrib d inl t flo ..........................................................
.............................. 5-3
Pr scrib d stagnation conditions ...............................................
...................... 5-3
Outl t Boundari s ..............................................................
....................................... 5-5
Pr scrib d-Pr ssur Boundari s .................................................
............................... 5-6
Non-r fl cting Pr ssur and Stagnation Boundari s ..............................
.................. 5-7
Fully D v lop d Flos ..........................................................
................................... 5-8
Imp rm abl Wall Boundari s ....................................................
............................. 5-8
Slip Surfac ...................................................................
.................................. 5-8
Symm try Boundari s ............................................................
................................... 5-8
Cyclic Boundari s ..............................................................
....................................... 5-8
Transmissiv Boundari s (Compr ssibl Flo) ....................................
................. 5-10
Transmissiv conditions for st ady sup rsonic flo .............................
........ 5-10
Transi nt av transmission ....................................................
..................... 5-11
Ri mann condition ..............................................................
........................... 5-11
6 TURBULENT FLOW BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
.................................... 6-1
Wall Boundary Conditions .......................................................
................................ 6-1
To-lay r mod ls ...............................................................
............................. 6-1
High R ynolds numb r turbul nc mod ls and all functions ......................
. 6-2
Lo R ynolds numb r turbul nc mod ls ..........................................
............ 6-8
Hybrid all boundary condition .................................................
..................... 6-9
LES n ar-all tr atm nt ........................................................
........................ 6-10
Ang lb rg r all function ......................................................
....................... 6-11
Wall Forc s and Forc Co ffici nts .............................................
........................... 6-11
Inl t Conditions ...............................................................
........................................ 6-12
Inl t p rturbations in LES mod ls ..............................................
................... 6-13
7 SOLUTION ALGORITHMS
.................................... 7-1
Th PISO and SIMPLE Algorithms .................................................
........................ 7-1
Common l m nts ................................................................
........................... 7-1
Th PISO algorithm .............................................................
............................ 7-2
Th SIMPLE algorithm ...........................................................
........................ 7-6
Scalar transport quations .....................................................
........................... 7-6
Und r-r laxation ...............................................................
............................... 7-6
Compl tion t sts ...............................................................
............................... 7-8
iv V rsion 4.12
Solution of Syst ms of Lin ar Alg braic Equations ..............................
...................7-9
Tim -Parall l Computation ......................................................
.................................7-9
8 DISTRIBUTED RESISTANCE (POROUS MEDIA) FLOW
Introduction ...................................................................
............................................8-1
Flo Analysis ..................................................................
..........................................8-1
H at/mass transf r .............................................................
...............................8-2
Turbul nc .....................................................................
..................................8-2
Boundary conditions ............................................................
............................8-3
Local Planar R sistanc (Porous Baffl ) ........................................
...........................8-3
Discr tisation M thod ..........................................................
.....................................8-4
Exampl s of R sistanc Co ffici nt Calculation .................................
.....................8-4
Exampl 1 — Pack d b ds (isotropic r sistanc ) ...................................
.........8-5
Exampl 2 — Chann l flo (orthotropic r sistanc ) ................................
......8-6
Conjugat H at Transf r ........................................................
...................................8-7
Solution m thod ................................................................
...............................8-7
Int r-phas h at transf r t rm .................................................
.........................8-8
...............................8-8
9 THERMAL AND SOLAR RADIATION
Introduction ...................................................................
............................................9-1
Radiation in Surfac Exchang Probl ms .........................................
........................9-1
Th Discr t Transf r m thod ...................................................
......................9-2
Boundary tr atm nt .............................................................
.............................9-4
Radiant flux s .................................................................
.................................9-5
Solar radiation ................................................................
..................................9-7
Radiation h at transf r at a ‘solid’ transpar nt boundary ..........................
......9-8
Radiation in Participating M dia Probl ms ......................................
.........................9-9
Th Discr t Transf r m thod ...................................................
....................9-10
Th Discr t Ordinat s m thod ..................................................
...................9-12
Discr tisation and Impl m ntation ..............................................
............................9-13
Discr t Transf r ..............................................................
..............................9-13
Discr t Ordinat s .............................................................
.............................9-13
.............................9-15
10 CHEMICAL REACTION AND COMBUSTION
...................................10-1
G n ral Fram ork ..............................................................
...................................10-2
Local Sourc Mod ls ............................................................
...................................10-3
Kin tically-controll d r action mod l ..........................................
.................10-3
Turbul nc -controll d ddy br ak-up mod l ......................................
...........10-5
Hybrid kin tics/ ddy br ak-up mod l ............................................
................10-6
V rsion 4.12 v
Combin d tim scal mod l ......................................................
.................... 10-7
Pr sum d-PDF (PPDF) Mod l for Unpr mix d Turbul nt R action ....................
. 10-7
Singl -fu l PPDF ...............................................................
............................ 10-9
Multipl -fu l PPDF .............................................................
........................10-14
PPDF ith nthalpy transport ...................................................
..................10-15
Compl x Ch mistry Mod l ........................................................
...........................10-15
Basic quations ................................................................
............................10-15
Num rical m thods ..............................................................
........................10-17
R action Typ s .................................................................
.....................................10-18
Standard Arrh nius typ ........................................................
......................10-18
Thr -body r action ............................................................
.........................10-18
Pr ssur -d p nd nt fall-off r action ...........................................
.................10-19
Landau-T ll r r action .........................................................
.......................10-20
Eddy Br ak-up r action .........................................................
......................10-20
Ignition .......................................................................
........................................... 10-20
NOx Formation ..................................................................
...................................10-21
Th rmal NOx ....................................................................
...........................10-21
Prompt NOx .....................................................................
............................10-26
Fu l NOx .......................................................................
..............................10-27
Soot Mod lling .................................................................
.....................................10-28
Th Flam l t Library m thod for soot ...........................................
..............10-29
Th m thod of mom nts ..........................................................
....................10-30
Coal Combustion ................................................................
..................................10-31
D volatilisation ...............................................................
.............................10-31
Char burnout ...................................................................
.............................10-33
Gas ous combustion .............................................................
.......................10-35
Radiation ......................................................................
................................10-36
H t rog n ous R actions ........................................................
..............................10-36
Discr tisation M thod ..........................................................
.................................10-37
..........................10-37
11 IC ENGINE COMBUSTION MODELS
Introduction ...................................................................
.......................................... 11-1
Pr mix d Combustion in Spark Ignition Engin s ..................................
................. 11-1
Th CFM-ITNFS mod l ............................................................
.................... 11-4
Th W ll r flam ar a mod l ....................................................
.................... 11-8
Th Magnuss n mod l ............................................................
.....................11-11
Knock mod lling ................................................................
.........................11-12
Partially Pr mix d Combustion in Spark Ignition Engin s ........................
.......... 11-14
Th W ll r 3- quation mod l ....................................................
..................11-14
vi V rsion 4.12
Th G-Equation mod l ...........................................................
......................11-14
Combustion and Ignition Mod ls in Di s l Engin s ...............................
..............11-19
Di s l combustion mod ls .......................................................
....................11-19
Di s l ignition mod ls .........................................................
........................11-21
Exhaust Gas R circulation ......................................................
..............................11-25
Advanc d Int rnal Combustion Engin Mod ls .....................................
..............11-25
Th Ext nd d Coh r nt Flam mod ls (ECFM) ......................................
...11-27
Th ECFM-3Z mod l ..............................................................
.....................11-30
Th ECM-CLEH mod l .............................................................
..................11-32
Th Arc and K rn l Tracking ignition mod l (AKTIM) .............................
11-35
Th Doubl -D lay Autoignition mod l ............................................
...........11-37
Impl m ntation D tails .........................................................
................................11-37
12 DISPERSED MULTI-PHASE FLOW (LAGRANGIAN MODEL)
Introduction ...................................................................
..........................................12-1
Basic Cons rvation Equations (Disp rs d Phas ) .................................
..................12-2
Mom ntum .......................................................................
..............................12-2
Mass ...........................................................................
....................................12-4
En rgy .........................................................................
...................................12-4
Basic Cons rvation Equations (Continuous Phas ) ................................
................12-5
Co ffici nts of Drag, H at and Mass Transf r ...................................
.....................12-5
Drag co ffici nt ...............................................................
..............................12-6
H at transf r co ffici nt ......................................................
...........................12-6
Mass transf r co ffici nt ......................................................
..........................12-6
Dropl t Br ak-Up Mod ls ........................................................
...............................12-7
R itz and Diakar mod l ........................................................
.......................12-7
Pilch and Erdman mod l .........................................................
.......................12-8
Hsiang and Fa th mod l .........................................................
......................12-10
Us r coding ....................................................................
..............................12-10
Int r-Dropl t Collisions (Transi nt Only) ......................................
.......................12-11
Constraints ....................................................................
...............................12-11
C ll clust ring and sp d up ...................................................
.....................12-11
G n ral int raction ............................................................
...........................12-12
Collision and coal sc nc tim scal s ...........................................
...............12-13
Us r coding ....................................................................
..............................12-14
Boiling Mod l ..................................................................
......................................12-14
Mass transf r ..................................................................
..............................12-15
H at transf r ..................................................................
...............................12-15
Turbul nt Disp rsion ...........................................................
..................................12-15
‘Boundary’ Conditions ..............................................................
............................12-16
V rsion 4.12 vii
Inl ts .........................................................................
...................................12-16
Walls ..........................................................................
..................................12-30
H at and mass transf r for all-adh ring dropl ts ..............................
........ 12-38
Tr atm nt of Porous M dia ......................................................
............................12-40
Multicompon nt Dropl ts ........................................................
.............................12-41
Emulsifi d mixtur s ............................................................
.........................12-41
Miscibl mixtur s ..............................................................
..........................12-41
Discr tisation M thods .........................................................
................................12-42
Boundary conditions ............................................................
........................12-44
Num rical Calculation of Multi-phas Disp rs d Flo ............................
........... 12-44
Coupl d proc dur s .............................................................
........................12-45
Uncoupl d proc dur s ...........................................................
......................12-45
..........................12-45
13 EULERIAN MULTIPHASE FLOW
Introduction ...................................................................
.......................................... 13-1
Eul rian Multiphas Mod l ......................................................
............................... 13-1
Int r-phas Mom ntum Transf r ..................................................
.......................... 13-4
Drag forc .....................................................................
................................. 13-5
Virtual mass forc .............................................................
............................. 13-7
Lift forc .....................................................................
................................... 13-7
Wall lubrication forc .........................................................
........................... 13-8
Int rnal Forc s ................................................................
........................................ 13-9
Granular str ss ................................................................
............................... 13-9
Phas l ngth scal .............................................................
....................................13-12
Int rfacial ar a d nsity .......................................................
...................................13-12
Mass Transf r ..................................................................
......................................13-12
Int r-phas mass transf r rat .................................................
.....................13-12
Boiling mass transf r ..........................................................
.........................13-12
S condary transf rs ............................................................
.........................13-13
En rgy Transf r ................................................................
....................................13-14
Int r-phas h at transf r ......................................................
........................13-14
Boiling h at transf r ..........................................................
..........................13-14
Multiphas Turbul nc Mod l ....................................................
..........................13-15
High R ynolds numb r k-ε mod l ...................................................
............13-15
R spons function ..............................................................
.........................13-16
Wall boundary conditions .......................................................
..............................13-17
Introduction ...................................................................
..............................13-17
Us r int rfac for all co ffici nts ...........................................
..................13-17
No-slip condition ..............................................................
...........................13-18
viii V rsion 4.12
Fix d all-t mp ratur condition ...............................................
.................13-18
Fix d all-h at flux condition .................................................
....................13-19
Boiling all h at and mass transf r ............................................
.................13-19
Wall functions .................................................................
.............................13-20
14 MULTI-FLUID AND PHASE-CHANGE MODELS
Multi-Fluid Flo ...............................................................
......................................14-1
Introduction ...................................................................
.................................14-1
Assumptions and limitations ....................................................
......................14-1
Math matical mod l .............................................................
..........................14-2
Mat rial prop rti s for compon nt fluids .......................................
...............14-3
Surfac t nsion mod l ..........................................................
..........................14-5
Contact angl at all and baffl boundari s ....................................
..............14-6
Discr tisation and solution m thod .............................................
...................14-7
Impl m ntation d tails .........................................................
..........................14-7
Multi-fluid Cavitating Flos ...................................................
................................14-8
Introduction ...................................................................
.................................14-8
Assumptions and limitations ....................................................
......................14-8
Math matical mod l .............................................................
........................14-10
Discr tisation and solution m thod .............................................
.................14-11
........................14-11
M lting and Solidification .....................................................
................................14-11
Introduction ...................................................................
...............................14-11
Physical mod l .................................................................
............................14-12
Num rical proc dur ............................................................
........................14-14
Additional f atur s ............................................................
...........................14-14
........................14-14
15 LIQUID FILMS
Mass Cons rvation Equations ....................................................
.............................15-1
Mom ntum Cons rvation Equation .................................................
........................15-2
Eff ct of Contact Angl on Film Mov m nt .......................................
....................15-2
Volum of all-adh ring drops ..................................................
...................15-3
Forc acting on drops ..........................................................
...........................15-3
Transition crit rion ...........................................................
..............................15-5
Num rical proc dur ............................................................
..........................15-5
Enthalpy Cons rvation Equation .................................................
............................15-6
Cond nsation / Evaporation .....................................................
...............................15-6
Film Stripping .................................................................
.........................................15-7
Wav and body-forc induc d instability ........................................
..............15-7
Film br ak-up from a sharp dg ................................................
...................15-9
V rsion 4.12 ix
Boiling Mod l ..................................................................
.....................................15-10
Num rical Impl m ntation .......................................................
............................15-12
16 ROTATING AND MOVING MESHES
Rotating R f r nc Fram s ......................................................
............................... 16-1
Basic conc pts .................................................................
.............................. 16-1
Global rotation ................................................................
............................... 16-1
Simulat d m sh rotation ........................................................
........................ 16-2
Explicit m thod ................................................................
............................. 16-2
Implicit m thod ................................................................
............................. 16-3
G n ral M sh Motion ............................................................
................................. 16-4
Sliding Boundari s .............................................................
..................................... 16-4
Int rnal Sliding M sh ..........................................................
.................................... 16-5
R gular sliding int rfac s .....................................................
......................... 16-5
Arbitrary sliding int rfac s ...................................................
......................... 16-7
C ll Lay r R moval and Addition ................................................
.......................... 16-7
Conditional C ll Attachm nt/D tachm nt .........................................
..................... 16-8
M sh R gion Exclusion ..........................................................
................................ 16-8
............................ 16-9
17 STRESS ANALYSIS
Basic Equations ................................................................
....................................... 17-1
Boundary Conditions ............................................................
.................................. 17-2
Displac m nt ...................................................................
.............................. 17-2
Traction .......................................................................
................................... 17-2
Symm try .......................................................................
............................... 17-2
Pr ssur .......................................................................
................................... 17-2
Mix d ..........................................................................
................................... 17-2
Solid/Solid Int rfac condition ................................................
...................... 17-3
Solid/Fluid Int rfac condition ................................................
...................... 17-3
Constitutiv Las ..............................................................
..................................... 17-3
Lin ar th rmo lastic ...........................................................
........................... 17-3
Th rmo lastoplastic ............................................................
........................... 17-4
Lin ar th rmovisco lastic ......................................................
........................ 17-6
Us r-d fin d las ..............................................................
............................ 17-7
Solid M sh D formation .........................................................
................................ 17-7
18 OTHER MODELLING CAPABILITIES
H at Transf r in Solid-Fluid Syst ms ...........................................
.......................... 18-1
Multipl Domain Applications ...................................................
............................ 18-2
Multi-compon nt Mixing .........................................................
............................... 18-3
Buoyancy-driv n Flos and Natural Conv ction ...................................
................ 18-3
x V rsion 4.12
Non-N tonian Flos ............................................................
................................18-4
Compr ssibl Flos .............................................................
...................................18-5
Local Fluid Inj ction/Extraction ...............................................
..............................18-6
A roacoustic Analysis ..........................................................
...................................18-7
Synth tic turbul nc ...........................................................
............................18-8
Sourc t rm calculation ........................................................
..........................18-9
BIBLIOGRAPHY
INDEX
V rsion 4.12 1
OVERVIEW
Purpos
This part of th docum ntation d scrib s th math matical mod lling practic s
mploy d in th STAR-CD th rmofluids analysis syst m (CCM- nabl d). Th
syst m as d v lop d for th calculation of fluid flo, h at and mass transf r a
nd
ch mical r action in industrial and nvironm ntal applications. Th num rical
solution t chniqu s mploy d in solving th quations of th math matical mod ls
ar also d scrib d. Instructions on ho to us th syst m ar provid d in a s pa
rat
volum , th CCM Us r Guid .
Cont nts
Th d scription comm nc s in Chapt r 1 ith a stat m nt of th basic diff r ntia
l
cons rvation quations solv d for flo, h at and mass transf r in th fluid. G n
ral
forms ar us d that ar appropriat for both laminar and turbul nt flo. Folloi
ng
this, th particular math matical mod ls curr ntly availabl for turbul nt flo
calculations ar pr s nt d in Chapt r 2.
Chapt r 3 provid s d tails of th g om try and computational m sh capabiliti s
of STAR-CD, including an outlin of th availabl t chniqu s for surfac mod lli
ng
and m sh g n ration.
Chapt r 4 outlin s th mann r in hich th diff r ntial quations comprising th
math matical mod ls d scrib d in Chapt r 1 and Chapt r 2 ar discr tis d using t
h
finit volum m thod.
In Chapt r 5, th boundary condition options availabl ar d scrib d and
guid lin s provid d for th ir imposition. Boundary condition options and
guid lin s for to th curr nt suit of turbul nc mod ls ar giv n in Chapt r 6.
Th various solution algorithms availabl in STAR-CD for th calculation of
st ady-stat and transi nt cas s ar pr s nt d in Chapt r 7, in t rms of th ir g
n ral
f atur s and capabiliti s. Th chapt r also includ s an outlin d scription of t
h
m thod for calculating initial conditions for st ady-stat probl ms.
Th r maining chapt rs d al ith th application of STAR-CD to a numb r of
sp cial mod lling situations. Thus, in Chapt r 8, th ‘distribut d r sistanc ’
tr atm nt mploy d in STAR-CD is pr s nt d. This facilitat s th calculation of
flo, h at and mass transf r in porous m dia, h at xchang rs and oth r similar
situations involving r p titiv small-scal g om tric f atur s.
Chapt r 9 pr s nts th analytical m thods for radiant h at int rchang b t n
surfac s mploy d in STAR-CD. If r quir d, th tr atm nt also tak s into account
radiation from th int rv ning m dium.
Ch mical r action, including combustion, is th topic of Chapt r 10, h r a
g n ral outlin of th m thodology is provid d and th n sp cific mod ls of
turbul nt r action ar pr s nt d. Furth r mod lling capabiliti s sp cifically
associat d ith int rnal combustion ngin simulation ar discuss d in Chapt r 1
1.
Chapt r 12 and Chapt r 13 cov r STAR-CD’s tr atm nt of to-phas flos, th
form r d scribing th disp rs d to-phas Lagrangian approach, th latt r th
multi-phas Eul rian approach. Fr surfac and cavitation probl ms ar tr at d
as
sp cial cas s of multi-fluid flo and ar d scrib d s parat ly in Chapt r 14. Th
m thods us d in mod lling th formation, groth and mov m nt of liquid films tha
t
2 V rsion 4.12
ar oft n pr s nt in Lagrangian to-phas probl ms is d scrib d in Chapt r 15.
Th m thodology applicabl to th analysis of moving m sh s and rotating
syst ms is pr s nt d in Chapt r 16.
A n chapt r, Chapt r 17, d aling ith th fundam ntals of solid str ss analysi
s
has b n includ d for this r l as .
Finally, Chapt r 18 d scrib s all mod lling capabiliti s not cov r d by on of t
h
abov sp cial-topic chapt rs, .g. h at transf r in solids, compr ssibl flos,
tc.
Chapt r 1 BASIC CONSERVATION EQUATIONS
Fluid Flo
V rsion 4.12 1-1
Fluid Flo
Th mass and mom ntum cons rvation quations (th ‘Navi r-Stok s’ quations)
solv d by STAR-CD for g n ral incompr ssibl and compr ssibl fluid flos ar ,
in Cart sian t nsor notation [1.1]:
(1-1)
(1-2)
h r t — tim
— Cart sian coordinat (i = 1, 2, 3)
— absolut fluid v locity compon nt in dir ction
p — pi zom tric pr ssur = h r is static
pr ssur , is r f r nc d nsity, th ar gravitational
acc l ration compon nts and th ar coordinat s
r lativ to a datum h r is d fin d
ρ — density
— st ess tenso components
— mass sou ce
— momentum sou ce components
and epeated subsc ipts denote summation1.
The specialisation of the above equations to a pa ticula class of flow involves
:
• Specification of a constitutive elation connecting the components of the
st ess tenso to the velocity g adients.
• Specification of the ‘sou ce’, , which ep esents the sum of the body and
othe exte nal fo ces, if p esent.
• Application of ensemble o time ave aging if the flow is tu bulent.
The pa ticula options cu ently embodied in STAR-CD a e outlined below.
Constitutive elations
Newtonian and non-Newtonian lamina
In the case of lamina flows, STAR-CD cate s fo both Newtonian and
non-Newtonian fluids that obey the following constitutive elation:
(1-3)
1. Fo example:
∂t
∂ρ
∂x j
+ ∂ (ρ uj) s= m
∂ρ ui
∂t ------------
∂x j
+ ∂ (ρ uj ui – τij) ∂p
∂xi = – ------- + si
xi
ui xi
ps – ρ0 gm xm ps
ρ0 gm
xm
ρ0
τij
sm
si
∂ρ uj
∂x j
------------
∂ρu1
∂x1
-----------
∂ρu2
∂x2
-----------
∂ρu3
∂x3
= + + -----------
τij
si
τij 2μ sij
23
--μ
∂uk
∂xk
= – -------- δij
BASIC CONSERVATION EQUATIONS Chap e 1
Flui Flow
1-2 Ve sion4.12
e μ is hemolecula ynamic
whe viscosi y of he flui an , he ‘K onecke
el a’, is uni y when i = j an ze o o he wise. The a e of s ain enso is given
by:
(1-4)
Non-New onian flui s ha obey equa ion (1-3) fall in o he pseu oplas
ic (o
shea - hinning) an ila an (shea - hickening) classes, in which he flui visc
osiy
is epen en on he local value of he secon inva ian of he a e of s ain e
nso
efine by:
(1-5)
The e a e seveal iffe en viscosi y fo mulae fo such flui s, one of he mos
popula being he Os wal - e Waele [1.2] o ‘powe law’ mo el, which is:
(1-6)
whe e m an n a e flui- epen en pa ame e s. Pseu oplas ic an ilaan flui s
coespon o n < 1 an n > 1, espec ively; wheeasfo n = 1, equa ion (1-6)
e uces o heNew onian case. STAR-CD inco poa es his viscosi
y mo el an
also p ovi es he use wi h access o he fiel , so ha al e na ive mo els can
be
employe
use co ing.
via
New onian ubulen
Fo u bulen flows, , p an o he epen en va iables, inclu ing , assume hei
ensemble ave age values (equivalen o ime ave ages fo s ea y-s a e si ua ion
s)
giving, fo New onian flui s [1.3]:
(1-7)
whe e he a e fluc ua ions abou he ensemble ave age veloci yan he ove ba
eno es he ensemble ave aging p ocess. The igh mos e m in he above ep esen
s
he a i ional Reynol s s esses ue o u bulen mo ion. These a e linke o h
e
mean veloci y fiel via he u bulence mo els.
Sou ces
In p inciple, STAR-CD
can accommo a e any fo m of use -specifie
momen um
sou ce fiel , bu i oes con ain buil -in p ovision fo wo common kin s of bo
y
fo ces, a ising f om buoyancy an o a ion, espec ively. The elevan exp essio
ns
a e:
Buoyan fo ces
(1-8)
whe e is he g avi a ional accele a ion componen in i ec ion an he
δij
sij
12
--
∂ui
∂x j -------
∂uj
∂xi ⎝ + -------⎠
= ⎛ ⎞
IIs
IIs
12
≡ --(sij sij – sii s jj)
μ m IIs
n – 1
2
-----------
=
IIs
ui τij
τij 2μ sij
23
--μ
∂uk
∂xk = – -------- δij – ρui′uj′
u′
si = gi(ρ – ρo)
gi xi ρo
Chape 1BASIC CONSERVATION EQUATIONS
Flui Hea T ansfe
Ve sion 4.12 1-3
efe
ence ensi y.
Ro a ional fo ces
(1-9)
whee is a func ion involving componen s of he o a ion vec o an a ius
vec o abou
a use -specifie axis.
Flui
Hea T ansfe
S a ic en halpy
Chemico-
he mal en halpy
Hea ansfe in STAR-CD is implemen
e h ough following gene al fo m of
he
he en halpy conse va ion equa ion fo a flui mix u e [1.4]:
(1-10)
He e, h is he s a ic en halpy, efine by:
(1-11)

an T — empe a u e
— mass f ac ionof mix u e cons iuen m
— hea of fo ma ion of cons i uen m
— summa ionove all mix u e cons i uen s
— mean cons an -p essu especific a empe a u e T
hea
— efe ence specific hea a empea u e
— iffusional ene gy flux in i ec ion
— ene gy souce
— he mal en halpy
I shoul be no e ha he s a ic en halpy h is efine as he sum of he he m
al an
chemical componen s, he la e being inclu e o ca e fo chemically eac ing
flows.
Fo solis an cons an ensi y flui s, such as liqui s, STAR-CD solves he
anspo equa ion fo he specific in e nal ene gy, e, whe e:
(1-12)
whe e is he mean cons an -volume specific hea . This equa ion is simila in fo
m

o equa ion (1-10), bu oes no con ain he p essu e- ela e e ms, which a e
negligible.
fo m of equa ion (1-10) app op ia e o pa icula classes of flow is specifi
The
e
via he an , as ou line below.
si = f (uk,ωk,rk)
f ( ) ωk
rk
∂ρh

∂ --------- ∂
∂x
j + ------- (ρh uj + Fh, j) ∂p
∂ ------ uj
∂p
∂x j ------- τij
∂ui
∂x j = + + ------- + sh
h cpT cp
– 0 T0 Y≡ +Σ m Hm = ht +ΣYm Hm
Ym
Hm
Σc
p
cp0 T0
Fh, j x j
sh
ht
e cT c0 ≡ – T0 +ΣYm Hm
c
Fh sh
BA IC CON ERVATION EQUATION Chapter 1
Fluid Heat Transfer
1-4 Version 4.12
Thermal enthalpy
The governing equation for thermal enthalpy is obtained by multiplying equation
(1-29) for each constituent m by and subtracting the resulting equations from
equation (1-10):
(1-13)
Here, is the thermal enthalpy, defined by
(1-14)
and — diffusional thermal energy flux in direction
— rate of production or consumption of species m due to
chemical reaction.
Total enthalpy
A governing equation for total chemico-thermal enthalpy (H) may be formed by
summing an equation for mechanical energy conservation (obtained from (1-2)) and
the static chemico-thermal enthalpy equation (1-10):
(1-15)
where
(1-16)
A governing equation for total thermal enthalpy may be formed in a similar fashi
on
by combining a mechanical energy conservation equation and equation (1-13).
The solution of a transport equation for total enthalpy rather than static entha
lpy
is recommended in modelling flows where temperatures are very sensitive to the
velocity field magnitude or with Eckert numbers (Ec) of order 1.0 or more. Ec is
defined as:
(1-17)
where U is a typical velocity scale and T a typical (absolute) temperature scale
.
Under high-speed, adiabatic, inviscid flow conditions, the total enthalpy may be
assumed to be constant, i.e.
(1-18)
where Ho is a user-specified value.
Hm
∂ρh

∂ ----------- ∂
∂x
j + ------- (ρh uj + Fh , j) ∂p
∂ ------ uj
∂p
∂x j ------- τij
∂ui
∂x j ------- sh Hm sc, m
m Σ
= + + + –
ht
ht cpT cp
= – o To
Fht , j x j
sc, m
∂ρH

∂
----------- ∂
∂x
j + ------- (ρ uj H + Fh, j – ui τij) ∂p
∂
= ------ + si ui + sh
H 1
2
= -- ui ui + h
Ec U2
cp T
= ----------
H = Ho
Chape 1BASIC CONSERVATION EQUATIONS
Flui Hea T ansfe
Vesion 4.12 1-5
Ro halpy
flow p oblems efine ela ive o a o a ing f ame, i is some imes convenie
Fo
n
o solve a anspo equa ion fo he o halpy, R, efine as:
(1-19)
whe e — ela iveveloci y in he o a ing f ame
veloci
— angula y veco
— posi ion
vec o ela
ive o heaxis of o a ion
No e ha he veloci y in he s a ic efe ence f ame is ela e o he o a iona
l
ela ive veloci y by
(1-20)
va ion equa ion fo R is fo me
The conse by combining a conse va ion equa ion
fo wi h (1-10) (fo chemico- he mal o halpy), o (1-13) (fo he mal
o halpy):
(1-21)
Diffusional flux ela ions
Lamina flow
STAR-CD assumes
ha he molecula iffusionalfluxes of hea an mass sa isfy
Fou ie ’s an Fick’s laws, espec ively. Acco ingly,
(1-22)

Al e na ively,
(1-23)
whe e k is he he mal con uc ivi y, is he j componen of he iffusion veloci
y
(see equa
,a e he s a ic en halpy an he mal en halpy,
ion (1-31))an
espec ively,
ofcons i uen m.
Tu bulen flow ( ime ave age )
This is given by:
(1-24)

Al e na ively,
R h u˜ 2
2
-------- (ω × r)2
2
= + – -------------------
u˜
ω
r
u
u = u˜ + ω × r
u˜ 2
∂R
∂t ------ ∂
∂x
j ------- ρu˜ j R Fh, j u˜ + ( + – i τij) ∂p
∂ ------ si u˜ = + i + sh
Fh, j –k ∂T
∂x j ------- hm ρYmVm, j
m Σ
= +
Fht , j –k ∂T
∂x j
------- ht, m ρYmVm, j
m Σ
= +
Vm, j
Vm hm ht, m
Fh, j –k ∂T
∂x j
------- ρ uj′h′ hm ρYmVm, j
m Σ
≡ + +
olid Heat Transfer
1-6 Version 4.12
(1-25)
where the middle term containing static enthalpy or thermal enthalpy fluctuation
s
or represents the turbulent diffusional flux of energy [1.5]. The method of
modelling is described in Chapter 2.
Energy sources
Energy sources or sinks, due to exothermic or endothermic chemical reactions,
respectively, are implicitly allowed through the definition of h [equation (1-11
)].
Provision is made in TAR-CD for the insertion by the user of additional sources
due to, for example, nuclear reactions.
olid Heat Transfer
In the case of solids, the energy equation can be written in the following form:
(1-26)
in which is the specific internal energy and is the specific heat of the
solid.
In the case of isotropic conductivity
(1-27)
while in the case of anisotropic conductivity
(1-28)
where is a second-order thermal conductivity tensor.
Heat generation/dissipation may be specified using , as in the fluid. In the
TAR-CD solution procedure, if both fluids and solids are present, their energy
equations are solved simultaneously and continuity of energy flux is enforced at
the
fluid-solid interfaces.
Mass Transfer in Fluid Mixtures
Each constituent m of a fluid mixture, whose local concentration is expressed as
a
mass fraction , is assumed to be governed by a species conservation equation of
the form:
(1-29)
where — diffusional flux component
— rate of mass production or consumption
Fht , j –k ∂T
∂x j ------- ρuj
′ h
′ hm , ρYmVm, j
m Σ
= + +
h′ ht
′
h′
∂(ρe)

∂ -------------
∂Fe, j
∂x j = ------------ + se
e ≡ cvT cv
Fe, j k ∂T
∂x j
= -------
Fe, j kji
∂T
∂xi
= -------
kji
se
Ym

∂
∂ (ρYm)
∂x j
∂ ρ uj Ym Fm j + ( + , ) = sm
Fm, j
sm
Chap e 1 BASIC CONSERVATION
EQUATIONS
The mophysical P ope ies
Ve sion 4.12 1-7
ela ions
Diffusional flux
By analogy wi h he ene gy equa ion:
Lamina flow (Fick’s Law)
(1-30)
whe e is he j componen of he iffusion veloci y . The la e is efine as
(1-31)
whe e is he mole f ac ion, is he molecula
iffusivi
y an he he mal
iffusion coefficien of species m, iscusse fu he on page 1-13. In a i ion
(1-32)

is efine as he he mal iffusion
a io of species m.
Tu bulen flow ( ime ave age )
(1-33)

whe e he igh mos e m, con aining hemass fac ion fluc ua ion ep esen s
he u bulen mass flux [1.5]. The me ho of mo elling his e m is esc ibe in
Chap
e 2.
I shoul be no e ha in some ci cums ances, i is no necessa y o solvea
iffe en ial conse va ion equa ion like (1-29) fo eve y componen of a mix u e,
ue
o he exis ence ofalgeb aic ela be ween he species mass f ac ions. An
ions
obvious example is he equi emen ha
(1-34)
STAR-CD allows such ela ions o be exploi e , when esi e .
The mophysical
P ope ies
The mo elling f amewok of STAR-CD p ovi es fo va ia ions of all he
hemophysical
p ope ies of flui
(s),namely ensi y, viscosi y, he mal
con uc ivi y, species iffusivi ies an specific hea s, as func ions of empe a
u e,
mass f ac ion an o he va iables. In some cases, op ional buil -in epen encies
a e
povi e ; in all cases, facili ies a e available fo use -specifie p ope y fun
c ions
o be inse e.
A summa y of he buil -in func ions is as follows:
Fm, j = ρYmVm, j
Vm, j Vm
Vm
1
Xm
------- Dm Xm
Dm T
ρYm
= – ∇ – ----------- ∇lnT
=
Dm
Xm
– ------- (∇Xm + KT, m∇lnT)
Xm Dm Dm T
KT, m
Xm
ρYm
-----------
Dm T
Dm
= ⋅ -------
Fm, j ≡ ρYmVm, j + ρ uj′Ym′
Y′m ,
Ym
m Σ
= 1
Thermophysical Properties
1-8 Version 4.12
Equations of state (density)
TAR-CD provides these user-selectable options:
Incompressible liquids or gases
(1-35)
where is a constant.
Incompressible multicomponent mixtures
(1-36)
where and are the mass fraction and density of component m, respectively.
Isobaric density variation
(1-37)
where is the thermal volumetric expansion coefficient and is the density at
the reference temperature .
Isobaric variation for multicomponent mixtures
(1-38)
where is the expansion coefficient for component m. The ‘background’ fluid is
not included in the summation.
Ideal gases or mixtures thereof
(1-39)
where is the mass fraction of a component with molecular weight , the
summation is over all components and the ‘background’ fluid, and R is the universal
gas constant. There is also an isobaric variant of the above in which p is repla
ced by
a constant .
Log law for liquids
(1-40)
where is the density at reference pressure and , are
material-dependent constants. For example, for water at 298K:
and
ρ = ρ0
ρ0
ρ Ym
ρm
-------
⎝ ⎠
⎜ ⎟
⎛ ⎞
m Σ
–1
=
Ym ρm
ρ
ρ0
1 + βT(T – T0)
= ------------------------------------
βT ρ0
T0
ρ
ρ0
1 βT T T0 – ( ) βm Ym
m Σ
+ +
= ------------------------------------------------------------------
βm
ρ p
RT
Ym
Mm
--------
m Σ
⎝ ⎠
⎛ ⎞
= ------------------------------
Ym Mm
p0
ρ ρ0 + a0
a1 + p
a1 + p0
= ln-----------------
ρ0 p0 a0 a1
a0 = 214 kg ⁄ m3 a1 = 4.767 108 Pa

Chap e 1 BASIC CONSERVATION EQUATIONS
Ve sion 4.12 1-9
Powe law fo liqui s
(1-41)
whe e is he ensi ya efe ence
p essu e an efe ence empe a u e an
, a e ma e ial- epen en cons an s. Fo example, fo wa e :
an
is he hemal volume ic expansion coefficien .
Viscosi
empe a u e ela ion
y-
The epen ence of gas viscosi y on empe a u e may also be ob aine f om he
Su he lan equa ion
(1-42)
whe e is he ynamic viscosi
y a 273.15 K an 101.325 kPa
he Su he lan cons an, an
T he absolu e empe a u e.
Su he lan cons an s fo pu e gases a e given in [1.6].
Gaseous mix u e p ope
ies
Specific hea capaci y
Fo mixu es of mul iple componen
(s)
m in
a ‘backg
oun ’ flui bg, STAR-CD

calcula es he specific hea capaci y of he mix u e as a mass-weigh e ave age
of

i s componen values, i.e.
(1-43)
He e, is he specific hea of he mix u e, an a e he specific hea an
mass f acion of componen m, espec ively, an is he specific hea of he
backg oun flui .
Molecula viscosi
y
Fo gas mix u es, he Wilke [1.2] fo mula fo mix u e viscosi y is use , i.e.
(1-44)
whe e
ρ ρ0
a1 + p
a1 + p0
⎝-----------------⎠
⎛ ⎞βp 1
1 + βT(T – T0)
= ------------------------------------
ρ0 p0 T0
a1 βp
a1 = 3.0 × 108 Pa βp = 1 ⁄ 7
βT
μ T
273.15
⎝---------------⎠
⎛ ⎞
32
-- 273.15 + Cs
T + Cs
= --------------------------- μ0
μ0
Cs
cp Ymcp, m 1 Ym
m bg ≠
Σ ⎝ – ⎠
⎛ ⎞ cp bg + ,
m bg ≠
Σ =
cp cp, m Ym
cp, bg
μ (Xi μi) Xj Φij
j = 1
NΣ
⎝ ⎠
⎜ ⎟
⎛ ⎞
⁄
i = 1
NΣ
=
Thermophysical Properties
1-10 Version 4.12
(1-45)
Here is the molecular weight, the mole fraction and the molecular
viscosityof component i in the mixture. N is the number of species in the mixtur
e,
including the background material.
Either gas kinetic theory or a polynomial relationship (see “Polynomial
relationships” on page 1-14) can be used to calculate . The expression derived
from kinetic theory [1.10] is:
(1-46)
where is the Lennard-Jones collision diameter and the collision integral.
The latter is calculated by the following equation [1.10, 1.11]:
(1-47)
where the reduced temperature is given by
and k is the Boltzmann’s constant, ε th L nnard-Jon s pot ntial ll d pth and A
= 1.16145, B = 0.14874, C = 0.52487, D = 0.77320, E = 2.16178, F = 2.43787.
Equation (1-47) is applicabl for 0.3 < < 100 ith an av rag d viation of only
0.064 p r c nt [1.10, 1.11].
Th rmal conductivity
For gas mixtur s, th Mathur [1.8] formula is us d, i. .
(1-48)
h r is th th rmal conductivity of compon nt i, hich can b calculat d by
ith r gas kin tic th ory or a polynomial r lationship (s “Polynomial
r lationships” on pag 1-14). Th xpr ssion d riv d from kin tic th ory [1.9, 1.1
2]
is:
(1-49)
ith
Φij
1
8
------ 1
Mi
Mj
⎝ + -------⎠
⎛ ⎞ –1 ⁄ 2
1
μi
μj
⎝ -----⎠
⎛ ⎞1 ⁄ 2 Mj
Mi
⎝ -------⎠
⎛ ⎞1 ⁄ 4
⎝ + ⎠
⎛ ⎞2
=
Mi Xi μi
μi
μi 2.6693 10–6
(Mi T)1 ⁄ 2
σi
2 Ω(2, 2)
= -------------------------
σi Ω(2, 2)
Ω(2, 2) A(T )–B = + Cexp(–DT ) + Eexp(–FT )
T kT
ε = ------
T
k 12
-- Xi ki 1
Xi
ki
-----
i = 1
NΣ
⎝ ⎠
⎜ ⎟
⎛ ⎞
+ ⁄
i = 1
NΣ
⎝ ⎠
⎜ ⎟
⎛ ⎞
=
ki
ki
μi
Mi
= ------( f ansCv, ans + f o Cv, o + f vibCv, vib)
f ans
52
-- 1 2π
---
Cv, rot
Cv, trans
-----------------AB
= – ---
Chater 1 BASIC CONSERVATION EQUATIONS
Thermohysical Proerties
Version 4.12 1-11
where
For a linear molecule:
For a non-linear molecule:
For single atoms:
and is calculated by equation (1-51).
The rotational collision number is given by:
where
and is the value of the rotational collision number at 298 K.
f rot
ρDii
μi
---------- 1 2π
---AB
⎝ + ---⎠
= ⎛ ⎞
f vib
ρDii
μi
= ----------
A 52
--
ρDii
μi
= – ----------

B Z o
2π
--- 53
--
Cv rot ,
R
-------------
ρDii
μi
⎝ + ----------⎠
= + ⎛ ⎞
Cv, ans
3
2
= --R
Cv, o = R
Cv, vib Cv
5
2
= – --R
Cv, o
3
2
= --R
Cv, vib = Cv – 3R
ki
3.75μi
Mi
= ---------------R
Dii
Z o Z o (298) F(298)
F(T)
= ----------------
F(T) 1 π3 ⁄ 2
2
---------- ε k ⁄
T⎝---------⎠
⎛ ⎞ 1 ⁄ 2 π2
4
⎝----- + 2⎠
⎛ ⎞ ε k ⁄
T
--------- π3 2 ⁄ ε k ⁄
T⎝---------⎠
⎛ ⎞ 3 ⁄ 2
= ++ +
Z o (298)
BASIC CONSERVATION EQUATIONS
Chap e 1
1-12 Ve sion
4.12
Molecula iffusivi
y
The molecula iffusivi y of componen m in a gas mix u e, , is calcula e as
[1.9]:
(1-50)
whe e is he molecula
weigh
of componen
i in he mix ue, he mean
molecula
weigh of he u e, an he bina y iffusivi
mix y of componen s i
an m. Ei he gas kine ic heo y o a polynomial ela ionship (see “Polynomial
ela ionships” on age 1-14) can be used to calculate . The exression derived
from kinetic theory [1.10] is:
(1-51)
where
and is the diffusion collision integral, the static ressure and the
reduced collision diameter.
For the calculation of the diffusion collision integral , the following
equation is used [1.10, 1.11]:
where a = 1.06036, b = 0.15610, c = 0.19300, d = 0.47635, e = 1.03587, f = 1.529
96,
g = 1.76474, h = 3.89411, and
When molecules i and m are either both olar or non-olar, then [1.10]:
For the case of a olar molecule interacting with a non-olar molecule [1.13]:
Dm
Dm Xi Mi
i = 1, i ≠ m
NΣ
⎝ ⎠
⎜ ⎟
⎛ ⎞
M
Xi
Dim
---------
i = 1, i ≠ m
NΣ
⎝ ⎠
⎜ ⎟
⎛ ⎞
= ⁄
Mi M
Dim
Dim
Dim
2.66 10–7 T3 ⁄ 2
pMim
1 ⁄ 2 σim
2 Ω(1, 1)
= ---------------------------------------------
Mim
2MiMm
Mi + Mm
= ----------------------
Ω(1, 1) σim
Ω(1, 1)
Ω(1, 1) a(T )–b = + c exp(–dT ) + e exp(– f T ) + g exp(–hT )
T kT
εim
= -------
εim (εi εm)1 ⁄ 2 =
σim
1
2
= --(σi + σm)
εim ξ2(εn εp)1 ⁄ 2 =
Th rmophysical Prop rti s
V rsion 4.12 1-13
and
Th rmal diffusion co ffici nt
STAR-CD assum s, as in [1.12], that th rmal diffusion is unimportant c pt for
th light sp ci s H , H2 and H atoms. Th th rmal diffusion ratios of th s ligh
t
sp ci s for any gas pair ar calculat d as [1.12, 1.13]:
(1-52)
wh r
In th abov pr ssions, stands for th r duc d collision int grals and ,
ar th mol cular w ights of sp ci s 1 and 2.
Without factor f, quation (1-52) is only valid for a pair of h avy gas isotop s
[1.13]. This factor (with f = 0.5) is th r for introduc d in [1.12] in ord r to
calculat th th rmal diffusion ratio of a pair of dissimilar gas s using this f
ormula.
In STAR-CD, a modification to th f valu is mad wh r
and
wh r th r duc d collision int grals ar calculat d from [1.11]:
σim σnp
1
2
-- (σn + σp) ξ–1 ⁄ 6 = =
ξ 1 2.5 10–13αn μp
εp
εn
= + × -----
αn
αn
σn 3
= ------
μp
μp
2
εp σp
3
= -------------
KT, 12 f 15 2A( + 5)(6C – 5)
2A (16A – 12B + 55)
-----------------------------------------------------------
M1 – M2
M1 + M2
= --------------------- X1 X2
A Ω 2 2 ( , )
Ω(1, 1)
= -----------------
B 5Ω 1 2 ( , ) – 4Ω(1, 3)
Ω(1, 1)
= ------------------------------------------------
C Ω 1 2 ( , )
Ω(1, 1) = -----------------
Ω M1
M2
f = 0.5 if X1 ≤ 0.5 f = 0.9 if X1 > 0.5
BA IC CON ERVATION EQUATION Chapte 1
The mophy ical P ope tie
1-14 Ve ion 4.12
and
with the educed tempe atu e and , the mole f action of pecie 1 and 2.
In a multicomponent mixtu e, the the mal diffu ion atio of pecie m i
calculated a
Polynomial elation hip
The p ope ty value fo backg ound fluid and con tituent may them elve be
calculated f om a given polynomial elation hip a function of tempe atu e T.
Thu , fo pecific heat:
(1-53)
whe e i a polynomial coefficient ( ee, fo example, [1.7]).
Fo the mal conductivity, molecula vi co ity and diffu ivity th ee alte native
elation hip may be u ed:
(1-54)
o
(1-55)
o
Ω(1, 2) a12(T ) –b12 = + c12 exp(–d12T ) + e12 exp(– f 12T ) + g12 exp(–h12T )
Ω(1, 3) a13(T ) –b13 = + c13 exp(–d13T ) + e13 exp(– f 13T )
a12 = 1.00220 , b12 = 0.15530 , c12 = 0.16105 , d12 = 0.72751
e12 = 0.86125 , f 12 = 2.06848 , g12 = 1.95162 , h12 = 4.84492
a13 = 0.96573 , b13 = 0.15611 , c13 = 0.44067 , d13 = 1.52420
e13 = 2.38981 , f 13 = 5.08063
T X1 X2
KT, m KT, mj
j = 1
NΣ
=
cp
R
⎝----⎠
⎛ ⎞
m
(am)iTi 1 –
i
nΣ
=

m
φm (αm)iTi 1 –
i
nΣ
=
ln(φm) (βm)i( lnT)i – 1
i
nΣ
=
Ch
pter 1 BA IC CON ERVATION EQUATION
Thermophysic
l Properties
Version 4.12 1-15
(1-56)
where is k, μ o an n epens on he o e of he polynomial chosen.
Specific
hea
s an
en halpy-
empe a u e ela ion
As iscusse in he sec ion on “Chemico- he mal en halpy”, TAR-CD employs
st
tic enth
lpy h [equ
tion (1-11)] or st
tic intern
l energy e [equ
tion (1-12)
]
ormul
tions o the energy equ
tion. When v
lues o temper
ture T
re required,
it
is necess
ry to extr
ct them rom one or the other o these qu
ntities. When
ound
ry conditions
re speci ied in terms o T, then the corresponding h or e m
ust
e deduced. Both qu
ntities h
ve therm
l
nd/or chemic
l components. The l
tter

re str
ight orw
rd line
r unctions o the mixture constituent m
ss r
ctions
nd

he
ts o orm
tion, ut the ormer m
y e non-line
r unctions o temper
ture. I
the
therm
l components
re denoted y ,
nd de ined y:
(1-57)
(1-58)
then TAR-CD o ers, or e
ch constituent, the ollowing uilt-in options:
1. Input o me
n speci ic he
ts vi

lge r
ic unctions or , with
intern
l conversion to temper
ture when required. I the unctions
re
non-line
r, then iter
tion is
utom
tic
lly employed.
2. Input o explicit temper
ture unctions o the orm or . These
re
used directly
s supplied to o t
in T
nd
re intern
lly inverted to extr
ct
or ,
s required.
3. Input o implicit temper
ture unctions
o the orm or with
intern
l conversion to T when needed, y direct or iter
tive me
ns
s
ppropri
te.
4. Provision o oth type (2)
nd type (3) unctions, which removes the need or
iter
tion.
5. Polynomi
l rel
tionships or o the orm given y equ
tion (1-53).
In the c
se o mixtures, it is necess
ry to provide, or e
ch constituent, the
ollowing
ddition
l qu
ntities:
• the he
t o orm
tion
• or option (1), the component speci ic he
ts
• or option (2), or
ll components
• or options (3)
nd (4), or or
ll components
Liquid mixture properties
Properties o liquid mixtures in TAR-CD
re ev
lu
ted on the
sis o ormul
s
in
re erence [1.1]. These properties
re
pplied to oth L
gr
ngi
n two-ph
se lows
nd liquid ilm simul

tions.
ln(φm) (γm)i ( lnT)⁄ i – 1
i
nΣ
=
φm Dm
ht et
ht ≡ h –ΣYm Hm
t ≡ –ΣYm Hm
cp(T) cv(T)
T(ht ) T( t )
ht
t
ht(T) t(T)
(cp)m
Hm
∂T ⁄ ∂Ym
∂ht ⁄ ∂Ym ∂ t ⁄ ∂Ym
BA IC CON ERVATION EQUATION Ch
pt r 1
Th rmophy ic
l Prop rti
1-16 V r ion 4.12
D n ity
(1-59)
wh r i th m
fr
ction
nd th d n ity of compon nt in
liquid
mixtur .
p cific h
t
(1-60)
wh r i th p cific h
t of compon nt .
Vi co ity
(1-61)
wh r i th mol fr
ction
nd th vi co ity of compon nt in
liquid
mixtur . i
n int r
ction p
r
m t r, t to z ro for implicity inc th t rm
cont
inin i norm
lly m
ll.
Conductivity
(1-62)
wh r
i th th rm
l conductivity
nd th p cific mol
r volum of compon nt .
urf
c t n ion
(1-63)
wh r i th urf
c t n ion of compon nt .
ρm
Yl, i
ρl, i
--------
⎝ ⎠
⎜ ⎟
⎛ ⎞
i Σ
–1
=
Yl, i
ρl, i i
cp Yl, icpl, i
i Σ
=
cpl, i i
μ ln Xl i , μl i , ln 12
-- XiXjGij
i j ≠
Σ + Σ
i Σ
=
Xl, i μl, i i
GijGij
k ϕiϕjkij
j Σ
i Σ
=
kij 2 ki
–1 kj
–1 ( + ) –1
=
ϕi
Xl, ivi
ΣXl, jv j = ---------------------
ki vi i
σ ρm
Xl, iσi
14--
ρl, i
---------------
i Σ
4
=
σi i
Chapte 1 BA IC CON ERVATION EQUATION
Gene ic cala
Ve ion 4.12 1-17
C itical tempe atu e
(1-64)
whe e
i the c itical tempe atu e of component .
Gene ic cala
A well a olving the ba ic flow equation de c ibed at the beginning of thi
chapte , TAR-CD offe an additional facility fo olving an a bit a y numbe o
f
t an po t equation fo u e -defined va iable needed fo pecial-pu po e
application . U ing the notation adopted in Chapte 4, equation (4-2), the gene
ic
fo m of the t an po t equation fo the e va iable can be w itten a :
(1-65)
whe e φ is
tr
nsported sc
l
r, u the luid velocity, uc the control volume sur
ce
velocity (grid velocity). The second convection term in the
ove equ
tion
llow
s
or the possi ility th
t the sc
l
r property is convected y
velocity ugc di
erent
rom the luid velocity, where ugc is speci ied y the user. The user-speci
ied
coe icients Tφ, Cφ1, Cφ2, Dφ
nd φ c
n e either const
nts or
r itr
ry unctions
de ined vi
user su routines.
Existence o
ny o thetr
nsient, convection, di usion or source terms is
option
l. For ex
mple, y dropping the tr
nsient
nd convection terms, one o t
i
ns
Poisson equ
tion:
(1-66)
which governs m
ny physic

l processes.
Note th
t the Convection 1
nd
Convection 2 terms
ove c
nnot oth e
ctive or the s
me generic sc
l
r in th
e
s
me dom
in.
These generic equ
tions
re solved
s
n integr
l p
rt o the TAR-CD
segreg
ted iter
tive solver (
ter the tur ulence model equ
tions descri ed in
Ch
pter 2 o this volume).
T = ΣϕiTci
ϕi
Xl, ivci
ΣXl, ivcj = ----------------------
Tci i
d
dt
----- Tφφ
V ∫
dV Cφ1φ
∫
+ (u – uc) ⋅ d Cφ2φ
∫
+ (ugc – uc) ⋅ d =
Dφ gr
d
∫
φ ⋅ d φ
V ∫
+ dV
Di usion ource
Tr
nsient Convection 1 Convection 2
Dφ
∫
gr
dφ ⋅ d φ
V ∫+ dV =
0
Ch
pter 2 TURBULENCE MODELLING OPTION
Introductory Rem
rks
Version 4.12 2-1
Ch
Introductory Rem
rks
TAR-CD
o ers
wide v
riety o tur ulence modelling c
p
ilities. These m
y e
su divided into our c
tegories:
• Eddy Viscosity models
• Reynolds tress models
• L
rge Eddy imul
tion models
• Det
ched Eddy imul
tion models
A rie overview o e
ch c
tegory is given elow.
It is gener
lly recognised th
t
ll existing tur ulence models, including those
mentioned
here,
re inex
ct represent
tions o the physic
l phenomen
o
tur ulence. The degree o
pproxim
tion in
given model depends on the n
ture o

the low to which it is eing
pplied,
nd the ch
r
cteris
tion o the circumst
nces
which give rise to ‘good’
nd ‘
d’ per orm
nce must un ortun
tely e
sed
m
inly on experience. Det
ils on the
pplic
tion o v
rious tur ulence models c
n
e ound in the liter
ture [2.48],[2.49].
Eddy Viscosity
models
These tur ulence models
re
sed on the
n
logy etween the molecul
r
gr
dient-di usion process
nd tur ulent motion (Boussinesq model). The Reynolds
stresses
nd tur ulent sc
l
r luxes in these models
re directly linked to the
loc
l
gr
dients o the me
n low ield through
tur ulent viscosity
nd di usivity,
with
the tur ulent viscosity determined y
ch
r
cteristic tur ulence velocity sc
le

nd
length sc
le. The choices or the tur ulent velocity
nd length sc
le
re very
numerous, r
nging rom prescri ed pro iles to the popul
r two-equ
tion models.
peci
l models
re
lso employed to ch
r
cterise the low ne
r w
lls.
k-ε mod l
Th m
in option curr ntly
v
il
bl in TAR-CD for n r
l
pplic
tion
r
v
ri
nt of th w ll known k-ε mod l [2.1–2.7], compri in tr
n port qu
tion for
th turbul nc kin tic n r y k
nd it di ip
tion r
t ε. In th mod l , k
nd
ε

r cho n
typic
l turbul nt v locity c
l
nd l n th c
l , r p ctiv ly. T
h
option diff r from
ch oth r in on of th followin r p ct :
• Th form of th qu
tion
• Th tr
tm nt of th n
r-w
ll r ion
• Th r l
tion b tw n R ynold tr
nd th r
t of tr
in
Tho mod l th
t u
lin
r r l
tion hip b tw n R ynold tr
nd tr
in

r cl
ifi d
lin
r mod l ; tho th
t do not
r cl
ifi d
non-lin
r.
TAR-CD off r both qu
dr
tic
nd cubic mod l for th l
tt r roup.
Th m
in
lt rn
tiv in th lin
r c
t ory
r :
1. Th ‘ t
nd
rd’ mod l [2.1–2.3], in which th hi h R ynold numb r form of
th k
nd ε qu
tion
r u d in conjunction with
l br
ic l
w-of-th -w
ll
r pr nt
tion of flow, h
t
nd m
tr
n f r [2.1].
2. Th low R ynold numb r mod l in which tr
n port qu
tion for k
nd ε
r
TURBULENCE MODELLING OPTION Ch
pt r 2
Introductory R m
rk
2-2 V r ion 4.12
olv d v rywh r , includin th n
r-w
ll r ion [2.14]. L
w-of-th -w
ll
r pr nt
tion
r th r for not r quir d.
3. Th ‘R norm
li
tion Group’ (RNG) v r ion of th k-ε mod l [2.4,2.5],
h r
ft r d not d
RNG k-ε. Thi i mploy d in hi h R ynold numb r
form in conjunction with l
w-of-th -w
ll function .
4. A modifi d v r ion of th k-ε mod l, h r
ft r d not d
Ch n’ k-ε mod l
[2.13], which mploy both th turbul nc production
nd di ip
tion tim
c
l in clo in th di ip
tion qu
tion. Thi mod l i utili d in hi h
R ynold numb r form in conjunction with l
w-of-th -w
ll function .
5. Th o-c
ll d ‘r
liz
bl’ k-ε mod
l,
v
ri
nt of th lin
r k-ε mod l wh r
Cμ is nolonge cons an bu a func ion
esigne
o p even physically
un ealis icvaluesfo he Reynol s S ess enso
componen
s.
6. A elaxa ion mo el, known as V2F, base on he solu ion of he k-ε qu
tion .
H r ,
ddition
l qu
tion
r olv d for
nd f, wh r i
fluctu
tin
v locity c
l (which in t
dy two-dim n ion
l flow c
n b r
rd d
th
turbul nc int n ity norm
l to th tr
mlin )
nd f it production r
t
divid d by k [2.30].
7. Two-l
y r mod l , in which th n
r-w
ll flow i mod ll d vi

o-c
ll d
on - qu
tion low R ynold numb r mod l con i tin of
tr
n port qu
tion
for k
nd
n
l br
ic pr cription for th turbul nc l n th c
l . Th
olution i m
tch d to th
t of th t
nd
rd k-ε qu
tion
t th ‘ d ’ of th
vi co ity-influ nc d r ion. Thr
lt rn
tiv on - qu
tion mod l
r
v
il
bl in TAR-CD [2.6–2.9].
Th non-lin
r mod l
lt rn
tiv
r :
1. Hi h R ynold numb r qu
dr
tic
nd cubic k-ε mod l in conjunction with
th l
w-of-th -w
ll r pr nt
tion of flow, h
t
nd m
tr
n f r for th
n
r-w
ll r ion [2.14, 2.15].
2. Low R ynold numb r qu
dr
tic
nd cubic mod l in which tr
n port
qu
tion for k
nd ε
r olv d in th n
r-w
ll r ion [2.14, 2.15].
3. A modifi d v r ion of th k-ε mod l, h r
ft r d not d
u
’ mod l, in
both qu
dr
tic
nd cubic form [2.29].
4. A hi h R ynold numb r qu
dr
tic mod l by p zi
l [2.27] who
co ffici nt
r c
libr
t d for int rn
l flow .
k-ω mod ls
An alt rnativ approach to th k-ε mod l is th k-ω mod l, h r ω is th sp cific
dissipation rat and is proportional to ε/k. To variants of this mod l, th stand
ard
[2.25] and th SST variant [2.26], ar curr ntly impl m nt d in STAR-CD. Both
hav options for la-of-th -all and lo R ynolds numb r all tr atm nt.
Oth r Eddy Viscosity mod ls
In addition to a k-ε or k-ω typ of mod l, STAR-CD off rs th simpl r on - quation
Spalart-Allmaras mod l [2.28] and th k-l mod l. Th form r is sp cially calibra
t d
for th computation of a rodynamic flos. Th k-l mod l disp ns s ith th
diff r ntial quation for ε ov r th ntir flo domain and mploys a
us r-pr scrib d spatial distribution of th turbul nt l ngth scal l [2.11].
Th choic of turbul nc mod ls for STAR-CD has b n mad primarily on th
basis of g n rality, cost ff ctiv n ss and ll-knon applications. All of th s
v2 v2
Chapt r 2 TURBULENCE MODELLING OPTIONS
Introductory R marks
V rsion 4.12 2-3
undoubt dly favour th k-ε mod l variants, as is vid nc d by th ir id spr ad us
.
Th high R ynolds numb r mod ls ar th most computationally ffici nt du to
th ir simpl tr atm nt of th n ar-all flo r gion. Ho v r, th ir accuracy
d t riorat s in circumstanc s h n th und rlying assumption of th
la-of-th -all is not valid. In such circumstanc s, th to-lay r or lo R ynol
ds
numb r mod ls may som tim s (but not alays) b xp ct d to p rform b tt r; but
th y r quir high r num rical r solution and ar th r for computationally mor
xp nsiv to us .
All th lin ar mod ls list d abov do not allo for anisotropic ff cts. Non-lin
ar
mod ls, on th oth r hand, may prov a b tt r alt rnativ for flos h r
anisotropy, turbul nc int nsity gradi nts or s condary strain rat s ar importa
nt.
Undoubt dly, th r ill b circumstanc s in hich non of th abov mod ls ill
yi ld r sults to th r quir d d gr of accuracy. This is r cognis d by th d v
lop rs
of STAR-CD, ho ar continuously s king and ass ssing alt rnativ s, and
incorporating th m if th y prov us ful.
R ynolds Str ss mod ls
Th s mod ls calculat th individual R ynolds str ss s dir ctly by solving th i
r
gov rning transport quations [2.32], [2.33]. This typ of mod l is pot ntially
abl
to pr dict compl x flos mor accurat ly than ddy viscosity mod ls b caus th
transport quations for th R ynolds str ss s account for th ff cts of turbul
nc
anisotropy, str amlin curvatur , sirl rotation and high rat of strain.
Ho v r, s v ral t rms in th xact R ynolds Str ss transport quations ar
unknon and mod l assumptions bas d on simpl flo obs rvations hav to b
introduc d to clos th s t of quations.
Larg Eddy Simulation mod ls
Larg Eddy Simulation (LES) involv s a thr -dim nsional, tim -d p nd nt
computation of th larg -scal turbul nt motions r sponsibl for turbul nt mixin
g
hilst thos ith scal s small r than th computational grid (th sub-grid str s
s s)
ar mod ll d. Th main diff r nc b t n conv ntional turbul nc mod lling
approach s and LES is th ‘av raging’ proc dur us d to d riv th quation of
motion. Th LES t chniqu do s not involv th us of ns mbl av rag s, rath r
it
consists in applying a spatial filt r to th Navi r-Stok s quations. If is a
g n ric instantan ous flo variabl , th corr sponding filt r d variabl is d fi
n d
as:
(2-1)
h r is a suitably d fin d function [2.40] charact ris d by a idth ,
hich can b , in g n ral, a function of spac and is d fin d as . In th
pr s nc of variations of d nsity a d nsity- ight d filt ring op rator is intro
duc d,
hich shar s th sam prop rti s as th un ight d on :
(2-2)
φ(x, t)
φ(t, x) G(x – x , Δ)φ(x , t)dx
–∞
∞ = ∫∫∫
G(x, Δ) Δ
Δ Vcell
1 ⁄ 3 =
〈φ〉 ρφ
ρ
= ------
TURBULENCE MODELLING OPTION Chapte 2
Eddy Vi co ity Model
2-4 Ve ion 4.12
Detached Eddy imulation (DE ) model
Reynold -Ave age Nume ical imulation (RAN ) offe a wide ange of
tu bulence model to inve tigate the mean p ope tie of tu bulent flow . Howeve
,
to accu ately p edict tu bulent flow featu e , it i nece a y to compute un tea
dy
flow field .
In the La ge Eddy imulation (LE ) app oach de c ibed in the p eviou ection,
the tu bulent t uctu e with cha acte i tic ize la ge than a defined filte
length
a e e olved u ing patially filte ed va iable and accu ate, time-con i tent
nume ical algo ithm . The un e olved tu bulence cale a e accounted fo u ing
ubg id- cale model [2.53], but LE fo indu t ial configu ation equi e fine
g id and mall time- tep inc ement , limiting it u efulne fo complex
application .
Detached Eddy imulation (DE ) i a p omi ing app oach that combine the
advantage of RAN in bounda y laye and LE el ewhe e [2.54]. Thi app oach
elie on modified tu bulence model that can ope ate eithe a a tanda d RAN
model in bounda y laye o a a ub-g id- cale ( G ) eddy vi co ity model in
detached o epa ated flow egion [2.54,2.55,2.56]. The majo advantage of DE
compa ed to othe un teady app oache like URAN i that the e olved tu bulence
depend on me h den ity ( imila to LE ) [2.55,2.56].
Con titutive elation fo linea model
All fo m of the k-ε
nd k-l lin
r mod l curr ntly
v
il
bl in TAR-CD
um
th
t th turbul nc R ynold tr
nd c
l
r flux
r link d to th
v r

d
flow v
ri
bl in
n
n
lo ou f
hion to th ir l
min
r flow count rp
rt , thu
[2.1]:
(2-3)
(2-4)
(2-5)
wh r
(2-6)
i th turbul nc kin tic n r y, i th turbul nt vi co ity,
nd
r th
turbul nt Pr
ndtl
nd chmidt numb r , r p ctiv ly,
nd
(2-7)
–ρ ui′uj′ μ Sij
23
-- μ
∂uk
∂xk ⎝ -------- + ρ k⎠
= – ⎛ ⎞ δij
ρuj′h′

μ
σh, t
--------- ∂h
∂x j = – -------
ρuj′Ym′

μ
σm, t
----------
∂Ym
∂x j
= – ----------
k
ui′ui′
2
≡-------------
μ σh, t σm, t
ij
∂ui
∂x j -------
∂uj
∂xi = + -------
Ch
pt r 2 TURBULENCE MODELLING OPTION
Eddy Vi co ity Mod l
V r ion 4.12 2-5
i th ‘m
n tr
in’. Th turbul nt vi co ity i link d to k
nd ε vi
[2.1]
(2-8)
or to k
nd l vi
(2-9)
wh r i
n mpiric
l co ffici nt, u u
lly t
k n

con t
nt,
nd i th
d
mpin function, to b d fin d wh n th individu
l mod l v
ri
nt
r pr nt d
.
Th turbul nt Pr
ndtl
nd chmidt numb r
r qu
ntiti th
t
r u u
lly
i n
d
con t
nt
nd qu
l v
lu . Th v
lu
i n d in TAR-CD to th
nd oth r
mpiric
l co ffici nt u d in th mod l will b iv n l
t r.
An xpr ion r l
tin k, ε
nd l c
n b obt
in d by qu
tin (2-8)
nd (2-9).
Thu ,
(2-10)
Con titutiv r l
tion for non-lin
r mod l
M
ny r
l flow xhibit
ni otropic turbul nc ch
r
ct ri tic . Non-lin
r mod l

c
t r for thi f
tur by
doptin non-lin
r r l
tion hip b tw n R ynold
tr
nd th r
t of tr
in.
Qu
dr
tic mod l
For qu
dr
tic mod l , th con titutiv r l
tion for th R ynold tr
r

follow :
(2-11)
wh r i th m
n vorticity t n or iv n by
(2-12)

m
nin of co ffici nt C1, C2, C3 in qu
tion (2-11) i
follow :
Th
μ f μ
Cμ ρ k2
ε
=-----------------
μ f μ Cμ
1 ⁄ 4 ρ k1 ⁄ 2 = l
Cμ f μ
l Cμ
3 ⁄ 4 k3 ⁄ 2
ε
= ----------
ρ
ui′uj′
k
-------------- 23
--

μ
k
----
∂uk
∂xk
⎝ -------- + ρ⎠
⎛⎞δij
μ
k
–---- Sij C1
μ
ε
---- ik kj
1
3
= + [ – -- δij Skl Skl] +
C2

μ
ε---- [Ωik kj + Ωjk ki] C3
μ
ε ---- Ωik Ωjk
1
3
+ [ – -- δij Ωkl Ωkl]
Ωij
Ωij
∂ui
∂x j
-------
∂uj
∂xi = – -------
TURBULENCE MODELLING OPTION Chapte 2
2-6 Ve ion 4.12
tanda d model [2.14]
(2-13)
The te m Cμ is efine as follows:
(2-14)
whe e
(2-15)

an
(2-16)
(2-17)

The e ms cNL1, cNL2, cNL3, cNL6, cNL7, cA0, cA1, cA2, cA3 appea ing in equa ion
s
(2-13) an (2-14) a e empi ical coefficien s whose values a e given in Table 2-1
.
The u bulen viscosi y is efine in equa ion (2-8).
Suga’s k-ε mod l [2.29]
(2-18)
Th t rm Cμ is efine as follows:
(2-19)
whe e
(2-20)
Table 2-1: Coefficien s of he Qua a ic k-ε Con titutiv R l
tion
cA0 cA1 cA2 cA3 cNL1 cNL2 cNL3 cNL6 cNL7
0.667 1.25 1.0 0.9 0.75 3.75 4.75 1000.0 1.0
C1
cNL1
(cNL6 + cNL7 3) Cμ
----------------------------------------------- , C2
cNL2
(cNL6 + cNL7 S3) Cμ
= = ----------------------------------------------- ,
C3
cNL3
(cNL6 + cNL7 S3) Cμ
= -----------------------------------------------
Cμ
cA0
cA1 + cA2S + cA3Ω
= --------------------------------------------
kε
-- , Ω kε
= = -- Ω
1
2
= -- ij ij
Ω 1
2
=-- Ωij Ωij
μ
C1 = cNL1 , C2 = cNL2 , C3 = cNL3
Cμ
0.3 [1 – exp {–0.36exp (0.75 η)}]
1 + 0.35 η1.5
= ------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----
η max S˜
Ω˜
= ( , )
Chapte 2 TURBULENCE MODELLING OPTION
Ve ion 4.12 2-7
(2-21)
and
(2-22)
The te m cNL1, cNL2, cNL3 appea ing in equation (2-18) a e empi ical coefficien
t
who e value a e given in Table 2-2.
peziale’ model [2.27]
(2-23)
The te m Cμ is given by
(2-24)
Cubic moels
The cons i u ive equa ion fo he cubic mo el is
(2-25)
The
values of coefficien s C4 an C5 in equa ion (2-25) a e ob aine as follows:
S an a mo el [2.15]
(2-26)

The e ms cNL4, ae coefficien
cNL5 above s whose values a e given
in Table
2-3,
oge he
wi h he
qua a ic e ms efine ea lie . The u bulen viscosi y is
efine in equa ion (2-8).

Table 2-2: Coefficien s of Suga’s Qua a ic k-ε Mod l Constitutiv R lation
cNL1 cNL2 cNL3
–0.1 0.1 0.26
S˜
kε
˜-- S , Ω˜
kε
= = - ˜Ω
ε˜ ε 2ν ∂ k
∂xi
⎝---------⎠
⎛ ⎞2
= –
C1 = cNL1 = –0.15 , C2 = cNL2 = 0 , C3 = cNL3 = 0
Cμ = 0.09
ρ
ui′uj′
k
-------------- 23
--

μ
k
----
∂uk
∂xk
⎝ -------- + ρ⎠
⎛⎞δij
μ
k
–---- Sij C1
μ
ε
---- Sik Skj
1
3
= + [ – -- δij Skl Skl] +
C2

μ
ε
----
[Ωik kj + Ωjk ki] C3
μ
ε
---- Ωik Ωjk
1
3
+ [ – -- δij Ωkl Ωkl] +
C4 μ
k
ε2
----(Ski Ωlj + kj Ωli) kl C5 μ
k
ε2
+ ----(Skl Skl – Ωkl Ωkl) ij
C4
cNL4 Cμ 2 , C5 cNL5 Cμ 2 = =
μ
TURBULENCE
MODELLING
OPTIONS Chap e 2
E y Viscosi y Mo els
2-8 Ve sion 4.12

Suga’s k-ε mo l [2.29]
(2-27)
Th t rms cNL4, cNL5 abov ar co ffici
ts whos valu s ar giv i Tabl 2-4,
tog th r with th qua ratic t rms fi arli r.
Gov rig quatio

s
Pr scrib μ moel
In his ep esen a ion, is simply p esc ibe i ec ly by he use , so no u bule
nce
anspo
equa ions a e solve .
k-lmo el
In his mo el,
he spa ial is ibu ion of he u bulence leng h scale l mus be
p ovi e by he use.
Spala -Allma
as mo el
The Spala -Allma as mo
el is
aone-equa
ion a anspo
mo el which solves
equa ion fo . is i enical o he u bulen kinema ic viscosi y , excep in he
nea -wall egion. The anspo equa ion fo is as follows:
(2-28)
whe e y is he is ance o he nea es wall an
(2-29)
(2-30)
whe e is given by equa ion (2-17). The emaining e ms in equa ions (2-28) an
(2-30) a e given by
Table 2-3: Coefficien s of he S an a Cubic k-ε Costitutiv R latio
cA0 cA1 cA2 cA3 cNL1 cNL2 cNL3 cNL4 cNL5 cNL6 cNL7
0.667 1.25 1.0 0.9 0.75 3.75 4.75 –10.0 –2.0 1000.0
1.0
Tabl 2-4: Co ffici ts of Suga’s Cubic k-ε Mo l Costitutiv R latio
cNL1 cNL2 cNL3 cNL4 cNL5
–0.1 0.1 0.26 –10.0 –5.0
C4
cNL4 Cμ 2 , C5 cNL5 Cμ 2 = =
μ
ν˜ t ν˜ t νt
ν˜ t
∂
∂t ---- ρν˜ ( t ) ∂
∂x j ------- ρ uj ν˜ t
μeff
σν
--------
ν˜ ∂ t
∂x j ⎝ – -------⎠
+ ⎛ ⎞ =
Cb1 ρS˜ ν˜ t Cω1 ρ f ω
ν˜ t
y
⎝----⎠
⎛ ⎞2
–
Cb2
σν
-------- ρ
ν˜ ∂ t
∂x j ⎝-------⎠
⎛ ⎞2
+
μeff μ ρνt
= + ˜
S˜
Ω ν˜ t
κ2 y2
+ ----------- f ν2 , f ν2 1 χ
1 + χ f ν1
= = – ----------------------
Ω
Chapte 2 TURBULENCE MODELLING OPTION
Ve ion 4.12 2-9
(2-31)
The model’ coefficient a e given in Table 2-5 below:
The emaining coefficient i given by
(2-32)
The tu bulent vi co ity i given by
(2-33)
k-ε mod l variats
Stadard k-ε mod l (li ar ad o-li ar)
Th parti ular high R yolds umb r form of th k-ε mod l us d i STAR-CD is
‘appropriat ’, subj t to th av ats giv arli r, to fully turbul t, i ompr ssi
bl
or ompr ssibl flows [2.3]. It also allows to som xt t for buoya y ff ts
[2.2].
Th trasport quatios ar as follows:
Turbul ki ti rgy
(2-34)
wh r
(2-35)
(2-36)
Tabl 2-5: Co ffi i ts of th Spalart-Allmaras Mod l
κ
0.1335 0.622 0.666 7.1 0.3 2.0 0.41
χ
ν˜ t
ν ---- , f ν1
χ3
χ3 Cν1
+ 3
-------------------- , f ω g
1 Cω3
+ 6
g6 Cω3
+ 6
---------------------
⎝ ⎠
⎜ ⎟
⎛ ⎞ 1 ⁄ 6
= = = ,
g γ + Cω2 (γ 6 – γ ) , γ
ν˜ t
S˜
κ2 y2
= = ---------------
Cb1 Cb2 σν Cν1 Cω2 Cω3
Cω1
Cω1
Cb1
κ2
--------
1 + Cb2
σν
=+ -----------------
μ
μ ρν˜ = t f ν1
∂t
∂ (ρk)
∂x j
∂ρuj k μ
μ
σk
⎝ + -----⎠
⎛ ⎞ ∂k
∂x j
+– ------- =
μ PPB + ( ) ρε – 23
-- μ
∂ui
∂xi ⎝ ------- + ρk⎠
⎛ ⎞ ∂ui
∂xi – ------- + μ PNL
P Sij
∂ui
∂x j ≡ -------
PB
gi
σh, t
---------1ρ
--- ∂ρ
∂xi
≡ – -------
TURBULENCE MODELLING OPTIONS C apt 2
Eddy Viscosity Mod ls
2-10 V sion 4.12
(2-37)
=0 fo lin a mod ls and is t tu bul nt P andtl numb . T fi st t m on
t ig t- and sid of quation (2-34) p s nts tu bul nt g n ation by s a
and
no mal st ss s and buoyancy fo c s, t s cond viscous dissipation, and t t i
d
amplification o att nuation du to comp ssibility ff cts. T last t m accou
nts
fo t non-lin a cont ibutions.
Tu bul nc dissipation at
(2-38)
is t tu bul nt P andtl numb and , , and a

nts os valu s a giv n in Tabl 2-6
co ffici [2.1–2.3]. T fi st t m on t
ig t- and sid of quation (2-38) p s nts t cont ibution to t p oduction
of
dissipation
du to lin a st ss s and dilatation/comp ssion ff cts, t s con
d t
cont ibution
du to buoyancy, t fou t t cont ibution du to tmpo al m an
d nsity c ang s (of impo tanc in combustion mod
ls), and t fift t
cont ibution du to non-lin a st ss s. T t i d t m in t quation accounts
fo
t dissipation d st uction.
T tu bul nt viscosity , is obtain d via quation (2-8), it s t qual to
unity.
* = 1.44 fo > 0 and is z o ot is
** Fo smoot alls: s “V locity” o pag 6-3 for modifi atios mad for rough ss
ff ts
R alizabl k-ε mod l
Th r alizabl k-ε mod lis a varia
t of th
li ar k-ε mod l wh r Cμ is no longe

cons an bu a func ion esigne o p even physically un ealis ic values fo h
e
Reynol s S ess enso componen s. Ano he essen ial iffe ence f om he s an a

mo el is in he p o uc ion e m of he anspo equa ion fo ε [2.62].
Th mod l solv s th followi g tra sport quatio s for k ad ε:

Tabl 2-6: Co ffi i ts of th Stadard k-ε Turbul Mod l
κ E
0.09 1.0 1.22 0.9 0.9 1.44 1.92 0.0 or 1.44* –0.33 0.419 9.0**
PNL
ρ
μ
– ----ui′uj′
∂ui
∂x j ------- P 23
--
∂ui
∂xi
------- ρk
μ
⎝ + ------⎠
⎛ ⎞ ∂ui
∂xi = – – -------
PNL σk
∂t
∂ (ρε)
∂x j
∂ρ ujε μ
μ
σε
⎝ + -----⎠
⎛ ⎞ ∂ε
∂x j + – ------- =
Cε1
εk
-- μ P 23
-- μ
∂ui
∂xi
⎝ ------- + ρ k⎠
⎛ ⎞ ∂ui
∂xi
– ------- Cε3
εk
+ -- μ PB –
Cε2 ρ ε2
k
---- Cε4 ρε
∂ui
∂xi
------- Cε1
εk
+ + -- μ PNL
σε
Cε1 Cε2 Cε3 Cε4
μ f μ
Cμ σk σε σh σm Cε1 Cε2 Cε3 Cε4
Cε3 PB
Ch
pt r 2 TURBULENCE MODELLING OPTION
Eddy Vi co ity Mod l
V r ion 4.12 2-11
(2-39)
(2-40)
wh r , , .
Th turbul nt vi co ity i comput d

(2-41)
wh r th function Cμ is
(2-42)

an
(2-43)
(2-44)
The mean veloci y s ain a e Sij an vo ici y Ωij ten o a e given by
(2-45)
∂t
∂ (ρk)
∂x j
∂ (ρkuj)
∂x j
∂μ
μ
σk
⎝ + -----⎠
⎛ ⎞
x j ∂
∂k
+ – =
μ PPB + ( ) ρε 23
-- μ ∂xi
∂ui ρk +
⎝ ⎠
⎜ ⎟
⎛ ⎞
∂xi
∂ui
– –
∂
∂ (ρε)
∂x j
∂ (ρεuj)
∂x j
∂μ
μ
σε
⎝ + -----⎠
⎛ ⎞
∂x j
∂ε + – =
+ ρC1Sε – ρC2
ε2
k + νε
------------------- Cε3
εk
--μ PB Cε4
ρε
∂xi
∂ui + +
C1 max 0.43 η
η + 5
⎝ , ------------⎠
⎛ ⎞ = η Skε
=-- S = 2SijSij
μ ρCμ
k2
ε
= ----
Cμ
1
A0 ASU kε
+ --
= ------------------------------
U = SijSij + ΩijΩij
A0 = 4.0
A = 6co (φ)
φ 13
= --
cos( 6W)
W
ij jk ki
˜3
= -------------------
˜
= ij ij
ij
12
--
∂ui
∂x j -------
∂uj
∂xi ⎝ + -------⎠
= ⎛ ⎞
TURBULENCE MODELLING OPTIONS Chap e 2

2-12 Ve sion 4.12
(2-46)
Nume ical values fo he coefficien s efining he mo el a e as follows:
C2 = 1.9, σk = 1.0, σε = 1.2
All oth r co ffici nt v
lu
r t
k n from th t
nd
rd k-ε mod l.
p zi
l ’ hi h R ynold numb r k-ε mod l
p zi
l ’ mod l [2.27] i only
v
il
bl in hi h R ynold numb r form
nd
mploy th
m qu
tion (2-34)
nd (2-38)
th t
nd
rd k-ε mod l.
u
’ hi h R ynold numb r k-ε mod l
u
’ hi h R ynold numb r mod l [2.29] i v ry imil
r to th low R ynold
numb r v
ri
nt di cu d on p
2-15. Th only diff r nc b tw n th m i th
t
th hi h-R mod l do not cont
in th d
mpin function
oci
t d with
nd
. It
l o do not includ th
ddition
l ourc t rm cont
inin th cond-ord
r
d riv
tiv of th v locity fi ld in th ε qu
tion
nd th t rm of qu
tion (2-59)
.
RNG k-ε mod l
Thi mod l i b
d on [2.4]
nd th formul
tion mploy d in TAR-CD i from
th op n lit r
tur [2.5]. Th prot
oni t cl
im th
t th d riv
tion vi
th RN
G
th ory i mor fund
m nt
l th
n pr viou
ppro
ch
nd produc
v r ion th
t
i mor n r
l
nd
ccur
t .
Turbul nc kin tic n r y
(2-47)
Turbul nc di ip
tion r
t
(2-48)
wh r
(2-49)
Ωij
12
--
∂ui
∂x j -------
∂uj
∂xi ⎝ + -------⎠
=⎛ ⎞
μ
Cε2
Sε
∂t
∂ (ρk)
∂x j
∂ρuj k μ
μ
σk
⎝ + -----⎠
⎛ ⎞ ∂k
∂x j ⎝ – -------⎠
+⎛ ⎞ =
μ PPB + ( ) ρε – 23
-- μ
∂ui
∂xi
⎝ ------- + ρk⎠
⎛ ⎞ ∂ui
∂xi
–-------
∂
∂ (ρε)
∂x j
∂ρ ujε μ
μ
σε
⎝ + -----⎠
⎛ ⎞ ∂ε
∂x j
⎝ – -------⎠
+ ⎛ ⎞ =
Cε1
εk
-- μ P 23-- μ
∂ui
∂xi ⎝ ------- + ρk⎠
⎛ ⎞ ∂ui
∂xi – ------- Cε3
εk
-- μ PB Cε2ρε2
k
– ---- Cε4 ρ ε
∂ui
∂xi + + ------- –
Cμη3(1 – η⁄ η0)
1 + β η3
---------------------------------------- ρ ε2
k
---------
η Skε
≡--
C apt 2 TURBULENCE MODELLING OPTIONS
V sion 4.12 2-13
and , β
re empiric
l coe icients, given in T
le 2-7.
Comp
rison o equ
tions (2-47)
nd (2-48) with their line
r st
nd
rd model
counterp
rts, equ
tions (2-34)
nd (2-38), reve
ls th
t the o vious distinctive
e
ture o theRNGk-ε v rsio is th additioal, last t rm i th dissipatio quat
io.
This is a mod ll d form of a t rm that aris s from th RNGaalysis ad r pr s ts
th
ff t of m a flow distortio o th turbul [2.2]. Not vid t from th
ompariso ar diff r s i th valu s of RNG k-ε mod l o ffi i ts from thos
of th stadard mod l giv i Tabl 2-6 o pag 2-10. Th RNG out rparts,
whi h ar obtai d as part of th d rivatio (with th x ptio of th ad β
v
lues which
re unique to this model
nd ixed empiric
lly)
re t
ken rom [2.2
]
nd recorded in T
le 2-7. The coe icient o equ
tion (2-8) is unity.
* = 1.42 or > 0
nd is zero otherwise
** For smooth w
lls: see “Velocity” on p
ge 6-3 or modi ic
tions m
de or roughness
e ects
The RNG model,

s origin

lly proposed, t
kes no explicit
ccount o
compressi ility or uoy
ncy e ects. In TAR-CD, however, these e ects
re
modelled
s in the st
nd
rd k-ε mod l. If r quir d, th orr spodig t rms a b
omitt d by hoosig a appropriat optio off r d by th us r it rfa .
Ch ’s k-ε mod l
This is bas d o th mod l d s rib d i [2.13]. Th dissipatio tim s al , k/ε, i
s th
oly turbul tim s al us d i losig th ε quatio i th basi k-ε mod l. I
Ch ’s mod l th produ tio tim s al k/P, as w ll as th dissipatio tim s al ,
is
us d i losig th ε quatio. Th laim for this xtra tim s al is that it all
ows
th rgy trasf r m haism of turbul to r spod mor ff tiv ly to th
m a strai rat .
Th mod l r omm d d i [2.13] tak s o xpli it a out of ompr ssibility
or buoya y ff ts. I STAR-CD, how v r, th s ff ts ar mod ll d as i th
stadard k-ε mod l.
Turbul ki ti rgy
(2-50)
Tabl 2-7: Co ffi i ts of th RNG k-ε Turbul Mod l
κ E β
0.085 0.719 0.719 0.9 0.9 1.42 1.68 0.0 or 1.42* –0.387 0.4 9.0** 4.38 0.012
η0
η0
f μ
Cμ σk σε σh σm Cε1 Cε2 Cε3 Cε4 η0
Cε3 PB
∂t
∂ (ρk)
∂x j
∂ρuj k μ
μ
σk
⎝ + -----⎠
⎛ ⎞ ∂k
∂x j ⎝ – -------⎠
+⎛ ⎞ =
μ PPB + ( ) ρε – 23
-- μ
∂ui
∂xi
⎝ ------- + ρk⎠
⎛ ⎞ ∂ui
∂xi
– -------
TURBULENCE
MODELLING
OPTIONS Chap e 2
2-14 Ve sion
4.12
Tu bulence issipa ion a e
(2-51)
The ecommen e moel coefficien
s a e shown in Table 2-8.
* = 1.4 fo > 0 an is ze o o hewise
** Fo smoo h walls: see “Veloci y” o pag 6-3 for modifi atios mad for rough ss
ff ts
Stadard low R yolds umb r two- quatio k-ε mod ls
For th stadard low R yolds umb r two- quatio k-ε mod ls (li ar ad
o-li ar), th xpr ssio for turbul t ki ti rgy giv i quatio (2-34
)
appli s. Th xpr ssio for th dissipatio rat [2.14] is as follows:
(2-52)
Th additioal t rm is giv by
(2-53)
is d fi d by quatio (2-8) with giv by
(2-54)
i whi h
Tabl 2-8: Co ffi i ts of Ch ’s k-ε Turbul Mod l
κ E
0.09 0.75 1.15 0.9 0.9 1.15 1.9 0.0 or 1.4* –0.33 0.25 0.4153 9.0**
∂t
∂ (ρε)
∂x j
∂ρ ujε μ
μ
σε
⎝ + -----⎠
⎛ ⎞ ∂ε
∂x j ⎝ – -------⎠
+ ⎛ ⎞ =
Cε1
εk
-- μ P 23
-- μ
∂ui
∂xi
⎝ ------- + ρk⎠
⎛ ⎞ ∂ui
∂xi
– ------- Cε3
εk
-- μ PB Cε2 ρ ε2
k
– ---- Cε4 ρ ε
∂ui
∂xi
+ + ------- +
Cε5

μ
2
ρ
-------P2
k
-----
Cμ σk σε σh σm Cε1 Cε2 Cε3 Cε4 Cε5
Cε3 PB
∂
∂t
----- (ρε) ∂
∂x j
-------
ρ ujε μ
μ
σε
⎝ + -----⎠
⎛ ⎞∂ε
∂x j
+ – ------- =
Cε1
εk
-- μ (P + PNL + P′) 2
3
-- μ
∂ui
∂xi
⎝ ------- + ρ k⎠
⎛ ⎞∂ui
∂xi
– -------
⎩ ⎭
⎨ ⎬
⎧ ⎫
Cε3
εk

+ -- μ PB –
Cε2 1 0.3 Rt
– 2
⎝ – ⎠
⎛ ⎞ρ ε2
k
---- Cε4
ρε
∂ui
∂xi
+ -------
P′
P′ 1.33 1 0.3 Rt
– 2
–P PNL 2 μ
μ
---- k
y2
+ + ----- e 0.00375Rey
– 2
=
μ f μ
f μ 1 e –0.0198Rey
[ – ] 1 5.29
Rey
⎝ + --------- ⎠
= ⎛ ⎞
e 2 TURBULENCE
Chap MODELLING OPTIONS
Ve sion 4.12 2-15
(2-55)
whe e y is he no mal is ance o he nea es wall an he u bulen Reynol s
numbe given by
(2-56)
The equa ion fo issipa ion is no solve a he nea -wall cell. Ra he , he
issipa ion, , a he nea -wall cell is fixe as follows:
(2-57)
whe e fo he nea-wall cell shoul be of he o e of 1.0.
Suga’s low Reynol s numbe wo-equa ion k-ε mod l
For Suga’s low R yolds umb r k-ε mod l [2.29], th k quatio is giv by
quatio (2-34). Th ε- quatio, how v r, is diff r t to that of th stadard mod
l.
H r , ist ad of ε is solv d ad its trasport quatio is:
(2-58)
wh r PB is giv by quatio (2-36), th o ffi i ts to by Tabl 2-6 ad
(2-59)
is th isotropi part of ε ad is z ro at th wall. This provid s a ov i t
sp ifi atio for th wall boudary oditio.
Th xpr ssio for us d i quatio (2-8) is
(2-60)
R y
y k
= ----ν------
Rt
Rt
k2
νε
= ------
εP
εP
2ν k
y2
= ---------
y+
ε˜
∂
∂t
---- (ρε˜ ) ∂
∂x j
-------
ρ uj ε˜ μ
μ
σε
⎝ + -----⎠
⎛ ⎞ ∂ε˜
∂x j
+ – ------- =
ρCε1
ε˜
k
-- Pk ρCε2 1 0.3 R˜
t
2 [ – xp(– )] ε˜2
k
– ---- 0.0022
S˜

μ k2
ε˜ -------------
∂2ui
∂x j ∂xk
----------------
⎝ ⎠
⎜ ⎟
⎛ ⎞2
+ +
Cε3
ε˜
k
-- μ PB Cε4ρε˜ ∂ui
∂xi
+ ------- + Sε
Cε1 Cε4
Pk – ui′uj′
∂ui
∂x j
------- , Rt
˜ k2
ν ε˜ ------ , ε˜ ε 2ν ∂ k
∂xi
----------
2
= = = –
Sε max 0.83 k3 2 ⁄
2.5 ε˜ y
⎝-------------- – 1⎠
⎛ ⎞ k3 2 ⁄
2.5 ε˜ y
⎝--------------⎠
⎛ ⎞
2 ε˜2
k
= ---- , 0
ε˜
f μ
f μ 1
R˜
90
⎝-----⎠
⎛ ⎞
12
--
–
R˜
400
⎝--------⎠
⎛ ⎞2
= – exp –
TURBULENCE
MODELLING
OPTIONS Chap e 2
2-16 Ve sion
4.12

In o e o cap u e aniso opy in he he mal fiel mo e effec ively, he e is a
lso an
ion fo
op using
an algeb aic secon -momen closu e fo he hea flux. Thus, he
u bulen
hea flux is given in explici fo m, by inve ing a ma ix equa ion e
ive
f om a simplifica ion of he anspo equa ion fo he u bulen hea flux i se
lf.
In
i ion, he non-linea pa of he Reynol s s ess componen s is use in he e
a
y
iffusivi y enso . In STAR-CD, his explici u bulen hea flux hen fo ms pa
of
he sou ce e m in he en halpy equa ion.
The V2F mo el
Fo many
applica ions, he nea -wall u bulence effec s a e c ucial inp o ucing
accu a e solu ions, such as he p e ic ion of hea ansfe , skin f ic ion an f
low
sepa a ion.
The V2F app oach o mo elling nea -wall
u bulence is esc ibe in e ail in
[2.30], [2.34], [2.35] an [2.59]. I iffe s f om he mo e wi ely use wo-equa
ion
high- an low- Reynol s numbe mo els in ha wo a i ional u bulence quan i i
es
a e solve , , he wall-no mal u bulence in ensi y an f22, a e is ibu ion e
m in
he equaion. The V2F mo el isclaime o be vali h oughou he flow omain
while au oma icallymo elling egion close o soli su faces.
he
The
o iginal
V2F mo el,
evelope
by Du bin
[2.30], is base on he Reynol s
s ess
mo el an DNS
a a. I was
esigne o han le
wall effec s in u bulen
boun a y laye
s an o accommo a e non-local effec s. The V2F mo el
inco po a e in STAR-CD has been imp ove ogive a mo e accu a e p e ic ion of
nea -wall flows, inclu ing sepa a ion, hea ansfe an wall f ic ion. The mo e
l
con ains seve al a van ageous fea u es. Fi s , espi e being a low Reynol s numb
e
moel, i oes no equi e wall is ance; a quan i y ha is ifficul an cos l
y o
calcula e, especially in complica e geome ies. In a i ion, no amping func io
n is
nee e o a jus he behaviou of u bulence quan i ies. In his mo el, h ee

anspo equa ions fo u bulence quan i ies, k, ε ad ar solv d. I additio, a

llipti quatio for f22, th r distributio t rm i th quatio, is d d to
a out for ar-wall ad o-lo al ff ts.
Th gov rig quatios for k, ε, ad f22 ar giv i [2.35] as follows:
Turbul ki ti rgy
(2-61)
Turbul dissipatio rat
(2-62)
v2
v2
v2
v2
v2
∂
∂t ---- (ρk) ∂
∂x
j ------- ρ uj k μ
μ
σk
⎝ + -----⎠
⎛ ⎞ ∂k
∂x
j + – ------- =
μ P PB + ( ) ρε – 23-- μ
∂ui
∂xi ⎝ ------- + ρk⎠
⎛ ⎞ ∂ui
∂xi – -------
∂
∂
---- (ρε) ∂
∂x j
-------
ρ ujε μ
μ
σε
⎝ + -----⎠
⎛ ⎞ ∂ε
∂x j
+ – ------- =
Cε1
z
Ts
-------
μ P 23
-- μ
∂ui
∂xi
⎝ ------- + ρk⎠
⎛ ⎞ ∂ui
∂xi
– -------
Cε2
Ts
–------- ρ ε
V sion 4.12 2-17
v2 quation
(2-63)
f22 quation
(2-64)
is t Laplacian op ato .

T l ngt scal (L) and tim scal (T) a as giv n in [2.59]
(2-65)
and
(2-66)

T ddy viscosity is calculat d f om
(2-67)

T mod l co ffici nts a as s on in Tabl 2-9
and
(2-68)
k-ω mod ls
Dfining ω as
t g n al fo m of t k and
ω quations is as follo s:
Tabl 2-9: Co ffici nts of t V2F Tu bul nc Mod l
0.22 1.0 1.3 1.4 1.9 1.4 0.3 0.23 70.0
∂
∂t ---- (ρv2) ∂
∂x
j ------- ρ uj v2 μ
μ
σk
⎝ + -----⎠
⎛ ⎞ ∂v2
∂x j + – ------- ρ k f 22 6ρ v2
εk
= – --
L2 ∇2 f 22 – f 22
(1 – C1)
T
------------------- 23
--
v2
k
⎝ – ----⎠
⎛⎞ C2
μ P
ρk
– -------- 5
v2 ⁄ k
T
= – -------------
∇2 ≡ ∇ ⋅ ∇
L CL max L Cη
ν3
ε
⎝-----⎠
⎛ ⎞
1 ⁄ 4
= , L min k3 ⁄ 2
ε
---------- 1
3
------k3 2 ⁄
v2
---------- 1
Cμ S
= , --------------
T min T 0.6
3
⎝------⎠
⎛ ⎞k
v2
---- 1
Cμ S
-------------- , = T max kε
-- 6 νε
⎝--⎠
⎛ ⎞ 1 ⁄ 2
=,
μ = ρ Cμ v2T
Cμ σk σε Cε1 Cε2 C1 C2 CL Cη
Cε1
z = 1 + 0.045 k ⁄ v2
ω = ε ⁄ Cμk
TURBULENCE
MODELLING
OPTIONS Chap e 2
2-18 Ve sion 4.12
Tu bulence kine ic ene gy
(2-69)
Specific issipa ion a e
(2-70)
whe e an a e empi ical coefficien s whose efaul values a e given in
Table
2-6.
S an a k-ω mod l
Fo t standa d k-ω mod l [2.25], t closu co ffici nts and auxilia y lation
s
a giv n in Tabl 2-10 and quations (2-71):
(2-71)
In addition
(2-72)

T tu bul nt viscosity is giv n by
(2-73)
Tabl 2-10: Co ffici nts of t Standa d k-ω Mod l
0.52 0.072 0.09 2.0 2.0
∂
∂t
---- (ρk) ∂
∂x j
-------
ρ uj k μ
μ
σk
ω + ------
⎝ ⎠
⎜ ⎟
⎛ ⎞ ∂k
∂x j
+ – ------- = μ P – ρ β kω + μ PB
∂
∂
---- (ρω) ∂
∂x j
-------
ρ ujω μ
μ
σω ω + ------
⎝ ⎠
⎜ ⎟
⎛ ⎞ ∂ω
∂x j
+ – ------- =
αωk
--- μ P – ρ β ω2 + ρSω Cε3 μ+ PB Cμ ω
Cε3 Cμ
α β0 β0 σk
ω σω ω
β β0 β , β β0 β , χω
Ωij Ωjk ki
2β0( ω)3
= = = ------------------------- ,
f β
1 + 70χω
1 + 80χω
--------------------- , f β
1 , χk ≤ 0
1 680χk
+ 2
1 400χk
+ 2
----------------------- , χk > 0
, χk
⎩ ⎪ ⎪ ⎨ ⎪ ⎪ ⎧ 1
ω3
------ ∂k
∂x j ------- ∂ω
∂x j = = = -------
Sω
= 0
μ ρ v ρ kω
== ---
V sion 4.12 2-19
SST k-ω
mod l
Fo t SST mod l [2.26], t co ffici nts a xp ss d in t folloing g n a
l
fo m:
(2-74)
, a giv n by to s pa at co ffici nt s ts and
(2-75)

T co ffici nts fo s t 1 a giv n in Tabl 2-11 and quation (2-76)
it
(2-76)

T co ffici nts fo s t 2 a giv n in Tabl 2-12 and quation (2-77)
it
(2-77)
In addition
(2-78)

T tu bul nt viscosity fo t is modl is
Tabl 2-11: S t 1 Co ffici nts fo t SST k-ω Mod l
1.176 2.0 0.075 0.09 0.41
Tabl 2-12: S t 2 Co ffici nts fo t SST k-ω Mod l
1.0 1.168 0.0828 0.09 0.41
Cφ = F1Cφ1 + (1 – F1)Cφ2
Cφ1 Cφ2
F1
rg1 4 t
nh( ) ,
rg1 min m
x k
0.09ωy
----------------- , 500ν
y2ω
-----------
⎝ ⎠
⎜ ⎟
⎛ ⎞
, 4ρk
σω2
ω CDkω y2
= = ----------------------------- ,
CDkω max 2ρ
ωσω2
ω ------------- ∂k
∂x j
------- ∂ω
∂x j
------- 10–20 ,
⎝ ⎠
⎜ ⎟
⎛ ⎞
=
σk1
ω σω1
ω β1 β1 κ
α1
β1
β1
-------- 1
σω1
ω --------- κ2
β1
= – ------------
σk2
ω σω2
ω β2 β2 κ
α2
β2
β2
-------- 1
σω2
ω --------- κ2
β2
= – ------------
ω 2 (1 – F1) 1
σω2
ω ---------1ω
--- ∂ω
∂x j ------- ∂k
∂x j = -------
TURBULENCE MODELLING OPTIONS C apt 2
2-20 V sion 4.12
(2-79)

(2-80)
To-lay mod ls
As not d a li , t s mod ls apply t standa d fo m of “Standa d k-ε mod l
(lin a and non-lin a )” o pag 2-9 v rywh r x pt at vis osity-domiat d,

ar-wall flow r gios wh r a low R yolds umb r variat of th turbul
quatios is us d.
Th availabl mod ls al ulat k from th trasport quatio but obtai th ε
distributio from a alg brai fu tio. Th o ffi i t of th turbul t
vis osity quatio (2-8) is also a variabl i this r gio, i r asig mootoi
ally
from z ro at th wall to uity wh vis ous ff ts b om gligibl . This is u
s d
as a basis for swit hig b tw this mod l ad th stadard high R yolds k-ε
tr atm t, th d fault trasitio valu b ig = 0.95. This is ssary b aus
th variatio of approa h s uity asymptoti ally.
Th ε ad fu tios of th thr o - quatio mod ls adopt d, du to Norris
& R yolds [2.6], Wolfst i [2.8] ad Hassid & Por h [2.9], r sp tiv ly, ar gi
v
i Tabl 2-13, alog with th valu s of th mpiri al o ffi i ts mploy d. As
ot d i [2.7] ad ls wh r , v th s mod ls do ot p rform uiformly w ll ov
r
a rag of d madig appli atios. H , it was d id d to off r s v ral
alt rativ s i STAR-CD.
Tabl 2-13: ε ad Us d i Two-Lay r Turbul Mod ls
(y d ot s ormal dista from wall)
Mod l Turbul Dissipatio
Rat Fu tio
Fu tio Costats
Norris &
R yolds
[2.6]

μ ρ
a1 k
max (a1ω,Ω F2)
= --------------------------------------------
a1 0.31 , F2 a g2 2 tanh( ) , a g2 max 2 k
0.09ωy
----------------- 500ν
y2ω
, -----------
⎝ ⎠
⎜ ⎟
⎛ ⎞
= = =
f μ
f μ
f μ
f μ
f μ
f μ
ε k3 2 ⁄
l
---------- 1
Cε
R y
⎝ + --------⎠
= ⎛ ⎞
f μ 1 1
Aμ
⎝–------ Rey⎠
= – exp⎛ ⎞
Rey
k y
ν
= -----------
l κ Cμ
–0.75 = y
Aμ = 50.5
Cε = 5.3
Chapt r 2 TURBULENCE MODELLING OPTIONS
R yolds Str ss Mod ls
V rsio 4.12 2-21
R yolds Str ss mod ls solv dir tly for th R yolds str ss s [2.32],
[2.33] usig a quatio of th form:
(2-81)
wh r Cij is th ov tio t rm, Dij is th diffusio t rm, Pij is th g rati
o or
produ
tio t rm, Φij iscommoly r f rr
to as th pr ssur -strai t rm, a ρεij is
t dissipation
t m. T Dij , Φij a εij t rms i th abov quatio ar mo ll

as scrib b low.
Cov ctio t rm
Th cov ctio t rm Cij is giv by
(2-82)
Diffusio t rm

Th iffusio t rm Dij is giv by
(2-83)
This form ivolv s both a tripl v locity corr latio a a pr ssur -v locity
Wolfst i
[2.8]
Hassi &
Por h
[2.9]
[2.10]
Tabl
2-13:ε a Us i Two-Lay r Turbul c Mo ls
(y ot s ormal ista c from wall)
Mo lTurbul c Dissipatio
Rat uctio
u ctio Costats

f μ
f μ
ε k3 ⁄ 2
l
---------- 1
1 1
Aε
⎝–------Rey⎠
– exp⎛ ⎞
= ------------------------------------------
f μ 1 1
Aμ
⎝–------ Rey⎠
= – exp⎛ ⎞
Rey
k y
ν
= -----------
l κ Cμ
–0.75 = y
Aμ = 70.0
Aε 2κCμ
–0.75 = = 5.1
ε k3 2 ⁄
l
---------- CD1 f μ
CD2
Rel
⎝ + ---------⎠
= ⎛ ⎞
f μ 1 1
Aμ
⎝–------ Rel⎠
= – exp⎛ ⎞
Rel
k l
ν = ---------
l = κ y
Aμ = 34.48
CD1 Cμ
= 0.75 = 0.164
CD2 = 0.336
ρui′uj′
∂
∂ ---- (ρui′uj′) + Cij – Dij = Pij + Φij – ρεij
Cij
∂uk ρui′uj′
∂xk
= ---------------------------
Dij
∂
∂xk ------- – ρui′uj′uk′ – δik p′uj′ – δjk p′ui′ μδkl ∂xl
+ ∂ ui′uj′ ⎝ ⎠
= ⎛ ⎞
TURBULENCE
MODELLING OPTIONS Chap e 2
Reynol s S ess Mo els
2-22 Vesion 4.12
co ela ion an nee s o be mo elle . I is gene ally assume ha he con ibu
ions
of he p essu e-veloci y co ela ion ( an ) o iffusion
ae subo ina
e
o he iple co ela ion. By neglec ing hese e ms, he ask of mo elling
iffusion is essen ially ha of mo elling . Two op ions a e available in
STAR-CD fo calcula ing Dij :
Gene alise G a ien Diffusion
hypo hesis (GGDH)
To accoun fo aniso opic iffusivi y, Daly & Ha low [2.18] p opose a mo el fo

he u bulen iffusion of a gene ic scala φ, i.e.
(2-84)
Applying this to the triple velocity correl
tion gives
(2-85)
where Cs is
coe icient with
de
ult v
lue o 0.22.
Eddy Viscosity hypothesis (EVH)
Lien & Leschziner [2.19] h
ve used the s
me isotropic di usivity concept
s
employed in the st
nd
rd k-ε mod l (Laud r & Spaldig [2.1]) to d riv th
familiar xpr ssio
(2-86)
wh r σk i iv n in T
bl 2-18
nd i c
lcul
t d from
Production t rm
Th production t rm Pij i
(2-87)
Thi xpr ion do not involv
ny
pproxim
tion
i
v
il
bl from th
olution of qu
tion (2-81)
nd th v locity r
di nt
r known.
Di ip
tion t rm
Th di ip
tion t n or which
pp
r in qu
tion (2-81) i obt
in d by
umin
i otropic di ip
tion, in which c
εij i iv n by
p′ui′ p′uj′
ui′uj′uk′
ui′uj′uk′
uk′φ Cφ
kε
-- uk′ul′ ∂φ
∂xl = – ------
ui′uj′uk′
Dij
∂
∂xk ------- μδkl + Csρ
kuk′ul′
ε ⎝ -----------------⎠
⎛ ⎞ ∂ui′uj′
∂xl ----------------
⎝ ⎠
⎜ ⎟
⎛ ⎞
=
Dij
∂
∂xk
-------
μ
μ
σk
⎝ + -----⎠
⎛ ⎞ ∂ui′uj′
∂xk
----------------
⎝ ⎠
⎜ ⎟
⎛ ⎞
=
μ
μ ρCμ
k2
ε
= ----
Pij ρ ui′uk′
∂uj
∂xk
------- uj′uk′
∂ui
∂xk
⎝ + ------- ⎠
= – ⎛ ⎞
ui′uj′

Chap e 2 TURBULENCE
MODELLING OPTIONS
Reynol s S ess Mo els
Ve sion 4.12 2-23
(2-88)
whe e ε is d t rmi d from a variat of th quatio us d i th stadard k-ε mod l.
This is giv as quatio (2-101) o pag 2-25, tog th r with th modifi d quat
io
for k.
Pr ssur -strai t rm
Th xa t xpr ssio for this t rm is
(2-89)
It has two primary rol s:
1. To r -distribut rgy amog turbul ormal str ss s
2. To sur that, as turbul is driv towards isotropy, th sh ar str ss
d li s
This t rm is of gr at importa i ay R yolds Str ss losur ad its mod lli
g is
th r for ru ial to th su ss of th ov rall mod l. Th thr Φij mo ls
impl m t i STAR-CD ar as follows:
Gibso & Lau r mo l

I this mo l [2.20], Φij is xpr ss as th sum of thr t rms:
(2-90)
I th abov , Φij1 is usually r f rr to as th slow or ‘r tur-to-isotropy’ t rm, Φij2

is th rapi t rm a Φijw ar th wall
r fl ctio t rms.
Rotta’s proposal [2.21] for Φij1 is a opt :
(2-91)
or Φij2, th s co of Lau r, R c &Ro i’s mo l [2.22], th so-call

Isotropisatio of Pro uctio mo l, is a opt . Thus Φij2 is r pr s t as
(2-92)
Th thir t rm, Φijw, is i th proximity of a wall to cout ract th t
cy
of Φij1 +Φij2 to isotropis th turbul c structur . Th wall r fl ctio t rm Φijw
corr spo ig to Φij1 propos by Shir [2.23] is as follows:
(2-93)
l is th ormal
wh r is th u it v ctor ormal to th wall,
ista c to th wall a is a turbul c l gth scal . A wall r fl ctio

εij
2
3
= -- δij ε
Φij p′
∂ui′
∂x j
---------
∂uj′
∂xi
⎝ + --------- ⎠
= ⎛ ⎞
Φij = Φij1 + Φij2 + Φijw
Φij1 ρ C1
εk
-- ui′uj′ 1
3
= – ( – -- δij uk′uk′)
Φij2 C2 Pij
1
3
= – ( – -- δij Pkk)
Φijw1 C1w
ρε
k
------ uk′um′ nk nm δij
3
2
-- ui′uk′ j k
3
2
– – -- uj′uk′ i k ⎝ ⎠
⎛ ⎞l
2.5ln
⎝----------- ⎠
= ⎛ ⎞
n = (n1, n2, n3)
l = k3 ⁄ 2 ⁄ ε
TURBULENCE MODELLING OPTIONS Chapt r 2
2-24 V rsio 4.12
t rm orr spodig to Φij2 was propos by Gibso & Lau r a is giv by
(2-94)
Th valus of th co ffici ts C1, tc. ar giv i Tabl 2-14.
Craft mo l
I this mo l [2.29], th rapi part of th wall r fl ctio t rm tak s th form:
(2-95)
wh r
(2-96)
Th valu s of th co ffici ts ar giv i Tabl 2-15.
Sp zial , Sarkar & Gatski mo l
Th xpr ssio for Φij i this mo l [2.24] is giv by
(2-97)
bij, th aisotropy t sor, is giv by
Tabl 2-14: Co ffici ts of th Gibso & Lau r Mo l
1.8 0.6 0.5 0.3
Tabl 2-15: Co ffici ts of th Craft Mo l
–0.044 –0.08 0.6
Φijw2 C2w Φkm2 k m δij
3
2
– -- Φik2 j k 3
2
– -- Φjk2 i k ⎝ ⎠
⎛ ⎞l
2.5ln
⎝----------- ⎠
= ⎛ ⎞
C1 C2 C1w C2w
Φijw2
Φijw2 ρC2C1
∂ul
∂xm
--------- ul′um′ nqnqδ= ( ij – 3ij) l ⁄ (2.5l)
+ ρC2C2 k alm
∂uk
∂xm --------- nl nk δij
32
--
∂ui
∂xm --------- l j – 32
--
∂uj
∂xm ⎝ – --------- nl ni⎠
⎛ ⎞ l ⁄ (2.5ln)
+ ρC2wC3 k
∂ul
∂xm
--------- nl nm ni nj
13
-- nqnqδ⎝ – ij⎠
⎛ ⎞ l ⁄ (2.5ln)
aij ui′uj′ 1
3
= ( – -- δij uk′uk′) ⁄ k
C2wC1 C2wC2 C2wC3
Φij ρ C1 ε C1– ( + Pk)bij C2ρ ε bik bkj
1
3
( – -- δij bkl bkl) ρ C3 C3= + + ( – Πb) k S ij +
C4ρk bikS jk bjkS ik
2
3
(+ – -- δij bklS kl) + C5ρ k (bikW' jk + bjkW'ik)
R ynolds St ss Mod ls
V sion 4.12 2-25
(2-98)

, t p oduction of tu bul nc kin tic n gy, by
(2-99)
and
(2-100)

T folloing f atu s a not o t y:

• T a no all-topology lat d t ms
• Aquad atic slo t m it co ffici nt C2 is p s nt
•T is a p oduction-bas
d apid t m it co ffici nt t at suppl m nts

t lin a pa t of t slo p ssu st ain
•T is a vaiabl isot opic apid t m it co ffici nt
T valu s of t constants in t is mod l a giv n in Tabl 2-16.
Gov ning quations fo k and ε
STAR-CD solv s t anspo t quations fo t R ynolds st ss s and t tu bul nc
kin tic n gy k is valuat d f om t s st ss s. In addition, it is n c ssa y
to solv
a t anspo t quation fo t dissipation at of k. T l vant gov ning quat
ion is
(2-101)
is t diffusion t m. Again, tis can av on of to fo ms. T
anisot opic fo m is
(2-102)
as t isot opic fo m is

Tabl 2-16: Co ffici nts of t Sp zial , Sa ka & Gatski Mod l
3.4 1.8 4.2 0.8 1.3 1.25 0.4
bij
ui′ uj′ 1
3
– -- δij uk′ uk′
uk′ uk′
----------------------------------------------
aij
2
= = -----
Pk
Pk ρ ui′ uj ′
∂ui
∂x j
= – -------
Πb bij bij , S ij
12
--Sij , W ij
12
= = = --Ωij
C1
C3
C1 C1 C2 C3 C3 C4 C5
∂
∂t ---- (ρε)
∂ρ uk ε
∂xk + ---------------- – Dε εk
= -- (Cε1 Pk – Cε2 ρ ε)
Dε
Dε
∂
∂xk ------- μδkl + Cεερ
kuk′ul′
ε ⎝ -----------------⎠
⎛ ⎞ ∂ε
∂xl = ------
TURBULENCE MODELLING OPTIONS Chapt r 2
DES Mod ls
2-26 V rsio 4.12
(2-103)
D fault valu s for th o ffi i ts app arig i th aisotropi ad isotropi
formulatios ar giv i Tabl 2-17 ad Tabl 2-18, r sp tiv ly.
* For smooth walls: s “V lo ity” o pag 6-3 for modifi atios mad for rough ss
ff ts
I th abov tabl , , ar th o ffi i ts of th SSG ad Craft mod ls
ad , th o ffi i ts of th Gibso & Laud r mod l with ad without th
wall r fl tio t rm, r sp tiv ly.
DES Mod ls
Th followig s tios d s rib o - ad two- quatio turbul mod ls suitabl
for us with D ta h d Eddy Simulatio aalys s.
Spalart-Allmaras Mod l
Th Spalart-Allmaras turbul mod l [2.28,2.25] is a o - quatio mod l
omputig a turbul t ki mati vis osity by
wh r is a workig variabl obtai d by solvig th quatio:
(2-104)
with th followig r latios:
Tabl 2-17: Co ffi i ts of th R yolds Str ss Equatios: GGDH
formulatio
(GL) (SSG)
κ E
1.44 1.92 1.83 0.22 0.18 0.42 9.0*
Tabl 2-18: Co ffici nts of th R ynolds Str ss Equations: Eddy Viscosity formul
ation
(GL) (SSG)
κ E
0.1156 0.0655 0.0655 0.0986 1.0 1.3 0.9 0.9 1.44 1.92 1.83 0.42 9.0*
Dε
∂
∂
j ------- μ
μ
σε
⎝ + -----⎠
⎛ ⎞ ∂ε
∂x j = -------
Cε1
Cε2 Cε2 Cs Cεε
Cμ
IP Cμ
GL Cμ
CL Cμ
SSG σk σε σh σm Cε1
Cε2 Cε2
Cμ
SSG Cμ
CL Cμ
Cμ
GL Cμ
IP
νt
νt = ν˜ f v1
ν˜
∂t ν˜ U ∂x ν˜ + b1S˜ ν˜ w1 f w
ν˜
d˜
--
2
– 1σ
--- ∂x ν ν˜ + ( )∂x [ ν˜ ]
b2
σ = + + ------ (∂xν˜ )2
f v1
χ3
χ3 v1
+ 3
------------------ f v2 1 χ
1 + χ f v1
– --------------------- f w g
1 ω3
+ 6
g6 c3
+ 6
== = -------------------
DES Mod ls
V sion 4.12 2-27
T DES fo mulation is obtain d by placing t distanc to t n a st all d
by
d fin d as [2.54,2.57]:
(2-105)
is a DES constant and Δ the ilter width given y
(2-106)
where ,
nd
re cell ch
r
cteristic mesh sp
cings in
llsp
ci
l directions.
Toprevent
prem
ture onset o the LE mode within the ound
ry l
yer o

m iguous meshes, p
l
rt et
l. [2.60] h
ve introduced

correction to the
de inition o the dissip
tion length sc
le de ined y equ
tion (2-105) th
t depe
nds
on the v
lue o the tur ulent eddy viscosity
nd velocity gr
dient. The new
ppr
o
ch
h
s een n
med Del
yed DE . The new de inition o the dissip
tion length sc
le
when the model oper
tes in LE mode is:
(2-107)
where
(2-108)
(2-109)
Equ
tion (2-107) ollows rom
(2-110)
where
(2-111)
Term i on the r.h.s.o equ
tion (2-111) is equ
l to when the model
eh
ves in LE mode ec
use o equ
tion (2-105). There ore:
(2-112)
χ ν˜
ν
-- g r w + 2(r6 – r) r ν˜
S˜
κ2d2
= = = ---------------
S˜
S ν˜
κ2d2
+ ----------- f v2 S (2ΩijΩij)1 ⁄ 2 Ωij
12
-- ∂xjUi ∂xi= = = ( – U j)
d˜
d˜
= min (d, CDE Δ)
CDE
Δ = m
x (Δx, Δy,Δz )
Δx Δy Δz
d˜
d(1– d) dCDE = + Δ
d = 1–t
nh[(8rd)3]
rd
νt + ν
Ui, jUi, jκ2d2
= ------------------------------------
d˜
= min (d, d)
d d fdma 0 d C – DESΔ , [ ]
i
= –
⎧⎪⎪⎪⎨⎪⎪⎪⎩
–CDES Δ
d d d = – (d – CDE Δ)
pter 2
DE Models
2-28 Version 4.12
Low-Re correction
For the low-Re ormul
tion o the p
l
rt-Allm
r
s model,
urther correction t
o
the DE length sc
le is
pplied [2.60]:
(2-113)
The
ctor is computed
s ollows:
(2-114)
where
(2-115)

nd
(2-116)
The unction c
n e o t
ined rom the solution o the ollowing
lge r
ic
non-line
r equ
tions:
(2-117)
(2-118)
(2-119)
Equ
tion
(2-117) is solved iter
tively y the Newton-R
phson method; the
equili rium v
lue o is ~ 0.424.
The solution o equ
tion (2-114) (in terms o ) is shown in Figure 2-1 (see
lso
[2.60]).
lDE = ψCDES Δ
ψ
ψ2 min 102
1
cb1
cw1κ2 fw *
– --------------------[ f t2 + (1 – f t2) f v2]
f v1max 10–10 ( ,1 – f t2)
= , ----------------------------------------------------------------------------
---
f t2 Ct3e –Ct4χ2
=
χ ν˜
ν= -- Ct3 = 1.1 Ct4 = 2
fw *
fw * g
1 w3
+ 6
g6 w3
+ 6
-------------------
⎝ ⎠
⎜ ⎟
⎛ ⎞
16
--
=
g cw = + 2( 6 – )

cb1(1 – f 2)
κ2cw1 fw * cb1 f t2 –
= -----------------------------------------
fw *
ψ
Chapter 2 TURBULENCE MODELLING OPTIONS
DES Models
Version 4.12 2-29
Figure 2-1 function
-ω SST Tu bul nc Mod ls
T k and ω quations a [2.25]:
(2-120)
(2-121)
(2-122)
and t co ffici nts a giv n in “SST k-ω mod l” on page
2-19. The length scale of these models reads [2.56]:
(2-123)
This length scale is replaced in the dissipation term of the turbulent inetic e
nerg
transport equation b [2.56]:
(2-124)
where Δ is the DE ilter width de ined in equ
tion (2-106). The dissip
tive sourc
e
ψ
νt
kω
= ---
∂t ρ k + ∂x ρUk ∂x ν
νt
σk
ω + ------
⎝ ⎠
⎜ ⎟
⎛ ⎞
=∂x k + ρPk – Dk
∂ ρω + ∂x ρUω ∂x ν
νt
σω ω + ------
⎝ ⎠
⎜ ⎟
⎛ ⎞
∂xω ρα ωk
= + ---Pk – ρβω2
Dk = ρβ kω
lk – ω
k1 ⁄ 2
β ω
= -----------
l˜
= min (lk – ω,CDESΔ)
pter 2
DE Models
2-30 Version 4.12
term used or DE re
ds [2.56]:
(2-125)
Menter
nd Kuntz [2.61] recommend
correction o the dissip
tion
length sc
le
which is simil
r to equ
tion (2-107)
nd depends on the model lending unction
shown in equ
tion (2-80). According to this
ppro
ch, the dissip
tion term in th
e
tur ulence kinetic energy equ
tion is written
s:
(2-126)
where
(2-127)
k-ε Turbul Mod l
Th r l vat quatios ar :
(2-128)
(2-129)
(2-130)
wh r . Th l gth s al of this mod l r ads:
(2-131)
wh r Δ is the DE ilter width de ined in equ
tion (2-106). The dissip
tive sourc
e
term used or DE re
ds:
(2-132)
Blending Function
As discussed in the introductory section o this ch
pter, the DE tur ulence mod
els
Dk ρk3 ⁄ 2
l˜
= -------------
F2
Dk ρk3 2 ⁄
lk – ω
= -------------Φ
Φ max
lk – ω
CDESΔ = ----------------(1 – F2),1
νt
Cμ k2
ε
= -------------
∂t ρ k + ∂x ρUk ∂x ν
νt
σk k – ε
+ ------------
⎝ ⎠
⎜ ⎟
⎛ ⎞
∂x k ρPk Dk k – ε = + –
∂t ρ ε + ∂x ρUε ∂x ν
νt
σε
k – ε
+ ------------
⎝ ⎠
⎜ ⎟
⎛ ⎞
∂xε ραPk
εk
-- ρCε2
ε2
k
= + – ----
Dk k – ε = ρε
l˜
min k3 2 ⁄
ε ⎝----------,CDES Δ⎠
= ⎛ ⎞
Dk k – ε ρk3 ⁄ 2
l˜
=-------------
DES Mod ls
V sion 4.12 2-31
b av simila ly to RANS modls in c tain gions of t flo (suc as bounda y
lay s) and LES mod ls in ot gions (suc as s pa ation
gions). Sinc t
mod ls can op at in to mod s, ca ful andlingoft conv ctiv flux s is
qui d. In t fi st po t d DES simulations, ig -o d upind sc m s

us d [2.54,2.55,2.57,2.58]. Subs qu ntly, yb id (upind-c nt al) sc m s
int oduc
d to liminat num ical viscosity caus d by up inding in gions
DES b avs as LES [2.56]. T p s nt impl m ntation in STAR-CD li s on a
yb id sc m bas d on MARS and CD sc m s:
(2-133)
p s nts t Eul flux s fo DES, is t c nt al app oximation

of Eul flux s, is t upindapp oximation of Eul flux s andis an
mpi ical bl nding function.
T is function is d sign d to b 1 n DES op at s
in RANS mod and 0 n DES op at s in LES mod [2.56] and is obtain d as
follos:
(2-134)
(2-135)
(2-136)
(2-137)
(2-138)
(2-139)
(2-140)
Ω and a e the vo ticity and t ain, e pectively. The time cale i
given by
(2-141)
whe e and a e the cha acte i tic length and velocity time cale ,
e pectively.
FEul = (1 – f b) FCD + f b FMAR
FEul FCD
FMAR f b
f b h
CDE Δ
Xg
⎝ ----------------⎠
⎛ ⎞ – 0.5 ⎝ ⎠
= an ⎛ ⎞
Xg max g
ν + νt
KCμ
3 ⁄ 2 ---------------- 10–15 , LDES
⎝ ⎠
⎜ ⎟
⎛ ⎞
=
K max T0.5 0.1
τDES
⎝ ,----------⎠
= ⎛ ⎞
g = anh (B4)
B
2T1
max T 10–6 τDES
( , 2 )
= ---------------------------------------------
T1 = Ω max (Ω, )
T Ω2 + 2
2
= ------------------
τDES
τDES
LDES
VDES
= -------------
LDES VDES
TURBULENCE
MODELLING OPTIONS Chap e 2
LES Mo els
2-32 Ve sion 4.12
LES Mo els
The cu en implemen a ion
in STAR-CD is
vali fo ensi y-va ying,
non-iso he mal,low-spee flows (f ee s eam Mach numbe
≤ 0.6). When hefil e
efine in equa ions (2-1) an (2-2) is applie o he Navie -S okes equa ions
hese
a e ecas in he following fo m:
(2-142)

No e ha he iffe ence be ween he file ing an ensi y-weigh e fil e ing
opea o s amoun o he SGS ensiy fluc ua ions whicha e negligible [2.50].
In he above equa ion he
fil e e convec ion
e m nee s o be mo elle . This is
achieve by in o ucing he sub-g i scale s esses, efine as [2.36, 2.37]:
(2-143)
The fil e e viscous s esses a e w i en as:
(2-144)
whe e heSGS viscosi yco ela ions have been neglec e [2.52].
The SGS s esses a e mo elle via an e y-viscosi y ype closu e, which
assumes a linea ela ionship be ween he SGS s esses an esolve a e of s a
in:
(2-145)
whe e is he SGS u bulen kine ic ene gy efine as:
(2-146)
Smago inskymo el
The simples an mos commonly use e y-viscosi ySGS closu e is he
Smago insky mo el [2.17, 2.38].
I has been eive f om a local equilib ium
assump ion (p o uc ion an issipa ion of SGS u bulen kine ic ene gy a e equal
)
an has he following fo m:
(2-147)
whe e ep esen s he F obenius no m of he s ain a e enso, an is
aken as [2.39].The pa ame e is aken o be he squae of he classic
Smago insky
cons an (0.165) [2.38,
2.40] an can be
a jus e following he
ecommen a ions available in li ea u e fo shea e an f
ee flows [2.41, 2.42].
The
SGS kine ic ene gy is mo elle in STAR-CD acco ing o a closu e
∂
∂ ρ 〈ui〉
∂x j
+ ∂ ρ 〈uiuj〉 ∂p
∂xi – -------
∂x j
∂τij = +
τSGS, ij = ρ( 〈uiuj〉 – 〈ui〉 〈uj〉 )
τij 2μ sij 〈 〉 δij – 23
= --μ 〈skk〉
τSGS, ij – μ 〈sij〉 δij
23
= + --ρkSGS
kSGS
ρkSGS
12
= --τSGS, kk
τSGS, ij
13
–--τSGS, kkδij = 2ρCs2Δ2 〈sij〉 〈sij〉
μ
〈sij〉 Δ
Vcell
1 ⁄3 Cs2
k G
Ch
LE Models
Version 4.12 2-33
simil
r to the one devised y Yoshiz
w
[2.46]:
(2-148)
with the model p
r
meter set equ
l to 0.202. The su -grid sc
le tur ulent
dissip
tion is
lso de ined
s:
(2-149)
with o t
ined rom equili rium
rguments
s
. (2-150)
u -grid k model
Dep
rting rom the loc
l equili rium
ssumption,
tr
nsport equ
tion is solved
or
the G kinetic energy
s recommended y pezi
le [2.43] to derive
n
ppropri
t
e
tur ulence velocity sc
le:
(2-151)
where the model const
nts
nd
re derived rom tur ulence theory
nd
re
set equ
l to 1
nd 0.05, respectively. The kinetic energy thus o t
ined is then
used

s
velocity sc
le or the G viscosity [2.44, 2.45, 2.46]:
(2-152)
pr
y
tomiz
tion
In high injection pressure spr
y
pplic
tions, such
s diesel engines, the spr
y
is
injected
t
speed o sever
l hundred metres per second. The discrete ph
se in
the
low system (the droplets) c
n contri ute signi ic
ntly to the su -grid tur ulen
t
kinetic energy o the continuous ph
se (the g
s) y inter
ctions
t the inter
c
e
etween the two ph
ses. In order to model the tur ulent droplet dispersion

re
listic
lly, the droplet contri ution to the tur ulence level h
s to e t
ken
into

ccount. According to Bh
r
dw
et
l. [2.63], this contri ution c
n e represent
ed
y
n extr
source term in th
t equ
tion given y
(2-153)
where the summ
tion is over
ll droplets, is the dr
g orce given y equ
tion
(12-2) in Ch
pter 12 o this volume
nd the su -grid luid velocity. Using
n

pproxim
te deconvolution method, this velocity w
s o t
ined in [2.63]
s
(2-154)
k G = 2CIΔ2 〈sij〉 2
CI
εSGS Cε
kSGS
3 ⁄ 2
Δ = ----------
Cε
Cε 2Cs2CI
–3 ⁄ 2 =
∂ρkSGS
∂t
-----------------
∂ρ 〈uj〉 kSGS
∂x j
+ ---------------------------- – τSGS, ij 〈sij〉 C1ρ
kSGS
3 ⁄ 2
Δ
– ---------- ∂
∂x j
------- C2ρ Δ k G
1 ⁄ 2 ∂k G
∂x j
= + -------------
C1
C2
μ C2ρ Δ k G
1 ⁄ 2 =
W Fdr ⋅ u′
d Σ
= –
Fdr
u′
u′ = 2 〈u〉 – 3 〈 〈u〉〉 + 〈 〈 〈u〉〉〉
pter 2
Discretis
tion Pr
ctices
2-34 Version 4.12
Here, single
ngul
r r
ckets represent the iltering oper
tions
nd multiple
n
gul
r
r
ckets represent multiple iltering oper
tions.
Energy equ
tion
When the iltering oper
tor de ined
ove is
pplied to the energy equ
tion, the
convective term
g
in gives rise to G luxes, de ined
s:
(2-155)
which
re closed
ccording to
gr
dient-like
ssumption [2.51]:
(2-156)
with the tur ulent Pr
ndtl num er set equ
l to 0.9. The G sc
l
r luxes which

rise rom the iltering o
ny other sc
l
r tr
nsport equ
tion
re closed in
simil
r

shion, with the tur ulent chmidt num er set equ
l to 0.9.
Filter width
The
ove models require the de inition o the ilter width, Δ, which sep
r
tes th
e
resolved sc
les rom su -grid sc
les. In the inite volume discretis
tion, the
ilter
width is cle
rly rel
ted to the mesh size:
(2-157)
where V is the cell volume. In the ne
r-w
ll region the ch
r
cteristic size o t
he
energy-c
rrying eddies sc
les
s the ound
ry l
yer thickness
nd the ilter wid
th is

ppropri
tely reduced y me
ns o
mixing-length type d
mping unction [2.47]:
(2-158)
where
nd y is the dist
nce rom the ne
rest w
ll.
Discretis
tion Pr
ctices
The equ
tions o the Reynolds-
ver
ged models
presented in this ch
pter
re
discretised
long the gener
l lines descri ed in Ch
pter 4. The only noteworthy
pr
ctice is the c
re ul use o line
ris
tion o the source
nd sink terms o the
se
equ
tions,
s suggested in “Fin
l FV Equ
tions” on p
ge 4-8, to promote numeric
l
st
ility
nd
void gener
tion o non-physic
l v
lues, such
s neg
tive k or ε val
u s.
I LES m thods, th SGS mod l iflu s th r solv d s al s through th
rgy sik (sub-grid vis osity). It is thus ss tial to sur that o oth r
(um ri al) rgy siks ar pr s t.
STAR-CD Impl m tatio
Turbul mod ls ar d fi d as part of th ov rall pro ss of sp ifyig th
prop rti s of a fluid mat rial, as outli d i Chapt r 3, “Turbul Mod llig” of
th CCM Us r Guid . That d s riptio also i lud s ross-r f r s to appropria
t
FSGS, h, j = ρ( 〈uj 〉 – 〈uj〉 〈 〉 )
FSGS,
, j
μ
P
-------∂〈h〉
∂xi ≈ – -----------
Δ = 3 V
Δ = min(κ, Δ)
κ = 0.42
Chapter 2 TURBULENCE MODELLING OPTIONS
STAR-CD Implementation
Version 4.12 2-35
parts of the on-line Help sstem, containing details of the user input required
and
important points to bear in mind when setting up these models.
A summar of turbulence models currentl available and their e
characteristics is given in Table 2-19 below:
EVM = edd viscosit models; SMC = second moment closures; LES = large edd simu
lations; WF = wall functions;
HW = hbrid wall; 2LR = two laer; NeqWF = non equilibrium wall functions
Table 2-19: Summar of Turbulence Models
No. of
Equations
Model Name Variant
Constitutive
Relations
Near Wall
Treatment
EVM
0
Constant Turbulent
Viscosit
— Linear WF
User Defined
Turbulent
Viscosit
— Linear WF
1 -l — Linear WF
1 Spalart-Allmaras — Linear WF/LowRe/HW
2
-ε
Stadard
Li ar
WF/LowR /2LR/
/N qWF/HW
No-li ar
(quadrati / ubi )
WF/LowR /2LR/
N qWF/HW
R alizabl Li ar WF/N qWF/2LR/
RNG Li ar WF/2LR/N qWF
Ch Li ar WF/2LR/N qWF
Sp zial
No-li ar
(quadrati )
WF/N qWF/2LR/
Suga
No-li ar
(quadrati / ubi )
WF/LowR /
/N qWF
k-ω
Standa d
(Wilcox 98)
Lin a
WF/LoR /
N qWF/HW
SST Lin a
WF/LoR /
N qWF/HW
4 V2F — Lin a LoR
SMC 6 RSM
Gibson-Laund — WF
Sp zial -Sa ka -
Gatski
— WF
LES
0 Smago insky — Lin a LoR Damping
1 k-l — Lin a LoR Damping

C apt 3 GEOMETRY AND COMPUTATIONAL MESH CAPABILITIES
Int oducto y R ma ks
V sion 4.12 3-1
C apt 3 GEOMETRY AND COMPUTATIONAL MESH
CAPABILITIES
oducto y R ma ks
Int
T v satility and accu acy of an indust ial continuum m c anics analysis syst
m
a v y muc ti d to t fl xibility of t computational m s st uctu it mp
loys;
fo t is d t min s bot t l v l of g om t ical compl xity it can andl and t
dg of cont olit off s ov solution
of flo f atu s.

T function of t m s is to fit t bounda y su fac of t computational
domain and subdivid its volum into subdomains o ‘c lls’, used in the numerical
solution of the differential conservation equations of the mathematical model.
STAR-CD emplos a highl flexible mesh sstem that is probabl unique in its
combination of features. At its heart lies the STAR-CD solver’s abilit to perform
a numerical analsis in a mesh consisting of arbitrar polhedral cells, which m
a
be used for fitting local geometrical features to a high degree of fidelit or f
or
facilitating further mesh generation or optimization. Special cell shapes within
this
general categor include hexahedra, tetrahedra, triangular prisms and pramids,
all
of which ma be generated using pro-STAR’s basic meshing capabilities and are
illustrated in Figure 2-43 of the Meshing User Guide. More complex, polhedral
cells ma be created b pro-STAR’s advanced Auto Meshing module, as illustrated
in Figure 2-44 and Figure 2-45 of the same volume. Further still, grids containi
ng
cells of arbitrar shape ma be created in third-part pac ages and then importe
d
into STAR-CD. Examples of some of the man different tpes of grid that ma used
are shown below:
1. Unstructured meshes — These ma be shaped and joined face-to-face in an
‘arbitrar’ manner to fill an volume, however complex, such as the V6
engine mesh shown in Figure 3-1. Figure 3-2 shows an example of a
trimmed-cell mesh with a a laered cell structure near the model surface, as
created b pro-STAR’s AutoMesh module (see Chapter 5 of the Meshing
User Guide). The use of polhedral
cells to fit the same model geometr is
illustrated in Figure 3-3. Li ewise, the use of tetrahedral cells is illustrated
in
Figure 3-4.
GEOMETRY AND COMPUTATIONAL
MESH CAPABILITIES Chapter 3
Introductor Remar s
3-2 Version 4.12
Figure 3-1 STAR-CD mesh for V6 engine stud
Figure 3-2 Trimmed-cell mesh
Chapter 3 GEOMETRYAND COMPUTATIONAL MESH CAPABILITIES
Introductor Remar s
Version 4.12 3-3
Figure 3-3 Mesh with polhedral cells
Figure 3-4 Predominantl tetrahedral mesh
Introductor Remar s
3-4 Version 4.12
2. Embedded refinement, whereb one or more existing cells can be
subdivided in an manner to increase resolution. Figure 3-5 shows the use of
this feature to refine the mesh around a vehicle located in a wind tunnel.
Figure 3-6 illustrates the use of mesh refinement in an all-tetrahedral mesh.
Figure 3-5 Use of embedded refinement for vehicle aerodnamic calculations
Figure 3-6 Example of embedded refinement in an all-tetrahedral mesh
Introductor Remar s
Version 4.12 3-5
3. Arbitrar mesh interfaces, permittinga mesh-structure discontinuit across
the interface between adjacent mesh bloc s for both static and moving mesh
simulations. Figure 3-7 illustrates the ease with which complex-geometr

mesh generation can be achieved, b joining together bloc s of arbitrar

shape and internal mesh structure.
Figure 3-7 Illustration of discontinuous mesh bloc interfacing capabilit
Introductor Remar s
3-6 Version 4.12
4. Sliding motion between adjacent mesh bloc s, which enables STAR-CD to
be applied to problems involving large sliding or rotational movements
between parts, as in rotating machiner. An example of the latter is the
centrifugal fan shown in Figure 3-8, where part of the mesh rotates with the
fan blades and the remainder remains stationar. A powerful alternative
approximate method for simulating relative rotational motion is described in
Chapter 16, “Simulated mesh rotation”.
Figure 3-8 Illustration of sliding-mesh facilit for analsing centrifugal fan
performance
Introductor Remar s
Version 4.12 3-7
5. Mesh movement, in which the entire mesh or portions thereof can distort in a
prescribed time-varing fashion to accommodate, for example, boundar
motion. This is illustrated in Figure 3-9, showing the progressive expansion
and compression of a mesh (including the insertion and removal of cell laers
therein) within the clinder and inlet port of a reciprocating engine.
Piston position at top dead centre (TDC) — most cell laers deactivated
Intermediate piston position — some cell laers deactivated
Piston position at bottom dead centre (BDC) — most cell laers activated
Figure 3-9 Illustration of moving mesh for flow prediction in reciprocating engi
nes
GEOMETRY AND COMPUTATIONAL MESH CAPABILITIES Chapter 3
Mesh Topolog
3-8 Version 4.12
6. Dnamic addition and removal of cells, which facilitates control over mesh
resolution and distortion in moving-boundar problems. For example, this
feature has been used in the reciprocating-engine case of Figure 3-9 to
remove cell laers as the piston ascends, thereb preventing the laers from
becoming excessivel compressed.
In the remainder of this chapter, further details of the above and additional
capabilities will be given, along with some important conventions used in
connection with generating and indexing the mesh.
Mesh Topolog
Main cell options
As alread noted, the STAR-CD mesh can be made up of arbitrar polhedra and
this includes the basic cell shapes used in previous code releases, i.e. hexahed
ra,
tetrahedra, prisms and pramids. The STAR solver also accepts the special
polhedral (trimmed) cells generated b pro-STAR’s AutoMesh module (see
Chapter 15 of the Meshing User Guide). In all cases, the cells are assumed to be
straight-edged; hence, boundar surfaces are represented b triangular facets (o
ften
referred to as ‘shells’) because, for a straight-edged hexahedron, each face is made
up of two adjoining triangles.
STAR-CD can deal with a mesh entirel made up of an of the above cell
shapes, or an mixture of them. However, a laered mesh next to the boundaries i
s
alwas preferable from an accurac point of view, especiall next to solid walls
.
Hexahedral meshes are commonl used to satisf this requirement. On the other
hand, other cellshapes ma be more suitable for automatic mesh generation and
hence for a quic turn round in the model building process. The best compromise
is
to use automaticall generated meshes in combination with a laered mesh next to
the boundaries, such as the ones produced b the AutoMesh module (see Chapter
16 of the Meshing User Guide) and shown in the examples of Figure 3-2, Figure 3-
3
and Figure 3-4.
Normall, in a large portion of the mesh, the cells are joined face to face with
coincident vertices. However, the use of discontinuous meshes is also allowed in
the
two was described below.
Embedded refinement
Once the initial mesh has been produced, local or global subdivision of cells ca
n be
performed in quite a general wa to achieve the desired degree of resolution. Th
is
feature is useful both in the pre-analsis mesh generation phase and also as a m
eans
of readil improving the resolution after a flow solution has been obtained.
The refinement procedure allows one or more faces of a given cell, termed the
‘master face’ and ‘master cell’, respectivel, to be subdivided into an arbitrar
number of smaller ‘slave’ faces, as illustrated in Figure 3-10, which are then
assigned to smaller slave cells. Cell refinement can be performed on an of the
permitted cell shapes described earlier, with the exception of the polhedral sh
apes
that ma be generated b the AutoMesh module. It is also necessar that:
• The master face subdivision is such that an integral number of slave faces lie
within it
Chapter 3 GEOMETRY AND COMPUTATIONAL MESH CAPABILITIES
Mesh Topolog
Version 4.12 3-9
• Subdivided faces do not coincide with the surfaces of baffles (see “Baffles”
on page 3-10), or porous media, or partial cclic boundaries
Figure 3-10 Illustration of different modes of cell subdivision for embedded ref
inement
In addition to the above, an arbitrar number of further refinement levels is al
lowed,
in which the slave cells produced at the previous level become the master cells
for
the new refinement.
Further details of how the embedded refinement is performed can be found in
“Embedded mesh refinement” on page 3-7 of the Meshing User Guide.
Arbitrar mesh interfaces
This is a powerful feature that allows bloc s of dissimilar mesh structure to be
joined together along an arbitrar surface, as shown in Figure 3-11. This is ach
ieved
b relaxing restriction number • in section “Embedded refinement” above. It is
obvious that the embedded mesh interface is a special case of the general interf
ace
between dissimilar mesh structures.
The added freedom and ease which this feature brings to the process of mesh
generation can substantiall reduce the time and effort required to create numer
ical
simulation models. In particular:
• Components of complex models can be separatel meshed and then
connected together, as shown in Figure 3-7. Among other benefits, this allows
considerable flexibilit in accommodating design changes and also offers the
possibilit of team effort in building the model.
• It is possible to create the most appropriate mesh structure for each individual
section of a complex-geometr model, resulting in better overall mesh qualit
in terms of cell distribution, shape, etc.
• The time and effort required for multi-bloc meshing is substantiall reduced
because arbitrar interfaces in general require fewer bloc s.
• For applications involving cclic boundaries, the need for perfectl matching
mesh structures on both cclic surfaces is eliminated, allowing the use of
meshes which are best suited to the flow conditions.
• This feature is also available for dnamicall distorting and sliding meshes,
substantiall increasing flexibilit and reducing the effort required to set up
and control them. This is achieved b relaxing the mesh continuit constraints
across the sliding interfaces. Simulations of flow in rotating machiner and
other applications requiring this tpe of mesh place much smaller demands on
the user than hitherto.
1 2
3 4
1
2
3
1
2
1
2 3
4 5
Mesh Topolog
3-10 Version 4.12
Figure 3-11 Interfaces between bloc s of different mesh structure
Baffles
As is alread evident, an unstructured mesh can be fitted to virtuall an geome
tr,
including one involving ‘internal’ boundaries such as the shell-and-tube heat
exchanger depicted in Figure 3-12. In particular, there is no need in these
circumstances for the mesh to pass through the internal obstacles (although it c
an
be made to do so, if required), as is the case for structured meshes.
Figure 3-12 Shell-and-tube heat exchanger illustrating multi-domain and solid/fl
uid heat
transfer features
An alternative practice is available for internal obstacles that are ‘thin’ in one
dimension, such that it is neither necessar nor
desirable to resolve the thin
dimension b cells of the same or smaller thic ness. An example is depicted in
Figure 3-13, showing a duct bend fitted with turning vanes. The practice is to m
odel
the thin structures using shells of a particular ind called baffles. These are
identified as such during mesh generation and then appropriatel treated b
STAR-CD during the flow analsis stage. Baffles ma be either impermeable, in
which case the are treated as walls (both surfaces), or permeable, for which fl
ow
is allowed through according to a prescribed relation.
Shell side
(fluid A)
Tube side (fluid B) Tube wall
Chapter 3 GEOMETRY AND COMPUTATIONAL MESH CAPABILITIES
Mesh Generation Facilities
Version 4.12 3-11
Figure 3-13 Use of baffle treatment to represent thin turning vanes in duct
Baffles are defined in Chapter 5 as cell surfaces that are impermeable or permea
ble
walls. The flow through an location on the latter is lin ed to the local pressu
re drop
across it b a distributed resistance formula (see Chapter 8). The flow directio
n is
assumed to be unchanged during passage through the baffle.
For the purposes of
the fluids calculation, the baffle is considered to be of
infinitesimal thic ness and its two surfaces are treated as walls, with appropri
ate
boundar conditions permitting determination of the surface pressures on either
side. In the porous baffle case, these are directl used in the throughflow
calculation.
Where there is heat conduction through a baffle, the heat flux between cell face
s
on either side is obtained via the thermal resistance relation given in “Local Pla
nar
Resistance (Porous Baffle)” on page 8-3, with the surface temperatures provided b
the fluids calculation.
The FV forms of the equations governing flow, heat and mass transfer through
porous and impermeable baffles are solved in the same fashion as, and
simultaneousl with, those governing the neighbouring continuum cells. Note,
however, that the present version of STAR-CD requires that baffles should not be
located at boundaries, nor at solid-fluid interfaces (see Chapter 18, “Heat Transf
er
in Solid-Fluid Sstems”).
Mesh Generation Facilities
The degree of effort required to generate a mesh for a numerical simulation can,
in
relation to the other preparator steps, range from small to dominant, depending
on
the extent of geometrical complexit involved. Since STAR-CD is, b design,
applicable to the full span of geometrical complexit, it must be anticipated th
at
complex problems ma require considerable effort b the user at the mesh
generation stage.
Of course, automatic mesh generation, in which the user merel specifies the
surface topograph and some control parameters and the volume is filled with cel
ls
b the meshing pac age itself, is a wa of substantiall reducing effort and tim
e.
pro-STAR’s built-in Surface Preparation and Automatic Meshing modules (see
Mesh Morphing
3-12 Version 4.12
Chapter 5 of the Meshing User Guide) offer a perfectl satisfactor solution alo
ng
these lines. This is additional to several mesh generation tools available in th
e rest
of pro-STAR, described in Chapter 2 of the Meshing User Guide. The latter
allow
automatic generation in simple geometries and greatl facilitate the tas in mor
e
complex ones. This ‘tool it’ is continuall being expanded to provide mesh
auto-generation in increasingl complex circumstances.
STAR-CD is also able to import and use meshes produced b an external
meshing tool. However, for maximum flexibilit and ease of mesh generation, we
recommend the use of CD-adapco’s AutoMesh module mentioned above since this
is available as part of the pro-STAR interface The module can generate high qual
it
tetrahedral, trimmed or pe continuum
pol hedral meshes for solving industrial-t

mechanics problems, ta ing advantage of STAR-CD’s abilit to utilise grids that
include polhedral cells.
In addition to the four regular cell shapes commonl created b meshing tools,
additional shapes introduced b the AutoMesh module can be hexahedral cells that
have had corners or edges cut off, as illustrated in Figure 2-44 and Figure 2-45
of
the Meshing User Guide. Such meshes are predominantl composed of hexahedral
cells, with polhedral cells occurring at or near the model boundaries. The modu
le
can also produce cell laers next to walls. This tpe of mesh is particularl su
ited to
applications in which turbulent boundar laers are important.

The AutoMesh module provides STAR-CD users with a quic and efficient wa
of generating complex meshes in a fraction of the time it would normall ta e. T
his
greatl reduces the turn around time of the overall modelling process.
Mesh Morphing
Once a mesh has been generated, it is possible to modif its overall shape b us
ing
STAR-CD’s morphing capabilit, based on multiquadric interpolation theor [3.1].
In this method, the grid deformation is defined b a set of control vertices. Ea
ch
control vertex is associated with a displacement vector and a scale parameter th
at
affects the movement of nearb vertices. To generate the interpolation field, th
e
displacement ( is reserved for later use) at control vertex (i = 1, 2, ...., N)
is expanded as
(3-1)
(3-2)
(3-3)
where
is the expansion coefficient,
the position vector of vertex ,
the number of control vertices,
di′ di i
di′ φj(rij)j +
j = 1
NΣ
=
rij = xi – xj
φi(r) r2 ci
= ( + 2)k/2
j
xi i
N
Ch
pter 3 GEOMETRY AND COMPUTATIONAL ME H CAPABILITIE
Mesh Morphing
Version 4.12 3-13
the const
nt o exp
nsion.
The
sis, equ
tion (3-3), is c
lled multiqu
dric i
nd inverse multiqu
dric
i . The system given y equ
tion (3-1) is non-singul
r i or
ll
. I , the const
nt vector is used to s
tis y
n
ddition
l constr
int:
(3-4)
This m
kes the exp
nsion ounded or l
rge . The v
lue o is set to 0 i
.
olving the system given y equ
tion (3-1) or e
ch C
rtesi
n component o
gives
n interpol
tion ield:
(3-5)
which is constructed so
s to s
tis y equ
tion (3-1). Equ
tion (3-5) is ev
lu
te
d
t

ll vertex positions necess
ry or the purpose o de orming the grid.
The m
trices involved in equ
tions (3-1)
nd (3-5)
re dense
nd
str
ight orw
rd m
trix oper
tion would require O( ) oper
tions (
direct method
or solving
line
r system would require O( ) oper
tions). Fortun
tely,
n
O( ) method h
s een developed to solve the line
r equ
tion (3-1)
nd
ev
lu
te (3-5)
t
l
rge num er o vertex loc
tions. The method involves
conjug
te gr
dient method with
speci
l preconditioner [3.2], [3.3]
nd

st
multipole method [3.4] to
cceler
te the m
trix-vector multiplic
tion. This
implement
tion is
v
il
le in the current version o TAR-CD.
ymmetry pl
ne / Fixed pl
ne conditions
As
n
uxili
ry condition, the user c
n
dd ixed
nd symmetry pl
ne conditions
to

lter the morphing eh
viour. In the ixed pl
ne condition, the vertices elongi
ng to

pl
ne
re ixed while in the symmetry pl
ne condition the vertices on the
symmetry pl
ne move within the pl
ne itsel . An e ect simil
r to the ixed pl
n
e
condition c
n e re
lized y using control vertices ut the ixed pl
ne conditio
n
itsel c
n e more e icient. The movement o vertices ne
r the constr
int pl
ne
s is
such th
t they join smoothly with th
t o vertices on the pl
ne. The eh
viour n
e
r
the constr
int pl
nes c
n e ch
nged y
p
r
meter
s descri ed elow. These
constr
ints
re imposed e ore
pplying
equ
tion (3-1)
nd the user-speci ied
displ
cements
re tr
ns ormed to y solving
(3-6)
where is the norm
l o the -th pl
ne
nd is the num er o the pl
nes. The
qu
ntities
re tr
ns ormed
ck to together with other vertices in the grid
t
the end o the morphing process. The unctions
nd depend on the
ci
k = 1
k = –1 xi ≠ xj
i ≠ j k = 1
j = 0
j = 1
NΣ
x
k = –1
j
d′ x ( ) φj ( x – xj )j +
j = 1
NΣ
=
N2
N3
Nlog(N)
Lp
di di′
di sp xi ( )npnp T t p xi ( ) 1 npnp T [ + ( – )]di′
p = 1
NpΠ =
np p Np
di′ di
sp(xi) t p(xi)
GEOMETRY AND COM UTATIONAL MESH CA ABILITIES Chapte 3
Mesh Mo phing
3-14 Ve sion 4.12
const aint type and the continuity condition at the plane and they a e selected
as
follows:
He e:
(3-7)
(3-8)
whe e is the atio of the signed distance f om the plane to
and the pa amete . is a position vecto on the -th plane and is input
by the use fo each const aint plane. and in the above table denote the o de
of continuity of the mo phing field at the plane.
Solution steps
The solution steps a e configu ed as shown below to fit va ious mo phing needs.
Step 1
The cont ol ve tex displacements a e t ansfo med to acco ding to equation
(3-6)
Step 2
A modified ve sion of equation (3-1) is solved by a di ect linea solve and the
g id
is defo med using the esult with equation (3-5). Equation (3-1) is not necessa
ily
well-conditioned if la ge ’s a e used to define the p oblem. STAR-CD modifies
the p oblem by cancelling some of the cont ol ve tices until the p oblem becomes
well posed and can be solved efficiently. A di ect linea solve is used to make
the
p ocedu e mo e obust. As a esult of this, the p oblem size at this step is kep
t
elatively small (typically the ank of the linea system is less than 1000).
Step 3
Given the modification of equation (3-1) in Step 2, all cont ol ve tices may not
have
moved to the specified position. Hence, equation (3-1) is solved again with
eplaced by a esidual displacement vecto . Multiquad ic expansion with is
used as a default, plus an ite ative linea solve employing the fast multipole
continuous continuous
Fixed plane
Symmet y
plane
1 1
C0 C2
sp(xi) t p(xi) sp(xi) t p(xi)
f 0(l) f 0(l) f 2(l) f 2(l)
f 0(l) f 2(l)
f 0(l)
1 ; l ≥ 1
1 – ( 1 – l)3 ; 1 > l ≥ 0
0 ; l 0 < ⎩
⎪
⎨
⎪
⎧
=
f 2(l)
1 ; l ≥ 1
l3(10 – 15l + 6l2) ; 1 > l ≥ 0
0 ; l 0 < ⎩
⎪
⎨
⎪
⎧
=
l ≡ (x – ˙x0, p)(np ⁄ Lp) xi
Lp x0, p p Lp
C0 C2
i i′
ci
i′
ci =0
Chap e 3 GEOMETRY AND COMPUTATIONAL MESH CAPABILITIES
Poo -Quali y Cells
Vesion
4.12 3-15

me ho . This s ep can be fas if S ep 2 is one p ope ly an he magni u e of h
e
esi ual isplacemen vec o is small. Equa ion (3-5) is use o co ec he g i
.
S ep 4
Thegi is efo me again using
equa ion
(3-6)
o ake fixe an symme y plane
con i ionsin o accoun. The isplacemen vec o s a con ol ve ices a e
ansfo me
back f om o .
No e: In he on-line Help ex fo po-STAR
comman
MORPH, S ep2 an S ep 3
above a e efe e o as he fi s s ep an secon s ep, espec ively.

Examples
of
using mesh
mo phing echniques o a jus he ove all mesh shape
acco ing o cu en equi emen s a e given in Chap e 3, “Mesh Mo phing” of the
Meshing User Guide.
Poor-Qualit Cells
Under certain circumstances, the grid generated using STAR-CD’s automatic
meshing tools ma contain cells of poor qualit. In most cases, this is related
to the
qualit of the surface mesh; cells at sharp edges of the solution domain boundar

are usuall affected. In extreme cases, some cells ma be so bad that the soluti
on
method ma actuall fail to cope with them — for example, if the cell centroid fal
ls
outside the cell itself, if there is severe non-orthogonalit in the cell shape,
if the cell
has negative volume etc.
STAR-CD offers the possibilit of identifing (and rectifing) poor-qualit
cells. The identification and remedial processes in pro-STAR are described in
Chapter 3, “Microscopic chec ing” of the Meshing User Guide. The STAR solver
itself offers an additional, independent identificationsstem based on several
criteria; cells that fail an of these criteria are mar ed as “bad cells”. These are
then
treated differentl from other cells b using more robust, lower-order
approximations to the solver’s finite difference scheme. Thus, in order to avoid
adverse “bad cell” effects on stabilit, the numerical accurac of the solution is
locall sacrificed. If this is done at a few isolated cells, the effect on the o
verall
accurac ma be negligible; however, if man cells are treated in this wa, the
accurac ma be substantiall impaired. In the latter case, ou should tr to ge
nerate
a mesh of better qualit b going bac to pro-STAR or our original

mesh-generation pac age.
A useful tool for assessing the extent of “bad cells” in our mesh and therefore
the need for its possible regeneration is given in Chapter 22 of the Supplementa
r
Notes volume.
di′ di
Chapter 4 DISCRETISATION PRACTICES
Data Structure
Version 4.12 4-1
Chapter 4 DISCRETISATION PRACTICES
Data Structure
In a finite volume (FV) method designed for arbitrar polhedral control volumes
(CVs), the co called ‘face-based’ data structure is used. An ordered list of vertice
s
defines a face which is either common to two CVs (internal face) or belongs to o
ne
CV onl (boundar face). Cells are therefore defined b a list of faces that enc
lose
each of them.
The conservation equations described in Chapter 1 contain surface and volume
integrals that need to be approximated using one of the practices described belo
w.
To facilitate this process, certain geometrical data need to be computed and sto
red
a priori. The data contains cell-associated quantities such as
• cell volumes
• coordinates of cell centroids
or face-associated quantities such as
• surface vector components
• coordinates of the face centroids
• indices of cells on either side
While even a good-qualit mesh does not guarantee that a solution to the underl
ing
equations will be obtained in ever situation, a poor-qualit mesh can cause ser
ious
problems or even prevent ou from obtaining a solution.

CD-adapco’s meshing tools offer a number of chec s that provide the user with
warnings should irregular situations such as open cells, centroids ling outside
their
corresponding
cells, etc. be encountered (see Chapter 3, “Mesh and Geometr
Chec ing” of the Meshing User Guide). More information on mesh qualit and how
to influence it during the mesh generation process is available in Chapter 3, “Mes
h
Qualit Improvement” of the above volume.
In the following sections, the various discretization practices are described in
a
generic wa, with reference to an arbitrar face between two cells or a boundar
, or
related to an arbitrar control volume.
General Formulation
The differential equations governing the conservation of mass, momentum, energ,
etc. within fluid and solid sstems, presented in Chapters 1 to 12 of this manua
l, are
discretised b the finite volume (FV) method [4.1,4.2]. Thus, the are first
integrated over the individual computational cells and then approximated in term
s
of the cell-centred nodal values of the dependent variables. This approach has t
he
merit, amongst others, of ensuring that the discretised forms preserve the
conservation properties of the parent differential equations.
For the purposes of the FV discretisation, it is convenient to wor with the
following general coordinate-free form of the conservation equations:
(4-1)
∂t
∂ (ρφ) div ρ u φ Γ+ ( – φ gr
d φ) = sφ
DI CRETI ATION PRACTICE Ch
pter 4
Gener
l Formul
tion
4-2 Version 4.12
where u is the luid velocity vector; φ st
nds or
ny o the dependent v
ri
les
(i.e.
, e, k, etc.);
nd ,
rethe
ssoci
ted ‘di usion’
nd ‘source’
coe icients, which c
n e deduced rom the p
rent equ
tions. Note th
t the
convection term is equ
l to zero in solids.
ex
ct orm o Equ
tion (4-1), v
lid or
An
n
r itr
ry time-v
rying volume V
ounded y
moving closed sur
ce c
n e written
s [4.3]
(4-2)
where is the sur
ce vector
nd is the rel
tive velocity etween the
luid (u)
nd the sur
ce ( ). I V
nd
re, respectively, t
ken to e the v
olume
nd discrete
ces (j = 1, ) o
comput
tion
l cell (see Figure 4-1),
Equ
tion (4-2) ecomes
(4-3)
Figure 4-1 Illustr
tion o typic
l cell with centred node P
nd neigh our cell w
ith
centred node N
From here onw
rds,
pproxim
tions
re required. Be ore these
re descri ed or
e
ch o the three terms o Equ
tion (4-3), we rec
ll th
t the second term is spl
it into

the sep
r
te contri utions
nd due to convection
nd di usion, respectively,
nd e
chis expressed in terms o
pproxim
ted
ver
ge v
lues over cell
ces,
denoted y thus:
ui m1 Γφ sφ
ρ u φ
dt
d ρ φ dV
V ∫
(ρu φ – Γφ gr
d φ) ⋅ d
∫
+ sφ dV
V ∫
=
ur = u – uc
uc
Vp j N
dt
d ρ φ dV
Vp
∫ (ρ u φ – Γφ gr
d φ) ⋅ d
j
∫
j Σ
+ sφ dV
Vp
= ∫
T1 T2 T3
P
ce j
j
→
N
Cj Dj
( ) j
Ch
pter 4 DI CRETI ATION PRACTICE
Tempor
l Discretis
tion
Version 4.12 4-3
(4-4)
The
ce-
ver
ge v
lues
re
pproxim
ted y the v
lues
t the
ce centroid (whi
ch
needs to e expressed vi
cell-centre v
lues using
nother
pproxim
tion); this
step
represents the midpoint-rule
pproxim
tion o sur
ce integr
ls, whichis
second-order
ccur
te when the v
lues
t
ce centroids
re ex
ct or o t
ined us
ing
n
pproxim
tion o second order or higher.

The di usion terms
re
pproxim
ted y
ce-centred expressions o the
orm
(4-5)
where the irst term in the r
ckets represents the norm
l di usion etween P
nd
the neigh ouring cell-centred node N (see Figure 4-1)
nd the second term within
the curly r
ckets is the cross-di usion. The
pproxim
tions used to compute
ce
v
ri
le v
lues
re given in “ p
ti
l Discretis
tion” on p
ge 4-5.
In wh
t ollows, the in
l m
jor decisions required to complete the FV
discretis
tion, n
mely the tempor
l
nd convective
pproxim
tion pr
ctices,
re
presented
nd discussed.
Tempor
l Discretis
tion
In TAR-CD, only implicit schemes or time
dv
ncement
re used. This me
ns
th
t di usive
nd convective luxes
nd source terms (terms
nd in Equ
tion
(4-3))
re computed only
t the current time.
Two options or
pproxim
ting the time deriv
tive (term in Equ
tion (4-3))

re o ered. The choice depends on the solution
lgorithm used; see Ch
pter 7 o
r
det
ils o those currently o ered. In the c
se o IMPLE, predomin
ntly used o
r
ste
dy lows ut under some circumst
nces
lso recommended or tr
nsient low
simul
tions, the
v
il
le options
re:
1. The irst order, ully-implicit Euler scheme
2. The second order, ully-implicit scheme with three time levels (
lso c
lled
‘qu
dr
tic
ckw
rd implicit’)
In the c
se o PI O, which is optimized or tr
nsient low simul
tions, no choic
e is

v
il
le:
speci
l implicit scheme is used,
sed on the ully-implicit Euler
scheme
nd explicit de erred correctors, which results in
orm
l
ccur
cy lyin
g
etween irst
nd second order.
Recommend
tions on when to select
which
lgorithm
nd the
ssoci
ted de
ult
control p
r
meters
re descri ed in Ch
pter 1, “Numeric
l solution control” o the
CCM User Guide.
Fully-implicit Euler scheme
Under this ormul
tion, the term rom Equ
tion
(4-3) is
pproxim
ted using the

ssumption o line
r v
ri
tion o v
ri
les etween two time levels, thus:
T2 (ρ u φ ⋅ ) j (Γφ gr
d φ ⋅ ) j Cj Dj
j Σ
–
j Σ
≡
j Σ
–
j Σ
≈
Dj
Dj Γφ, j j
l (φN – φP) gr
dφ j
{ ⋅ – l gr
dφ ⋅ dPN}≈ [ + j]
T2 T3
T1
T1
pter 4
Tempor
l Discretis
tion
4-4 Version 4.12
(4-6)
where the superscript n denotes the time level. As
lre
dy noted, the
nd
terms in Equ
tion (4-3)
re computed
t time level n. The di erence scheme or

one-dimension
l situ
tion is illustr
ted in Figure 4-2 (
).
Figure 4-2 Di erence ‘molecules’ or tempor
l discretis

tion schemes
As is well known [4.4], this pr
ctice
voids
st
ility-rel
ted time step restr
iction
inherent in the otherwise
ttr
ctive explicit
ppro
ch, which ecomes p
rticul
r
ly
onerous in regions o sm
ll mesh sp
cing
nd high velocity or di usion r
te.
In principle, the ully-implicit ormul
tion
llows
ny m
gnitude o time step t
o
e used, ut in pr
ctice other consider
tions impose limits, i.e.
• or tr
nsient pro lems, must e sm
ll enough to limit the tempor
l

pproxim
tion errors to
ccept
le levels;
• or ste
dy-st
te
pplic
tions,
in which tempor
l
ccur
cy is not
consider
tion,
l
rge m
y e used to
cceler
te the
ppro
ch to the

ste
dy st
te. However, excessive v
lues c
n trigger inst
ilities c
used y
non-line
rity
nd interdependence etween equ
tions. An
ltern
tive
pr
ctice
v
il
le in TAR-CD is to dispense entirely with the time
deriv
tive term
nd iter
teto the ste
dy st
te with the help o
under-rel
x
tion,
s descri ed in Ch
pter 7.
ome guidelines on how to speci y or p
rticul
r circumst
nces
re given in
“Tr
nsient low c
lcul
tions with PI O” on p
ge 1-13 o the CCM User Guide.
Three-time-level scheme
As in the ully-implicit Euler scheme, the
nd terms
re ev
lu
ted

t the time level n. However, the term is
pproxim
ted using the
ssumption o

qu
dr
tic v
ri
tion o v
ri
les etween three time levels, thus:
T1
(ρφV)n (ρφV)n – 1 –
δt
= --------------------------------------------------
T2 T3
t
x
j–1 j j+1

- 1
t
x
j–1 j j+1

- 1
- 2

(a) ully-implicit Eul r sch m (b) Thr -tim -l v l sch m
δt
δt
δt
T2 T3
T1
Chapt r 4 DISCRETISATION PRACTICES
Spatial Discr tisatio
V rsio 4.12 4-5
(4-7)
This sch m has b fou to b mor stabl tha oth r popular s co -or r

sch m s but r quir s two ol solutio s to b stor i or r to comput th tim
rivativ . Th iff r c sch m for a o - im sioal situatio is illustrat

i
igur 4-2 (b).
This sch m is off with th trasi t SIMPLE algorithm. It is
r i co ju ctio
curr tlyappli o ly to th mom tum a cotiuity quatios a its full

s co -or r accuracy is strictly pr s rv o ly for co sta t- sity, o-movi

g
m sh cas s. It is th r for ot r comm for compr ssibl or movig m sh
cas s. Mor
tails o wh to us tra si t SIMPLE with
this sch m a furth r
r strictio s ar giv i Chapt r 1 of th CCM Us r Gui .
Spatial Discr tisatio
Th ma r i which th cov ctiv a iffusiv flux s ar xpr ss i t rms o
f
oal φ v
lues is one o the key
ctors determining
ccur
cy
nd st
ility, or
oth
ste
dy-st
te
nd tr
nsient c
lcul
tions. At the high Reynolds num ers o ten
encountered in pr
ctice, the choice o convective lux
pproxim
tion is p
rticul

rly
import
nt.
There
re essenti
lly two m
in cl
sses o convective lux
pproxim
tion in
widespre
d use, n
mely:
1. ‘Low-order’ schemes, which ch
r
cteristic
lly gener
te discretised equ
tion
orms th
t
re e
sy to solve, produce solutions which o ey the expected
physic
l ounds, ut sometimes give rise to sme
ring o gr
dients. The l
tter
e ect h
s come to e known
s ‘numeric
l di usion’ [4.5,4.6]. This is
orm
o trunc
tion error th
t diminishes
s the grid is re ined, ut
t
n incre
sed
cost o c
lcul
tion.
2. ‘Higher-order’ schemes, which etter preserve steep gr
dients, ut m
y result
in equ
tions th
t
re more
di icult to solve (
nd, in extreme
c
ses, m
y
provoke numeric
l inst
ilities)
nd/or h
ve solutions exhi iting
non-physic
l sp
ti
l oscill
tions (‘wiggles’). These oscill
tions m
y, in some
c
ses,
le
d to spurious v
lues, e.g. neg
tive species m
ss r
ction or
tur ulence kinetic energy. This o ten termed ‘numeric
phenomenon is
l
dispersion’ [4.7]. It tooc
n e diminished y grid re inement or y using
monotone schemes (e.g.
lending methodology).
The present pr
ctice in TAR-CD is to o er
ltern
tive user-selected schemes r
om
e
ch o the
ove c
tegories,
s discussed in the sections eginning on p
ge 4-6
,
long with some guidelines on their use (given, or ex

mple, in Ch
pter 18). For
this
purpose, the
ctors de ined in Equ
tion (4-4)
re rewritten
s
(4-8)
where
(4-9)
T1
3(ρφV)n 4(ρφV)n – 1 – (ρφV)n – 2 +
2δt
= ------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------
Cj
Cj ≡ j φj
F j ρ u ( ⋅ S)
j
≡
DISCRETISATION PRACTICES C apt 4
Spatial Disc tisation
4-6 V sion 4.12
is t mass flux t oug fac j and , t av ag valu at t fac , is ff ctiv
ly
int polat d f om s l ct d nodal valu sin acco danc it t sc m us d. T
fac valu s of auxilia y p op ti s suc as ρ and Γ are also obtained by
interolation, usually linear. An excetion to this is the treatment of density
in
suersonic flows, where one-sided interolation is sometimes used. This matter i
s
discussed in Chater 18, “Comressible Flows”.
The third term, , of Equation (4-3) may in general contain comonents
reresenting sources or sinks of the transorted roerty, as well as additional
flux
terms; the exact form deends on the deendent variable and circumstances. Fluxe
s
and other gradient-containing terms are aroximated in a similar fashion to the
and , while non-gradient quantities are evaluated using the cell-centred nodal
quantities. For convenience, the result of this rocess is written in the genera
l
quasi-linear form
(4-10)
Convective flux formulation
The differencing schemes given in the following sections are valid for all tyes
of
mesh available in STAR-CD.
Uwind differencing (UD)
This low (first)-order scheme selects the nearest uwind neighbour value for (se
e
Figure 4-3), thus:
(4-11)
This form ofinterolation reserves the correct hysical bounds on φ under
ll
conditions, ut c
n le
d to numeric
l di usion [4.5,4.6].
Figure 4-3 Node l
elling convention or lux discretis
tion
φj
T3
Cj
Dj
T3 ≈ s1 – s2 φP
φj
Cj
UD F j
φP
φN+ ⎩
⎨
⎧
≡
, F j ≥ 0
, F j < 0
face j
N–
P
Fj N+
Chap e 4 DISCRETISATION
PRACTICES
Spa ial Disc e isa ion
Ve sion 4.124-7
Linea upwin iffe encing
(LUD)
This is aspecially
a -o e accu a e scheme fo mula e fo
ape, secon
non-s
ucu e meshes an e ive f om a scheme o iginally p opose
fo
s uc u e meshes [4.8]. I esul s in less nume ical smea ing han he UD schem
e,
bu can p o uce solu ions ha a e ou si e he physical boun s on φ (i.e. numeric
l
dispersion).
Centr
l di erencing (CD)
The CD scheme, which is
lso second-order, simply interpol
tes line
rly on ne
re
st
neigh our v
lues, irrespective o low direction, giving
(4-12)
where is
geometric interpol
tion
ctor. This scheme
lso produces less
numeric
l di usion, ut c
n e dispersive [4.7]. It is p
rticul
rly recommended
or
use in direct
nd l
rge-eddy simul
tion o tur ulent lows
Monotone
dvection
nd reconstruction scheme (MAR )
MAR is
multidimension
l second-order
ccur
te di erencing scheme th
t
oper
tes in two sep
r
te steps:
1. Reconstruction
A set o monotone gr
dients
re computed using
multidimension
l Tot
l
V
ri
tion Diminishing (TVD) scheme. The cell low properties
nd the
gr
dients completely de ine
second-order
ccur
te sp
ti
l discretis
tion.
2. Advection
The reconstructed cell-
ce low properties
re used to compute the
ce
luxes or
ll
dvected properties using
monotone
nd ounded
dvection
scheme. This incorpor
tes
v
ri
le compression level which controls the
mount o second-order upwinding o the scheme without

ecting the order
o
ccur
cy o the sp
ti
l discretis

tion.
MAR does not rely on
ny pro lem dependent
p
r
meters to work properly

nd it
c
n
utom
tic
lly h
ndle
ll low pro lems
nd mesh types supported y
TAR-CD. However, the user c
n control the
ility o the
dvection scheme to
ccur
tely c
pture sh
rp discontinuities
in the low y setting the scheme’s
compression level to
v
lue etween 0
nd 1. Low v
lues or this p
r
meter resu
lt
in
comput
tion
lly e icient scheme
t the expense o sh
rpnesso resolution.
High v
lues improve the resolution ut result in
n incre
sed num er o iter
tio
ns
when ste
dy lows
re computed. The de
ult v
lue or this p
r
meter is 0.5 whic
h
is
compromise etween
ccur
cy
nd convergence r
te.
O
ll schemes
v
il
le, MAR possesses the le
st sensitivity o solution
ccur
cy to the mesh structure
nd skewness.
Blended di erencing
In this method
higher-order, non-monotone scheme like CD or LUD is lended
with the lower-order UD scheme to suppress dispersion. However, the lending

ctor γ i now u r- p cifi d, ivin
(4-13)
Cj
CD F j f + φP 1 + – ( )φN = [ + +]
+
Cj
BD γ Cj
CD/LUD (1 – γ )Cj
= + UD
pt r 4
Fin
l FV Equ
tion
4-8 V r ion 4.12
Evid ntly, thi pr
ctic will om tim involv om tri
l-
nd- rror
dju tm nt
for
optim
l r ult .
It hould b not d th
t TAR-CD
llow th u r to l ct from th
bov
option individu
lly for
ch of th tr
n port qu
tion olv d (
p
rt from th
mom ntum qu
tion , which
r
ll tr
t d in th
m w
y for thi purpo ). Thu
,
for x
mpl , it i po ibl to p cify th CD ch m for th mom ntum qu
tion
nd th UD ch m for th k-ε turbul nc mod l qu

tion . In th c
of bl ndin ,
it i
l o po ibl to p cify diff r nt γ v
lu for
ch qu
tion
nd to pr cri
b
p
ti
l v
ri
tion in th v
lu of γ ov r th comput
tion
l dom
in. om uid lin
on how to t
k
dv
nt
of thi fl xibility
r iv n in Ch
pt r 18.
Multi-dim n ion
l limit r for c
l
r bound dn
Multi-dim n ion
l limit r i
p ci
l TAR-CD f
tur int nd d to u
r
nt
bound d
nd con i t nt
n
ly i r ult . B
ic
lly, it d fin
nd c
lcul
t
uit
bl c ll-f
c limitin v
lu for th combin d hi h r-ord r conv ction
nd
cro -diffu ion t rm . In ord r to n ur bound d r ult , th limit r
llow on
ly
c rt
in l v l of hi h r-ord r contribution (impl m nt d
d f rr d corr ction
) to
conv ction
nd diffu ion in th di cr tiz d qu
tion . Th limit r i
ppli d to

ll
ddition
l c
l
r v
ri
bl r pr ntin ch mic
l p ci , combu tion mod l
ntiti , tc.
w ll
nth
lpy to
chi v con i t nt olution
nd th corr
ct
b
l
nc for m

nd n r y.
Fin
l FV Equ
tion
Th fin
l form of th di cr t finit volum qu
tion i obt
in d by ub titutin
th
v
riou
pproxim
t d t rm b
ck into Equ
tion (4-3)
nd th n invokin th
di cr ti d continuity qu
tion, which c
n b writt n

(4-14)
Th r ult, in it mo t comp
ct form, i
(4-15)
wh r
• r pr nt th ff ct of conv ction
nd/or diffu ion
• th umm
tion i ov r
ll n i hbour nod u d in th flux di cr ti
tion
•
nd
(4-16)
Th r xi t
n qu
tion uch
(4-15) for v ry comput
tion
l c ll ( uit
bly
modifi d, wh r n c
ry, to incorpor
t bound
ry condition ,
outlin d in
Ch
pt r 18). Th r
r
m
ny uch qu
tion t
d p nd nt v
ri
bl , wh n t
h
(ρV)n (ρV)n – 1 –
δt ------------------------------------------- +ΣF j = 0
AP φP n Am φm n s1 BP φP o + +
m Σ
=
Am
BP ≡ (ρV)o/δt
AP Am + s2 + BP
m Σ≡
Chapt r 4 DISCRETISATION PRACTICES
Tr atm t of Poor-Quality C lls
V rsio 4.12 4-9
cotiuity s t (4-14) is tak ito accout.
As scrib i Chapt r 7, th solutio strat gy i STAR-CD ivolv s it rativ

solutio of th s s ts. It is p rti t i this r gar to ot that th choic o
f
covctiv iff r cig sch m ca hav a strog b arig o th r liability a
sp of it rativ m tho s.
Tratm t of Poor-Quality C lls
U r c rtai circumstac s, th gri g rat usig STAR-CD’s automatic
m shig tools may cotai c lls of poor quality. I most cas s, this is r lat
to th
quality of th surfac m sh; c lls at sharp g s of th solutio omai bou ar
y
ar usually aff ct . I xtr m cas s, som c lls may b so ba that th soluti
o

m tho may actually fail to cop with th m — for xampl , if th c ll c troi fal
ls
outsi th c ll its lf, if th r is s v r o-orthogoality i th c ll shap ,
if th c ll
has gativ volum tc. (s Chapt r 3, “Microscopic ch ckig” in the Meshing
User Guide for a discussion of cell qualit criteria).
The STAR solver contains a diagnostic tool that can, at the user’s discretion,
analze a computational grid and mar poor-qualit cellsand their neighbours
according to a set of predefined criteria, such as the s ewness angle exceeding
a
certain threshold. The solver will then ta e special action for such cells in an
effort
to obtain reasonable (but less accurate) solutions even on a poor-qualit mesh.
In general, the effect of this operation is confined to the immediate vicinit o
f
poor-qualit and/or degenerate cells, so that its influence on the overall solut
ion
accurac is minimal. However, it should be noted that the mesh qualit metrics u
sed

to mar poor-qualit cells will be recomputed each time the mesh changes.
Therefore, in situations such as moving meshes, there can be a potentiall
significant computational cost associated with running the model.
Chapter 5 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
The Available Options
Version 4.12 5-1
The Available Options
STAR-CD contains built-in boundar condition options that cover the majorit of
practical situations. These options are selected using pro-STAR which provides a
level of spatial selection resolution ranging from individual cell faces through
to
entire surfaces. An phsicall-consistent mix of boundar conditions is
admissible. The boundar conditions on enthalp, it should be noted, are sometim
es
applied indirectl, via the prescriptions for temperature and species mass fract
ion
with which it is connected [cf. equation (1-11)].
The currentl-available options are briefl outlined below and described more
extensivel, where warranted, in the following sections.
1. Inlet (Prescribed Flow) — As at an inlet or ‘free’
boundar , where the
distributions of mass flux and fluid properties are nown.
2. Outlet — At which the gradients
of all variables along the flow direction at
the outflow surface are ta en to be zero and the exit mass flow is fixed from
overall continuit considerations.
3. Prescribed Pressure — Where the boundar pressure (static, piezometric or
environmental) distribution is nown and the direction and magnitude of the
flow are to be determined. STAR-CD also supports a radial equilibrium
condition developed for turbomachiner applications, where either tip or hub
pressure values ma be specified.
4. Prescribed Stagnation Conditions — Where the boundar stagnation

pressure, stagnation temperature and velocit direction are nown and the
boundar velocit magnitude, densit, temperature and pressure are to be
determined.
5. Non-reflecting Pressure and Stagnation Conditions — A different
formulation of the standard pressure and stagnation conditions, developed to
facilitate analsis of stead-state turbomachiner applications.
6. Impermeable Wall and Baffle Surfaces — At which the no-slip boundar
condition is either applied directl or, in the case of turbulent flow
calculations with certain turbulence models, via ‘wall functions’. These
include provision for wall roughness (details are provided in Chapter 6). A
wall or baffle moving at a nown velocit ma also be prescribed.
7. Slip Surface — This condition can be applied to a wall or baffle surface and
is usuall appropriate for inviscid flow calculations. It can also be applied in
other circumstances, e.g. free surface flows. The specification is the same as
for a smmetr plane, i.e. zero normal velocit and zero normal gradient for
all other variables except pressure.
8. Smmetr Plane — Denotes a surface such that all field quantities on one
side of it are a mirror image of those on the other side.
9. Cclic Boundaries — Refers to pairs of surfaces at which the flow repeats
itself, either in terms of all variables or some variables. The non-repeating
variables have similar profiles, but shifted b constant increments determined
from overall balances.
10. Transmissive Free Stream— This condition, which applies onl in a
supersonic ‘free stream’ of nown velocit, temperature, etc., allows oblique
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS Chapter 5
Application
5-2 Version 4.12
shoc s to escape without reflection, b application of oblique shoc theor.
11. Transient Transmissive — Applicable onl to transient compressible flow
calculations, this option allows transient pressure waves to escape, b
application of wave theor.
12. Riemann — This condition is based on the theor of Riemann invariants and
its application allows pressure waves to leave the solution domain without
reflection. It is valid for both stead and unstead problems.
It should be noted that poles and smmetr axes need not be explicitl declared;
the are inferred from the grid structure and other boundar conditions.
For applications involving heat and/or mass transfer, STAR-CD offers the
following boundar condition options at walls and baffles:
13. Prescribed Temperature/Mass Fraction — Enables the wall temperature or
species mass fraction distribution to be specified either on the inside or
outside surfaces of walls, with the wall resistance specified in the latter case
.
14. Prescribed Flux — Enables the distribution of heat or chemical species flux
to be prescribed, with a zero flux surface as a special case.
15. Prescribed Surface Reaction — This special boundar condition, applicable
to heterogeneous chemical reactions, is described in Chapter 10.
One-dimensional conduction/diffusion through walls can be represented b
suppling the appropriate ‘thermal’ resistance. Options 6, 7, 13 and 14 are availabl
e
at the surface of solid domains defined within the model. The thermal resistance
option is also available at internal solid-fluid interfaces.
Application
Some additional details and cautionar remar s are given below concerning the
application of the available boundar condition options. The method of
implementation within STAR-CD will, for the most part, be onl briefl outlined,
since standard FV practices are applied.
Different implementations are available, where necessar, for laminar and
turbulent flows. Further information is given in Chapter 6, concerned with bound
ar
conditions for turbulent flows. Other special subjects are covered in their resp
ective
chapters, namel:
• Chapter 9, where radiation boundar conditions are discussed;
• Chapter 10, concerned with chemicall reacting flows;
• Chapter 12, describing Lagrangian two-phase modelling;
• Chapter 13, describing Eulerian multi-phase modelling.
Whenever the boundar values of the
velocities and/or scalar quantities, such as
temperature or mass fraction, are nown (i.e. conditions 1, 6 and 13 in the prev
ious
section), the are imposed directl on the relevant boundar cell faces and the
flux
equations are appropriatel modified to allow the boundar fluxes to be calculat
ed,
when of interest. Conversel, when the boundar fluxes are specified (conditions
8
and 14) the are directl imposed, and the flux relations, appropriatel modifie
d, are
used to extract the boundar values of the dependent variables. In the case of
chemical species calculations, prescribed boundar mass fractions must sum to
unit and prescribed boundar fluxes must be such that the resulting mass fracti
ons
Inlet Boundaries
Version 4.12 5-3
lie within the expected phsical bounds.
Certain aspects of the boundar condition treatment merit further description,
specificall those relating to
• inlet, outlet, prescribed-pressure and cclic boundaries,
• transmissive conditions for compressible flows,
• wall boundar conditions for turbulent flows.
These will be dealt with in turn below.
Inlet Boundaries
In “The Available Options” section, two tpes of inlet boundar condition
are
described; one appling when the local mass flux distribution is nown and the
other when the stagnation conditions and flow direction are given. The wa these
are handled is as follows:
Prescribed inlet flow
At this tpe of boundar, the inflow conditions are imposed b the user; the fi
x,
among other quantities, the inlet mass flow. Here, it is necessar to distinguis
h
between the treatments for incompressible, supersonic and subsonic compressible
flows.
For incompressible or supersonic flow, the distributions of all variables apart
from pressure need to be prescribed directl at the centres of the cell faces on
the
boundar and the fluxes are calculated from them directl. As regards pressure
• for supersonic flow, it is obtained from the specified values of densit and
temperature;
• for all other cases, it is extrapolated from the solution domain interior
For subsonic compressible flows, the quantit specified at the inlet cell faces
is
either fixed velocit components or fixed mass flux. The choice between these
options is up to the user. The inlet densities are determined during the course
of the
calculations using boundar pressures and the prescribed temperature.
For the fixed mass flux condition, inlet velocities are imposed b either
• adjusting the velocit component normal to the boundar to give the required
mass flux, or
• adjusting all velocit components equall, to satisf the above requirement
and preserve the prescribed flow direction.
Note that the initial, user-specified densit and velocities are used to calcula
te the
fixed mass flux.
It is also possible to appl the inlet boundar condition treatment at locations
where the flow is outwards-directed or parallel to the boundar (i.e. a ‘free stre
am’).
However, the conditions at outflow boundaries are seldom nown precisel, so it
is
more usual to use one of the ‘outlet’ or ‘pressure’ boundar conditions described
below.
Prescribed stagnation conditions
This treatment assumes that the given inputs are the boundar distributions of:
Inlet Boundaries
5-4 Version 4.12
1. Stagnation temperature , where
(5-1)
2. Stagnation pressure , where
(5-2)
3. Flow direction (which must be inwards)

where V is the velocit magnitude, γ th r
tio of p cific h
t , ρ t d nsity, k t

tu bul nc kin tic n gy (flo d p nd nt) and t ∞ subsc ipt d not s knon
‘upst am’ conditions.
This information is used in STAR-CD to calculate the boundar velocities and
temperature, with the aid of static pressure values extrapolated from the interi
or of
the solution domain. For this reason, stagnation conditions are not valid for
supersonic inflow boundaries.
The flow direction is defined either as normal to the boundar or via velocit
direction cosines. For rotating problems, the latter ma be prescribed on the ba
sis
of either relative velocities in a rotating frame or absolute velocities in a st
atic
frame. The stagnation quantities themselves can be supplied ta ing into account
the
magnitude of either the absolute or relative velocities.
All other variables are treated as at a normal inlet, although caution is necess
ar
when imposing turbulence
boundar conditions. In such cases, one ma specif the
distributions of and ε dir tly (th latt r oly for thos mod ls ivolvig ε), if
th y
ar kow. How v r, si th iflow v lo ity magitud is ot kow a priori at
a stagatio boudary, it is ommo to sp ify th lo al l v ls of k ad ε idir
tly,
by s ttig th lo al turbul it sity, I, ad l gth s al , l, ad usig th
followig r latios, d riv d from quatios (6-41) ad (6-42) i Chapt r 6, “Il t
Coditios”:
(5-3)
(5-4)
This pra ti will sur that k, ε ad th turbul t vis osity, , will all s al
orr tly with , whi h is d sirabl from both th physi al r alism ad um ri al
stability poits of vi w. Mor ov r, th turbul it sity is d fi d usig th
sam v lo ity v tor magitud as that for stagatio quatiti s.
Ts
h(Ts) h(T∞)
V∞ 2
2
------- + k∞
⎝ ⎠
⎜ ⎟
⎛ ⎞
= +
ps
ps
p∞ ρ∞
V∞ 2
2
------- + k∞
⎝ ⎠
⎜ ⎟
⎛ ⎞
+ fo incomp essible flow
p∞
Ts
T∞
⎝-------⎠
⎛ ⎞
γ
γ – 1
-----------
for compr ibl (id
l
) flow
⎩ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎨ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎧
=
k∞
32
-- I2 V∞ 2 =
ε∞ Cμ
3 ⁄ 4 k∞
3 ⁄ 2
l
=-------------
μ
V∞
e 5 BOUNDARY
Chap CONDITIONS
Ou le Boun a ies
Vesion 4.12 5-5
Ou le Boun a ies
This ype of bouna y ea men issui able fo loca ions whe e he flowis
eve ywhe e ou wa s- i ec e , bu he con i ions a e o he wise unknown ( hey a e
,
of cou se, mainly e e mine by wha is happening ups eam). The ou le con i io
ns
a e es imae in wo sages:
1.Fi s , he is ibuions of va iables on he ou le plane ae evalua e by
ex apola
ion f om ups eam,on he assump ion of ze og aien along he
i ec ion of a line
joining he nea -boun a y cell cen e o he boun a y face
cen e. No e ha :
(a) The accu acy of his ex apola ionis epen en on how closely i
coespon
s o physical
eali y, i.e. he
flow shoul ieally be aligne
wi h heex apola ion i ec ion an mus no va y api ly along i . The
g ea e he epa u es f om his siua ion, he la ge will be he e o s in
he p e ice ou flow con iionsan hei ups eam effec
s.
(b)The ex apolaion p oce ue oes no fix he magni u e of he ou flow; a
fu he cons ain is equi e fo
his, base on
a mass flow
equi emen .
2. Secon , he veloci ies a e a jus e o give he equi e ou le flow a e. Th
e
la e is eihe
(a) specifie i ec ly by he use , o
(b)calcula e by STAR-CD o sa isfy ove all con inui y.
Wha eve he choice, STAR-CD makes a unifo ma jus men o he ou le
veloci ies o give he equi e mass flow a es.
The
following
cau ions mus be obse ve in invoking he ou flow boun a y
ea men :
• If mo e han one such boun a y is ecla e , he pa i ioning of he o al
ou flow beween hem mus be p esc ibe .
• Specifie mass flow ou le
s mus be applie in combina ion wi h a leas one
p essu e boun a y, in o e o sa isfyove allcon inui y.
• Calcula
e mass flow ou le s mus no beuse in conjunc ion wi h p essu e
con i ions a o he boun a ies, fo he o al flow willbe in e e mina e.
• Theabove wo ypes of ou le canno be applie simul aneously.
• In hecase of ansien comp essibleflows, his ype of con i ion can be use
only if he ou flow is supe sonic, fo he ou le mass flow is o he wise
unknown a p io i.
If inflow occu s ina ve en ly ove some po ion of a ecla e ou le (fo examp
le,
if he la e cu s h ough a eci cula ion zone), hen ifficul ies may occu . T
hese can
be ei he in ob aining a solu ion (because he p oblem is ill-pose , bo h physic
ally

an ma hema ically) o in he na u e of he solu ion i self, if one is ob aine .
When
STAR-CD e ec s such an inflow, he p oce ue is o se he no mal componen of
he local cell face veloci y o ze o, i.e. o assume negligible incoming flux of
mass,
momen um an o he quan i ies. Clea ly, his p ac ice is somewha a bi a y an

may esul in e oneous esul s. Neve heless, i oes have he me i of of en
p oucing a solu ion when al e na ive p ac ices, such as e aining he ze o g a
ien
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS Chape 5
P esc ibe -P essu e Boun a ies
5-6 Vesion 4.12
assump
ion, fail. Of cou se, he solu ion, if ob aine , mus be viewe
wi h ue
cau ion. If he e a e se ious oub s abou i s vali i y, he boun a y shoul i e
ally be
eloca e o an al e na ive con i ion such as ‘p esc ibe p essu e’ impose .
P esc ibe -Pessu e Boun aies
The ea men of p esc ibe (s a ic, piezome ic, o envi onmen al) p essu e
boun
a ies enables he use o specify he p essu e is ibu ion. Thus, fo his
ype
of boun a y, he p essu es a he boun a y cell faces a e assume known. To ob a
in
he veloci
iesa hese faces, woop ions a e p ovi e :
1. In he fi s op ion, he veloci ies a hese cell faces a e linke o he loc
al
p essu

ien sby
e g a special momen um equa ions, whose coefficien
sa e
equa e o hose a he cellcen e. These equa ions, oge he wi h he
con inui y cons ain , effec ively allow
he
magni u e an i
ec ion of he
local flow (which may be inwa
s o ou wa
s) o be calcula e .
2. In hesecon op ion, all hee veloci y componen s ae specifie in any
convenien local coo ina e sysem. The coe uses hese o calculae he wo
componens ha ae angen ial o he bouna y su face. The veloci y
componen
no mal o he su
face is hen ob aine by
ex apola ion f om he
in e io of he solu ion omain, using he same meho asop ion If
1.
necessa y, a local swi l componen can be specifie fo a ing o he h ee
veloci y componen
s.
A fu he op ion allows ex apola ion of a p essu e p ofile f om he in e io wh
ile
main aining he pesc ibe mean piezome ic p essu e. Envi onmen al p essu e
(base
on ei he he s a ic o piezome ic p essu e) may also be selec e , whe e
o al
p essu e is main aine a a p esc ibe value if he e is flow en e ing he omai
n.
Since
he use of a special momen um equaion elies onlocal pessu e g a ien s
an on ze o-o e ex apola ion of momen um coefficien s f om he cell cen es,
he
esul ing p oce u e is sensi ive o he mesh opology nex o he p essu e boun
a y.
To ob ain a s able/conve gen soluion, i maybecome necessa y oex u e he
mesh
by wo cell laye s in a i ec ion no mal o he p essu e boun a y, an hen
o
shif he boun a y loca ion o he e ge of he newly c ea e mesh.
If he flow is i ec e inwa s, he boun a y values of scala quan i ies, such
as
he u bulence pa ame e s an empe a u e, a e assigne use -specifie values. I
n
he case
of ou flow, he zeo g a ien assump use in heoule boun a y
ion
p oce u eis employe oex apola e f om he in eio . No e ha a
p esc ibe -p essu e boun a ies STAR-CD allows he u bulence pa ame e s o be
specifie
in e ms of u bulence in ensi
only y an leng hscale, o avoi he
po en ial pi falls esc ibe in “P esc ibe s agna ion con i ions” on page 5-3.
Alternativel, an option is available whereb STAR-CD obtains the boundar
values of the turbulence quantities b extrapolation from the interior.
For turbomachiner problems, there is also an option for imposing a radial
pressure distribution that satisfies radial equilibrium. This ma be expressed a
s
(5-5)
where p is the static pressure, r the radius relative to the axis of rotation, ρ t
∂p
∂ ------ ρ
uθ 2
r
= -----
Non-reflecting Pressure and Stagnation Boundaries
Version 4.12 5-7
density and the circumferential velocity component. In such cases, it is
necessary to supply a static pressure value at either the tip or the hub of the
turbo
machine. STAR-CD subseuently builds the pressure distribution across the
boundary automatically based on the current values of . This process relies on a
n
integration of Euation (5-5) over a number of uniform intervals spanning the
boundary region. The default number of intervals is 50 but users can adjust this
to
suit their needs. It is also important to remember that only one pressure bounda
ry of
the radial euilibrium type may be defined in a given model.
In general, any number of pressure boundaries may be specified and they may
coexist with any other boundary types apart from outlets with unspecified mass
flow. The latter are inadmissible because of their reuirement for an explicit o
verall
continuity balance (in the case of pressure boundaries, the mass flows are unkno
wn
a priori and are determined as part of the solution).
Despite the generality of this boundary condition, it does rely on the prescript
ion
of a realistic boundary pressure distribution, without which it may sometimes
produce implausible results or even provoke numerical instability. It is therefo
re
important that it should be applied either in regions where the pressure is expe
cted
to be uniform (or nearly so) or where the variation is known.
Non-reflecting Pressure and Stagnation Boundaries
These boundary conditions are intended only for steady-state turbomachinery
applications and also depend on the assumption that the computational domain is
periodic in a given direction (see the “Cyclic Boundaries” section below). The idea
here [5.3] is to obtain a Fourier decomposition of the boundary flow so that a
characteristic boundary condition can be applied to each Fourier mode. The numbe
r
of Fourier modes is user specified, based on accuracy, robustness and grid
resolution criteria.
In practice, the boundary condition ends up being divided into three components:
1. Average component — similar to the “Riemann condition” and “Transient
wave transmission” discussed later, in the sense that it too is based on
characteristic variables
2. Local component — its value is obtained by extrapolation from the solution
domain interior
3. Non-reflecting component — this adjusts incoming waves so as to remove
any reflections induced by outgoing waves. To ensure a stable solution, this
component is also under-relaxed by a user-specified factor.
The contribution due to the average component enables specification of the exit
pressure (for the non-reflecting pressure condition) and inlet values of stagnat
ion
pressure, temperature and direction cosines (for the non-reflecting stagnation
condition). Regarding the stagnation uantities themselves, they should be suppl
ied
in the same manner as for a standard stagnation boundary (see “Prescribed
stagnation conditions”).
Neither boundary type reuires provision of a full set of variable values. Only
those variables whose values need to be controlled have to be supplied.
Furthermore, these boundary conditions should not be applied in recirculatory ar
eas
of the flow field.
uθ
uθ
Fully Developed Flows
5-8 Version 4.12
Fully Developed Flows
STAR-CD also allows a particularly economical treatment of fully-developed duct
flows, wherein only one layer of cells is reuired in the streamwise direction.
This
can be achieved by imposing a (uniform) pressure boundary condition on the ‘inlet’
plane and a prescribed flow outlet condition on the outlet plane.
Impermeable Wall Boundaries
For these, the usual no-slip prescriptions for velocity apply. However, in the c
ase of
turbulent flow calculations with particular turbulence models, a special
mathematical representation of the near-wall flow is employed. This consists of
algebraic ‘wall functions’, hybrid wall functions, two-layer models or low Reynolds
number models that link the surface prescriptions to conditions in the interior,
where the differential conservation euations are applied. Further details are g
iven
in Chapters 2 and 6.
The heat transfer treatment also allows a temperature or flux condition to be
imposed at the exterior of an enclosure, with the effects of the intervening wal
l (and
external thermal boundary layer, if present) represented by a user-supplied ther
mal
resistance, assuming one-dimensional transfer. Alternatively, the thermal resist
ance
analysis can be replaced by a full solution of the heat conduction problem withi
n the
wall, as noted earlier.
The above boundary condition options are also available on baffle surfaces, with
the convective surface resistances calculated internally.
Slip Surface
A slip surface is impermeable to flow across it but offers no resistance to tang
ential
motion. It is a commonly employed boundary type in inviscid flow calculations, b
ut
can also be used in other circumstances. One of these is to represent the ‘free’
surface of a liuid as in, for example, open-channel hydraulics calculations. Fo
r
these reasons, it is available as an option in STAR-CD, imposed by setting the m
ass
and tangential momentum fluxes to zero at cell faces lying on such surfaces. It
also
implies a zero gradient (no flux) boundary condition on the temperature and
chemical species euations.
Symmetry Boundaries
Planar two-dimensional flows can be calculated with STAR-CD using a single layer
of cells bounded on its sides by symmetry planes, since there is no velocity
component in the third direction. An analogous treatment can be used for axially
symmetric flows, represented by a single wedge of cells, where the symmetry
conditions are now applied on the wedge surfaces containing the symmetry axis.
Cyclic Boundaries
These consist of pairs of geometrically identical boundaries at which the flow
repeats itself. This property can be exploited to reduce the size of the computa
tional
domain and associated computing overheads. A simple example is that of
axisymmetric swirling flow in a pipe (see Figure 5-1) where the flow is identica
l in
all axial planes containing the symmetry axis. Therefore, it is possible to solv
e in a
single sector made up of two such planes, declared as a cyclic pair.
Cyclic Boundaries
Version 4.12 5-9
Figure 5-1 Example cyclic boundary problem: axisymmetric swirling flow in a pipe
For accuracy reasons, care should be taken to
• use the maximum permissible level of central differencing in the tangential
direction (see the description of higher order differencing schemes on page
4-7); STAR-CD defaults to a 0.95/0.05 CD/UD blend, but this should be
increased whenever possible;
• set the wedge angle so as to maintain reasonable cell aspect ratios in planes
perpendicular to the symmetry axis.
Scalar uantities, such as pressure and temperature, are identical at correspond
ing
points on cyclic boundaries. The Cartesian velocity components are also identica
l,
apart from being rotated to ensure the same orientation relative to each boundar
y.
In STAR-CD, these operations are all performed automatically at declared cyclic
pairs.
Note that the mesh need not be cyclic. Moreover, it is possible to declare as
cyclic any pair of boundaries, each boundary being composed of one or more cell
faces, provided that the boundary shapes are the same. Of course, it is also up
to the
user to ensure that the declared surfaces are indeed ones where the flow repeats
itself; the calculation procedure will attempt to impose this constraint regardl
ess of
whether it exists in reality.
Pairs of cyclic boundaries may also be declared as partially cyclic if not all
variables are identical. In these circumstances, some variables such as pressure
and
temperature have similar profiles that differ by fixed increments (hence the nam
e
‘partial cyclic’). Either mass flow or pressure drop between such pairs can be
prescribed, giving cyclic behaviour for velocity components and turbulence
uantities. Partial cyclic conditions are presently available for cyclic pairs m
atched
in Cartesian coordinates only. They are not available for scalar mass fractions
and
cannot be used for variable density cases. Arbitrary cyclic matching, involving
pairs
whose boundary faces are not in one-to-one correspondence with each other, is no
t
allowed for partial cyclic conditions.
In addition, the partial cyclic conditions can be defined as anticyclic, where t
he
directions for variable matching are reversed. As an example, consider a 2-D cas
e
of heat transfer from tube bundles in cross flow, arranged in a regular triangul
ar
pitch. The smallest symmetry segment for this geometry is shown in Figure 5-2. T
he
two boundaries at which the flow is entering and leaving this system are matched
in
an anticyclic sense by reversing one of the boundary local coordinate directions
, as
boundaries
cyclic
Transmissive Boundaries (Compressible Flow)
5-10 Version 4.12
shown by the thick arrows in the Figure. For 3-D geometries, it is possible to r
everse
any or all of the three local coordinate directions for this type of matching.
Figure 5-2 Illustration of anticyclic boundary conditions
Transmissive Boundaries (Compressible Flow)
In compressible flow calculations involving outlet or free-stream boundaries, it
is
usually reuired that these should transmit pressure waves with minimum, and
preferably zero, reflection (so as to simulate infinite surroundings effectively
). The
particular transmissive-boundary practices employed in STAR-CD and their
conditions of applicability are described below.
Transmissive conditions for steady supersonic flow
This option enables definition of a ‘free stream’ boundary in a (strictly) supersoni
c
flow that will allow obliue shock waves to pass through without reflection. The
presence of such a boundary allows the size of the solution domain to be restric
ted
to those parts of the problem that are of practical importance, as shown in the
example of Figure 5-3. The boundary should ideally be parallel to a free stream,
whose velocity, temperature and other properties are assumed known.
It may occasionally happen that a small amount of inflow takes place over part
of the boundary. In such a case (and under turbulent conditions) turbulence
uantities have to be specified, either directly through k and ε or idir tly thr
ough
turbul it sity ad mixig l gth (s also th dis ussio o pag 5-4).
Chapt r 5 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
Trasmissiv Boudari s (Compr ssibl Flow)
V rsio 4.12 5-11
Figur 5-3 Exampl us of a fr str am boudary
Th magitud ad dir tio of th flow p rturbatios produ d at th boudary b
y
a sho k ar al ulat d from obliqu sho k th ory, as pr s t d i [5.1, 5.2]. Th
boudary valu s of t mp ratur ad oth r prop rti s ar obtai d by xtrapolatio

from th it rior.
Trasi t wav trasmissio
This tr atm t is aim d at trasi t ompr ssibl flows ad provid s a m as of
allowig trasi t pr ssur wav s to s ap through this typ of boudary withou
t
r fl tio. Th approa h is similar to that for statioary sho ks. Thus, giv t
h
‘fr str am’ oditios, wav th ory [5.1, 5.2] is us d to al ulat th magitud
ad dir tio of th flow at th trasmissiv boudary ad th appropriat
fr -str am or xtrapolat d oditios ar as rib d to it, a ordig to dir tio
.
If iflow o urs ud r turbul t oditios, th turbul quatiti s hav to b
sp ifi d, ith r dir tly through k ad ε or idir tly through turbul it s
ity
ad mixig l gth (s also th dis ussio o pag 5-4).
Ri ma
o ditio
This typ of boudary oditio also aims at pr v tig r fl tio of i id t
pr ssur wav s ad is appli abl to both st ady ad trasi t flows. I this
approa h, boudary flux s ar obtai d usig th HLLC approximat Ri ma
solv r whi h r li s o th ostru tio of Ri ma ivariats [5.4] at boudary
ll
fa s. This m thod mbodi s th physi s at th boudari s i a mor r pr s tati
v
ma r tha that off r d by th trasi t wav trasmissiv oditio abov . Oth
r
boudary valu s, su h as s alars ad turbul param t rs ar d t rmi d o th
basis of flow dir tio.
R fl tio-fr trasmissio at th boudary
Fr str am boudary
Sho k wav
Solutio
domai
Chapt r 6 TURBULENT FLOW BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
Itrodu tory R marks
V rsio 4.12 6-1
Itrodu tory R marks
Th us of turbul mod ls r quir s impositio of appropriat boudary
oditios. Th s ar appli d to all solid ad ‘ s ap ’ typ boudari s (i. . il t,
pr ssur , stagatio, t .) but parti ular att tio is r quir d for walls ( sp
ially
wh high R yolds umb r mod ls ar us d) ad iflow str ams. This s tio
d s rib s th tr atm t of wall boudari s i STAR-CD ad provid s som
guid li s o how to formulat th iflow oditios.
Wall Boudary Coditios
Th turbul mod llig optios urr tly availabl i STAR-CD ad d s rib d
i Chapt r 2 off r four ways of imposig th o-slip oditios o walls ad
a outig for boudary lay rs:
1. Th ‘two-lay r’ ad low R yolds umb r approa h s, wh r o-slip
oditios ar appli d dir tly ad th boudary lay rs ar omput d by
solvig th mass, mom tum ad turbul quatios (th latt r i th ir ‘low
R yolds umb r’ form) withi th m.
2. Th wall fu tio approa h, wh r alg brai r latios bas d o th assum d
distributios of v lo ity, t mp ratur ad turbul param t rs a ross th
boudary lay r ar us d to provid boudary oditios wh th troid of
a ar-wall ll li s i th logarithmi r gio of th boudary lay r.
3. Th hybrid wall boudary oditio, a ar-wall tr atm t appli abl to
low-R yolds umb r turbul mod ls. This tr atm t provid s valid
boudary oditios for mom tum, turbul , rgy ad sp i s variabl s
for a wid rag of ar-wall m sh d siti s.
Furth r d tails of th ma r i whi h th abov optios ar appli d for various
turbul mod ls ar giv b low.
Two-lay r mod ls
I this approa h, th ar-wall r gios ar i most r sp ts tr at d th sam wa
y as
th it rior flow, with th o-slip oditio impos d at th boudary ll fa s
. Th
oly disti tio is that at som dista from th wall, whi h i g ral vari s
alog
th wall, a swit h is mad from th high R yolds umb r k-ε mod l to th s l t d
low R yolds umb r k-l mod l. Th swit hig lo atio is illustrat d by Figur
6-1(a).
Th two-lay r mod ls ar impl m t d as follows:
• A fi -lay r d m sh of at l ast 15 ross-str am lls, d ot d as th
N ar-Wall Lay r (NWL) i Figur 6-1(a), is mploy d ar th wall, up to a
thi k ss suffi i t to ompass th boudary lay r. This is ssary i
ord r to r solv prop rly th v lo ity ad oth r variabl distributios withi
this lay r. How v r, si its thi k ss is ot kow a priori, th umb r of
lls i th NWL may r quir som trial-ad- rror adjustm t.
TURBULENT FLOW BOUNDARY CONDITIONS Chapt r 6
6-2 V rsio 4.12
Figur 6-1 M sh spa ig i th ar-wall r gio
• I a m sh with a suitabl d sity, th valu of (th dim siol ss ormal
dista from th walls, s Equatio (6-1)) at th od xt to th wall
should id ally b ~3 to r solv th v lo ity profil , but small r to r solv th
t mp ratur profil .
• A o - quatio, k-l turbul mod l is appli d withi som lls i th
NWL, usig th formulatios d s rib d i Chapt r 2, “Two-lay r mod ls”.
• Th ormal trasport quatios for k ad ε ar solv d i th solutio domai
it rior.
• Th two mod ls abov ar automati ally mat h d at a (swit hig) lo atio
wh r vis osity ff ts ar small. Th swit hig rit rio d p ds o th
low-R yolds-umb r mod l mploy d, as dis uss d i Chapt r 2,
“Two-lay r mod ls”.
High R yolds umb r turbul mod ls ad wall fu tios
High R yolds umb r v rsios of most turbul mod ls r quir sp ial
alg brai formula , oft all d ‘wall fu tios’, to r pr s t th distributios of
v lo ity, t mp ratur , turbul , rgy, t . withi th boudary lay rs [2.1]
.
This pra ti is ssary b aus th s mod ls ar ot valid i th r gio with
i
th lay r wh r mol ular ad turbul ff ts ar of omparabl magitud . It
is
also xp di t b aus it avoids th d to mploy a fi omputatioal m sh
withi th boudary lay r, with asso iat d omputig ov rh ads. Th wall fu tio

r pr s tatio of th ar-wall turbul t b haviour is i xa t, th a ura y b i
g
d p d t o th d gr to whi h th assumptios ad approximatios mbodi d i
th fu tio s orr spo d with th r ality of th appli atio. STAR-CD off rs two

forms of wall fu tio, th stadard form [2.1] ad th o- quilibrium form [6.
3]
ad th s ar d s rib d b low.
Th high R yolds umb r v rsio of th Spalart-Allmaras mod l is tr at d by
s ttig th turbul t ki mati vis osity at th wall boudary fa s qual to 0.
0.
Stadard wall fu tios
Th mai assumptios ivolv d i th stadard wall fu tio formulatio ar as
solutio
domai
it rior
for 2-L mod l
NWL
y
(a) Two-lay r or Low R mod l (b) Wall fu tio mod l
swit hig lo atio
y+
ν˜ t
V rsio 4.12 6-3
follows:
• Variatios i v lo ity t . ar pr domiatly ormal to th wall, l adig to
o -dim sioal b haviour.
• Eff ts of pr ssur gradi ts ad body for s ar gligibly small, l adig to
uiform sh ar str ss i th lay r.
• Sh ar str ss ad v lo ity v tors ar alig d ad uidir tioal throughout
th lay r.
• A bala xists b tw turbul rgy produ tio ad dissipatio.
• Th r is a li ar variatio of turbul l gth s al .
Th r sultig formula givig th ross str am profil s i t rms of th ormal
dista y from th wall ar :
V lo ity
(6-1)
wh r —
u — tag tial fluid v lo ity
— tag tial wall v lo ity
—
— wall sh ar str ss
—
E — mpiri al o ffi i t
κ — von Karman constant
and satisfies the equation:
(6-2)
The values assigned to κ and E are given in Table 2-6 on page 2-10. This
specification for E pertains to a hdrodnamicall smooth wall.
Different formulae have been reported in the literature for semi-rough and
full-rough walls. Most of these ma be written in the following form:
(6-3)
(6-4)
(6-5)
u+
+ , + m + ≤
1κ
--- E + ( ) , + m + ln >
⎩ ⎪ ⎨ ⎪ ⎧
=
u+ (u – uw) ⁄ uτ
uw
uτ (τw ⁄ ρ)1 ⁄ 2
τw
y+ ρuτ y ⁄ μ ρ Cμ
≈ 1 ⁄ 4 k1 ⁄ 2 y ⁄ μ
ym +
ym +
1κ
--- E m + – ln( ) = 0
u+ + , + m + = ≤
u+ A 1κ
--- + – D+
B CR+
+
-------------------- + m + = + ln , >
D+ ρ Cμ
1 ⁄ 4 k1 2 ⁄ Dμ
= ---
TURBULENTFLOW BOUNDARY
CONDITIONS Chap e 6
Wall Boun a y Con i ions
6-4 Ve sion 4.12
(6-6)
whe e A, B an C a e cons an s, D is he isplacemen hickness an he
equivalen oughness heigh . The las wo quan i ies a e illus a e in Figu e 6
-2
below. The value of D is such ha he flui veloci y goes o ze o a a is ance
of
away f om he wall.
Figu e 6-2 Illus
a ion of ypical
oughness elemen s
The value of epen s on he pa icula fo mula use . Fo fully ough
walls,

= 0, hence Equa ion (6-2)
is no use . The values fo he cons an s epen on
he flow an oughness ype.
s by Niku a se [2.12] fo
Measu emen flow in pipes wi h san oughness
in ica e he following values fo he cons an s:
A = 8.5
B = 0
C = 1
D = 0
STAR-CD uses he above values as efaul s fo A, B, C an D. In a i ion, exampl
e
use co ing is p ovi e fo implemen ing he gene al fo mula given by Equa ion
(6-4).
Tempe a u e / Mass f ac ion
If φ denotes either temper
ture or m
ss r
ction,
nd the he
t or m
ss lux
rom w
ll to luid, then
(6-7)
where is given y equ
tion (6-1),
nd P, the su l
yer resist
nce
ctor, y [6.1
]
R+ ρ Cμ
1 ⁄ 4 k1 ⁄ 2 y0
μ = -----
y0
y0 + D
D
y0
ym +
ym +
Fφ, w
φ+ σφ y+ , y+ yT + ≤
σφ t , u+ P + ( ) , y+ yT + >
⎩ ⎪ ⎨ ⎪ ⎧ =
u+
Chap e 6TURBULENT FLOW BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
Ve sion 4.12 6-5
(6-8)

wi h — fo mass flux, o
— fo hea flux
— wall value
— molecula P anl/Schmi numbe
— u bulen P an l/Schmi numbe
sa isfies he equa ion:
(6-9)
F om he above, i is useful o efine an calcula e a local hea (o mass) an
sfe
coefficien as
fo mass
flux, o (6-10)
fo hea flux.
Asimila quan i y, calle he hea (o mass) ansfe coefficien , is wi ely us
e in
he li e a u e an is efine in e ms of he bulk mean empe a u e o mass f ac

ion,
, as follows:
(6-11)
Hcmay calculae in po-STAR
be a he en of he analysis.

No
e ha he hea gene a ion ue o he viscous issipa ion is aken in o accou
n in
he wall empe a u e an hea flux calcula ion.
bulence pa ame
Tu es
I can be shown ha un e equilib ium con i ions:
(6-12)
(6-13)
(6-14)
P 9.24
σφ
σφ, t
⎝---------⎠
⎛ ⎞3 ⁄ 4
– 1 1 0.28
–0.007σφ
σφ, t
⎝----------------------⎠
≡ + exp⎛ ⎞
φ+ ρ(φw – φ)uτ ⁄ Fφ, w
cpρ(φw – φ)uτ ⁄ Fφ, w
φw
σφ
σφ, t
yT +
σφ yT + σφ, t
1κ
--- ET + – ln( ) + P = 0
Ht
Fφ, w
φw – φ
---------------
ρ uτ
σφ, t(u+ + P)
= = ------------------------------
cpρ uτ
σφ, t(u+ + P)
------------------------------

φ
Hc
Fφ, w
φw – φ
= -----------------
k+ Cμ
–1 ⁄ 2 =
ε+ Cμ
3 ⁄ 4
κ
= -----------
ω+ Cμ
–1 ⁄ 2
κ = -------------
TURBULENT FLOW BOUNDARY CONDITIONS Chapter 6
Wall Boundar Conditions
6-6 Version 4.12
where:
(6-15)
(6-16)
(6-17)
It should be noted that the equilibrium distribution for [equation (6-12)] is
not
directl invo ed in STAR-CD,
except in the special case when the prescribedmodel
is used. Normall, the transport equation (with production and dissipation
terms appropriatel modified to account for the steep near-wall variations in u,
ε or
ay, t
ω), is solv d to simulat , in an app oximat ff cts of non- quilib ium
app ns to b in
tu bul nc at t dg
of t lay . If t p dict d flo
quilib ium, t n t solution tu ns t valu giv n by quation (6-12).
Non- quilib ium all functions

T assumptions us d fo fo mulating t non- quilib ium all function a simil
a
to t os of t standa d va iant, xc pt t at t ff ct of t p ssu g adi n
t is
tak n into account. T is l ads to t folloing modification to Equation (6-1):
(6-18)

(6-19)

is t st am is p ssu g adi nt.
and
T impl m ntation of a non- quilib ium all function into t k t anspo t quat
ion
is t oug t modification of its tu bul nc n gy p oduction t m at t fi s
t
nod aay f om t all. To t is nd, t modifi d ads:
(6-20)
k+ k ρ
τw
≡ -------
ε+ ε y
k3 ⁄ 2 ≡ ----------
ω+ ωy
uτ
≡------
μ
u+ = (u˜ – uw) ⁄ u τ ,
u˜ u 12
-- p
x
------
yν
ρ κ 1 ⁄ 2 ---------------------
ν
⎝ -----⎠
⎛ ⎞ y– yν
ρ κ 1 ⁄ 2 ---------------------
ν
2
μ = – ln + + -----
yν
ym + μ
ρCμ
1 ⁄ 4 k1 ⁄ 2 -------------------------- , κ κCμ
1 ⁄ 4 = =
p
x
------
Pk
Pk
Pk
1
y
-- 1
ρ κ 1 ⁄ 2 --------------------- τw 2 y
yν
⎝ -----⎠
⎛ ⎞ τw
p
x
ln + ------ (2 y – yν)
⎩ ⎨ ⎧
=
+ p
x
⎝------⎠
⎛ ⎞2 14
-- yν
2 y
yν
⎝ -----⎠
⎛ ⎞ 12
-- yν y yν – ( ) 18
-- y2 yν
l + + ( – 2 )
⎭ ⎬ ⎫
Chap e 6TURBULENT
FLOW BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
Ve sion 4.12 6-7

whe e an a e efine byEqua ion (6-19). The ea men fo he nea -wall
values ε or ω valu is t sam as fo t standa d all function.
Num ical impl m ntation
Fo t pu pos s of num ical calculation, t ‘la of t all’ distributions of
velocity, temperature and other variables stated in the previous sections are
assumed to prevail across the boundary layer. The latter is spanned by a single
grid
cell [see Figure 6-1(b)] whose central node C (see Figure 6-3) is assumed to be
positioned at a distance of ~ 30—100 units from the wall. If the node is placed
too close, the utility of the wall functions is lost; if it is placed too far aw
ay, then the
profiles are more likely to have departed from their assumed shape. For rough wa
lls,
the nodal distance (see Figure 6-3) should be four times larger than the
roughness height.
The wall functions are used to link the fluxes through the wall face of the
boundary cell to variable values at the central node C. They are also used to mo
dify
the calculation of the ‘source’ terms in the turbulence transport euations. All the
se
changes are necessary in order to reflect the steep, non-linear variations in th
e flow
properties through the turbulent boundary layer.
Figure 6-3 Illustration of near-wall cell and notation
In this case, the momentum flux through the wall cell face is simply the
area-integrated wall shear stress which, according to the velocity profile
assumptions given in the section on “Velocity” on page 6-3, is linked to the velocit
y
distribution by a function of the form
(6-21)
where is the wall velocity, is the dimensionless normal distance from the
wall, and the function is given by Euation (6-1). If this relation is assumed
to hold between the wall and point C, where the velocity is and normal distance
is then it provides the reuired flux relation.
yν κ
+
C
C
C
W
uW
τw
u+ u – uw
(τw ⁄ ρ)1 ⁄ 2 ≡ ------------------------- = f u( y+)
uw y+
f u( y+)
uC
yC
TURBULENTFLOW BOUNDARY CONDITIONS Chap e 6
6-8 Ve sion 4.12
The he mal ene gy an
chemical species wall
fluxes
a e ea e simila
ly,
using now he assump ion of a ‘unive sal’ is ibu ion of empe a u e o mass
f ac ion, φ, o the orm
(6-22)
where isthe w
ll v
lue,
nd is given y Equ
tion (6-7).This rel
tion, when
pplied etween the w

ll
nd C, gives the required link etween the w
ll lux
n
d
the φ di erence .
Concerning the tre
tment o the tur ulence p
r
meters, the tr
nsport equ
tion o
r
k is solved
t ne
r-w
ll cells,
ter
ppropri
te modi ic
tions. The l
tter cons
ist o
• setting the di usive lux o k
t the w
ll to zero (i.e.
ssuming ;
• ev
lu
ting the tur ulence gener
tion on the
ssumptions th
t the domin
nt
str
in r
te is , ev
lu
ted rom Equ
tion (6-21),
nd the domin
nt she
r
stress is the t
ngenti
l component, which is uni orm in the cell
nd equ
l to
(these
ssumptions
re, o course, p
rt o the underlying set on which the
w
ll unctions
re
sed);
• ev
lu
ting the tot
l tur ulence dissip
tion y volume integr
tion o the
w
ll- unction distri ution o ε, giv by Equatio (6-13).

By otrast,
th trasport quatio
for ε or ω is not mploy d at bounda y c lls;

at , t nodal valu s of t s quantiti s a obtain d di ctly f om t alg
b aic
all-function lation giv n by Equations (6-16) o (6-17).

Fu t d tails about t abov p actic s and t ational fo t m can b foun
d,
fo xampl , in [6.2].
Lo R ynolds numb tu bul nc mod ls
In t is app oac , t n a -all gions a in most sp cts t at d t sam a
yas
t int io flo, it t no-slip condition impos d at t bounda y c ll fac s
. T
only distinction is t at at t c nt oid C of t n a -all c ll (s Figu 6-3
fo a
d finition) t valu of ε, fo k-ε mod ls, is fix d to:
(6-23)
P and PNL a giv n by Equations (2-35) and (2-37), sp ctiv ly. T

co sponding xp ssion fo fixing ω at t n a -all c nt oid in k-ω mod ls is:
(6-24)
is t kin matic viscosity, k t tu bul nc kin tic n gy, y t no mal

distanc f om t all, and= 0.075.
As fa as all su fac oug n ss p op ti s a conc n d, t only pa am t
qui d in t is cas is , t quival nt oug n ss ig t illust at d in Figu
6-2.
Fφ, w
φ+ ρ φ φw – ( ) τw ( ⁄ ρ)1 ⁄ 2
Fφ, w
≡ ------------------------------------------------- = f φ(u+)
φw φ
φC – φw
n ∂
∂k ≈ 0
∂u ⁄ ∂y
τw
εC

μ
ρ
----(P + PNL) 2νk
y2
+ ---------
C
=
ωC
60ν
β1 yC 2------------ =
ν
β1
y0
Ch
pter 6 TURBULENT FLOW BOUNDARY CONDITION
W
ll Bound
ry Conditions
Version 4.12 6-9
The mesh sp
cing in the w
ll-norm
l direction should e chosen such th
t the
v
lue o corresponding to the ne
r-w
ll cell centroid is ~1. When using this

ppro
ch, the norm
l dist
nce to the ne
rest w
ll is c
lcul
ted intern
lly or e
very
cell in the stre
m. This contr
sts with the two-l
yer methodology, where
NWL
thickness is speci ied. Due to the sh
rp v
ri
tion o ε ad ω n a t alls, t m

s

dist ibution fo t s mod ls in t n a - all gion s ould b slig tly fin t
an
t at qui d fo to-lay mod ls, only t quation fo k is solv d.
In t Spala t-Allma as mod l, t bounda y condition
qui d is fo t
tu bul nt kin matic viscosity . In t is cas , at t all bounda y fac s is s t
qual to 0.0

id all bounda y condition
Hyb
T is app oac appli s only to lo -R ynolds numb tu bul nc mod ls and is
d tail d in [6.4]. It utilis s a sp cial all bounda y condition t at mov s t

bu d n of aving to nsu a small noug na - all valu fo (by c ating a
suffici ntly fin m s n xt to t all). T ind p nd ncy of t yb id all

condition is ac i v d using it an asymptotic xp ssion valid fo

o by bl nding lo -R ynolds and ig -R ynolds numb xp ssions fo s a
st ss, t mal n gy and c mical sp ci s all flux s. T bl nding facto ζ is
bas d on a valu of stimat d using th following fourth-ord r asymptotic
pansion:
(6-25)
(6-26)
wh r is giv n by Equation (6-2). This bl nding factor has th following
prop rti s in th flow lay rs list d b low:
• Viscous sub-lay r: ;
• Log sub-lay r: .
Th num rical impl m ntation of th hybrid wall condition follows th principl s
us d for high-R ynolds numb r turbul nc mod ls. Th mom ntum flu through
th wall c ll fac is th ar a-int grat d wall sh ar str ss , obtain d via a bl
nd of
th low-R ynolds and high-R ynolds numb r sh ar str ss pr ssions, as follows:
(6-27)
wh r and ar lin d to th v locity distribution by
(6-28)
Similar bl nding proc dur s ar appli d to d t rmin th r l vant flu s for th
rmal
n rgy and ch mical sp ci s. Th pr ssions corr sponding to Equations (6-25),
(6-26) and (6-27) ar now
y+
ν˜ t ν˜ t
y+
y+
0.1 < y+ < 100
y+
y+ u+ 1E
--- κu+ – 1 – κu+ – … (κu+)4
4!
⎝ – ----------------⎠
= + ⎛ ⎞
ζ 1 y+ ym + ( – – ⁄ )2
=
ym +
u+ → 0 ⇉ ζ → 0
u+ → ∞ ⇉ ζ → 1
τw
τw 1 ζ – ( )τwLR ζτw
= + HR
τw
LR τw
HR
u – uw
τw
( LR ⁄ ρ)1 ⁄ 2 ---------------------------- = y+
u – uw
τw
( HR ⁄ ρ)1 ⁄ 2 ---------------------------- 1κ
= --- ln(E+)
TURBULENT FLOW BOUNDARY CONDITIONS Chapter 6
Wall Boundar Conditions
6-10 Version 4.12
(6-29)
(6-30)
(6-31)
respectivel.
Regarding the treatment of the turbulence parameters, we distinguish between
two-equation turbulence models ( and ) and one-equation turbulence
models (Spalart-Allmaras).
For two-equation models, the transport equation for
turbulence inetic energ is solved at near-wall cells.
B contrast, the transport equations for , and are not solved at near-wall
cells. Instead, the nodal values at point C are obtained directl from the follo
wing
algebraic relationships:
linear turbulence model
(6-32)
where is a characteristic length, the
turbulent Renolds number and is a theoreticall-determined coefficient
[6.4].
linear turbulence model
(6-33)
where is a characteristic length and is a
theoreticall-determined coefficient [6.4].
Spalart-Allmaras model
(6-34)
LES near-wall treatment
For wall-bounded flows, most turbulence is generated in the near-wall region. It
is
therefore necessar to resolve the details of the near-wall flow, which in turn
requires a fine mesh in that region as described in the ‘low-Re’ section on page 6-8
.
It is recommended that, for cases where the wall effect is crucial in obtaining
the
right turbulence level, the first near-wall cell has a + value of order 1.0. A
reasonable mesh grading should be constructed awa from the wall, similar to tha
t
HT
+ φ+
σφ
----- 1
EeκP
------------ eκφ+ ⁄ σφ, t κφ+ σφ t ( ⁄ , )n
n!
------------------------------
n= 0
4Σ
= + –
ζφ 1 e yHT
+ yT + ( ⁄ )2
[ – ]
2
=
Ht (1 – ζφ)
ρcpuτ
σφ y+
--------------
⎝ ⎠
⎜ ⎟
⎛ ⎞
ζφ
ρcpuτ
σφ, t(u+ + P)
------------------------------
⎝ ⎠
⎜ ⎟
⎛ ⎞
= + (φ – φw)
k – ε k – ω
k
ε ω νt
˜
k – ε
εC Cμ
3 ⁄ 4kC
3 ⁄ 2 κL= ⁄ ( ε)
Lε = yC(1 – –γ εR k) R k yCkC
= 1 ⁄ 2 ⁄ ν
γ ε = 0.2
k – ω
ωC kC
3 ⁄ 2 κCμ
1 ⁄ 4= ⁄ ( Lω)
Lω = yC(1 – –γωR k) γω = 0.057
νt
( ˜ )C
ν ------------ κE
--- eκu+
– 1 – κu+ (κu+)2
2
⎝ – ----------------⎠
= ⎛ ⎞
Chap e 6 TURBULENT
Wall Fo ces an Fo ce Coefficien s
Ve sion 4.12 6-11
fo a wo-laye o low-Re mo el.
The
LES nea -wall ea men isimplemen e as a wo-s ep p ocess. In he fi s
s ep, he wall f ic ion veloci y is es ima e by inve ing a hi -o e Spal in
g
law simila

o Equa ion (6-25).
In he secon s ep, he elevan fluxes fo
momen
um, he mal ene gy an chemical species a e compu e on he basis of an
es ima e .
ge wall func
Angelbe ion
Fo he mal flows an in a i ion o he s an a wall func ions, STAR-CD offe s
he op ion of mo elling wall hea fluxes wi h he Angelbe ge wall func ion [6.5
].
Assuminga negligible
p essu e g a ien along he wallan cons an lamina /
u bulen P an l numbe s, he exp ession fo wall hea flux (af e ansfo ming
he
simplifie momen um an en halpy equa ions o non- imensional fo m) is as
follows:
(6-35)

wi h —fo he viscous sublaye , o
— fo he u bulen laye , whe e
is anon- imensional
is ance f om hewall
The e ms an a e given by he s an a wall func ion fo mula
ions fo
momen um (equa ion (6-1)) an ene gy (equa ion (6-8)). In a i ion, he swi ch
poin be ween he wo fo mulas fo is sui ably compu e inSTAR-CD
aking in o accoun he values of
he lamina an u bulen P an l numbe s.
Wall Fo ces an Fo ce Coefficien s
The exp essions fo compu ing flow-in uce fo ces on wall cell faces a e as
follows:
Shea fo ce:
(6-36)
whee is a wall cell face a ea,an
is he veloci y vec o componen pa allel o he wall a he
cen e of a nea -wall cell.
P essu e fo ce:
(6-37)
whe e is he ou wa -poin ing uni vec o no mal o he wall.
To al fo ce:
uτ
uτ
qw
ρwcpuτTw
θ+
------------------------ T
Tw
⎝------⎠
= – ln⎛ ⎞
θ+ Pr y+
Prt(u+ + P)
y+ = uτ y ⁄ ν
u+ P
yT
+ θ+
Fs τw Ab
vpa
vpa
= -------------
Ab
vpa
Fp pb Ab nb
=
nb
TURBULENT
FLOW
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS Chap e 6
Inle Con i ions
6-12 Ve sion 4.12
(6-38)
D ag coefficien :
(6-39)
whe e Σ is the summ
tion over cell
ces covering
speci ied w
ll
re
,
is the unit vector in the direction o low,
is the re erence density,
is the re erence velocity,
nd
is the re erence
re
(e.g. the projected
re
o
n o st
cle
norm
l to ).
Li t coe icient:
(6-40)
where is the unit vector in the vertic
l direction.
Inlet Conditions
I one o the Reynolds-
ver
ged tur ulence models is employed, the inlet velocit
y
pro ile rel
tes to the me
n v
lue o the velocity
nd tur ulence v
lues m
y e
introduced
sep
r
tely.
The
tur ulence energy k is sometimes
v
il
le rom me
surements, since it is
ecoming incre
singly common in experiments to determine the tur ulent norm
l
stresses ( rom which k m
y e deduced vi
the rel
tion )
long

with the me
n velocities. In the
sence o such d
t
, pl
usi le v
lues c
n e
ssigned to vi
estim
tes o the loc
l rel
tive tur ulence intensity I, here de
ined
s
(6-41)
where Uis the m
gnitude o the loc
l me
n or
ver
ge velocity on the ound
ry.
The tur ulence intensity
is usu
lly much less th
n unity (or ex
mple, in
ully-developed tur ulent pipe low, it is o order 10–2) ut the precise level do
es
depend on the p
rticul
r
pplic
tion.
The tur ulence dissip
tion r
te ε is s ldom m asur d ad th r for must b
usually stimat d. A ommo way of doig this is via quatio (2-10), whi h a
b r arrag d to giv
(6-42)
Ft Fs Fp
= +
D
Ft d1 Σ ⋅
1
2
-- ρ f u f
2 A f
= ------------------------------------
d1
ρ f
u f
A f
d1
cL
Σ Ft ⋅ d2
1
2
-- ρ f u f
2 A f
= ------------------------------------
d2
ui′ui′ k ≡ (ui′ui′) ⁄ 2
u′2
I u′2
U
≡ -----------
ε
Cμ
3 ⁄ 4k3 ⁄ 2
l
= ---------------------

Chape 6TURBULENT
Inle Con i ions
Ve sion 4.12 6-13
This allows ε to b omput d from th valu of k ad a pr s riptio of th turbul

l gth s al l. Plausibl valu s of th latt r, whi h is r lat d to th w ll-ko
w
‘mixig l gth’, a som tim s b foud i th lit ratur (s , for xampl , [2.12])
for som w ll-do um t d flows ( .g. pip s, boudary lay rs, j ts) or if ot, a
b
stimat d. For xampl , i du t flows, l is boud d by a hara t risti dim sio
of
th ross-s tio ad is usually at l ast a ord r of magitud small r tha thi
s.
I ir umsta s wh r th r is appr iabl turbul g ratio withi th
al ulatio domai, th pr di tios may b is sitiv to th turbul il t
oditios, provid d that th y ar id d plausibl . How v r, this a always b
h k d by p rformig s sitivity studi s. Implausibl sp ifi atios must alway
s
b avoid d for th y may produ rro ous r sults, or v pr v t solutios fro
m
b ig obtai d at all. A xampl of a implausibl sp ifi atio is fiit k a
d
ar-z ro ε, for this may l ad, a ordig to quatio (2-8), to ur alisti ally la
rg
valu s of th turbul t vis osity or, quival tly, to ur alisti ally larg val
u s

th l gth s al l.
of to h k th i l t l v ls (μbeing
I d d, it isadvisabl
he molecula viscosi y) implie by he boun a y con i ions o ensu e ha hey
a e
easonable.

Inle pe u ba ions in LES
mo els
In LES mo els, he inle u bulence is in o uce as a pe u ba ion in he inle
mean

veloci y. STAR-CD in o uces he pe u be veloci y as
(6-43)
whee is he fluc ua ing veloci ycomponen obeying a Gaussian (no mal)
is ibu ion whose mean is equal o ze o an whose s an a evia ion is given b
y
(6-44)
whe e k is he u bulence kine ic ene gy specifie by he use.
Fo a mo e a vance app oach in specifying
inle boun a y con i ions please

efe
o Chap
e 1 of
he Supplemen a y
No es volume whe e e ails of he
he ic E y Me ho (SEM) a e p ovi e .
Syn
μ
μ ⁄ μ
ui = ui + ui′
ui′
σ 2
3
= -- k
Ch
pt r 7 OLUTION ALGORITHM
Introductory R m
rk
V r ion 4.12 7-1
Ch
pt r 7 OLUTION ALGORITHM
Introductory R m
rk
TAR-CD mploy implicit m thod to olv th
l br
ic finit -volum qu
tion
r ultin from th di cr ti
tion pr
ctic ju t d crib d. A not d
rli r, th
dv
nt
of uch m thod
r twofold:
• In un t
dy-flow c
lcul
tion , th
llow
bl iz of comput
tion
l tim t p
i limit d m
inly by t mpor
l
ccur
cy con id r
tion
nd not by th
v r t
bility con tr
int ch
r
ct ri tic of xplicit
ppro
ch .
• In t
dy- t
t probl m , implicit m thod c
n b
cc l r
t d ith r by

crificin t mpor
l
ccur
cy (which i u u
lly no lon r of int r t)
nd
u in
l
r r , or by th
lt rn
tiv m
n of ntir ly di p n in with th
t mpor
l d riv
tiv
nd it r
tin to th t
dy t
t .
Irr p ctiv of th
ppro
ch, implicit m thod involv th olution of imult
n
ou
l br
ic qu
tion t , which i om tim h ld to b
di
dv
nt
. How v r,
v ry ffici nt,
lmo t inv
ri
bly it r
tiv m thod h
v b n d v lop d for olv
in
th qu
tion with th ir ch
r
ct ri tic
lly p
r m
tric . Mor ov r, n w, v
n
mor ffici nt olv r
r continu
lly b in d v lop d, includin on for
dv
nc d-
rchit ctur v ctor/p
r
ll l comput r . TAR-CD i
bl to b n fit from
th d v lopm nt .
TAR-CD curr ntly incorpor
t two implicit
l orithm , n
m ly:
1. A v
ri
nt of th w ll known IMPLE m thod [7.1,7.7].
2. Th PI O m thod [7.2 – 7.4], p ci
lly
d
pt d to th TAR-CD
r quir m nt .
Outlin of th m
in f
tur of th
v
il
bl
l orithm
r provid d in th
ction
on “Th PI O
nd IMPLE Al orithm ” on page 7-1. Following this, additional
sections contain details of their operation in the context of particular areas o
f
application, e.g. two-phase flows, compressible flows, sliding meshes, etc. Advi
ce
to the user is included regarding such matters as start-up practices, identifica
tion of
calculation control parameters and recommended settings for them, etc. Additiona
l
information of this type is provided in Chapter 5 of the CCM User Guide.
The PISO and SIMPLE Algorithms
Common elements
PISO [7.2] and SIMPLE [7.1,7.7] have certain features in common, described here
before the individual algorithms are presented. The shared features are:
1. All employ forms of predictor-corrector strategy, enabled by the use of
operator splitting, to temporarily decouple the flow euations from each other
so that they can be solved seuentially.
2. Continuity is enforced with the aid of an euation set for pressure, derived
by
combining the FV momentum and mass conservation euations.
3. The solution seuence involves a predictor stage, which produces a
provisional velocity field derived from the momentum euations and a
provisional pressure distribution. The provisional fields are then refined in th
e
δt
δt
SOLUTION ALGORITHMS
Chapt r 7
Th PISO a SIMPLE Algorithms
7-2 V rsio 4.12
corr ctor stag (s) by ma ig simulta
ous satisfactio
, to som

approximatio , of both mom tum a co ti
uity bala c s.
4. I it rativ calculatios to th st a y stat , th abov s qu c is r p titi
v ly
x cut , with mb up atig of fi l - p t co fficits arisig
from oli arity, util th solutio is r ach .
coupli g a
U r-r laxatio is mploy as a stabilisig m asur i this proc ss.

5. Withi th s qu c , th op rator-split quatio s ts ivolv , at ay stag ,
oly o of th fi l variabl s, i. . th v ctor s t of ukows is split ito a
s qu c of scalar s ts.
6. Th alg braic quatio s ts ar solv by it rativ m as, although this is
ot
a ss tial practic .
It is also th cas that SIMPLE ca b r gar i may r sp cts as a subs t of
PISO, so i what follows th PISO algorithm is outli
first.
Th PISO algorithm
Th it tio h r is to co
v y th
ss c of PISO without bur i g th
xpla atio with th ma y tail issu s that ar i volv i its impl m tatio

i
th compl c s of STAR-CD. Accorigly, th algorithm is first
x circumsta
outli i th co t xt of a fix Cart sia m sh alig
with th Cart sia v l
ocity
ir ctio s, as i its origial formulatio [7.2]. ollowig this, m tio is ma
of
th atur of xt sios ma for th g ral m sh syst m
th mo ificatio s a
a flow co itio s of STAR-CD.

Worki g quatio s
or th purpos s of pr s tatio, th V mom tum quatios ar xtract from

th g ral tra sport Equatio (4-15) i th form
(7-1)
wh r
(7-2)
Th last t rm i Equatio (7-1) is th V approximatio to th pr ssur gra i t
, b ig a g om tric co ffici t (s igur 7-1).
AP ui P ,
H ui m ,
( ) BP o ui, P
o s1 DP pN+
pN–
= + + + ( – )
H(ui, m) Am ui, m
m Σ
≡
∂p ⁄ ∂xi DP
Chapt r 7 SOLUTION
ALGORITHMS

V rsio 4.12 7-3
igur 7-1 Arrag m t of variabl s a otatio for PISO impl m tatio o

Cartsia m sh
Th V cotiuity Equatio (4-14) is writt h r as
(7-3)
wh r ar th v lociti s ormal to th c ll fac s a ar th corr spo ig
fac ar as.
I th collocat variabl arrag m t, th fac v lociti s to b

xpr ss i t rms of th o al v lociti s (i or r to calculat th mass flux

s) a
ighbourig pr ssur s (to allow formulatio of a suitabl pr ssur quatio). T
his
is o by ass mblig a c ll-fac mom tum quatio of th form
(7-4)
wh r th ovrbars ot a form of av ragig o th o al mom tum co ffici ts
app arig u r th m. This quatio, wh substitut ito th cotiuity r lati
o
(7-3) yi l s a pr ssur quatio of th form
(7-5)
wh r th ‘sourc ’ t rm is a fuctio ofth o al v locity fi l s , a oth r
quatiti s. Thus, a quatio s t is pro uc from which th pr ssur may b
calculat .
Solutio s qu c
Startig from iitial valu s of th variabl fi l s, PISO a vac s through a tim
icr m t i th followig s qu c of st ps.
N–
P
uiP
uj
N+
fac j
BP BP o – ρn uj n ( Sj)
j Σ
+ = 0
uj j
uj
APuj n H ui m ,
n ( ) BP o ui, P
o s1 DP pP n pN+
= + + + ( – n )
AP pP n Am pm n + s1
m Σ
=
s1 ui
n ui
o
φo
δt
SOLUTION ALGORITHMS
Chapt r 7
7-4 V rsio 4.12
1. Pr ictor stag . Equatios (7-1) ar ass mbl a solv i th followig
op rator-split form for th provisioal o al v locity fi l :
(7-6)

wh r corr spo s to th pr ssur fi l at th start of th tim st p.
ollowig th solutio of this quatio, obtai by a it rativ m tho , th
provisio al fac v lociti s ar calculat via Equatio (7-4), with th

a r plac by a , r sp ctiv ly.

2. irst corr ctor stag . Th op rativ o al mom tum quatio is ow tak
to b
(7-7)

a th fac mom tum quatio s ar lik wis approximat by r placi g

a p i Equatio (7-4) by a , r sp
ctiv ly.Corr spo i gly, th
pr ssur quatio i its approximat form r a s
(7-8)
wh r is ow a fuctio of th (kow) oal v lociti s a .
Accor
i gly, th
s quatio
s ca b solv (h r agai by it ratio ) for th
fi l , followi
g which a ca b obtai from Equatio
(7-7) a its fac cout rparts. Th r sultig solutio is a approximatio to
thatof th origial quatios (7-1) a (7-3).
3. A itio al corr ctor stag s. urth r corr ctor stag s ar calculat i th

sam ma r as th first o , usi g th g ralis
quatio s
(7-9)
(7-10)
wh r q = 1, 2, … is th corr ctor l v l. Not that th co ffici ts ar h l
costat. Th solutios from th succ ssiv stag s r pr s t icr asigly
b tt r approximatio s to th solutio of th origial quatios, i. . a

t towar s a with icr asig q.
Aft r compl umb r of corr ctors, jug accorig to
tio of th r quir
practic s scrib b low, th solutio pro uc is tak as th startig fi l
for th
xt tim st p a th s qu c is r p at from Stag 1. If th calculatio of
scalar

fi ls such as th turbul c param t rs a t mp ratur is r quir , it is p rf
orm
i furth r st ps x cut aft r th fial flow corr ctor. Alt rativ ly, if th
scalars
ar strogly coupl to th flow fi l through, for xampl , compr ssibility ff
cts
or combustio i th mai pr ictor/corr ctor s qu c alog
, th y ar
mb
th li s scrib i [7.2,7.4].
ui
(1)
AP ui, P
(1) H ui, m
( (1) ) BP o uP o s1 DP pN+
(0) pN–
(0) = + + + ( – )
p(0)
uj
(1) ui

p ui
(1) po
AP ui, P
(2) H ui, m
( (1) ) BP o ui, P
o s1 DP pN+
(1) pN–
(1) = + + + ( – )
ui

uj
(2) p(1)
AP pP
(1) Am pm
(1) + s1
m Σ
=
s1 ui
(1) ui
o
p(1) ui
(2) uj
(2)
AP ui, P
(q+1) H ui, m
( (q) ) BP o ui, P
o s1 DP pN+
(q) pN–
(q) = + + + ( – )
AP pP
(q) Am pm
(q) + s1
m Σ
=
AP
u(q+1)
p(q+1) un pn
Ch
pter 7 OLUTION ALGORITHM
The PI O
nd IMPLE Algorithms
Version 4.12 7-5
In the origin
l versiono PI O [7.2], the recommend
tion w
s to per orm just
two correctors, on the
sis th
t the splitting error
t this st
ge is o order

s
comp
red with the order- trunc
tion error. In TAR-CD, however, the num er
o correctors executed is not predetermined; r
ther, it is judged rom
n intern

l
me
sure o the splitting error. This enh
nces the
ccur
cy
nd reli
ility o th
e

lgorithm
nd is necess
ry i the sc
l
r ields
re strongly coupled to the low
.
The solution o the low equ
tions on the gener
l orm o mesh employed in
TAR-CD is consider
ly more complex th
n or the C
rtesi
n
rr
ngement, or
sever
l re
sons. First
nd oremost, the pressure c
lcul
tion is complic
ted y
the
presence o
ddition
l pressure gr
dient terms in the momentum equ
tions (the u
ll
expressions e
r some simil
rity to the discretised di usion lux expression gi
ven
y Equ
tion (7-5))
nd the
ct th
t the cell
ce m
ss luxes depend on
ll thr
ee
C
rtesi
n velocity components. Collectively, these e
tures result in
n extende
d
orm o pressure equ
tion, the e icient solution o which h
s required extensiv
e

lter
tions to the PI O
lgorithm. C
re h
s
lso een t
ken in the provision or
moving meshes (the ‘new’ position o which is set
t the predictor st
ge)
nd
host
o other m
tters, some o which
re discussed in Ch
pter 18.
te
dy-st
te c
lcul
tions
One w
y o c
lcul
ting ste
dy low pro lems is to use PI O to time-m
rch rom th
e
initi
l ield, setting to
‘l
rge’ v
lue th
t
cceler
tes the
ppro
ch to the ste
d
y

st
te
nd
ccepting th
t the intermedi
te solutions will not e time-
ccur
te. B
y
implic
tion,
‘l
rge’ is one in excess o th
t needed or tempor
l
ccur
cy.
However, it must not e so l
rge th
t numeric
l inst
ility results. ome guidel
ines
on the choice o or oth unste
dy
nd ste
dy
pplic
tions
re given in
“Tr
nsient low c
lcul
ge 1-13 o the CCM User Guide.
An
ltern
tive
ppro
ch mentioned e
rlier, which in m
ny c
ses m
y prove more
economic
l, is to dispense with the time deriv
tive terms (i.e. set = 0)
nd reg

rd
the PI O sequence
s
n iter
tion loop, to e repe
tedly executed until the solu
tion
is re
ched. Recommend
tions on how to judge completion
re given in
“Completion tests” on p
ge 7-8. This pr
ctice is, however,equiv
lent to using
very l
rge (since ); so, in order to
void numeric
l inst
ility,
under-rel
x
tion is introduced. Thus, i the iter
tion counter is k, the solutio
n or the
selected v
ri
le(s) is t
ken
s
weighted
me
n o the previous iter
te
nd
the (provision
l) current one, denoted y ,
s ollows:
(7-11)
where , the under-rel
x
tion
ctor, lies in the r
nge .
In principle, under-rel
x
tion m
y e used on
ny o the dependent v
ri
les
nd

uxili
ry qu
ntities like density
nd viscosity. Guidelines on the
ppropri
te c
hoices

nd levels
re given in “ te
dy-st
te low c
lcul
ge 1-15 o
the CCM User Guide.
O the two
ltern
tives, the pseudo time-m
rching
ppro
ch h
s the
ttr
ction
th
t just one c
lcul
tion p
r
meter ( ) needs to e set y the user, inste
d o

l under-rel
x
tion
ctors. However, in some circumst
nces, the m
ximum
sever
st
ility-limited time step m
y not gre
tly exceed th
t required or good tempor

l
resolution, so there m
y e little over
ll s
ving in computing time. Oper
tion i
n the
iter
tive mode is then possi le ut, since the required under-rel
x
tion inter e
res to
δt2
δt
i
δt
δt
δt
BP
δt BP ∝ 1 ⁄ δt
φk φk – 1
φk
φk αφ φk 1 αφ – ( )φk – 1 = +
αφ 0 < αφ ≤ 1
δt
SOLUTION ALGORITHMS
Chapt r 7
7-6 V rsio 4.12
som xt t with th goals of PISO, it will usually b pr f rabl to mploy SIMP
LE
ist a . As xplai b low, th s m tho s ar b tt r tailor to it rativ
calculatios.
Th SIMPLE algorithm
SIMPLE iff rs from PISO i that it mploys oly o corr ctor stag . This f atu
r
ff ctiv ly ictat s how it is us b caus th r is a larg splittig rror aft
r th

corr ctor. This ca b r uc by r p atig th pr ictor/corr ctor s qu c wit
hi
th tim st p (i. . it ratig).
Th impl m tatio of SIMPLE i STAR-CD r quir similar
ki s of
xt sio s to th origi al algorithm as thos scrib for PISO.
U r-r laxatio is r quir i calculatios with SIMPLE; gui li s ar giv

i “St a y-stat flow calculatio s with SIMPLE” on page 1-16 and “Transient flow
calculations with SIMPLE” on page 1-17 of the CCM User Guide. It should be
noted that, for stability reasons, it is essential to under-relax both velocity
and
pressure as well as other variables, such as the turbulence parameters.
Scalar transport euations
As already noted, the solution of the scalar transport euations for turbulence
parameters, enthalpy and chemical species conservation takes place, where
reuired, within the seuential operations performed during each iteration or ti
me
step. Also included in this seuence are calculations of thermophysical properti
es,
such as density and specific heat capacities, using built-in or user-programmed
euations of state and other property functions. The interlinkages that may exis
t
between these additional variables and the flow field are handled either by
linearisation about the previous iteration/time step, or by appropriate factoris
ation
within the PISO seuence.
In some instances, the linkages between the flow and scalar fields may be
particularly strong. For example, in turbulent flow calculations using the k-ε mod
l,
th ouplig o urs via th turbul t vis osity ( f. Chapt r 2). I ombustio
probl ms (Chapt r 10) d sity a ts as th mai likag ag t through its
d p d o t mp ratur ad mass fra tio. Th s strog it ra tios som tim s
r quir th us of ud r-r laxatio to suppr ss istabiliti s i th al ulatio
s.
Ud r-r laxatio
I rtial ud r-r laxatio
As a r sult of dis r tisatio, th trasport quatio for a variabl at a h l
l P i a
st ady-stat probl m (s Equatio (4-15) i this volum ) a b writt as
(7-12)
wh r ad ar th valu s of φ
t cell P
nd its m neigh ours,
nd , ,
nd
re coe icients resulting rom discretis
tion
nd line
ris
tion.
Typic
lly, we wish to solve iter
tively systems
o non-line
r equ
tions
descri ing coupled tr
nsport o m
ny v
ri
les φ. To promote convergence o the
iter
tive process in this c
se, one c
n
pply
so-c
lled inerti
l under-rel
x
t
ion
technique descri ed y
AP φP Am φm + sp
m Σ
=
φP φm AP Am
sp
Ch
The PI O
nd IMPLE Algorithms
Version 4.12 7-7
(7-13)
where k is the iter
tion counter
nd the under-rel
x
tion
ctor. Equ
tion (7-13
)
c
n e rewritten
s
(7-14)
Typic
l v
lues o the inerti
l under-rel
x
tion
ctors
re etween 0.7
nd 1.

The optimum v
lues
re
unction o the n
ture o the tr
nsport equ
tion eing
solved
nd its coupling with other tr
nsport processes, the under-rel
x
tion
c
tors
used or the other tr
nsport equ
tions,
nd the grid qu
lity. These v
lues c
n
e
determined only through numeric
l experiments.
Pseudo time step
s under-rel
x
tion
In the c
se o
n unste
dy simul
tion,
n equiv
lent to Equ
tion (7-12) would e
(7-15)
where
nd
re the volume
nd density o cell P, is the time step size
nd
k the time step counter. One c
n e
sily see th
t Equ
tion (7-15) is very simil
r
to
Equ
tion (7-14) where the inerti
l term
(7-16)
is repl
ced with the under-rel
x
tion term
(7-17)
this eing the re
son why this type o under-rel
x
tion is c
lled inerti
l under
rel
x
tion.
Thus, or e
ch cell P
nd under-rel
x
tion
ctor , one c
n ind
time
step such th
t
(7-18)
i.e.
(7-19)
which is
unction o the cell volume, density,
nd centr
l coe icient.
Thus,
one c
n see th
t the inerti
l under-rel
x
tion used in Equ
tion (7-14) c
n
e interpreted
s
loc
l pseudo-time step,
nd th
t every tr
nsport equ
tion in
AP φP k αφ Am φm k + sp
m Σ
⎝ ⎠
⎛ ⎞ (1 – αφ)AP φP k – 1 = +
αφ
AP φP k Am φm k + sp
m Σ
1 – αφ
αφ
-------------- – Ap φP k φP k – 1 = ( – )
αφ
AP φP k Am φm k + sp
m Σ
Vpρp
δt
------------- – φP k φP k – 1 = ( – )
Vp ρp δt
Vpρp
δt
------------- φP k φP k – 1 ( – )
1 – αφ
αφ
-------------- Ap φP k φP k – 1 ( – )
αφ
δt p
Vpρp
δt p
------------- φP k φP k – 1 ( – )
1 – αφ
αφ
--------------Ap φP k φP k – 1 = ( – )
δt p
αφ
1 – αφ
--------------
Vpρp
Ap
= -------------
SOLUTION
ALGORITHMS C apt 7
T PISO and SIMPLE Algo it ms
7-8 V sion4.12
v y c ll as in g n al a diff nt local ps udo-tim st p. Inst ad of doing t
is, on

us Equation (7-15) and und - lax all c lls and all t anspo t quations i
can
t
t sam ps udo-tim st p . T is mod of und - laxation is call d ps udot ansi
nt.
Compl tion t sts
P ovision ismad in STAR-CD fo t output
of info mation at ac tim st p o
it ation. T is allo s t cou s of t calculations to b follo d and cont ol

l d.
On typ of info mation p ovid d is monito ing valu s of all t d p nd nt
iabl s at a us -sp cifi d c ll. If a st ady-stat solution is b ing soug t,
va
t n a
n c ssa y (but not suffici nt) condition fo ac i ving it is t at t va iation
in t
monito ing valu s s ould b l ss t an som small, us -sp cifi d tol anc . T is
info mation is not, o v , us d fo cont ol pu pos s.
In st ady-stat it ativ calculations, info mation on t sidual of t FV
solution is us d fo bot monito ingand cont ol pu pos s. T sidual at a
pa ticula c ll and it ation k is t imbalanc in t FV t anspo t Equation (4
-15)
a ising f om incompl t solution, i. .
(7-20)

T m asu actually mploy d to judg conv g nc is t no malis d absolut
sidual sum , d fin d by
(7-21)
t summation is ov all c lls in t computational domain and is a

no malisation facto . STAR-CD us s a scaling facto ic is p s ntativ of t

flux of t t anspo t dva iabl t oug t computational domain as a d fault
no malisation facto . T is is ac i v d by utilising t folloing g n al d fini
tion
fo :
(7-22)
Fo t mom ntum quations, a singl no malis d sidual
is comput d
using t siduals of t v locity compon nts as s on b lo:
(7-23)

T valu s a comput d and p int d out
at ac it ation fo ac va iabl
solv d fo . In t cas of p ssu , t sidual comput d is actually t at of t
mass
cons vation Equation (4-14). Fo Eul ian multip as cas s, t sidual p int
din
t un output fil fo a giv n fi ld va iabl is t maximum among t
δt
rφ
rφ k AP φP k Am φm k – s1
m Σ
≡ –
Rφ k
Rφ k rφ k Σ
Mφ
≡ --------------
Mφ
Mφ
Mφ Ap φp
k
p Σ
=
RMOM
k
ruj
k
RMOM
k
ruj
k (Σ )2
j Σ
Muj
( k )2
j Σ---------------------------------- ≡
Rφ k
φ Rφ k
Ch
olution o ystems o Line
r Alge r
ic Equ
tions
Version 4.12 7-9
di erent ph
ses. For multi-dom
in c
ses, it is the m
ximum
mong the di erent
dom
ins.

ls
re used to decide when to
Further, residu termin
te the c
lcul

tions, the
requirement eing th
t they h
ve
ll
llen elow
user-prescri ed v
lue λ, i.e.
(7-24)
where λ is typica y of order 10–3. Satisfaction of this type of criterion and the
near-constancy of the fie d va ues constitute sufficient conditions for converge
nce.
Note that residua s for ε, th turbul dissipatio rat , ar ot us d by th
ov rg rit rio. This is b aus th s r siduals ar bas d o a pr sum d t
im
s al giv by th m a il t v lo ity ad us r-sp ifi d hara t risti l gth
ad
ar thus ur liabl for this purpos .
Solutio of Syst ms of Li ar Alg brai Equatios
As a r sult of th d ouplig of th quatio for a h d p d t variabl ad
subs qu t li arisatio, larg s ts of li ar alg brai quatios ar obtai d.
I
ord r to solv th s quatios, STAR-CD us s th followig t hiqu s:
• Cojugat gradi t (CG)-typ solv rs with various pr oditioig m thods.
• Th alg brai multigrid (AMG) approa h whi h us s th usual multigrid
m thods of solvig matrix quatios without r lyig o th g om try of th
probl m b ig solv d.
Tim -Parall l Computatio
Th id a b hid this approa h is that s v ral pro ssors p rform work
simulta ously o th sam spatial domai for a umb r of su ssiv tim st ps.
Not that su h rus mak s s oly if th trasi t SIMPLE algorithm, rath r th
a
PISO, is us d (s “Th PISO ad SIMPLE Algorithms” s tio).
For a giv probl m siz , omputatioal ffi i y typi ally go s dow as th
umb r of pro ssors i r as s. D p dig o pro ssor sp d, lat y ad data
trasf r rat (as w ll as, to som xt t, th probl m b ig solv d), th r is a
limiti g umb r of pro ssors that a b us d for domai d ompositio i spa

b yod whi h th ffi i y d t riorat s; at som stag , th omputig tim star
ts
i r asig as th umb r of pro ssors i r as s.
Wh th ffi i y of domai d ompositio i spa for trasi t
omputatios b om s poor, o a gai mor b fits from usig mor
pro ssors by solvig for s v ral tim st ps i parall l rath r tha furth r r d
u ig
th siz of spa ial sub-domais tr at d by o pro ssor. For xampl , suppos y
ou
hav 200 pro ssors ad d to simulat a ust ady flow ov r a log p riod of
tim ( .g. flow with a fr surfa su h as log-t rm sloshig i a tak, or LES
mod llig of a turbul t flow) o a m sh su h that th ffi i y substatially
d t riorat s wh mor tha 50 pro ssors ar us d (say, half a millio lls).
You
a th a hi v a substatial sp d-up by omputig 4 tim st ps i parall l wi
th
50 spatial subdomais ompar d to o tim st p aft r aoth r with 200 spatial
subdomais.
It should b ot d that, for optimal ffi i y, th umb r of tim st ps that
a
b omput d i parall l should b l ss tha th umb r of out r it ratios p r t
im
max Rφ k ( ) < λ
SOLUTION ALGORITHMS Chapter 7
Time-Para e Computation
7-10 Version 4.12
step (typica y ha f of that number). Otherwise, the required number of iteratio
ns per
time step wou d increase and the benefit wou d be ost.
For more information about time-para e simu ation, see ref. [7.8]. P ease a so
note that, in the current STAR-CD re ease:
• Time decomposition is on y app icab e to transient runs, and such runs must
use the transient SIMPLE a gorithm
• Moving mesh and Eu erian or Lagrangian mu ti-phase cases are not supported
Further detai s on the manner in which this technique is imp emented are given i
n
Appendix E of the CCM User Guide, page E-6.
Chapter 8 DISTRIBUTED RESISTANCE (POROUS MEDIA) FLOW
Introduction
Version 4.12 8-1
Chapter 8 DISTRIBUTED RESISTANCE (POROUS MEDIA)
FLOW
Introduction
The mode ing framework of STAR-CD contains provision for situations where
f ow occurs through a mesh sub-domain containing fine-sca e geometrica
structures whose effects, being too sma to be numerica y reso ved within the
overa ca cu ation, are represented instead as distributed momentum ‘sinks’ or
‘resistances’. Examp es of such situations are:
• F ows in porous media, such as packed-bed chemica reactors and fi ters
• Heat exchangers of the she -and-tube or p ate type, where the so ution
domain encompasses the entire assemb y, containing arge numbers of
tubes/p ates
• Honeycomb structures
• F ows in fibrous materia s
Because the f ow resistance is sometimes directiona y dependent, as in the seco
nd
and third examp es be ow, STAR-CD assumes an orthotropic resistance fie d. In
such a fie d, there may be different resistance va ues in three mutua y-orthogo
na
directions. Moreover, these directions need not coincide with the g oba coordin
ate
or mesh directions and may a so vary spatia y within the f ow domain. Detai s o
f
this approach are given be ow.
F ow Ana ysis
It is assumed that the presence of distributed resistance due to a porous medium
resu ts in an additiona force (per unit vo ume) to the genera momentum
conservation equation (see Chapter 1, equation (1-2)) such that
(8-1)
where is the porous resistance tensor and the superficia ve ocity. For the thre
e
mutua y-orthogona directions of the porous resistance tensor we have
(8-2)
where repeated subscripts denote diagona e ements of the porous resistance tens
or
(but not summation) and , are user-supp ied coefficients whose dimensions
are [kg m–4] and [kg m–3s–1], respective y. The coefficients may be either uniform
or spatia y-varying (see “Examp es of Resistance Coefficient Ca cu ation” on page
8-4). Superficia ve ocity at any cross section through the porous medium is def
ined
as the vo ume f ow rate divided by the tota cross sectiona area (i.e. area occ
upied
by both f uid and so id). The possibi ity of additiona or a ternative dependenc
ies of
these coefficients on quantities such as ve ocity and temperature is a owed for
through user coding faci ities (see Chapter 16 in the CCM User Guide).
An additiona input required for unsteady f ow ca cu ations is the vo ume
porosity χ, d fi d as th ratio of op volum to total volum of th porous
m dium. This is us d i th tim d rivativ t rms of th otiuity, rgy ad
Fp = –K ⋅ v
K v
Kii = αi v + βi
αi βi
DI TRIBUTED RE I TANCE (POROU MEDIA) FLOW Ch
pter 8
Flow An
lysis
8-2 Version 4.12
speciesequ
tions.
It m
y e shown th
t or c
ses when
(8-3)
where
L
nd U
re, respectively,
ch
r
cteristic over
ll dimension o the distr
i uted
medium
nd
ch
r
cteristic velocity through it, the momentum equ
tion ecomes
(8-4)
It should e noted th
t it is
lw
ys
dvis
le,
nd physic
lly consistent, to
v
oid
setting ; or otherwise
s , le
ding to
potenti
lly unst
le
situ
tion.
He
t/m
ss tr
ns er
For these processes, the ull tr
nsport equ
tions (1-10)
nd (1-29)
re solved i
n the
distri uted medium to
llow or the possi le contri utions o inerti
, convectio
n
nd
di usion. In the c
se o the l
st-n
med, however, it will norm
lly e necess
ry
to
modi y the expressions or the he
t
nd m
ss di usivities [equ
tions (1-22), (1
-24),
(1-30)
nd (1-33)] to
llow or the in luence o the distri uted medium on the
di usion processes. In the
sence o such modi ic
tions, the de
ult continuum
luid expressions
re used. The required modi ic
tions
re strongly pro lemdepen
dent
nd di icult to provide or intern

lly in
gener
l w
y. There ore,
llow
nce h
s een m
de orsuch modi ic
tions to e m
de vi
user coding.
There
lso exists the possi ility th
t the distri uted medium m
y
ct
s
sourc
e
or sink o energy or chemic
l species. Both processes could occur, or ex
mple,
during
n exothermic heterogeneous chemic
l re
ction on the c
t
lyst sur
ces o

pe le- ed re
ctor. Ag
in, user input o such source/sink terms is c
lled or
n
d c
n
e provided vi
user coding.
Tur ulence
For the purposes o c
lcul
ting momentum in the distri uted medium, the e ects
o
tur ulence
re
ssumed to e enc
psul
ted in the resist
nce unction (8-2), so t
he
issue
o tur ulence modelling does not
rise in this connection. It m
y, however
, e
relev
nt to the c
lcul
tion o he
t
nd m
ss tr
ns er, or to the c
lcul
tion o
low
in
su -dom
ins ounding the distri uted medium (e.g. the exit plenum o
he
t
exch
nger). Appropri
te modi ic
tions to the tur ulence tr
nsport equ
tions or
the
porous su -dom
in
re unlikely to e
v
il
le, so provision is m
de to c
lcul
t
e
the tur ulence energy k
nd dissip
tion r
te ε from th followig simpl alg brai
fu tios, d riv d from quatios (6-41) ad (6-42). Th s assum kowl dg of
th turbul hara t risti s i t rms of it sity ad l gth s al :
(8-5)
ad
(αU + β)L
ρU
-------------------------- » 1
–K ⋅ v = ∇p
βi = 0 Ki → 0 v → 0
Idr
k 32
-- Idr
= 2 v 2
Ch
pter 8 DI TRIBUTED RE I TANCE (POROU MEDIA) FLOW
Loc
l Pl
n
r Resist
nce (Porous B
le)
Version 4.12 8-3
(8-6)
Here, is the loc
l super ici
l velocity m
gnitude
nd ,
re user-supplied
coe icients representing the
ver
ge tur ulence intensity
ndlength sc
le,
respectively.
These qu
ntities
re cle
rly pro lem-dependent, ut typic
l v
lues
might e ~0.01 or
nd ~0.1 times
ch
r
cteristic p
ss
ge dimension or .
Bound
ry conditions
The ull r
nge o w
ll ound
ry conditions (c . Ch
pter 5) is
v
il
le or
imposition on the outer sur
ces o the distri uted medium.
Loc
l Pl
n
r Resist
nce (Porous B
le)
some situ
tions, or ex
mple in low through
thin porous
le, the distri
In
uted
resist
nce su -dom
in m
y e sm
ll in thickness in comp
rison to the
comput
tion
l cell size. A simil
r tre
tment to the
ove is employed, ut now t
he
momentum sink term is
pplied on the
le pl
ne. As shown in “B
les” on p
ge
3-10, this pl
ne coincides with
sur
ce o
comput
tion
l cell
nd yields
pressure drop, ,
cross it given y:
(8-7)
where is the super ici
l velocity norm
l to the
le sur
ce.
,
re user-speci ied coe icients de ining the
le resist
nce.
The ormer is dimensionless while the l
tter h
s dimensions o
[m/s]
is
ssumed th
t the direction o the low is unch
nged
s it p
sses through
It

le.

The possi ility o conductive he
t tr
ns er through

le is
lso
llowed or
,
on the
ssumption th
t
• the process is one-dimension
l,
• therm
l inerti
is negligi le,
• the e ective
le
re
or he
t conduction is given y (1 - χ) g om tri
surfa ar a, wh r th baffl ’s ar a porosity χ is d fi d i th sam way as

th volum porosity.
Th r quir d iput is th th rmal r sista R of th baffl p r uit ar a, d fi
d as:
(8-8)
wh r ad ar th t mp ratur diff r ad h at flux a ross th baffl ,
r sp tiv ly.
Baffl surfa s a b as rib d th usual wall prop rti s, su h as rough ss,
slidig v lo iti s ad radiatio hara t risti s. Mor ov r, th s may b diff r
t o
ith r sid .
ε
Cμ
3⁄ 4 k3 ⁄ 2
L
= ----------------------

vI L
I L
Δp
Δp = –ρ (α vn + β ) vn
vn

α β
R ΔT
q″ ≡ -------
ΔT q″
DI TRIBUTED RE I TANCE (POROU MEDIA) FLOW Ch
pter 8
Discretis
tion Method
8-4 Version 4.12
Discretis
tion Method
The FV orms o the equ
tions governing low, he
t
nd m
ss tr
ns er in distri u
ted
resist
nce su -dom
ins
re solved in
simil
r
shion
s,
nd simult
neously wi
th,
those governing neigh ouring continuum su -dom
ins. Thus:
• Momentum equ
tions
re discretised
s in norm
l cells, with the resist
nce
term tre
ted
s
momentum sink.
• He
t
nd m
ss tr
ns er equ
tions
re o the st
nd
rd orm
nd
re tre
ted in
the usu
l w
y.
• In the c
se o tur ulent low c
lcul
tions,
where
the di erenti
l equ
tions or
the tur ulence p
r
meter(s)
re repl
ced y
lge r
ic rel
tions in the porous
medium, these
re used directly to compute the cell-centred nod
l v
lues o
the p
r
meter(s).
The s
me comments

pply to the equ
tions governing low
nd/or he
t tr
ns er
through porous
les. Note, however, the ollowing restrictions:
• Due to the discontinuity in pressure gr
dient
t the porous- luid inter
ce,
ll
gr
dients in cells
dj
cent to the inter
ce
re
sed on line
r extr
pol
tion o

pressure.Hence,
minimum o two cell l
yers
re necess
ry within the
porous su -dom
in.
• Moving meshes should not e used within porous su -dom
ins.
• The sur
ces o such su -dom
ins should not coincide with cyclic ound
ries
Ex
mples o Resist
nce Coe icient C
lcul
tion
In m
ny porous medi
lows, such
s those demonstr
ted in the CCM Tutori
ls
volume (Tutori
l 3), empiric
l rel
tionships or the c
lcul
tion o the resist
n
ce
coe icients α [kg m–4]
nd β [kg m–3s–1]
re not
v
il
le. Inste
d, they
re
determined experiment
lly. This section covers some ex
mples o lows or which
empiric
l rel
tionships do
pply:
1. Highly porous
medi
(
) P
cked eds, representing
n isotropic porous medium;
( ) Ch
nnel low, representing
n orthotropic porous medium.
2. Moder
tely porous medi

Here the resist
nce (or the pressure drop) is given y
n experiment
l curve
s
unction o (super ici

l) velocity.
For c
ses where the low resist
nce is o the s
me order o m
gnitude
s the
convection or di usion terms, it is necess
ry to solve the momentum equ
tions w
ith
n
ddition
l (neg
tive) source term. Implement
tion o this
ddition
l source t
erm
through user coding in equ
tion (1-2) h
s the ollowing limit

tions:
• It does not
ccount orthe e ect o the medium on tur ulence p
r
meters.

Where these
re qu
nti i
le, the user coding
cility m
y
lso h
ve to e
utilised.
• It does not
ccount or the e ects o
porous medium on the super ici
l low
entering or le
ving the medium. These m
y e m
ni ested, or ex
mple, y
w
y o low
cceler
tion due to
re
contr
ction (this would e implied rom
Ch
pter 8 DI TRIBUTED RE I TANCE (POROU MEDIA) FLOW
Ex
mples o Resist
nce Coe icient C
lcul
tion
Version 4.12 8-5
continuity, given the
re
porosity χ) ad asso iat d pr ssur loss s. Etry
loss orr latios a usually b obtai d from th lit ratur (i g om tri ally
simpl as s) or from maufa tur rs.
• Th dir tio of flow l avig th m dium will b ith r that of th sup rfi ial
v lo ity (i th as of isotropi r sista ), or ls d p d t o th
orthotropi r sista . Us r odig would b r quir d, for xampl , i th
as of flow through a radiator si th xit flow agl d p ds o th agl
of th va s th r .
Additioally, som h ks (list d b low) may b us d to sur that th
impl m tatio of th s mod ls is osist t with th flows to whi h th y ar
appli d.
Exampl 1 — Pa k d b ds (isotropi r sista )
Th Ergu quatio is appli d h r (s th dis ussio i [1.2]) for th pr ssur
drop, dp, ov r a l gth, L, of pa k d b d
(8-9)
viscosi y [Pa s]
wh r μ = molecula
ρ = flui ensi
y [kg m–3]
= mean iame e of pa icles in he po ous me ium [m]

χ = volum (or ar a) porosity [dim sio l ss]
v = sup rfi ial v lo ity through th m dium [m s–1]
R du d to th form of Equatio (8-4), this giv s xpr ssios for th r sista
o ffi i ts (for all ompo t dir tios) as follows:
(8-10)
ad
(8-11)
Applyig th valu s
(8-12)
r sults i
α = 843.5
β = 54.3
When the low through the porous medium is l
min
r, α is usu
lly zero,
nd
dp
L
------ 150μ(1 – χ)2 v
χ3Dp
2
– ----------------------------------- 1.75ρ(1 – χ)v2
χ3Dp
= – ------------------------------------
Dp
α 1.75ρ(1 – χ)
χ3Dp
= ------------------------------
β 150μ(1 – χ)2
χ3Dp
2
= -------------------------------
μ 1.81 –5 10 , ρ 1.205, Dp 1.0 –2 = = = 10 , χ = 0.5
DISTRIBUTED RESISTANCE (POROUS MEDIA) FLOW Chapt r 8
Exampl s of R sista Co ffi i t Cal ulatio
8-6 V rsio 4.12
Equatio (8-9) r du s to th so- all d Blak -Koz y quatio.
For highly turbul t flow, β ecomes zero
nd (8-9) reduces to the
Burke-Plummer equ
tion.
User Checks
1. A ter the simul
tion, the user should ensure th
t the norm
lised resist
nce
coe icients , where U is
ch
r
cteristic velocity
through the medium.
2. The
dvicegiven in the on-line Help p
nels on how to set up porous medi
c
ses should e considered.
Ex
mple 2 — Ch
nnel low (orthotropic resist

nce)
The resist
nce in the low direction c
n e descri ed in terms o
riction
c
tor

pplied, or ex
mple, to ch
nnel/honeycom lows
(8-13)
where = const
nts pert
ining to the type o low
τ = wall shea s ess
[Pa]
= mean veloci y in he me ium (= ) [ms–1]

Re = flow
Reynol
s numbe , , base
on he
cha ac e is ic
(channel) heigh ,
The p essu e op pe uni leng h can be w i en as
(8-14)
whe e P = we e pe ime e [m]
= (channel) c oss-sec ional flow a ea (= χ A) [m2]
A = sup rfi ial ar a [m2]
Usig quatio (8-13)
(8-15)
r sultig i
(8-16)
ad
αL ⁄ ρ + βL ⁄ (ρU) » 1
f C1 R n 1
C2
R
⎝ + ------⎠
= ⎛ ⎞ 2τ
½ρV′2
≡ -----------------
C1, C2, n
V′ v⁄ χ
ρV′D μ ⁄
Dh
p
L
------ τ P
A′
= – -----
A′
p
L
------
P C1 ρ v2 Ren
2χ3 A
– --------------------------------
P C1 C2μ v Ren
2χ2 ADh
= – -------------------------------------
α
P C1 ρ R n
2χ3 A
= -------------------------
Chapt r 8 DISTRIBUTED RESISTANCE (POROUS MEDIA) FLOW
Cojugat H at Trasf r
V rsio 4.12 8-7
(8-17)
whi h apply i th ha l flow dir tio oly. I this as , th orthotropi
r sista is su h that th p rm abiliti s i th ross-flow dir tios ar ff
tiv ly
z ro (α, β
re very l
rge). There ore, in
simple c
se where = 0.75, χ = 0.5,
= 1.0 10–3 (th fluid has th sam prop rti s as i Exampl 1) ad
= 100, 100, 0, r sp tiv ly,
α = 361.5
nd β = 271.5 in the low direction
α = 1.0 105
nd β = 1.0 105 in the cross- low direction
User Checks
1. The user should t
kec
re in distinguishing etween cross-section
l
nd
super ici
l
re
s,
nd etween me
n (ch
nnel) velocity
nd super ici
l
velocity. The super ici
l qu
ntities
re used in TAR-CD.
2. ee “User Checks” in Ex
mple 1
ove.
Conjug
te He
t Tr
ns er
The st
nd
rd porous medi
model discussed
ove considers the displ
cement
nd
resist
nce e ects o
distri uted m
teri
l (porous solid) on
luid m
teri
l
perme
ting the porous solid. However, the he
t tr
ns er to, rom
nd within th
t
solid is not considered. There ore,
speci
l model or conjug
te he
t tr
ns er
in
porous medi
is included in TAR to provide such
unction
lity. The model is n
ot

pplic
le to c
ses th
t represent the porous medium through user coding.
As
n ex
mple o
c
se where this
cility m
y e used, consider the low o
w
ter through
sponge modelled
s
porous medium. The st
nd
rd
ppro
ch
models the w
y in which
w
ter is displ
ced
nd ret
rded
s it p
sses through the
sponge. The energy
l
nce or the w
ter includes the work done
g
inst the dr
g
posed y the sponge. However, the conductive he
t tr
ns er rom the sponge is no
t
modelled, i.e. the user c
nnot model
hot sponge he
ting up the w
ter p
ssing
through it.The conjug
te he
t tr
ns er in porous medi
model removes the
ove
limit
tion y modelling the he
t tr
ns er within
nd etween
porous solid
nd
its
perme
ting luid.
olution method
The m
ss
nd momentum equ
tions rem
in unch
nged or the luid. However, the
equ
tion o the luid h
s
n
ddition
l inter-ph
se he
t tr
ns er term gi
energy
ven y
(8-18)

nd so ecomes:
(8-19)
β
P C1 C2 μ Ren
2χ2 ADh
= ---------------------------------
P ⁄ A
Dh
C1, C2,
ha
V
------ Tss ( – T f )dV
V ∫
∂t
∂ ρ f
V ∫
χ V ρ v ⋅ nχdS
S ∫
d + qf χ S ha
V
------ Tss ( – T f ) V AχdV
V ∫
d +
V ∫
⋅ d +
S ∫
=
DISTRIBUTED RESISTANCE (POROUS MEDIA) FLOW Chapt r 8
8-8 V rsio 4.12
wh r :
is th th rmal odu ta p r uit volum (Wm-3K-1)
is th surfa t mp ratur of th porous solid (K)
is th t mp ratur of th p rm atig fluid (K)
is th volum porosity of th fluid
A r pr s ts all oth r volum sour t rms (Wm-3)
Th sam t rm also app ars, with opposit sig, i th porous solid rgy quat
io:
(8-20)
wh r B r pr s ts all oth r volum sour t rms.
Th solutio pro dur us d for Equatios (8-19) ad (8-20) oupl s th m i a
fully impli it ma r, allowig a ffi i t solutio of th rgy quatios.
It r-phas h at trasf r t rm
Th it r-phas h at trasf r t rm show i quatio (8-18) d p ds o th
diff r b tw th surfa t mp ratur of th porous solid ad th t mp ratu
r
of th fluid. Th r ar two optios for d fiig th form r:
1. I th simpl st as , is osid r d to b qual to th m a ll
t mp ratur of th porous solid .
2. If a mor ompl x r latioship b tw th m a ll t mp ratur ad th
surfa t mp ratur of th porous solid is availabl ( .g. from a s parat
aalysis), it is th possibl to sp ify it i th quasi-li ar form:
(8-21)
wh r C ad D ar o ffi i ts sp ifi d by th us r via a us r subrouti .
Th ov rall pro ss of s ttig up a mod l otaiig porous m dia is d s rib d i

Chapt r 6 of th CCM Us r Guid . That d s riptio also i lud s ross-r f r s
to appropriat parts of th o-li H lp syst m, otaiig d tails of th us r
iput
r quir d ad importat poits to b ar i mid wh s ttig up probl ms of this k
id.
ha
V
------
Tss T f
χ
∂t
∂ ρ s
V ∫
(1 – χ)dV qs (1 – χ) S ha
V
------ Tss ( – T f ) V B(1 – χ)dV
V ∫
d +
V ∫
⋅ d –
S ∫
=
Tss Ts
Ts
Tss
Tss = CTs + D
Chapt r 9 THERMAL AND SOLAR RADIATION
Itrodu tio
V rsio 4.12 9-1
Itrodu tio
H at trasf r by th rmal radiatio is importat i a umb r of gi rig
appli atios. High t mp ratur syst ms su h as fura s, ov s, i i rators ad
oth r ombustio syst ms fr qu tly r ly o radiativ h at trasf r to op rat .
H at
trasf r i oth r appli atios su h as v ry low pr ssur r a tio syst ms a al
so b
domiat d by th rmal radiatio. A good ud rstadig of th h at trasf r
pro ss s o urrig i th s syst ms r quir s that th rmal radiatio b prop rly
a out d for i a math mati al mod l.
Log-wav l gth (th rmal) ad short-wav l gth (solar) radiatio h at trasf r
a b mod ll d i STAR-CD for los d spa s. Th two a b pr s t
simulta ously ad a b solv d for i oju tio with ov tio ad
odu tio. Aoth r xampl of a physi al situatio wh r this typ of mod llig
may b r quir d is h atig/v tilatio i buildigs ad v hi l s.
I som as s, th rmal radiatio a o ur oly as a surfa ph om o. Th
m dia s paratig th surfa s (su h as dry air) is traspar t to th rmal radiat
io.
This typ of h at trasf r is usually t rm d surfa x hag . How v r, oth r
appli atios r quir osid ratio of parti ipatig m dia. This t rm r f rs to m
dia
lyig b tw th radiatig surfa s that a absorb, mit, ad/or s att r th rm
al
radiatio.
I all as s, STAR-CD allows for radiativ h at x hag b tw boudary
surfa s, both it ral (i. . thos that ar i ota t with th fluid) or xt r
al
(i. . thos that ar ot). Aalysis of surfa x hag is ov r d i th s tio
o
“Radiatio i Surfa Ex hag Probl ms” b low. For a dis ussio o how to
a out for ff ts du to th radiativ prop rti s of th it rv ig fluid s
th
s tio o “Radiatio i Parti ipatig M dia Probl ms”.
Radiatio i Surfa Ex hag Probl ms
A wid ly us d approa h for omputig this typ of radiativ h at trasf r is bas
d
o tra kig b ams via th dis r t trasf r m thod (DTRM). STAR-CD off rs two
m thods of doig this:
1. A algorithm built ito th STAR-CD solv r for al ulatig vi w fa tors
b tw pat h s. This us s a CFD volum m sh to fa ilitat th al ulatio,
h all pat h s must li withi or o th surfa of th losig CFD
m sh. Not that:
(a) Th m thod a b us d to mod l parti ipatig m dia radiatio
(b) A additioal limitig assumptio is mad that th th rmal ad solar
trasmissiviti s ar id ti al
2. A xt ral, fast ad ompa t b am-tra kig od (FASTRAC) that us s a
automati ally g rat d vox l m sh to fa ilitat th vi w fa tor al ulatios.
Th xt ral od may b ombi d with th STAR-CD solv r for
aalysig ompl x oupl d h at trasf r probl ms ivolvig odu tio ad
ov tio. Th FASTRAC algorithm will g rally b mu h fast r that th
it ral algorithm b aus of th oomy of th vox l m sh ad b tt r filt r
strat gi s whi h a qui kly id tify pat h s that do ot ‘s ’ a h oth r. I

THERMAL AND SOLAR RADIATION Chapt r 9
9-2 V rsio 4.12
this way oly o-z ro vi w fa tors ar stor d ad maipulat d. Not that:
(a) Th m thod a oly b us d i o-parti ipatig m dia as s
(b) It p rmits th rmal ad solar trasmissiviti s to b diff r t
Th Dis r t Trasf r m thod
Th dis r t trasf r m thod (DTRM) mploy d i STAR-CD is apabl of
aalysig radiat h at x hag b tw surfa s of arbitrary ompl xity. Th
surfa s ar assum d to b of th gr y Lamb rt typ ad th r fl tio to b dif
fus .
Th approa h is similar to that d s rib d i [9.1] ad osists of th followig
mai l m ts:
• Th boudari s of th al ulatio domai (i ludig surfa s of it ral
bodi s, if pr s t) ar subdivid d ito otiguous o-ov rlappig ar as or
‘pat h s’ by th us r. Th umb r ad xt t of th pat h s is hos so as to
r solv ad quat ly th surfa g om try ad radiatio flux variatios.
• From th omial tr of a h pat h, a umb r of us r-sp ifi d b ams ar
mitt d, of qual solid agl s ov r th losig uit h misph r . Ea h b am
is tra d through th fluid util it it r pts a opposig pat h, thus d fiig
a
pair that may ud rgo radiat rgy it r hag . By this pro ss, all
ommui atig pat h s may b id tifi d.
• Th amout of radiat rgy trasf r to or from a h pat h is th al ulat d
from th radiatio trasport quatio ad boudary oditios, whi h may b
of th pr s rib d t mp ratur or flux vari ty. Allowa is mad for
simulta ous h at trasf r by oth r m haisms, i. . ov tio ad
odu tio, wh r r l vat.
As will b vid t from this d s riptio ad furth r d tails giv b low, th m
thod
allows a trad -off b tw a ura y ad omput r ov rh ads, i. . th gr at r th
umb rs of pat h s ad b ams th b tt r th a ura y, at th xp s of i r as
d
al ulatio tim ad storag r quir m ts.
Pat h ad b am d fiitio
Figur 9-1 illustrat s a two-dim sioal sli through a losur whos surfa
s
hav b subdivid d ito pat h s; i this xampl , t of th m a b s .
Th ma r of subdivisio, whi h is sp ifi d by th us r alog with , is i
g ral di tat d by two r quir m ts:
• Th surfa topography must b ad quat ly r pr s t d, si radiat
it r hag is d t rmi d i part by how surfa r gios ‘s ’ a h oth r.
• Th variatio i radiatio flux ov r a giv pat h should ot b too larg ,
oth rwis th dis r tisatio rror itrodu d will also b too larg . This
appli s parti ularly to variabl -t mp ratur surfa s.
NP
NP
V rsio 4.12 9-3
Figur 9-1 Illustratio of pat h ad b am d fiitios i dis r t trasf r radia
tio
aalysis i a two-dim sioal losur
Th d stiatio of th total (i. . mitt d plus r fl t d) radiat rgy l avi
g a
giv pat h i is d t rmi d by subdividig it ito idividual solid b ams. Ea h
b am dir tio ad solid subt d d agl is d fi d by ostru tig a uit
h misph r aroud th omial troid P of pat h i (s Figur 9-1). Th
h misph r is th subdivid d ito qual solid agl s of uiformi r m t δφ in
the pol
r direction. The
zimuth

lsu divisions
re equ
l in num er to the pol
r
ones,
so th
t the tot
l num er o e
ms is , where N is the num er o
su divisions in one direction (= 1, 2, 3, … etc.), giving = 4, 16, 36, … etc.
The construction
o the unit hemisphere
t the nomin
l centroid o e
ch p
tch,
the su division into the speci ied num er o solid e
ms,
nd the tr
cking o e

ms
through the mesh until they strike
ound
ry,
re
ll per ormed intern
lly in
TAR-CD
nd do not require user input.
View
ctor c
lcul
tion
The view
ctor etween p
tches i
nd j is the r
ction o the tot
l r
di
tion
le
ving sur
ce i th
t is incident on sur
ce j. In the present tre
tment, the i
ncident
r
di
tion is t
ken to e cont
ined in
ll e
ms rom i striking j, i.e.
(9-1)
where is the view
ctor or
single e
m em
n
ting rom the centroid P,
deduced rom the
ngle o incidence. The coe icient is equ
l to 1 i the e
m
strikes sur
ce j or zero otherwise.
This
n
lysis
is
pproxim
te, since the
intercepted
re
on j m
y not e the true
re
, ut the error diminishes with
1
2
3 4
5
6
7
8 = NLi
δφ
e
m k (= 4)
P
p
tch i (= 1)
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
NL, i
NL, i = 4N 2
NL, i
Fij
Fij αk ij
k =1
NL i ,
Σ =
ij
αk
THERMAL AND OLAR RADIATION Ch
pter 9
R
di
tion in ur
ce Exch
nge Pro lems
9-4 Version 4.12
incre
sing
nd . Irrespective o the v
lues o these qu
ntities, r
di
nt
energy is
lw
ys conserved since it c
n e shown th
t
(9-2)
Tr
nsp
rent
nd semi-tr
nsp
rent
les within the dom
in
re
ssumed to tr
nsm
it
r
di
tion in
specul
r
shion. Thus, i the e
ms
re intercepted y such

les
during e
m tr
cking, their contri ution to view
ctors is c
lcul
ted
nd the
tr
cking is continued or the tr
nsmitted e
ms until they hit
n op
que sur
ce
. The
contri ution o tr
nsp
rent
les on the view
ctor is t
ken into
ccount in
the
ollowing w
y:
I m is the p
tch on
semi-tr
nsp
rent
le, the view
ctor etween p
tches
i
nd m is given y
(9-3)
nd or dist
nt w
ll p
tches y
(9-4)
where = tr
nsmissivity o the
le i the kth e
m p
sses through
it
= 1 otherwise.
There
re
num er o key di erences in the speci ic
tion o
nd results rom t
he
view
ctor ev
lu
tion, depending on whether the uilt-in or extern
l c
lcul
tio
n
process is employed:
• In the intern
l method, the num er o e
ms is
ssigned y the user
nd is
lso
determining

ctor on
ccur
cy
nd cost. This is ec
use the l
rger the
num er o e
ms, the gre
ter thelikelihood th
t
ll other p
tches j which
re
‘seen’ y i will eintercepted y
t le
st one e
m (in gener
l, it is possi le
th
t more th
n one e
m rom i m
y intercept
given p
tch j). Cle
rly, the
minimum requirement
or s
tis
ctory oper
tion is where is
the tot
l num er o p
tches. However, the gre
ter the num er o e
ms, the
more e ort is required to tr
ce them.
• In FA TRAC,
the num er o e
ms is chosen y the code so
s to provide
high pro
ility th
t
e
m will cross
ny p
tch it c
n see. In
ddition, since
FA TRAC tr
cks e
ms vi
the voxel mesh, the e
ms c
n e tr
cked
outside the CFD mesh. For ex
mple, FA TRAC c
n tr
ck e
ms rom the
sur
ces o CFD dom
in meshes th
t
re sep
r
ted in sp
ce.
Bound
ry tre
tment
Bound
ry tre
tment c
n e divided into
NP NL, i
Fij
ll j
Σ = 1
Fim αk (1 – τk) f im
k = 1
NL i ,
Σ =
Fij αk τk f ij
k = 1
NL i ,
Σ =
τk
NL, i > NP NP
e 9 THERMAL AND SOLAR RADIATION
Chap
Ra ia ion in Su face Exchange P oblems
Ve sion4.12 9-5

• ‘soli ’ boun a ies (in e io wall su faces
in con ac wih he flui , ex e io
wall su faces,
flui /soli in e faces wi hin he
solu
ion omain, baffles),

• so-calle
‘escape’ boun a ies (i.e. inle , ou le , p essu e, s agna ion, an
f ee-s
eam shock egions),
• ‘in e nal’ bouna ies
(symme y an cyclic).
The specific ea men of ‘soli ’ boun a ies is elabo a e in “Combine hea
ansfe mo es” ater in this chapter. The ‘escape’ boundaries are treated as grey
body surfaces such that on y emissive radiation emanates from them, ca cu ated
from a specified boundary temperature and emissivity. The same treatment is a so
app ied to the so-ca ed ‘radiation’ boundaries, used to separate sub-domains within
a mode where radiation effects are important from other sub-domains where such
effects are neg igib e. The approach adopted in patching such boundaries is subj
ect
to the same considerations as those for wa s.
In the interna method, ‘interna ’ f ow boundaries, i.e. symmetry p anes/axes and
cyc ic boundaries, are treated simi ar y to the other f ow variab es. Thus, the
f uxes
are ref ected at the former and transmitted at the atter, after appropriate rot
ation if
the cyc ic boundary pairs are non-para e . Note that the externa view factor
ca cu ation method (FASTRAC) is not current y app icab e to prob ems where
‘interna ’ boundaries are present.
Patches on boundaries
The method of defining surface ‘patches’ at so id boundaries (i.e. wa s, baff e
surfaces or so id/f uid interfaces) depends on which of the above DTRM approache
s
is in use:
• For the interna method, patching is done with reference to the surface mesh
by appropriate y f agging ce s, either sing y or in groups. Optiona y, it is
a so possib e to have the patches generated automatica y, according to
various user-se ected criteria (see Chapter 7, “Capabi ities and Limitations of
the DTRM Method” in the CCM User Guide).
• For the FASTRAC method, the number of patches is either specified direct y
or in terms of the surface mesh for each boundary region.
Radiant f uxes
The tota radiation f ux eaving patch i (see Figure 9-2), sometimes termed the
‘radiosity’, is given by
(9-5)
where (W/m2) is the tota incident radiation f ux from other patches onto patch
i,
and , are the surface emissivity and ref ectivity, respective y. For the specia
case of a ‘grey’ opaque surface, the re ation
(9-6)
ho ds; however, for the sake of genera ity, this is not invoked in the ana ysis.
The
quantity is the b ack-body emission f ux (W/m2), where σ i th
t f
n-Boltzm
nn con t
nt
nd i th (
b olut ) bound
ry urf
c t mp r
tur .
Ji
Ji = εr EB, i + ρ Ii
Ii
ε ρ
ε + ρ = 1
EB, i σTi
≡ 4
Ti
pt r 9
R
di
tion in urf
c Exch
n Probl m
9-6 V r ion 4.12
Th incid nt flux ( Fi ur 9-2) c
n b xpr d in t rm of th r
dio iti
of
ll th oth r p
tch , thu :
(9-7)
wh r i d fin d by qu
tion (9-1).
In n r
l, if th urf
c t mp r
tur
r known, th r
di
tion flux c
n b
c
lcul
t d in
n it r
tiv f
hion from qu
tion (9-5)
nd (9-7).
Fi ur 9-2 R
di
tiv h
t tr
n f r
t p
tch no. i
Th n t r
di
nt h
t flux
t th w
ll p
tch i, , i iv n by th diff r nc b tw
n
th
rrivin
nd l
vin flux , i. .
(9-8)
or, quiv
l ntly, by
(9-9)
wh r i th urf
c
b orptivity (for
r y body, = , but thi r l
tion i
not u d h r for th
k of n r
lity). Equ
tion (9-9) i
l o u ful for bou
nd
ri
wh r th urf
c flux i known, for it c
n th n b ub titut d into qu
tion (9
-5)
to limin
t th (unknown) urf
c t mp r
tur ,
di cu d in th ction on
“Combin d h
t tr
n f r mod ”.
Combined heat transfer modes
In the genera case where radiative, convective and conductive heat transfer mod
es
are operating simu taneous y, the tota wa heat f ux is the sum of three
components, thus:
(9-10)
where the convective component is given by
Ii
Ii F ji J j
j Σ
=
F ji
}
Ji Ii
Js,i
Fsol
r , Is,i
θ
ρ Ii
ε σ Ti
4
F ol
r,0
qr″,
qr″
i – 1 i i + 1
q″r
q″r = Ii – Ji
q″r = αr I – εr EB
αr αr εr
q″r
q″w
q″w q″r q″c = + + q″d
q″c
Ch
pt r 9 THERMAL AND OLAR RADIATION
R
di
tion in urf
c Exch
n Probl m
V r ion 4.12 9-7
(9-11)
H r , i th w
ll t mp r
tur , i th
dj
c nt fluid t mp r
tur ,
nd i
th loc
l h
t tr
n f r co ffici nt. Th l
tt r two qu
ntiti
r product of t
h fluid
h
t tr
n f r c
lcul
tion, o th focu h r i on th urf
c flux
nd t mp r
tur .
Not th
t th conductiv compon nt i c
lcul
t d only
t int rn
l conductin
bound
ri , . .
t olid/fluid urf
c .
Combinin qu
tion (9-9) to (9-11), th r r ult
(9-12)
howin th
t wh n th w
ll t mp r
tur i known, m
y b c
lcul
t d dir ctly.
If, on th oth r h
nd
• i pr crib d (flux bound
ry condition), or
• th bound
ry i
n int rior bound
ry uch

conductin b
ffl or
olid-fluid int rf
c
c
n b d duc d by olvin thi non-lin
r polynomi
l. In th pr nt
m thodolo y, thi i don by it r
tiv m
n .
ol
r r
di
tion
TAR-CD
l o mploy th di cr t tr
n f r m thod to tim
t w
ll h
tin withi
n
n nclo ur du to
b orb d
nd r fl ct d incomin ol
r r
di
tion [9.2].
Followin thi ,
conv ntion
l th rm
l
n
ly i c
n b p rform d in th m
nn r
d crib d in th ction on “Combin d h
t tr
n f r mod ”.
The main assumptions under ying the first stage of this process are:
• The so ar radiation, being of higher frequency than the therma spectrum, is
partia y ref ected and partia y absorbed as it strikes the surfaces of the
enc osure
• Emission of the so ar frequency component is neg igib e, so = 0
For the purposes of this type of ana ysis, it is assumed that direct so ar radia
tion
enters an enc osure through the externa surfaces of wa s that are exposed to t
he
sun. Wa s can be dec ared as opaque or part y/fu y transparent to this radiati
on and
are assumed to be of zero effective thickness, i.e. so ar radiation is deemed to
be
absorbed on y at the interior surface of the exposed wa . The absorbed radiatio
n is
used direct y in the convective heat ba ance at the interior wa . In this conte
xt, an
adiabatic or constant heat f ux surface is defined as a surface with zero or con
stant
convective heat f ux, respective y, to the outside ambient. It a ows so ar radi
ation
to be absorbed and/or transmitted at such a wa if exposed to direct so ar radi
ation.
Transmitted radiation is tracked as direct radiation a ong the direction of so a
r
inc ination unti it is intercepted by an opaque surface. Based on the so ar rad
iation
intensity, , and the cosine of ang e θ made with the normal (see Figure 9-2),
the incident flux is calculated for each patch.
At each such directly irradiated patch, the radiation flux due to solar radiatio
n is
obtained from a modified form of euation (9-5) which, after setting = 0), reads
:
(9-13)
″c = – ht(Tw – T f )
Tw T f ht
″d
″w αr Ii εr σ Tw 4 = – – h(Tw – T f ) + q″d
q″w
q″w
Tw
εr,
I ol
r
F ol
r
εr
J , i = ρ , s(Is, i + Fsola )
THERMAL AND SOLAR RADIATION C apt 9
Radiation in Su fac Exc ang P obl ms
9-8 V sion 4.12
is t sola adiation fl ctivity (≡ ). At all ot patc s t

abov appli s it = 0.
Aft solution fo J and I, t n t at flux f om ac patc du to t
abso b d adiation is
(9-14)
is t incid nc of sola adiation fl ct d f om ot patc s, t
sola adiationabso ptivity and, as not d, is non-z o only at di ctly
i adiat d patc s.
Fo an xt nal bounda y of a fluid domain, an additional sou c of sola at i
s
availabl . Consid t cas of a ‘solid’ wa possessing a finite width and whose
outside surface is exposed to direct so ar radiation. If, in addition, one assum
es that
this outside surface
• emits no therma heat,
• is not exposed to therma or indirect so ar radiation from the outside,
• has a so ar absorptivity identica to the inside surface,
• the ‘so id’ has no heat resistance,
it fo ows that the inside and outside surfaces are at the same temperature and
equation (9-14) can be expressed in the form:
(9-15)
where is the externa so ar radiation f ux at the exposed outside wa .
The externa beam tracking method (FASTRAC) a so considers a second source
of so ar radiation energy; the diffuse so ar radiation fi tering through the
atmosphere, i.e. the ‘b ue’ of the sky. This diffuse radiation is umped with the di
rect
so ar f ux . These f uxes are stored and then subsequent y used in the therma
radiation ana ysis as additiona oadings, i.e. equation (9-10) in section “Combin
ed
heat transfer modes” is modified to read:
(9-16)
This change is carried out through to the remaining equations of that section.
A simp ified ana ysis can a so be invoked by neg ecting the diffuse ref ection
from surfaces and assuming that the direct radiation is comp ete y absorbed by a
n
irradiated patch. Thus, equation (9-14) is reduced to
(9-17)
The simp ified approach is va id for app ications invo ving ow temperature
differences. Its advantage is that it bypasses the expensive beam tracking and v
iew
factor ca cu ations.
Radiation heat transfer at a ‘so id’ transparent boundary
STAR-CD can mode so ar and therma radiant heat through transparent or
partia y-transparent so id domains. The radiation beam paths within the so id a
re
ρ , s 1 – αr, s
Fsol
r
q″r, s
q″r, s = αr, s (Is, i + Fsol
r)
Is, i αr, s
Fsol
r
q″r, s = αr, s (Is, i + Fsol
r + Fsol
r, 0)
Fsol
r, 0
Fsol
r
q″w q″r q″c = + + q″d + q″r, s
qr″, s = Fsol
r
Ch
pter 9 THERMAL AND OLAR RADIATION
R
di
tion in P
rticip
ting Medi
Pro lems
Version 4.12 9-9
modelled
s ollows:
1. Be
ms crossing the solid ound
ry
nd coming rom the luid side
re
p
rti
lly re lected,
sor ed
nd tr
nsmitted depending on the speci ied
r
di
tion properties o the solid sur
ce
2. Be
ms crossing
the solid ound
ry
nd coming rom the solid side p
ss
through the ound
ry un
ltered
3. Re r
ction e ects
re not t
ken into
ccount
There
re not
le di erences etween the intern
l
nd extern
l e
m tr
cking
methods in this reg
rd:
• In the intern
lmethod, e
ms which le
ve the enclosure
vi

tr
nsp
rent or
semi-tr
nsp
rent ound
ry
re
ssumed to e
sor ed y
l
ck ody
whose temper
ture is ch
r
cterised y the temper
ture o the ound
ry.
• In the FA TRAC method, the e
ms which
re tr
nsmitted out o the
enclosure
m
y e intercepted
y sur
ces outside the enclosure or they m
y
e
sor ed y
l
ck ody whose temper
ture is ch
r
cterised y
n
environment
l temper
ture. All e
ms which
re not intercepted y other
sur
ces
re
ssumed to e
sor ed y the environment.
In
ddition, the extern
l sur
ces o
solid-cell ound
ry c
n e
ssigned r
di

tion
properties so th
t the sur
ce m
y not only
sor therm
l
nd sol
r r
di
tion
ut

lso emit
nd re lect to
ny outside sur
ces or to the environment. There ore,
FA TRAC
llows
p
tches to e pl
ced on the extern
l ound
ries o solid cells.
The he
t
sor ed, re lected
nd emitted
t
n extern
l solid cell sur
ce is
considered in the solid w
ll therm
l ound
ry condition.
Using the FA TRAC method, luids m
y e enclosed y solid cells. Di erent
sur
ce r
di
tion properties c
n e
ssigned to the interior (the luid/solid in
ter
ce)

nd exterior (solid w
ll) y
tt
ching p
tches on oth sides o the solid. The s
olid
c
n e m
de tr
nsp
rent or p
rti
lly tr
nsp
rent y
ssigning non-zero
tr
nsmissivity to oth sides o the solid. This technique should only e used on

irly thin solid cell l
yers or which the tr
nsmission o
p
rticul
r e
m wi
ll not
depend gre
tly on the
ngle o incidence. In this c
se, the tr
nsmissivity o o
th
interior
nd exterior sur
ces should e identic
l.
Another option or enclosing luids is through the use o
les. The
le c
n
e considered
s
thin, op
que, tr
nsp
rent, or p
rti
lly tr
nsp
rent solid. i
nce the

le h
s two sur
ces, di erent r
di
tion properties c
n
lso e prescri ed t
o e
ch
o them. The prim
ry di erence etween
les
nd
thin l
yer o solid cells
is th
t
the
le c
nnot store he
t or conduct he
t l
ter
lly.
R
di
tion in P
rticip
ting Medi
Pro lems
TAR-CD o ers

cility or modelling r
di
tion rom the medium illing the
sp
ce etween r
di
ting ound
ries, commonly re erred to
s r
di
tion in

p
rticip
ting medi
. Two
ltern
tives m
y e used or this purpose:
1. The discrete tr
ns er r
di
tion model involving tr
cking o e
ms. This c
n
e
comput
tion
lly expensive procedure
nd there
re
lso some di iculties
with p
r
llelis
tion.
2. The discrete ordin
te r
di
tion model, which h
s the
dv
nt
ge o not
pter 9
R
di
tion in P
rticip
ting Medi
Pro lems
9-10 Version 4.12
requiring e
m tr
cking
nd m
y there ore re
dily e run in p
r
llel.
The Discrete Tr
ns er method
The procedure or modelling r
di
tion rom the medium illing the sp
ce etween
r
di
ting ound
ries is known
s the ‘Discrete Tr
ns er Method’ o Lockwood &
h
h [9.1]. This is essenti
lly
n extension o (
nd comp
ti le with) the
non-inter
cting discrete tr
ns er method
lre
dy descri ed in the previous secti
on.
The medium is
ssumed to e ‘grey’, i.e. the
sorption
nd sc
ttering coe icients

re independent o w
ve length. These coe icients m
y depend on temper
ture

nd/or sc
l
r m
ss r
ctions. The medium itsel is usu
lly
luid or
luid th

t
lso
cont
ins solid or liquid p
rticles, ut m
y
lso e
tr
nsp
rent solid.
As
e
m is tr
ced through the medium, its r
di
nt intensity I in the direction
is
sor ed
nd incremented y the intervening m
teri
l
ccording to the ollowi
ng
equ
tion:
(9-18)
where
s — dist
nce in the direction,
— l
ck ody emissive power o the m
teri
l
t temper
ture
T ,
— equiv

lent emissive power o the p
rticul
te ph
se,
—
sorption coe icient,
— equiv
lent p
rticle
sorption coe icient,
— sc
ttering
coe icient,
— pro
ility th
t the r
di
tion incident in direction will
e sc
ttered to within o .
The equiv
lent p
rticle
sorption coe icient is given y
(9-19)
where εp — parti l missivity,
— parti l radius,
V — ll volum .
By d fiig
(9-20)
(9-21)
(9-22)
Ω
dI
d
----- – (ka + k + kp)I kaIb kpI p
k
4π ------ (Ω,Ω′)I(Ω′)dΩ′
4π
= + + + ∫
Ω
Ib
(Ib = σT 4 ⁄ π)
I
ka
k
ks
(Ω,Ω′) Ω′
dΩ Ω
kp
εp πri
2
i Σ
V
= ----------------------
ri
ke = k
+ ks + kp
s* = ke s
E* 1
ke
---- k
I
kp I p
ks
4
---- p(Ω,Ω′)I(Ω′)dΩ′
4π
+ + ∫
⎝ ⎠
⎜ ⎟
⎛ ⎞
=
e 9 THERMAL
Chap AND SOLAR RADIATION

Ra ia ion in Pa icipa ing Me ia P oblems
Ve sion 4.12 9-11
we have
(9-23)
The cu
en implemen
a ionassumes
ha he in-sca e ing is iso opic an
inepen en of he inci en iec ion, so he effec of in-sca e ing on he ne
a iaive flux is cancelle ou by he effec of ou -sca
e ing.

Consi e a beam ave sing a cell wi h in ensi y on en e ing an on
leaving, as shown Figu e 9-3
in below:

Figu e 9-3 Illus
a ion of a ian beam ave sing a cell
Then he solu ion of (9-23) gives
(9-24)
( is assume cons an ove he cell).
Because
of he ene gy exchange
be ween a ian beams an he a ia ing
ma e ial, a hea sou ce nee s o be a e o he en halpy equa ion. Thus, fo be
am
i an pa ch j
(9-25)
whee is he su face a ea of he emi ing pa ch. The o al sou ce e m
con ibu e by all beams passing h ough a cell is he efo e
(9-26)
The above exp ession appea s as an a i ional sou ce e m in he en halpy equa i
on
(1-10).
Please also no e hefollowing:
• The above applies o poblems involving
only hemal a ia ion anspo
• Fo moving mesh
cases ha inclu e he mal aia ion, beam acing an view
fac
o calcula ions a e invoke a eve y ime s ep.
I
s*
------- – I E*
π = + -----
In In+1
ds
In+1
In
In+1 In e–ds* E*
π
----- 1 e–ds* = + ( – )
E*
Sj
i ka
ka + k
---------------- In 1 + In – ( )Ωi . dAj
= i δΩi
dAj
R j
i
all beam
ente ing a
cell f om
patch j
Σ
all
patche
= Σ
THERMAL AND OLAR RADIATION Chapte 9
Radiation in Pa ticipating Media P oblem
9-12 Ve ion 4.12
The Di c ete O dinate method
The mal adiation within pa ticipating media i gove ned by the adiative t an f
e
equation (RTE) given by equation (9-18). Re-w itten in te m of adiant inten it
y
fo a pecific wavelength λ this becomes:
(9-27)
where — radiative intensity at wave ength λ (W/(m2 sr m-1),
— absorption coefficient at wave ength λ (m-1),
— equiva ent partic e absorption coefficient at wave ength λ
(m-1), current y assumed to be wave ength-independent
— scattering coefficient at wave ength λ (m-1),
— b ack body intensity at wave ength λ
— b ack body intensity at wave ength λ and current partic e
temperature
Ω — olid angle
and
(9-28)
whe e = 0.595522 × 10-16 W m2/ and = 0.01439 m K. Note that the
in- catte ing component i a umed to be i ot opic.
When the ab o ption and catte ing coefficient of the media a e independent of
wavelength, the media i called g ey. In that ca e, the RTE can be integ ated ov
e
wavelength (o , equivalently, wave numbe ) to p oduce a wavelength-independent
equation.
The bounda y condition applied to the RTE fo diffu ely emitting (with
emi ivity ) and eflecting (with eflectivity ) bounda ie i , fo each
wavelength λ:
(9-29)
Here, is a unit vector in the direction, the unit surface vector directed
outwards from the wa and the unit vector a ong the distance coordinate eaving
the wa .
The radiant heat f ux in a particu ar direction is given by the integration of
the radiant intensity over a so id ang es and over the wave ength spectrum:
(9-30)
The radiation so ution is coup ed to the f uid dynamic so ution through the
dIλ
ds
------- – (kaλ + ksλ + kpλ)Iλ kaλIbλ kpλI pλ
ksλ
4π ------- Iλ(Ω)dΩ
4π
= + + + ∫
Iλ
kaλ
kpλ
ksλ
Ibλ
I pλ
Ibλ
2C1
λ5 eC2 ⁄ λT ( – 1)
= -----------------------------------
C1 C2
εw ρ
Iλ(s) εw Ibλ
ρ
π
------ Iλ(s′) n ⋅ s′ dΩ
(n ⋅ s′ < 0)
= + ∫
s Ω n
′
q
q ( ) Iλ(s) s dΩ dλ
4π
∫
0
∞
= ∫
Chater 9 THERMAL AND SOLAR RADIATION
Discretisation and Imlementation
Version 4.12 9-13
divergence of the radiative heat flux. This term exchanges energy between the fl
uid
and the radiant energy field. iven the intensity field, the divergence of the h
eat flux
is comuted as
(9-31)
Discretisation and Imlementation
Discrete Transfer
The rocedure for imlementing this method in a form suitable for numerical
analysis is straightforward.
The surface flux relations are of algebraic form and the only discretisation iss
ues
that arise relate to the uniformity or otherwise of the fluxes over atches cont
aining
more than one surface cell. The ractice is to assume uniformity for the arrivin
g (I)
and leaving (J) fluxes. Where the resulting wall temeratures are unequal, due t
o an
imosed heat flux boundary condition, STAR-CD evaluates and uses an average
emissive ower . If radiation from the intervening medium is taken into account,
it is assumed that the medium’s radiative roerties are constant within a given c
ell.
As discussed reviously, there are two imortant elements to the radiation
transort calculations:
• Tracing of the radiation ‘beams’, to determine the communicating atches
and the associated view factors
• Calculation of the heat fluxes
Beam tracing is erformed by an efficient algorithm that works on arbitrary
unstructured meshes. Along with the view factor calculations, this is done as a
rt of
the STAR-CD initialisation oerations and the information is stored for later us
e.
The flux calculation is embedded within the iteration/time ste sequence in a
fully-imlicit fashion, thus allowing for couling with convection and conductio
n.
In alications involving solar energy transort, the aroriate forms of the
radiation equations (cf. “Solar radiation”) are solved before the flow field equatio
ns
in order to determine the distribution of solar heat loads over the radiation a
tches.
The latter loads are then stored and used in the full calculation.
Discrete Ordinates
The discrete ordinates method does not erform beam tracing but solves field
equations for radiation intensity associated with a fixed direction s, reresent
ed by
a discrete solid angle such as the one shown in Figure 9-4. A solid angle is the
three
dimensional analogue of an ordinary angle and is measured in steradians, where o
ne
steradian is the solid angle subtended at the centre of a shere by an area on t
he
surface of the shere equal to the radius squared. As such, the solid angle of a
comlete shere is 4π steradians.
∇ ⋅ q kaλ 4π Ibλ Iλ dΩ
4π
⎝ – ∫ ⎠
⎛ ⎞ λ
0
∞
= ∫
EB
THERMAL AND SOLAR RADIATION Chapter 9
Discretisation and Imp ementation
9-14 Version 4.12
Figure 9-4 So id ang e disp ayed as part of a hemisphere
The discrete ordinates ca cu ation requires specification of the number of so id
ang es or ‘ordinates’ that the sphere surrounding any particu ar point is discretise
d
into. Increasing the number of ordinates eads to greater accuracy. A detai ed
description of the method can be found in Modest [9.3] and Siege and Howe [9.
4].
As a resu t of equation (9-27), the form of these ordinate equations (for each
wave ength band) is
(9-32)
where are the quadrature weights that depend on the chosen ordinates, is
the b ack-body intensity in the wave ength band and n is the number of ordinates
.
The transport equation for each ordinate direction is discretised and so ved
independent y, using the same discretisation and iterative so ution practices as
for
the other transport equations. For this reason, g oba iterations are necessary
to
inc ude the isotropic in-scattering terms in the RTE and to compute wa boundar
y
conditions. The angu ar y discretised boundary conditions take the form:
(9-33)
The ref ection term represents summation over incoming (incident) ordinate
directions.
Convergence is measured by the infinity norm of the norma ized difference in
the incident energy from successive space-ang e sweeps. The user sets the
convergence to erance as discussed in the CCM User Guide, Chapter 7.
The radiation so ution provides a source term to the f uid dynamic energy
equation as given by equation (9-31). The discretised form of this source term a
t any
ce is
si ⋅ ∇Ii – (kaλ + ksλ + kpλ) Ii kaλ Ibλ kpλI pλ
ks
4π
------ wjI j
j = 1
nΣ+ +
+
=
wj I λ
Ii w , εw Ibλ
ρ
π ------ I j n ⋅ s′ j w
(n ⋅ s′ < 0)
= + Σ
Ch
pter 9 THERMAL AND OLAR RADIATION
TAR-CD Implement
tion
Version 4.12 9-15
(9-34)
TAR-CD Implement
tion
The over
ll process o setting up
model involving therm
l r
di
tion is descri
ed
in Ch
pter 7 o the CCM User Guide. Th
t description
lso includes
cross-re erences to
ppropri
te p
rts o the on-line Help system, cont
ining det

ils
o the user input required
nd import
nt points to e
r in mind when setting up
pro lems o this kind.
–∇ ⋅ q ka wj I j
j = 1
nΣ
– 4π Ib
⎝ ⎠
⎜ ⎟
⎛ ⎞
=

e 10 CHEMICAL REACTION AND COMBUSTION
Chap
In o uc o y Rema ks
Ve sion
4.12 10-1
Chap
CHEMICAL REACTION AND COMBUSTION
e 10
In ouc o y Rema ks
As no e in Chape 1, STAR-CD is
applicable o chemically eac ing flows
because i p ovi es fo he solu ion of conse va ion equa ions fo chemical spec
ies
an ene gy. The package also allows
fo possible linkage wi h he flow fiel via
ensi y changes b ough abou by empe a u e an /o mass f
ac ion va ia ions.

Theavailable facili ies allow mo elling of chemical eac ion p ocesses wi hin
sys ems such as:
• In e nal combus ion engines
• Chemical
eac o s
• Gas u bines
• Fu naces

In e nalcombusion engine p oblems equi e a he specialise mo elling
capabili ies
an a e
he efo e cove
e sepa a ely in Chap e 11. This chap e
iscusses
he ea men fo all o he ypes of p
oblem.

Al hough hef amewo kof STAR-CD gene al,
is i has o be sai ha eac ing
flows a e no always s aigh fo wa o han le, fo bo h physical an ma hema ic
al
easons. The physical complica ions a e mainly associa e wi h issues of chemica
l
kine
ics, u bulence an hei in e ac ions. Chemical kine ics is conce ne wi h
he
mechanisms an a es of eac ion of chemical species a he molecula level. Thi
s
info ma ion is essen ial fo moelling pu poses bu highly sysem-specific
(i.e.

epenen on he na u e of eac an s, p essu e, empe a u e, e c.) an of en if
ficul
o ob ain. Reac ion mechanisms va y in size an complexi y f om simple schemes
involving a few species an a single eac ion s ep, e.g. he i eve sible eac i
on
, ohighly complex sys ems wih housan s of species an hun e s of
eac ions. The la e ype is ypical of hy oca bon combus ion, an impo an b
anch
of eac ing flows, an he fo me of less common
specialise
sysems. Simple,

‘a ificial’ eac ion schemes a e ofen cons uc e as app oxima ions o he mo e
complex ones, o make hem mo e ac able o analysis. Of cou se, he accu acy o
f
heanalysis is hen epen en on he vali i y of he app oxima ions.
If he flow is u bulen , he conven ional p ac ice of solvingfo he ime /
ensemble ave age values of he species mass f ac ions,
empe a u e an o he
va iables gives ise o fu he complica ions when he chemical eac ions a e o
be
evalua e ; fo hese a e (usually) non-linea func ions of he local ins an aneo
us
values of he afo emen ione va iables. A i ional ‘ u bulen eac ion’ mo elling is
he efo e necessa
y o evalua e he ave age eac ion a es. Such mo els a e
available
bu hey have hei
own
se s of un e lying app oxima ions an

unce ain ies. Mo eove , hey en o be non-unive sal. Fo example, he e is a
class

of u bulen combus ion mo els which assumes ha he fuel an ai a e pe fec ly
mixe befo ebu ning occu s ( he so-calle ‘p emixe ’ mo els). Ano he class
equi
es ha he fuel-bea ing an oxi an -bea ing s eams a e sepa a ely in o
uce
(‘unp emixe
’ o ‘ iffusion’
mo els). An example of hela e kin is p esen e in
he sec ion on “P esume -PDF (PPDF) Mo el fo Unp emixe Tu bulen
Reac ion” on page 10-7.
Fina y, to comp ete the picture, there are heterogeneous reactions that occur n
ot
in the bu k f uid but on so id surfaces or phase interfaces. These have their ow
n
A + B → C
CHEMICAL REACTION AND COMBUSTION Chapter 10
Genera Framework
10-2 Version 4.12
physica aspects, as described in the section on “Heterogeneous Reactions”.
Genera Framework
On the mathematica side, reacting f ows give rise to two main kinds of comp exi
ty.
The first arises from the chemica kinetics. In the genera case, this requires
the
so ution of sets of differentia equations for the species mass fractions that a
re
non- inear y coup ed via the reaction rate aws. The second are the additiona
inter inkages and non- inearities arising from the dependence of f uid density o
n
mass fraction and temperature. These are especia y severe in combustion
app ications.
Given this picture, it is c ear y not possib e at present to cater for a possi
b e
types of reacting f ow in STAR-CD by bui t-in options. According y, what has bee
n
done is to, on the one hand, provide a number of standard options (which are add
ed
to in every new re ease) and, on the other, enab e users to insert their own rea
ction
mode s, subject to certain precautions and imitations.
The standard faci ities current y avai ab e, which are described more extensive
y
in subsequent sections, are:
1. The genera framework of STAR-CD, which enab es so ution of a gebraic or
differentia equations for up to 50 species.
2. Loca source mode s, which ca cu ate the distribution of species a gebraica
y.
There are two main types: a kinetica y-contro ed reaction framework and a
turbu ence-contro ed ‘eddy break-up’ (EBU) mode . A hybrid of these two
p us a combined time-sca e mode are a so avai ab e.
3. ‘Presumed pdf’ turbu ent reaction mode s, which are restricted to diffusion
f ames and other forms of ‘fast-reacting’ unpremixed systems. These are
subdivided into sing e-fue and mu tip e-fue mode s. Within the sing e-fue
group, there is a so a choice between an equi ibrium chemistry and a aminar
f ame et mode .
4. A CHEMKIN-compatib e comp ex chemistry mode to hand e more
comp icated reaction systems in greater detai . A description of the reaction
types that can be used in such a mode (and a so in the aminar f ame ets
mode ) is inc uded.
5. A simp e method of mode ing an ignition mechanism to initiate a chemica
reaction.
6. Three mode s describing the formation of nitric oxide (NOx) during the
combustion of hydrocarbons.
7. A mode describing the formation and emission of soot partic es, based on the
aminar f ame et concept.
8. Specia faci ities for mode ing coa devo ati isation, the homogeneous
combustion of gaseous vo ati es and the heterogeneous oxidation of so id char
partic es.
As previous y noted, the current version of STAR-CD caters for up to 50 differen
t
chemica species, whose mass fractions may be obtained by so ving differentia
conservation equations and/or a gebraic re ations. Examp es of the atter are:
• The overa species conservation equation, requiring that
Chapter 10 CHEMICAL REACTION AND COMBUSTION
Loca Source Mode s
Version 4.12 10-3
(10-1)
where the subscript m is the component index.
• Expressions arising from stoichiometric re ationships of reaction schemes,
e.g. the one discussed in “Premixed reaction/homogeneous systems” on page
10-4.
In the case of reacting species, the appropriate rate expression must usua y be
supp ied for each chemica reaction specified. This may be done either via a bui
t-in
expression or via the user programming faci ities of STAR-CD.
If the reaction(s) are endothermic or exothermic, the re evant heats of formatio
n
of the individua species must be supp ied, enab ing the temperature to be extra
cted
from the so ution of the energy Equation (1-10) using the fact that it so ves fo
r the
sum of the therma and chemica energy contributions (cf. equations (1-11) and
(1-12)). The atter feature, it shou d be noted, obviates the need to insert a r
eaction
heat re ease/absorption ‘source’ term in this equation. However, in the case of
therma entha py, source terms are automatica y inc uded in the entha py equati
on.
Loca Source Mode s
Kinetica y-contro ed reaction mode
This option provides a convenient, but restricted, framework for setting up
reacting-f ow ca cu ations for kinetica y-contro ed systems invo ving up to 30
simu taneous reactions. The restrictions, in addition to the one just mentioned,
are
that
• the reactions are irreversib e and in the forward direction;
• the reaction rates obey an Arrhenius-type re ation (given by Equation (10-4));
• in each reaction, the tota numbers of reactants and products are imited to
four and ten, respective y;
• a species whose mass fractions are not obtained from differentia equations
(see be ow) must have equa diffusion coefficients.
Each reaction wi be of the genera form
(10-2)
where R and P denote reactants and products, respective y, the n’s are
stoichiometric coefficients (i.e. number of mo es), 1 ≤ j ≤ 4 and 1 ≤ k ≤ 10. For
examp e, for the reaction
(10-3)
the appropriate definitions of the above quantities are:
Ym
a m
Σ = 1
nr, 1 R1 + nr, 2 R2 + … + nr, j Rj → np, 1 P1 + np, 2 P2 + …+ np, k Pk
CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O
CHEMICAL REACTION AND COMBU TION Ch
pter 10
Loc
l ource Models
10-4 Version 4.12
The r
te o re
ction or
ny re
ct
nt is
ssumed to e given y the Arrhenius
expression
(10-4)
which is uilt into TAR-CD. Here
— denotes the product o
ll
—
re the re
ct
nt r
te exponents
—
re the molecul
r weights
R — is the univers
l g
s const
nt
A, β
nd —
re the pre-exponenti
l
ctor, temper
ture exponent
nd
ctiv
tion energy or the re
ction, respectively

All these qu
ntities must e supplied y the user.
In gener
l, it is necess
ry to solve
di erenti
l tr
nsport equ
tion incorpor
ting
the
ove r
te expression or one o the re
ct
nts in e
ch o the p
rticip
ting
re
ctions. The choice o such re
ct
nts is to some extent
r itr
ry. However,
use ul guideline is to choose species whose r

te exponent is closest to unity,
or
this m
y
ssist the numeric
l solution process. These species
will here
ter e
re erred to
s the ‘le
ding re
ct
nts’, denoted y the su script ‘lr’ in Equ
tion
(10-4).
The m
nner o solving or the rem
ining species depends on the p
rticul
r

circumst
nces o the pro lem considered, not
ly on the initi
l m
ss r
ction i
elds
nd those o
ny entering stre
m(s). Two m
in possi ilities exist:
Premixed re
ction/homogeneous systems
In these, the luid initi
lly h
s
uni orm composition. In such circumst
nces,
it is
possi le to o t
in the rem
ining (i.e. non-lr) re
ct
nt
nd product m
ss r
ctio
ns
rom
lge r
ic rel
tions derived rom stoichiometric consider
tions
lone. For
ex
mple, in the meth
ne oxid
tion re
ction o Equ
tion (10-3), given the m
ss
r
ction o
t
ny st
ge, the m
ss r
ction o ollows
s
(10-5)
where the ‘0’ superscript denotes the initi
l v
lue prior to re
ction
nd
. imil
rly, more gener
l rel
tions o this kind
re
employed in TAR-CD or these circumst
nces.
R P
1 0
2 0
0 1
0 2
nr np
CH4
O2
CO2
H2O
Rlr AMlr Tβ ρ Ym
Mm
⎝------------⎠
⎛ ⎞νm
–Ea ⁄ R T
kg/m3s
all m
= – Π
Π χm ( ) χm
νm
Mm
Ea
νm
CH4 CO2
YCO2 YCO2
0 sCO2 YCH4
0 YCH4
= + ( – )
sCO2 CO2MCO2 CH4MCH4 = ⁄
Chapt r 10 CHEMICAL REACTION AND COMBUSTION
Lo al Sour Mod ls
V rsio 4.12 10-5
Diffusio r a tio / o-homog ous syst ms
I th s , th fu l ad oxidat str ams t r th solutio domai s parat ly. It
is th
ssary to solv o additioal diff r tial os rvatio quatio (additioal
to
that for ) for a h r a tio osid r d. Th hos os rv d s alar is kow as
th mixtur fra tio, f, ad is simply d fi d as th total mass fra tio of bur
d ad
uburt fu l. f is obtai d by solvig th followig quatio:
(10-6)
wh r is th turbul t S hmidt umb r, to b assig d th sam valu as .
Th sour t rm S r pr s ts th additio of fu l ito th gas ous phas origia
tig
from a s od phas , .g. di s l fu l dropl ts or oal parti l s.
Giv th solutios for ad f (for a h r a tio), it is th possibl to d riv
alg brai r latios for th r maiig sp i s. Thus, for th xampl r a tio of
Equatio (10-3), th out rpart of Equatio (10-5) is:
(10-7)
Agai, for th mor g ral ir umsta s of th ‘arbitrary’ thirty-r a tio syst m,
th r l vat alg brai r latios ar i orporat d i STAR-CD. Not that if th
ompositio of th oxidat str am vari s amogst iflow boudari s, or if produ
ts
t r th solutio domai through su h boudari s, it is ssary to solv a
diff r tial os rvatio quatio for th oxidat/produ ts (as would also b th
as v i a o-r a tig flow).
I summary, for pr mix d syst ms, th arrag m t is for STAR-CD to solv a
diff r tial os rvatio quatio for a l adig r a tat i a h a tiv r a tio
. Th
r maiig mass fra tios ar obtai d alg brai ally. For o-homog ous
syst ms, STAR-CD solv s, for a h r a tio, a pair of diff r tial quatios for
th
l adig r a tat ad its mixtur fra tio. Eith r alg brai r latios or diff r
tial
quatios a b us d for th r maiig sp i s.
Turbul - otroll d ddy br ak-up mod l
O of th arli st r pr s tatios of turbul t h mi al r a tio whi h has
a hi v d som m asur of su ss is th ‘ ddy br ak-up’ (EBU) mod l of
Maguss [10.1]. It is still xt siv ly us d ad is i orporat d i STAR-CD.
Th EBU mod l was origially d v lop d for ombustio appli atios ad is
bas d o th followig assumptios:
• Th r a tio is a sigl -st p irr v rsibl o ivolvig fu l (F), oxidat (O)
ad produ ts (P), plus possibl ba kgroud i rt sp i s
• Th r a tio tim s al is so small that th rat - otrollig m haism is
turbul t mi romixig
I pri ipl , th mod l a b appli d to ay form of r a tio that satisfi s th
s
r quir m ts. I pra ti , ith r is m t i ov tioal hydro arbo ombustio
syst ms ad for th s ad oth r r asos, th r pr s tatio is r lativ ly rud .
A ordig to th mod l, th ‘fu l’ osumptio rat is giv by
mlr
∂t
∂ (ρf )
∂x j
∂ρ uj f ρ Df
μ
σf , t
⎝ + ---------⎠
⎛ ⎞ ∂ f
∂x j + – ------- = S
σf , t σlr, t
mlr
YCO2 YCO2
0 CO2 f YCH4
= + ( – )
pt r 10
Loc
l ourc Mod l
10-6 V r ion 4.12
(10-8)
wh r , in th t rminolo y of Equ
tion (10-2)
(10-9)
(10-10)
nd ,
r dim n ionl mpiric
l co ffici nt with nomin
l d f
ult
v
lu 4
nd 0.5, r p ctiv ly. Th fir t two
r um nt in th qu
r br
ck t o
f
Equ
tion (10-8) d t rmin th loc
l r
t -controllin m
fr
ction, whil th th
ird,
which m
y option
lly b d l t d, i int nd d to inhibit r
ction wh r th
t mp r
tur (
um d to b link d to ) i low. Th micromixin tim c
l i
t
k n to b k/ε, th di ip
tion tim c
l .
Thi mod l i cl
im d to b
pplic
bl to both pr mix d
nd unpr mix d
y t m ,
lthou h in pr
ctic it h
oft n prov d to b n c
ry to
dju t th
nd co ffici nt to obt
in th ‘b t’ p rform
nc for
p
rticul
r
pplic
tion.
In
ll c
, th p ci c
lcul
tion in TAR-CD follow th pr
ctic of th
pr viou ction. Thu , th ‘fu l’ i c
lcul
t d from it own diff r nti
l tr
n port
qu
tion, incorpor
tin th
bov r
ction r
t . For non-homo n ou y t m ,
n
ddition
l diff r nti
l Equ
tion (10-6) i olv d for th mixtur fr
ction. Oth
r
p ci c
n b obt
in d ith r
l br
ic
lly or from diff r nti
l tr
n port qu
tion .
Th multipl -r
ction tr
tm nt iv n in “Diffu ion r
ction / non-homo n ou
y t m ” on page 10-5 can a so be invoked, in which case a separate EBU rate
equation can be assemb ed for each reaction. This is sometimes done, but it has
to
be said that, given the under ying assumptions of the mode , it is not rea y
justifiab e.
Fina y, it shou d be noted that, subsequent to the emergence of the EBU mode s,
intensive effort has gone into the deve opment of better turbu ent combustion
representations, with emphasis on the two extremes of premixed and unpremixed
systems. The atter is a imiting case of a non-homogeneous system, in which the
fue and oxidant are tota y separated prior to the start of combustion. The sec
tion
on “Presumed-PDF (PPDF) Mode for Unpremixed Turbu ent Reaction” describes
one of the more recent (and re ative y successfu ) mode s of unpremixed
combustion incorporated in STAR-CD.
Hybrid kinetics/eddy break-up mode
For circumstances where the f ow is turbu ent, but the reaction is not everywher
e
sufficient y fast to be contro ed by micromixing, an ad hoc practice is sometim
es
used invo ving both chemica -kinetic and turbu ent-mixing based mode s. This
entai s eva uating both rates oca y and taking the s owest as contro ing, i.e
. for a
eading reactant:
(10-11)
where is the kinetics rate as eva uated in “Kinetica y-contro ed reaction
mode ” on page 10-3, and is the corresponding turbu ence-contro ed rate,
RF
ρ ε
k
– ------- A bu min YF
YO
sO
------- B bu
YP
sP
= , , ------ kg/m3s
sO ≡ nO MO ⁄ nF MF
sP ≡ nP MP ⁄ nF MF
A bu B bu
mP
A bu
B bu
Rl = – min[ Rl , kin , Rl , bu ]
Rl , kin
, bu
Rl
C apt 10 CHEMICAL REACTION AND COMBUSTION
P sum d-PDF (PPDF) Mod l fo Unp mix d Tu bul nt R action
V sion 4.12 10-7
d t min d f om t EBU mod l of “Tu bul nc -cont oll d ddy b ak-up mod l”
on page 10-5.
This approach c ear y must be used with due caution, combining as it does the
imitations of eva uating chemica -kinetic rates from the time-average propertie
s of
turbu ent f ows and ca cu ating turbu ence-contro rates when the fast-kinetics
assumption does not ho d.
An a ternative method for determining the reaction rates is via a user-supp ied
subroutine.
Combined time sca e mode
The time sca e k/ε us d i th ddy br ak-up mod l d r as s with d r asig
dista from solid surfa s. This l ads to ov r-pr di tio of r a tio rat s i
ar-wall r gios. Th ombi d tim s al d s rib d i [10.3] all viat s this
probl m by addig th h mi al tim s al to th turbul tim s al for th
purpos of valuatig th r a tio tim s al .
Th r a tio tim s al is giv by:
(10-12)
wh r
(10-13)
ad
(10-14)
Th ki ti ally otroll d r a tio rat is d fi d i Equatio (10-4) ad
is th mass fra tio of th l adig r a tat.
Th ‘fu l’ osumptio rat is giv by:
(10-15)
Th oly diff r b tw this quatio ad Equatio (10-8) is th r a tio ti
m
s al . All th symbols ar as d fi d followig Equatio (10-8).
Th r a tio rat pr di t d usig this mod l is g rally l ss tha that for th
ddy br ak-up mod l. Also, sustaiig th r a tio is mor diffi ult with this m
od l
tha with th ddy br ak-up mod l.
Pr sum d-PDF (PPDF) Mod l for Upr mix d Turbul t R a tio
Du to th sto hasti atur of turbul , av rag valu s for th th rmo h mi a
l
prop rti s of th flow fi ld, Q, su h as sp i s mass fra tios, mixtur thalp
y,
t ., a, i pri ipl , b obtai d from
τR
τR
= τ + τc
τ
kε
= --
τc
ρ Yl
Rl , kin
= ------------------
Rl , kin
Yl
RF
ρ
τR
----- Aebu min YF ,
YO
sO
------- , Bebu
YP
sP
= – ------
CHEMICAL REACTION AND COMBUSTION Chap e 10
P esume -PDF (PPDF) Mo el fo Unp emixe Tu bulen Reac ion
10-8 Ve sion 4.12
(10-16)
whe e is he p obabili y ensi y func ion (PDF) of he an om va iable φ whose
s
mple sp
ce is ψ.
In the case of unpremixed (or diffusion) turbulent reactions, it is assumed that
the
time needed for convection and diffusion is much larger than that needed for
reaction (li e most unpremixed turbulent combustion), so that the reaction proce
ss
is mainl determined b the turbulent mixing process. In this situation, a conse
rved
scalar f, called the mixture fraction, can be used to describe the turbulent mix
ing
process (for multi-stream sstem, one ma need more mixture fraction variables t
o
describe this process). Moreover, if the sstem is adiabatic and the assumptions
of
equal diffusivit and unit Lewis number are valid, the instantaneous values of a
n
conserved scalars are functions of this mixture fraction onl. Therefore, scalar
s such
as the chemical species mass fractions can also be expressed as functions of the
mixture fraction. A discussion of how to obtain these instantaneous values, deno
ted
b , will follow later.
Instead of solving the transport equation of the probabilit densit function to
obtain , the presumed PDF model(PPDF) assumes the form of . In
STAR-CD, the presumed PDF is ta en to be a β unction o the mixture r
ction
[10.2]
s ollows:
(10-17)
where
(10-18)
(10-19)
The β unction is determined y two p
r
meters,

nd , which
re o t
ined rom
the me
n mixture r
ction
nd its v
ri
nce de ined
s
(10-20)
In order to determine the PDF, tr
nsport equ
tions or these two p
r
meters need
to
e solved. The equ
tion or the me
n mixture r
ction is o the st
nd
rd orm
presented e
rlier, i.e. Equ
tion (10-6), where
s th
t or the v
ri
nce is [10.2]
(10-21)
where the tur ulent chmidt num er
nd coe icient h
ve de
ult v
lues o
〈Q(φ)〉 = ∫Q(ψ)Pφ(ψ) dψ
Pφ
Q( )
Pφ Pφ
P( )
– 1 (1 – ) – 1

– 1 (1 – ) – 1 d
0
1
∫
= -----------------------------------------------------

g
= ----- [ (1 – ) – g ]
(1 – )

= ------------------
g
g ( – )2 =

g
∂t
∂ (ρ g f )
∂x j
∂ρuj g f ρDg
μ
σ
⎝ + -----⎠
⎛ ⎞ ∂g f
∂x j
+ – --------
2μ
σ
-------- ∂ f
∂x j
⎝-------⎠
⎛ ⎞2
CDρεk
= – -- g f
σ CD
Ch
pt r 10 CHEMICAL REACTION AND COMBU TION
Pr um d-PDF (PPDF) Mod l for Unpr mix d Turbul nt R
ction
V r ion 4.12 10-9
0.9
nd 2.0, r p ctiv ly.
In TAR-CD, th PPDF mod l i impl m nt d for both in l
nd multipl fu l
y t m . A d cription of how to d t rmin th in t
nt
n ou v
lu of c
l
r f
or
th two itu
tion i iv n b low.
in l -fu l PPDF
In uch
y t m, it i
um d th
t th r i only on typ of fu l
nd on typ
of
oxidi r,
ch d fin d by it compo ition
nd t mp r
tur . Th fu l or oxidi r
c
n
nt r th y t m throu h mor th
n on inl t. Th mixtur fr
ction i d fin d

(10-22)
wh r
nd
r th m
ori in
tin from th fu l
nd oxidi r tr
m,
r p ctiv ly. Und r th
umption m ntion d
bov ,
ny con rv d c
l
r, η, can
b d t min d f om
(10-23)
is t η valu in t fu l st am and t valu in t oxidis st am.

ium c mist y mod l
Equilib
In t is mod l, a local instantan ous c mical quilib ium is assum d. Und loca
l
adiabatic conditions, t local n gy l v l and lm ntal composition can b
d t min d by Equation (10-23). T us, t lations ips b t n all instantan ou
s
scala s , suc as mass f actions,
d nsity and t mp atu , and t mixtu
faction can b obtain d by a c mical quilib ium calculation. STAR-CD adopts

t m t od of minimising t Gibbs f n gy to d t min t is lations ip, o
a
us -sp cifi d on may b mploy d inst ad. Giv n , its m an valu in a
tu bul nt nvi onm nt is d t min d f om
(10-24)

T us, t compl t mod l consists of t t anspo t quations fo and , t
p sum d PDF, , and t s t of lations fo t mp atu , sp ci s mass
f actions and dnsity.
In p fo ming t PDF int g ation, STAR-CD off s to alt nativ s. T fi st
isto xp ss t sulting functions as polynomials of t mixtu f action and
t n
do t int g ation analytically. T s cond alt nativ is to mploy a num ical
int g ation t c niqu .
Lamina
flam l t mod l
T main s otcoming of t quilib ium c mist y mod l is t at non- quilib ium
ff cts, suc as flam st tc , cannot b consid d. An ov p diction of t C
O
l v l in yd oca bon-ai flam s can also occu , as po t d in [10.21]. In o d
to
account fo non- quilib ium and finit - at c mist y ff cts in tu bul nt
unp mix d flam s, t lamina flam l t mod l is impl m nt d in STAR-CD.
f
mf
mf + mo
= --------------------
mf mo
η f ηf 1 f – ( )ηo = +
ηf ηo
Q( f )
Q( f )
Q f gf ( , ) Q( f )P( f ) d f
0
1
= ∫
f g f
P( f ) Q( f )
CHEMICAL REACTION AND COMBUSTION C apt 10
10-10
V sion 4.12
T is mod l assum s t at t t ickn ss of t action zon is small t an t
small st tu bul nc l ngt scal , t Kolmogo ov l ngt scal . T fo , t lo
cal
instantan ous action zon st uctu is consid d to b t sam as t at in a
quasi-st ady on -dim nsionallamina flam , call d a lamina flam l t, alb it
conv
ct d and disto t d by t tu bul nt v locity fi ld. T tubul nt flam may
t us b ga d d as an ns mbl of lamina flam l ts [10.22]. T main ff ct of
t
tu bul nt v locity fi ld on t st uctu of t lamina flam l t is t oug t
st tc
of t action zon , ic is d sc ib d by t scala dissipation at (o st a
in at ).
At lo valu s of st ain at , lamina flam l t st uctu s app oac t quilib i
um
stat ; at v y ig st ain at s, flam xtinction can occu . T oug solving fo
t
quasi-st
ady, on -dim nsional lamina flam s und diff nt st ain at s and i
t
d tail d action m c anisms, non- quilib ium and finit - at c mist y ff cts
can b int oduc d into t tu bul nt combustion mod lling.
STAR-CD solv s fo an axisymm t ic lamina
diffusion flam b t n t o
opposing nozzl s [10.23,10.24], as s o n in Figu 10-1, und diff nt st ain
at s, to g n at a lamina flam l t lib a y t at is us d in t combustion
simulation.
Figu 10-1 Id alis d axisymm t ic count flo combustion syst m

In g n ating t lamina flam l t lib a y, t is to-dim nsional lamina diffusi
on
flam may b conv t d to a on -dim nsional p obl m by assuming t at t adial
v locity va i s lin a ly in t adial di ction. D fining
(10-25)
av :
Continuity quation
(10-26)
Radial mom ntum quation
(10-27)
flam
oxidis
fu l
x, u
, v
mixing
c nt
xmixc
mixing
gion
idt
G(x) ρv

–------ , F(x) ρu
2
= = ------
G(x) dF(x)
dx
= --------------
H 1
-- ∂p
∂ = ------ = const
V sion 4.12 10-11
Axial mom ntum quation
(10-28)
En gy quation
(10-29)
Sp ci s cons vation quation
(10-30)
t sp ci s diffusion v locity is giv n by it t multicompon nt
fo mulation
(10-31)

o t mixtu -av ag d fo mulation
(10-32)
, t mol cula diffusivity of sp ci s k in t mixtu is giv n by
(10-33)

is t mol f action of sp ci s k, and , a t multi-compon nt bina y
and t mal diffusion co ffici nts, sp ctiv ly.
To typ s of bounda y conditions a us d fo t fu l (F) and t oxidis (O)
st ams. T s a :
Typ 1
•
H 2 d
dx
------ FG
ρ
⎝-------⎠
– ⎛ ⎞ 3G2

ρ ---------
x
------ μ
x
------ Gρ
⎝---⎠
+ + ⎛ ⎞ = 0
ρ u T
x
------- 1
cp
----
x
------ k T
x
⎝ ------- ⎠
– ⎛ ⎞ ρ
cp
---- cpk Yk Vk
T
x
------- 1
cp
---- hk ω˙ k
k Σ
+
k Σ
+ = 0
ρ u
dYk
dx
--------- d
dx
+ ------ (ρ Yk Vk) = ω˙ kWk , k = 1,…, K
Vk
1
XkW
------------- Wj Dkj
dXj
dx
---------
Dk
T
ρ Yk
---------- 1T
--- dT
dx
– -------
j=1
KΣ
=
Vk
1
Xk
------ Dkm
dXk
dx
– ---------
Dk
T
ρ Yk
---------- 1T
--- dT
dx
= – -------
Dkm
Dkm (1 – Yk)
Xj
Djk
--------
j ≠ k
KΣ
⎝ ⎠
⎜ ⎟
⎛ ⎞
= ⁄
Xk Dkj Dk
T
x = 0
F
ρF uF
2
= -------------
G = 0
T = TF
P esume -PDF (PPDF) Mo el fo Unp emixe Tu bulen Reac ion
10-12 Ve sion 4.12
(10-34)
•
(10-35)
Type 2
•
(10-36)
•
(10-37)
Fo Type 1 boun a y con i ions he cha ac e is ic s ain
a eis calcula
e,
whe eas fo Type 2 con i ions i appea s explici ly an hus he s ain a e can
be
con olle iec ly.
The above con inui y, momen
enegy an species mass f ac ion anspo
um,
equaions a e solve
wi ha e aile eac ion mechanism. The solu
ions of hese
equa ions, i.e. ensi y, empe a u e, species mass f ac ions, e c., can be exp e
sse
as func ions of he mix u e f ac u e an he co espon ing s ain a e [10.25],
ha is
(10-38)
He e, f is he mix u e f ac ion an he cha ac e is ic s ain a e, which is ass
ume
o be equal o he inve se of he u bulence ime scale
ρ u Yk + ρ Yk Vk (ρ u Yk)= F
x = L
F
ρO uO
2
= --------------
G = 0
T = TO
ρ u Yk + ρ Yk Vk (ρ u Yk)= O
x = – ∞
F
ρF uF
2
= -------------
G = – ρ F ρO ae
T = TF
ρ u Yk + ρ Yk Vk (ρ u Yk)= F
x = ∞
G = – ρO ae
T = TO
ρ u Yk + ρ Yk Vk (ρ u Yk)= O
ae
Q(φ) = Q( ,
)
Ch
pter 10 CHEMICAL REACTION AND COMBU TION
Presumed-PDF (PPDF) Model or Unpremixed Tur ulent Re
ction
Version 4.12 10-13
(10-39)
where k is the tur ulence kinetic energy
nd ε its dissipatio rat .
Mixtur Fra tio formulatios

For th mixtur fra tio, th r ar thr formulatios to hoos from:
Formula 1
(10-40)
wh r
(10-41)
Formula 2
(10-42)
ad
(10-43)
Formula 3
(10-44)
I th abov formula , ad ar th mass fra tios ad , ad
th atomi w ights of th arbo, hydrog ad oxyg atoms, r sp tiv ly. F
ad O r f r to th fu l ad oxidis r str ams.
Th m a valu s of all s alars a b obtai d from
(10-45)
wh r is th PDF fu tio giv by Equatio (10-17).
I STAR-CD, th abov it gratio is p rform d um ri ally ad th m a
valu s ar stor d i a look-up tabl whi h is hara t ris d by its m a mixtur
fra tio, mixtur fra tio varia ad strai rat . Th m a lo al valu s of d
sity,
t mp ratur ad sp i s mass fra tio a th b xtrapolat d from this look-up
tabl a ordig to th lo al m a mixtur fra tio, mixtur fra tio varia a
d
strai rat valu s.
a εk
= --
f
b – bO
bF – bO
= -----------------
b 2
YC
WC
--------- 0.5
YH
WH
---------
YO
WO
= + – ---------
f 1
2
= -- ( f h + f )
f h
YH – YH,O
YH,F – YH,O
----------------------------- , f
YC – YC,O
YC,F – YC,O
= = ----------------------------
f
YN – YN,O
YN,F – YN,O
= -----------------------------
YC YH YO WC WH
WO
Q f gf ( , , a) Q( f , a)P( f ) d f
0
1
= ∫
P( f )
CHEMICAL REACTION AND COMBUSTION Chapt r 10
Pr sum d-PDF (PPDF) Mod l for Upr mix d Turbul t R a tio
10-14 V rsio 4.12
Th lamiar flam l ts mod l supports all typ s of r a tio d s rib d i
“R a tio Typ s” o pag 10-18.
Multipl -fu l PPDF
I th sigl -fu l mod l, w assum that th r is oly o typ of fu l, so th
mixig
pro ss a b d s rib d by o progr ss variabl , th mixtur fra tio. If th r
ar
two typ s of fu l (r f rr d to h r as multipl fu ls), a additioal progr ss v
ariabl
is d d to d s rib th mixig pro ss. This is d fi d as
(10-46)
wh r is th mass origiatig from th s od fu l str am ad th mass from
th oxidis r str am. Ud r th assumptios of adiabati oditios, qual
diffusivity ad uit L wis umb r, ay os rv d s alars, η, may t n b obtain d
f om
(10-47)
is t scala valu in t fi st fu l st am, t valu in t s cond fu l

st am, t valu in t oxidis st am. is d fin d as
(10-48)
is t mass o iginating f om t fi st fu l st am.

H is a cons v d scala t at satisfi s Equation (10-6), but ξ do s not.
Th r for , anoth r cons rv d scalar, , is d fin d as
(10-49)
which satisfi s Equation (10-6). Following solution of this quation, ξ can b
obtain d from
(10-50)
Th m an valu s of th sp ci s mass fractions, tc., can th n b obtain d from
(10-51)
wh r and ar th probability d nsity functions of progr ss variabl s
and ξ and , ar th ir r sp ctiv varianc s. It is also assum d that th s two
progr ss variabl s ar statistically ind p nd nt of ach oth r.
In Equation (10-51) w consid r th two PDFs to b β unctions, e
ch
ξ
ms
ms + mo
= -------------------
ms mo
η f p ηp 1 f p – ( ) ξηs 1 ξ – ( )ηo = + [ + ]
ηp ηs
ηo f p
f p
mp
mp + ms + mo
= ---------------------------------
mp
f p
f s
f s
ms
mp + ms + mo
= ---------------------------------
ξ
f s
1 – f p
= --------------
Q( f p, g f ,ξ , gξ) Q( f p, ξ)P( f p)P(ξ)d f p dξ
0
1
∫
0
1
= ∫
P( f p) P(ξ)
f p g f gξ
Chapt r 10 CHEMICAL REACTION AND COMBUSTION
Compl Ch mistry Mod l
V rsion 4.12 10-15
d t rmin d by its m an progr ss variabl and varianc . For this r ason, an
additional two transport quations n d to b solv d.
In STAR-CD, only th quilibrium ch mistry mod l is applicabl to this multipl
fu l PPDF mod l; that is, th local n rgy l v l and th l m ntal composition a
r
d t rmin d from Equation (10-47) and th function Q in Equation (10-51) is
obtain d from th ch mical quilibrium calculation. In addition, th int gration
of
Equation (10-51) is p rform d num rically.
PPDF with nthalpy transport
Th PPDF mod ls d scrib d in pr vious s ctions assum th following:
• Adiabatic conditions
• Pr ssur variations do not significantly influ nc d nsity
Th s r strictions can b r mov d by mploying th ‘PPDF plus nthalpy transport’
mod l. This is important for cas s involving non-adiabatic walls, radiation, or
dilutants, th latt r b ing combustion products that ar introduc d into th oi
dis r
str am to incr as its t mp ratur and h nc combustion ffici ncy.
In this mod l, a transport quation (Equation (1-10)) is solv d for nthalpy but
th mass fractions ar obtain d as in th adiabatic situation, i. . it is assum
d that
th sp ci s mass fractions ar not influ nc d by local h at loss s. Th t mp rat
ur
may th n b obtain d from th mass fractions and transport d nthalpy. It is als
o
assum d that th d nsity is r lat d to pr ssur , t mp ratur and ch mical sp ci
s via
th id al gas law.
B caus of larg t mp ratur variations in r al-lif combustion cas s, it is
r comm nd d that polynomial pr ssions for (s Equation (1-53)) ar us d
with this option.
Compl Ch mistry Mod l
As m ntion d abov , th in tically controll d r action mod l has s v ral
limitations, such as a limit d numb r of irr v rsibl r actions and simpl r act
ion
rat pr ssions. In addition, th r strictions plac d on th l ading r actants
(s
Chapt r 8, “Ch mical R action Conv ntions” in th CCM Us r Guid ) nabl this
mod l to handl only r lativ ly simpl r action syst ms.In r ality, n ith r th
r action m chanisms nor th r actants ar simpl and, ta ing advantag of th
incr as d sp d and m mory capacity of today’s comput rs, r action m chanism
mod ls ar b coming mor complicat d. For ampl , th GRI-M ch1.2 r action
m chanism r l as d in 1994 contains 32 sp ci s and 177 r action st ps whil th
GRI-M ch3.0 v rsion r l as d in 1999 has 53 sp ci s and 325 st ps. Th compl
ch mistry mod l incorporat d in STAR-CD can b us d to simulat this ord r of
compl ity.
Basic quations
Th transport quations for sp ci s mass fractions ar :
(10-52)
cp
∂
∂t ---- (ρYi) ∂
∂x j + ------- (ρ uj Yi – Fi, j) =Si
Compl x C mist y Mod l
10-16 V sion 4.12
is t diffusion flux compon nt d fin d as
(10-53)

Int abov quation, is t t mal diffusion co ffici nt (s C apt 1,
“T mal diffusion co ffici nt” in the Methodo ogy vo ume), the mo ecu ar
diffusivity of species i in the mixture and i = 1, …, N (or N–1), where N is the tot
a
number of reactions.
The term is defined by Equation (10-33) be ow and is genera y different
for different species. In order to maintain mass conservation, the fo owing
condition must be satisfied:
(10-54)
In most situations Equation (10-54) cannot be satisfied, therefore STAR-CD offer
s
the option of using a correction for the diffusion ve ocity, so that Equation
(10-53) becomes
(10-55)
and
(10-56)
From the above equation, the diffusion ve ocity correction is ca cu ated as
(10-57)
This correction a so affects the entha py equation.
STAR-CD provides two options for so ving Equation (10-52):
1. So ve a the species transport equations
2. So ve N–1 species transport equations and obtain the mass fraction for the Nth
species from
(10-58)
The STAR-CD supported format for describing reaction mechanisms is described
be ow.
Fi, j
Fi,
j
μ
σi, t
--------
∂ Yi
∂x j --------- ρDim∂ Yi
∂x j ---------
Di
T
T
------- ∂T
∂x j = + + -------
Di
T
Dim
Dim
∂x j
∂ ρDim
∂ Yi
∂x j ---------
Di
T
T
------- ∂T
∂x j + -------
⎝ ⎠
⎜ ⎟
⎛ ⎞
i = 1
NΣ
= 0
C
Fi,
j
μ
σi, t
--------
∂ Yi
∂x j
--------- ρDim∂ Yi
∂x j
--------- – ρCj Yi
Di
T
T
------- ∂T
∂x j
= + + -------
ρ Dim
∂ Yi
∂x j
---------
Di
T
ρT
------- ∂T
∂x j
( + ------- – Cj Yi)
i = 1
NΣ
= 0
Cj Dim
∂ Yi
∂x j
---------
Di
T
ρT
------- ∂T
∂x j
+ -------
⎝ ⎠
⎜ ⎟
⎛ ⎞
i = 1
NΣ
=
YN 1 Yi
i=1
N 1 –
Σ = –
Ch
Complex Chemistry Model
Version 4.12 10-17
The gener
l orm o
reversi le re
ction in
re
ctive system cont
ining N
chemic
l species c
n e represented
s
(10-59)
(see Ch
pter 8, “Re
ction ormul
de inition” in the CCM User Guide or det
ils on
how to de ine
re
ction).
The production r
te o species i c
n e expressed
s
(10-60)
where is the tot
l num er o re
ctions in the system, is the mole
concentr
tion o species ,
nd
re the stoichiometric coe icients,
nd
re the concentr
tion exponenti
l
ctors,
nd ,
re the
orw
rd
nd
ckw
rd r
te const
nts o re
ction R, respectively.
The complex chemistry model supports
ll types o re
ction descri ed in
“Re
ction Types” on p
ge 10-18.
Numeric
l methods
Due to the l
rge di erences in time
nd length sc
le etween di erent re
ction
s in
complic
ted re
ction system, Equ
tion (10-52) is o ten very ‘sti ’. olving these
equ
tions is there ore not
trivi
l t
sk.In TAR-CD, two types o numeric
l
solution method
re implemented,
s descri ed elow:
Time-split method
Using the time split method, Equ
tion (10-52) c
n e written
s
(10-61)
(10-62)
where
nd
In this w
y the sti ness is moved to Equ
tion (10-62), which is
system o
ordin
ry di erenti
l equ
tions
nd its solution h
s een extensively studied. I
n
TAR-CD,
multi-step coupled solution method is used to solve this equ
tion.
Next, Equ
tion (10-61) is integr
ted sequenti
lly in timeusing the solution o
Equ
tion (10-62)
s the st
rting point. This method is ro ust
nd
ccur
te i
proper
time step is used, i.e. it c
nnot e used with
rel
tively l
rge time step. The
method
is
lso time consuming due to the solution o two sets o Equ
tions (10-61)
nd
(10-62).
Point-coupled method
In this method, Equ
tion (10-52) is written
s
(nRk′ Rk YRk′)
k = 1
NΣ
(nRk″ Rk YRk″) , R
k = 1
NΣ
= = 1, …, NR
i
i Mi (nRi″ – nRi′) k R [Rk]νRk′ krR [Rk]νRk″
k = 1
NΠ
–
k = 1
NΠ
⎝ ⎠
⎜ ⎟
⎛ ⎞
R = 1
NRΣ =
NR [Rk]
Rk nRk′ nRk″
νRk′ νRk″ k fR krR
∂
∂t
---- (ρ Yi) ∂
∂x j
+ ------- (ρ uj Yi – Fi, j) = 0
d
dt
---- (ρY) = S
Y = (Y1, Y2, .... Yn) S = (S1, S2,.... Sn)
R action Typ s
10-18 V sion 4.12
(10-63)

t at is, t conv ction and diffusion t ms a disc tis d xplicitly. T coup
l d
o dina y diff ntial quation solv us d fo Equation (10-62) can also b us d
to
solv Equation (10-63) it a la g tim st p. T is m t od is sp cially ffici
nt
fo obtaining st ady-stat sults.
Raction Typ s
T compl x c mist y and lamina flam l ts mod ls suppo
t t action
typ s
d sc ib d in t is s ction. D tail d inst uctions on o to d fin t m a giv n
in
C apt 8, “Lamina flam l t mod l” and “Comp ex Chemistry Mode s” in the
CCM User Guide.
Standard Arrhenius type
In this reaction, the forward rate constant, , is expressed as
(10-64)
where , , and R have the same meaning as in Equation (10-4).
The backward rate constant, , can be ca cu ated from the forward rate
constant, , and the equi ibrium constant, , as
(10-65)
where can be expressed as [10.26]
(10-66)
In the above equation, and are the entropy and entha py of species k at the
standard state and is the atmospheric pressure.
Three-body reaction
If ‘third body’ species are needed in a reaction (see Chapter 8, “Three-body reaction
definition” in the CCM User Guide for detai s on how to define a three-body
reaction), then the production rate in Equation (10-60) wi be mu tip ied by th
e
concentration factor given by
(10-67)
dt
d (ρYi) n + 1 Si
n + 1 ∂
∂x j
= – ------- (ρ uj Yi – Fi, j)n
k fR
k fR ARTβR ER
RT
⎝– -------⎠
= exp⎛ ⎞
AR βR ER
krR
k R KeR
krR
k R
KeR
= ---------
KeR
KeR
P1
tm
RT
⎝------------⎠
⎛ ⎞
(nRk″ – nRk′)
k = 1
NΣ
1R
--- nRk″ nRk′ – ( ) sk o hk o
T
– -----
⎝ ⎠
⎜ ⎟
⎛ ⎞
k = 1
NΣ
⎩ ⎭
⎨ ⎬
⎧ ⎫
= exp
sk o hk o
P1a m
Si
αkR [Rk]
k = 1
NΣ
Ch
Re
ction Types
Version 4.12 10-19
where is the third ody e iciency o species k in re
ction R.
Pressure-dependent
ll-o re
ction
I the re
ction r
te o
chemic
l re
ction is strongly dependent on pressure,
w
y o
ccounting or this dependence is to provide chemic
l kinetic d
t
simple
or oth high
nd low pressure conditions. The re
ction r
te
t
pressure in e
tween
these two limits (
ll-o ) m
y then e c
lcul
ted on the
sis o the supplied
limiting v
lues. TAR-CD supports the ollowing three types o ormul
tion:
The Lindem
nn orm

Assuming th
t the re
ction r
te const
nt is given y the Arrhenius ormul
tion,
the
low
nd high pressure limit v
lues,
nd , c
n e expressed
s
(10-68)
(10-69)
The re
ction r
te const
nt
t
ny pressure c
n then e c
lcul
ted
s
(10-70)
The reduced pressure is o t
ined rom
(10-71)
where is the concentr
tion o the mixture. Note th
t thisterm will include the
third- ody e iciency e ects i the re
ction is
three- ody re
ction
s well.
The Troe orm
For the Troe orm, the re
ction r
te const
nt
t
ny pressure is c
lcul
ted y
(10-72)
where is given y Equ
tion (10-71)
nd F is o t
ined rom
(10-73)
The p
r
meters
ppe
ring in the
ove equ
tion
re given y
(10-74)
(10-75)
αkR
kl kh
kl AlTβl El
RT
⎝– ------- ⎠
= exp⎛ ⎞
kh AhTβh Eh
RT
⎝– ------- ⎠
= exp⎛ ⎞
k kh
P
1 + P
⎝ -------------- ⎠
= ⎛ ⎞
P
P
kl[M]
kh
= --------------
[M]
k kh
P
1 + P
⎝ --------------⎠
= ⎛ ⎞ F
P
log F 1
logP + 1
2 – 0.14(logP + 1)
= + ------------------------------------------------- log Fa
1 = – 0.4 – 0.67 log Fa
2 = 0.75 – 1.27 log Fa
CHEMICAL
REACTION AND COMBUSTION Chap e 10
Igni ion
10-20 Ve sion 4.12
(10-76)
whe e a, ban c have o be efine in he eac ion mechanism an he fou h
pa ame e is op ional.
The SRI fo m
The ex ension of he SRI fo m by CHEMKIN is also a op e in STAR-CD. He e,

he eac ion a e cons an is calcula e f om
(10-77)

an
(10-78)
(10-79)
whee a, b, c, an e have o be efine in he eac ion mechanism.
Lan au-Telle
eac ion
He e,
he al exp ession fo he Lan au-Telle fo mula ion is a op e so he
gene
eac ion a e is given by
(10-80)
whe e an a e he Lan au-Telle cons an s. I can be seen ha if an
a e bo h ze o, he Lan au-Telle fo mula ion is he same as he A henius equa i
on.

E yB eak-up eac ion
Fo u bulen combus ion, he eac ion a e can also be e e mine by an e y
b eak-up
mo el, as given by Equa ions (10-8), (10-11) o (10-15).
Igni ion
Fo mo elling pu poses, i is of en necessa y o ini ia e he eac ion by specif
ying
an igni
ionmechanism. This consis s of one of he following op ions:
• Re ucing he fuel mass f ac ion by a use -specifie faco in he igni ion
egion
of he solu ion
omain. The e uce fuel mass
f ac ion is an a ifice
ha signals he fac ha a small p opo ion of he fuel has al ea y been bu ne

by heigni ion mechanism an is he efo e necessa y o s a off he
combus ion simula ion p ocess.
Fa 1 a – ( ) Tb
⎝– --- ⎠
⎛ ⎞ a Tc
⎝– --- ⎠
⎛ ⎞ 2
T
⎝– ----- ⎠
= exp + exp + exp⎛ ⎞
k kh
P
1 + P
⎝ -------------- ⎠
= ⎛ ⎞ F
F a bT
⎝– --- ⎠
⎛ ⎞ Tc
⎝– --- ⎠
exp + exp⎛ ⎞
X
= Te
X 1
1 + (logP )2
= -----------------------------
k fR ARTβR ER
RT
– -------
BR
T1 ⁄ 3 -----------
CR
T2 ⁄ 3 = exp + + -----------
BR CR BR CR
Ch
NOx Form
tion
Version 4.12 10-21
• Introducing
typic
l l
me temper
ture in the ignition region.

The ignition process is continued over
user-speci ied num er o iter
tions or
time
steps,
ter which norm
l com ustion modelling t
kes over in the ignition region
.
NOx Form
tion
Nitrogen oxides
re import
nt
ir pollut
nts, m
inly produced y com ustion
devices. The NOx concentr
tion is low in most o these devices; there ore, it h
s
little in luence on the low ield. Also, the time sc
le or NOx re
ctions is l
rger
th
n thetime sc
les or the tur ulent mixing process
nd the com ustion o
hydroc
rons th
t control the he
t-rele
sing re
ctions. Hence, comput
tions o
NOx c
n e decoupled rom the m
in re
cting low ield predictions.
Three di erent mech
nisms h
ve een identi ied or the orm
tion o nitric oxid
e
during the com ustion o hydroc
r ons, n
mely:
1. Therm
l NOx
As its n
me suggests, it is strongly temper
ture dependent. It is produced y
the re
ction o
tmospheric nitrogen with oxygen
t elev
ted temper
tures.
2. Prompt NOx
The ex
ct det
ils o prompt NOx orm
tion
re
still uncert
in
ut
re
gener
lly elieved to involve the re
ctions etween hydroc
r on r
dic
ls
nd

tmospheric nitrogen. In cert
in com ustion environments (such
s lowtemper
ture
,
uel-rich conditions
nd short residence time), prompt NOx c
n
e produced in signi ic
nt qu
ntities.
3. Fuel NOx
This is produced y the re
ction o the nitrogenous components present in
liquid or solid ossil uel with oxygen. The uel nitrogen is
p
rticul
rly
import
nt source o nitrogen oxide emissions or residu
l uel oil
nd co
l,
which typic
lly cont
in 0.3 - 2.0% nitrogen y weight.
Therm
l NOx
Therm
l NOx is ormed y high temper
ture oxid
tion o
tmospheric nitrogen. For
therm
l nitric oxide, the princip
l re
ctions
re gener
lly recognised to e tho
se
proposed y the ollowing three extended Zeldovich mech
nisms:
(10-81)
(10-82)
N2 O
K1
⇇
K–1
+ NO + N
N O2
K2
⇇
K–2
+ NO + O
pter 10
NOx Form
tion
10-22 Version 4.12
(10-83)
The r
te const
nts or these re
ctions h
ve eenme
sured in numerous
experiment
l studies [10.4,10.5],
nd the d
t
o t
ined rom these studies h
ve
een
critic
lly ev
lu
ted y B
ulch et
l. [10.6]. The expressions or r
te coe icie
nts or
re
ctions (10-81) to (10-83)
sed on [10.6]
re given elow:
(10-84)
(10-85)
(10-86)
(10-87)
(10-88)
(10-89)
where ,
nd
re the orw
rd
nd ,
nd
re the
ckw
rd
r
te const
nts or re
ctions (10-81) to (10-83), respectively.
The r
te o orm
tion o NOx is signi ic
nt
only
t high temper
tures
since the
therm
l ix
tion o nitrogen requires the re
king o
strong N2 ond. This e
ect
is represented y the high
ctiv
tion energy o re
ction (10-81), which m
kes th
is
re
ction the r
te-limiting step o the Zeldovich mech
nism. The
ctiv
tion energ
y
or oxid
tion o N is sm
ll, hence
qu
si-ste
dy st
te c
n e est
lished. B
se
d on
this
ssumption, the inst
nt
neous r
te o orm
tion o NOx is:
(10-90)
N OH
K3
⇇
K–3
+ NO + H
K1 1.8 1011 –38370
T
⎝-----------------⎠
⎛ ⎞ m3(kg mol)–1s–1 = exp
K–1 3.8 1010 –425
T
⎝-----------⎠
= exp⎛ ⎞
K2 1.8 107 T –4680
T
⎝--------------⎠
= exp⎛ ⎞
K–2 3.8 106 T –20820
T
⎝-----------------⎠
= exp⎛ ⎞
K3 7.1 1010 –450
T
⎝-----------⎠
= exp⎛ ⎞
K–3 1.7 1011 –24560
T
⎝-----------------⎠
= exp⎛ ⎞
K1 K2 K3 K–1 K–2 K–3
Rˆ
ρ2
1 K–1
YNO
MNO
------------ K2
YO2
MO2
---------- K3
YOH
MOH
+ ------------
⎝ ⎠
⎜ ⎟
⎛ ⎞
+ ⁄
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------- kg mol m– 3 s–1 =
2K1
YO
MO
--------
YN2
MN2
----------
2K–1
YNO
MNO
------------
K2
YO2
MO2
---------- K3
YOH
MOH
+ ------------
– --------------------------------------------- K–2
YO
MO
--------
YNO
MNO
------------ K–3
YH
MH
--------
YNO
MNO
⎝ + ------------⎠
⎛ ⎞
Chap e 10 CHEMICAL REACTION AND COMBUSTION
NOx Fo ma ion
Ve sion 4.12 10-23

If he concen a ion of a icals O, OH an H a e calcula e by he combus ion
moel, hey a euse in he NOx mo el. O he wise, ce ain assump ions have o be
ma e o ob ain hei values. Fo example, acco ing o Wes enbe g [10.7], he
equilib ium O a om concen a ion can be ob aine f om:
(10-91)

an
whee
In he cu en ve sion
of STAR-CD, he concen a ion ofOa oms is ob aine f om
Equa ion (10-91) an hose OH an H a e ini ially se o ze o.
of
Tu bulence-Chemis yin e ac ion
The flow in any p ac ical combus ion sys em is highly u bulen , which implies
ha
he
calcula ion of mean eac ion a es pu ely in e ms of mean empe a u e ( ens
i y)
an species
concen
a ions may lea oinaccu a e esul s. The mean a e of
fo maion of he mal NOx can be ela e o he ins an aneous a e of fo ma ion
(Equa ion (10-90)) using he join p obabili y ensi y func ion :
(10-92)
whe e R is he fo ma ion a e value when he concen a ions have values C1, C2,.
..,
an he empe a u ehas value T. The limi s of in eg a ion a e efine by he
possible minimum an maximum values of he in epenen va iables.
Species
concen a ions involve
in combus
ion eac ions an empe a u e can be
w i en as a func ion ofmix u e f ac ion, f, wi hin heP esume PDF mo el of
combus ion (see “P esume -PDF (PPDF) Mo el fo Unp emixe Tu bulen
Reac ion” on page 10-7). Hence, the mean rate of formation may be written as:
(10-93)
Assuming a beta function for PDF, we obtain Equations (10-17), (10-18) and
(10-19).
For combustion mode s for which the species concentrations and temperature
cannot be written as a function of one independent variab e, the prescription of
joint
PDF is difficu t. By assuming that the variab es within the PDF are statistica
y
[O] Kp[O2]1 ⁄ 2 kg mo m–3 =
YO [O]
MO
ρ = --------
Kp
1.255 104
T 1 ⁄ 2 --------------------------- 31090
T
⎝– --------------⎠
⎛ ⎞ (kg mol)
12
--
m
32
–--
= exp
P(C1 , C2 , …, T)
R ∫ R(C1, C2,…, T) P(C1, C2,…, T) ∂C1 ∂C2…∂T
min
max
= ∫ ∫
R R( f ) P( f ) ∂ f
0
1
= ∫
NOx Fo ma ion
10-24
sion
Ve 4.12
in epen en , he join PDF can be exp esse as:
(10-94)
The mal NOx is s ongly
empe a u e epen en an so i maybe ague ha he
va ia ionof empea u e has a g ea e impac on NOx p o uc ion han species

concen a ion fluc ua ions. Hence, PDFs fo concen a ions may be w i en in e
ms
of el a func ions:
(10-95)
(10-96)
In
o e o change he limi s of in eg a ion o ze o an one, empe a u e is w i
en
in non- imensional fo m, i.e.
(10-97)
whe e– is he minimum empe au e wi hin heflow fiel
– is he maximum local
empe a u e, calcula e by
assuming ha combusion eac ionsa e comple e locally
Assuming a be a func ion PDF esul s in:
(10-98)
whe e a an b can be ob aine f om he following:
(10-99)
(10-100)
The va iance, , is given by:
(10-101)
whe e
(10-102)
P(C1, C2,…, T) = P(C1) P(C2)…P(T)
P(C1) = δ(C1 – C1)
P(C2) = δ(C2– C2)
…
θˆ Tˆ Tmin –
Tb – Tmin
= -----------------------
Tmin
Tb
P(θˆ ) θˆ a – 1 (1 – θˆ )b – 1 ( ) θa – 1 (1 – θ)b – 1 dθ
0
1
∫⎝ ⎠
⎜ ⎟
⎛ ⎞
= ⁄
θ a
a + b
= -----------
θˆ 2 a (a + 1)
(a + b) (a + b + 1) = --------------------------------------------
θ′ 2
θ′ 2 θˆ 2 – θ2 a b
(a + b)2 (a + b + 1)
= = ---------------------------------------------- = θ (1 – θ) S
S 1
a + b + 1
= ---------------------
Chapter 10 CHEMICAL REACTION AND COMBUSTION
NOx Formation
Version 4.12 10-25
The maximum value that the variance can have is:
(10-103)
hence
(10-104)
Combining euations (10-99) and (10-101) results in:
(10-105)
(10-106)
Hand et al. [10.8] argued that 0.5 ≤ S ≤ 1 in order for a and b to be less than 1. I
n
fact they proposed a value of 0.6 for S.
Substitution of euations (10-98), (10-95) and (10-96) in Euation (10-92)
results in:
(10-107)
The integrations defined in Euation (10-93) for the PPDF model of combustion
and in Euation (10-107) for other combustion models have to be performed
numerically over the mixture fraction or the non-dimensional temperature space,
respectively. Clearly the larger the number of integration steps, the more accur
ate
the results will be. Twenty integration steps is a reasonable compromise between
accuracy and efficiency.
Finally, it is emphasised that less restrictive assumptions had to be made in
deriving the mean reaction rate for the PPDF model than for other combustion
models. Hence, there is more confidence in the use of the turbulence-chemistry
interaction model in conjunction with PPDF than in other combustion models.
Please also note that the turbulence-chemistry interaction model is not supporte
d for
non-adiabatic PPDF. This is because it is not possible to calculate Tb for this
model
without making simplifying assumptions.
The Flamelet Library method for NOx
In this method, NOx modeling is achieved using a flamelet approximation. The
NOx flamelet library is part of a larger development that also includes soot
modeling (see “The Flamelet Library method for soot” on page 10-29). The NOx
library was developed by Mauss and his colleagues [10.20].
A transport euation, shown below, is solved for the NOx mass fraction
(10-108)
θ′ 2
max = θ (1 – θ)
0 ≤ S ≤ 1
a 1 – S
S
= -----------θ
b 1 – S
S
= ----------- (1 – θ)
R R(C1, C2, …, θ) θa – 1 (1 – θ)b – 1 dθ
0
1
∫⎝ ⎠
⎜ ⎟
⎛ ⎞
θa – 1 (1 – θ)b – 1 dθ
0
1
∫⎝ ⎠
⎜ ⎟
⎛ ⎞
= ⁄
∂
∂
---- (ρ YNO) ∂
∂x j
+ ------- (ρ uj YNO) ∂
∂x j
-------

μ
Sc , NO
---------------
∂YNO
∂x j
⎝ -------------⎠
= ⎛ ⎞ + ρSNO
NOx Fo ma ion
10-26 Ve sion 4.12
The mean sou ce e mappea ing
in his equa
ion is evalua e using he flamele
app oxima ion. Acco ing o his, acoun e flow flame,consis ing of wo oppose

eac ing lamina je s, one of n-hep ane as he fuel an he o he as he oxi ize
, is
solve
an he s ea y-s a e solu ion s o e fo seve al con
i ionsof ini ial
empe a u e, p essu e an oxi ize composi ion. This esul s in a able of sou c
e
e ms of fo m
(10-109)
whe e is he mix u e f ac ion, he scala issipa ion a e an he EGR
concen aion.
The n-hep
ane
mechanism use consiss of 973 eac ions an 121 species. The
fuel
empe a
u e is fixe a
350K, he oxi
ize empe a
u e va ies be ween
300K
an 1600K, he p essu e be ween 1 ba an 250 ba s an
he EGR
concen a ion
be ween 0 an 35%. The sou ce e ms ae hen ave age in mix u e f ac ion
spaceusing a PPDF, esul ing in he e m.
P omp NOx
P omp NOx is fo me f om he eac ion ofhy ocabon f agmen s an molecula
ni ogen. I has a weak au e epen ence an alife ime of only seve al
empe
mic osecons. The con ibuion o NOx emission f om his mechanism can be
significan in sys ems ha p o uce ve y fuel- ich flames (e.g. s age combus io
n
sys ems). In u ili y fu naces, p omp NOx con ibu ion o o al NOx is ve y smal
l
e wi h fuel NOx. Howeve , he significance
when compa of pomp NOx is
expec e oinc ease as NOx emission levels a e e uce con inuously by new
combus ion echnologies.

The p o uc ion a e of p omp NOx is given by De Soe e [10.9] as,
(10-110)
whe e kp is a a e cons an an is efine as:
(10-111)
[O2], [N2] an [Fuel] a e species concen a ions in kg mol/m3. Fo CH4-ai flame
s,
he ac ivaion ene gy Ea is equal o 303.5 106 J/kg mol an
acco ing o [10.33]. The unive sal gascons an R, empe a u e T an p essu e P
a e in SI uni s. The oxygen eac ion o e , b, epen s on expe imen al con i ion
s.
Acco ing o De Soe e [10.9], b va ies wi h he oxygen mole f ac ion as
follows,
(10-112)
Sˆ
NO = F( p, T, f , χ, XEGR)
f χ XEGR
Sˆ
NO
SNO
RNO, pt kpt MNO kg m– 3 s–1 =
kpt kr
RT
P
⎝-------⎠
⎛ ⎞ 1 + b
[O2]
b
[N2] [Fuel]
–Ea
R T
⎝---------⎠
⎛ ⎞ kg mol m– 3 s–1 = exp
k = 6.4 106
XO2
b 1.0 , XO2 = < 0.0041
b – 3.95 0.9 XO2 , 0.0041 XO2 = – ln ≤ ≤ 0.0111
b – 0.35 0.1lnXO2, 0.0111 XO2 = – ≤ ≤ 0.03
NOx Fo ma ion
Ve sion 4.12 10-27
Fo CH4 combus ion, we use b = 0.5 as ecommen e in [10.33].
Fuel NOx
Fuel
NOx is fo me f om he gas-phase oxi a ion of vola ile ni ogen f om coal a
n
f om he he e ogeneous combus ion of cha ni ogen. In coal-fi e u ili y boile
s,
fuelNOx is foun o be he p ima y sou ce of o al NOx emissions (Pe shing an
Wen [10.11]).
Theglobal kine ics p opose
by De Soe e [10.9]is use omo el fuel NOx ha
is e ive f om coal vola iles. Figu e 10-2 con ains a pic o ial view of he
mechanism.
Figu e 10-2 De Soee global
gas-phase
eac ion mechanism

The p o uc ion/ es uc ion a es of fuel NOx, HCN an N2 a e given as:
(10-113)
(10-114)
(10-115)
whe e Rvol. HCN (kg m–3s–1) is he gene aion aeofHCNf om coal
evola ilisa ion. k1 an k2 a e he p o uc ion an es uc ion a e of NO in he
De
Soe e mechanism. These a e cons an s a e given as:
(10-116)
(10-117)
whe e XHCN,XNO an a e species mole f ac ions an he unive
sal gas cons an
an empe a u e a e exp esse in SI uni s. b is he eac ion o e fo oxygen an
is
ela e o he mole f ac ion of oxygen as given in Equa ion (10-112).
b 0.0 , XO2 = ≥ 0.03
Ni ogen in vola iles HCN
NO
NO
N2
O2
RNO fu , k1 k2 – ( )ρ
MNO
Mmix
------------ kg m– 3 s–1 =
RHCN Rvol.HCN k1 k2 + ( )ρ
M HCN
Mmix
--------------- kg m–3s–1 = –
RN2 k2 ρ
MN2
Mmix
------------ kg m–3s–1 =
k1 1.0 1010 XHCN XO2
b –280.5 106
R T
⎝------------------------------⎠
= exp ⎛ ⎞
k2 3.0 1012 XHCN XNO
–251.2 106
R T
⎝------------------------------⎠
= exp ⎛ ⎞
XO2
CHEMICAL
Soo Mo elling
10-28
Ve sion 4.12
Ni ogen in coal is is ibu e be ween vola iles an cha . The he e ogeneous

oxi a ion of cha ni ogen o NO is moelle as a eso p ion pocess
(De Soe e
[10.10]). The p o uc ion a e is linke o he cha bu nou a e an is exp esse
as:
(10-118)
whe e Rcha is he combus ion a e of cha in kg m–3 s–1. The cha o NO conve sion
efficiency, η, is a coal-d p nd nt pa am t and is obviously v y impo tant to t

succ ssful application of t mod l. Fo t bituminous coals t at d So t [10.
10]
as studi d, η va i s almost lin a ly it ca bon bu nout, B (i. . massof c a
consum d/initial mass of c a ), and s o s only a small va iations fo t diff
nt
coals. Sinc t t og n ous action of NOx duction on c a su fac s is fou
nd
to av a n gligibl ff ct on t total NOx l v l (Milla s [10.12]), t is m c
anism
is not account d fo in t p s nt v sion.
Soot
Mod lling
T fo mation and mission of ca bonac ous pa ticl
s is a p oc ss t at is oft n
obs v d du ing t combustion of yd oca bons. T s pa ticulat s, call d soot,
a id ntifi d in flam s and fi s as y llo lumin sc nc .
In gas tu bin s, int nal combustion ngin s and ot p actical combustion
d vic s, t fo mation of soot is mostly a p oduct of incompl t combustion. Apa
t
f om t sulting loss in combustion ffici ncy, a pa ticula ly s ious ff ct
of soot
fo mation is t alt aza d f om a typical di s l ngin mitting soot at t
at
of 0.2 to 0.6 g/km. H nc , t a st ict l gislativ d mands to p oduc cl an

ngin s. On t ot and, t a ot situations in ic t p s nc o
g n ation of soot is actually qui d; fo xampl , in t p oduction of autom
obil
ca bon black is n d d. In fu nac s fo indust ial application o in
s
ty
at
g n ato s, t int m diat fo mation of soot is qui d to augm
nt t at
t ansf by adiation. T soot as to b oxidis d b fo t x aust is l as
dinto
t onm nt.
nvi
F om t p c ding pa ag ap , it is s n t at t s p oc ss s qui a d tail d

kno l dg of t diff nt m c anisms l ading to soot fo mation. It is id ly

acc pt d t at t fo mation of soot is a compl x p oc ss ic consists of
• fu l py olysis and oxidation actions;
• fo mation of polycyclic a omatic yd oca bons;
• t inc ption
of fi st pa ticl s;
• t g ot of soot pa ticl s du to action it gas p as sp ci s;
• t coagulation of pa ticl s;
• t oxidation of soot pa ticl s and int m diat s.
On class of modlling soot fomation is basd on sp cifying d tail d action
m c anisms fo t gas p as c mist y and
t fo mation, g o t and oxidation
of soot pa ticl s. Ho v , t is app oac is not at p s nt applicabl to ngin
ing
simulations.
Toalt nativ s a p ovid d in t cu nt v sion of STAR-CD:
• T fi st app oac ,du to Mauss and is coll agu s [10.20], is bas d on t
RNO, c a Rc a YN, c a B η
MNO
MN
=------------
Soot Mod lling
V sion 4.12 10-29
lamina flam l t conc pt in ic all scala quantiti sa lat d to t
mixtu f action and scala dissipation at . W as t sp ci s mass
factions a uniqu functions in t mixtu f action-scala dissipation spac ,
t soot mass f actions a not. T at s of soot fo mation can, o v , b
co lat d it local conditions in diffusion flam s o in pa tially p mix d
count flo tin flam s.
• In o d to obtain mo info mation on t soot c a act istics (suc as total
numb d nsity,total su fac , m an diam t and paticl disp sion), an
alt nativ t c niqu is also availabl t at us s t m t od of mom nts to
calculat t soot pa ticl siz dist ibution function(PSDF) and d tail d soot
kin tics [10.28, 10.29, 10.30, 10.31, 10.32, 10.34]. T flam l t lib a y us d
in t p viously
d sc ib d app oac is also us d to calculat sou c
t ms fo t mom nts.
T Flam l t Lib a y m t od fo soot
In t is m t od, an additional t anspo t quation fo t soot mass f action is s
olv d
fo . T mod lling of t soot/flo -fi ld int action is bas d on a flam l t

app oac . Sou c t ms fo t soot volum f action a tak n f om a flam l t
lib a y using a p sum d p obability d nsity function and int g ating ov mixtu

f action spac . In o d to sav comput sto ag and CPU tim , t flam l t lib
a y
of sou c s is const uct d using a multi-pa am t fitting p oc du sulting in
simpl
alg b aic quations and a p op s t of pa am t s.
T t anspo t quation fo soot mass f action is giv n by
(10-119)
is t soot mass f action and t soot d nsity is 1860 kg/m3. T

sou c t m fo t soot volum f action is giv n by
(10-120)
is t m an soot volum f action. T m an sou c t ms a

obtain d f om t flam l t lib a y m ntion d a li . T is is bas d on t solut
ion
of a combustion syst m consisting of to opposd acting lamina j ts and
involving 973 actions and 121 sp ci s fo n- ptan fu l. T fu l j t t mp a
tu
as fix d at 350K, t oxidiz j t t mp atu va i d b t n 300K and 1600K

and t p ssu bt n 1 ba and 250 ba s. T m an valu s a obtain d by
int g ating ov t PDF spac :
(10-121)
is t scala dissipation at . In t abov quation, sg stands fo su fa
c
g ot , f fo f agmntation,
ox fo oxidation,
and a scaling facto s
co sponding to ac of t s ff cts. T y nabl t us to scal t at s
up o
don fo s nsitivity studi s o fo calib ation pu pos s. In addition,
∂
∂t ---- (ρ Ys) ∂
∂x j + ------- (ρ uj Ys) ∂
∂x
j -------
μ
Sc , s
----------
∂Ys
∂x j ⎝ --------⎠
= ⎛ ⎞ + ρs ωv
Ys ρs
ωv =ωv, pa ticl inc ption + f v(ωv, su fac g ot – ωv, f agm ntation – ωv, oxidation)
f v = ρ Ys ⁄ ρs
ωv , i αi
1
v
-----
∂ v, i
∂t
⎝----------- ( ˆf , χˆ )⎠
⎛ ⎞ P( ˆf , χˆ ) dˆf dχˆ ; i
0
1
∫
0
∞
= ∫ = sg, fr, ox
χˆ
αi
pter 10
oot Modelling
10-30 Version 4.12
(10-122)
where pist
nds or p
rticle inception
nd is the corresponding sc
ling
ctor.
In the
ove equ
tion, the PDF is given y ,
ssuming
th
t
nd
re st
tistic
lly independent. A β unction, see Equ
tion
(10-17), is
ssumed or . In the current implement
tion, is
delt
unction.
The method o moments
In this method, the r-th moment o the P DF is de ined
s
(10-123)
where
nd is the num er density o soot p
rticles with m
ss
, where m1 is the m
ss o the sm
llest monomer
unit in soot (
C2-group).
The 0-th moment is rel
ted to the me
n num er density, the irst moment to the
me
n volume r
ction.
The tr
nsport equ
tions or the moments
re:
(10-124)
where
(10-125)
is the
ver
ged source term or the r-th moment, o t
ined y
pro
ility densi
ty
unction (PDF) integr
tion o the inst
nt
neous source term
over the mixture
r
ction
nd sc
l
r dissip
tion r
te. This term is given y
(10-126)
where
re the inst
nt
neous r
tes o p
rticle
nucle
tion, condens
tion, co
gul
tion, heterogeneous sur
ce re
ction (i.e. sur
ce
growth
nd oxid
tion)
nd r
gment
tion or the r-th moment, respectively. For t
he
purposes o integr
tion, st
tistic
l independence is
ssumed or the two PDFs, i
.e.
the et
- unction distri ution o the PDF or the mixture r
ction distri ution
nd
the delt
distri ution or the sc
l
r dissip
tion r
te.
The method provides the ollowing d
t
on soot:
• Tot
l Num er Density
where is the Avog
dro num er (10-127)
• oot Volume Fr
ction
ωv , pi αpi
∂ v, pi
∂t
-------------- ( ˆ , χˆ ) P( ˆf , χˆ ) dˆf dχˆ
0
1
∫
0
∞
= ∫
αpi
P( ˆ , χˆ ) = P( ˆf )P(χˆ )
P( ˆf ) P(χˆ )
P( ˆf ) P(χˆ )
Mr i rNi
i = 1
∞Σ
=
r = 0, 1, 2, 3 Ni
mi = im1
∂t
∂ ρ(M ⁄ ρ )
∂x j
+ ∂ (ρuj(M ⁄ ρ))
∂x j
∂ μ
P
-----

μ
P
⎝ + -------⎠
⎛ ⎞
∂x j
∂ (M ⁄ ρ) ⎝ ⎠
= ⎛ ⎞ + S
S F p T f f˜ 2 = ( , , , , XEGR)
Sˆ
Sˆ = Sˆ , nu + Sˆ , con + Sˆ , coag + Sˆ , s + Sˆ , f
, nu, Sˆ , con , Sˆ , coag, Sˆ , s , Sˆ , f
Sˆ
No
N o = M0NA [1 ⁄ m3] NA
fv
Coal Combus ion
Ve sion 4.12 10-31
(10-128)

wi h [kg/kmol],[kg/m3]
• Su face Densi y S
(10-129)
• Mean iame e
(10-130)

No e ha , in his mo el, soo oes no ake pa in he eac ions an is he ef
o e
ea e as a passive scala .
Coal Combus ion
Coal is a composi e mae ial consis ing ofo ganic an inoganicsubs ances.
Simula ing coal combus ion involves he mo elling
of coal
evola ilisa ion, he
homogeneous
combus
ion of gaseous
vola iles an he he e ogeneous oxi a ion of
soli cha pa icles. Sub-mo els which ep esen hese p ocesses a e inco po a e

in STAR-CD. The pa icle loa ing in pulve ise coal combus ion sys ems is usuall
y
low, he efo e he mul i-phase Lag angian ea men (supplemen e by he Pa icl
e
Sou ce in Cell mo el of Mig al an Agos a [10.13]) is applicable.

The available
sub-mo els a e spli in o he following h ee ca ego ies:
Devola ilisa ion
STAR-CD mo elscoal vola ile ma e as a mixu eof gases. These
inclu e
combus ible hy oca bon, oxygen,
mois u e an hy ogen
cyani e. Th ee mo els

a e implemen e in STAR-CD o mo el he evola ilisa ion a e of coal vola iles.
These a e:

• Cons an a e mo el
• Single s ep mo el
• Two-compe
ing-s eps mo el
Cons an a e mo el
This mo el allows use s o specify he ime o comple e evola ilisa ion. A cons
an
a e is use o compu e he weigh loss of coal pa icles u ing he specifie
ime.
The mo el can be exp esse ma hema ically as follows:
(10-131)
whee V* is he vola ile ma e con en (kg) af e Q-fac o a jus men
is he use efine evola ilisa
ion ime
This
mo el can be use o ini ia e evola ilisa ion u ing he ini ial s ages of
he
calcula ion.
f v M1
ws
ρs
= -----
m3
soo m3
[ ⁄ gas ]
ws = 24 ρs = 1800
S π
6ws
πρsNA
⎝----------------⎠
⎛ ⎞2 ⁄ 3
= NAM2 ⁄ 3 [1 ⁄ m]
6ws
πρsNA
⎝----------------⎠
⎛ ⎞1 ⁄ 3
= (M1 ⁄ 3 ⁄ M0 ) [m]
V
-------
V*
T evol
=--------------
T evol
CHEMICAL REACTION
AND COMBUSTION Chap e 10
Coal Combus ion
10-32 Vesion 4.12
Single
s epmo el
Ba zioch
an Hawksley [10.14]pos ula
e ha evolailisa a fi s-o e
ion was
eac ion p ocess, wi h a eac ion a e p opo ional o he amoun of vola ile ma

e
s ill emaining in he coal:
(10-132)

In eg a ion of Equa ion (10-132) gives he vola ile yiel a ime :
(10-133)

The a e cons an , , epens upon he ype of coal an mus be e e mine
expe imen ally o by analy
ical
me ho s [10.15,10.16].

In STAR-CD, he a e cons an is co ela e wi h empe a u e by an A henius
exp ession:
(10-134)
whee is he p e-exponen ial fac o (s–1)
is he ac iva ion ene gy fo evola ilisa ion (J/kmol)
R is he unive sal gas cons an (8314.3 J/kmol K)
is he coal pa icle empe a u e (K)
Two-compe
ing-s eps mo el
The
mo el [10.17] uses a pai of fi s -o e i eve sible eac ions o ep esen
he
va ia
ion in heyiel of vola ileswi h empe a u e.
The evola ilisa ion a e is efine by
(10-135)
(10-136)
whe e C is he amoun of ini ial coal (kg) o be bu n .
V
------- =
Kv (V* – V)
V V* 1 Kv
0
– ∫
⎝ ⎠
⎜ ⎟
⎛ ⎞
= – exp
Kv
Kv Av
Ev
R Tp
⎝– ------------⎠
= exp⎛ ⎞
Av
Ev
Tp
Coal
Volaile 1
Vola ile 2
Cha 1
Cha 2
a1
*
a2
*
Kv1
Kv2 +
+
1 a1
– *
1 a2
– *
(
(
)
)
C
------ = – (Kv1 + Kv2) C

V
------- Kv1 a1
* Kv2 a2
= ( + *)C
Coal Combus ion
Vesion 4.12 10-33
an a e of he A henius fo m
(10-137)

an a ea ange in such a way ha < .
In
eg a ing equa ions (10-135) an (10-136) gives he ove all yiel of vola iles
a ime
(10-138)

an a e he mass s oichiome ic coefficien
s ep esen ing he ove allmass
f ac ion of coal ha evapo a es in o he gas phase via he wo compe ing eac i
ons.
Gene ally,
is efine as he vola ile ma e con en of coal ob aine
fom
p oxima e analysis. is specifie as he UM con en af e he Q-fac o a jus men
.
Cha bu nou
The ime equi e fo cha bu nou isasignifican pa of he coal combus ion
p ocess
an i s mo elling is complica
e by many fac o s.
Fo example, he

unce ain ies in coalcha s uc u es, he complex eac ion mechanisms be ween

cha an va ious eac an s (e.g. O2, H2O, CO2, H2), cha f agmen a ion,
an he
exac composi ion of cha i self. Because of heseunce ain ies, mo elling his
p
ocess has been highly epen en on labo a o y a e a a fo specific coal an
es
con i ions. Th eemo els havebeen implemen
e in STAR-CD which can be use
in conjunc
ion wi h expe imen al a a o p e ic cha bu nou a e. These a e:
• Consan a e mo el
• Fi s -o e combine a e mo el
e combine
• Half-o a e mo el
Cons an a e mo el
This mo el is p ovi e o ini ialise he combus ion fiel an o ep o uce he e
xac
bu nou ime specifie by he use . The bu nou a e is calcula e f om:
(10-139)
whee is he amoun of cha a he beginning of cha combus ion
is he specifie
bunou ime
Fi s -o e combine
a e mo el
A simplifie mo el fo cha combus ion is p esen e schema ically in Figu e 10-3
.
As shown in he figu e, he cha pa icle is su oun e by a lamina boun a y la
ye
h ough which he oxi an mus iffuse o eac wi h he cha .
Kv1 Kv2
Kvn Avn
Evn
R Tp
⎝– ----------- ⎠
⎛ ⎞ n=1, 2
= exp
Ev1 Ev2
V Kv1 a1
* Kv2 a2
( + *) C0 (Kv1 + Kv2) ″
0
′
– ∫
⎝ ⎠
⎜ ⎟
⎛ ⎞

exp ′
0

= ∫
a1
* a2
*
a1
*
a2
*
cha
--------------

cha ini
Tcha
= ------------------

cha ini
Tcha
CHEMICAL REACTION
AND COMBUSTION Chap e 10
Coal Combus ion
10-34 Ve sion 4.12
Figue 10-3 Simplifie viewof cha oxi a ion
Fo he special case whe e he su face eac ion a e be ween cha an oxygen is
ve y
high, he a e of cha consump ion is con olle by he iffusion a e of O2 h
ough
he boun a y laye :
(10-140)
whee q is he consump ion a e (kgm–2s–1)
pe uni ex e nal su face a ea
is he pa ial p essu e of oxygen in he bulk gas (Nm–2)
is he pa ial p essu
e of he cha su face (Nm–2)
oxygen a
is he iffusion a e coefficien an is exp esse as:
(10-141)
whe e φ is
mech
nism
ctor which t
kes the v
lue o 1 or the re
ction to
CO2
nd 2 or the re
ction to CO
R is the univers
l g
s const
nt (8314.3 J/kmol K)
is the me
n p
rticle/g
s temper
ture (K)
is the p
rticle di
meter (m)
D is the di usion coe icient (m2s–1)
B
sed on experiment
l d
t
[10.18], c
n e expressed
s ollows when φ = 2:
(10-142)
For the c
se when
the sur
ce re
ction r
te is sm
ll comp
red to , the re
ction
r
te is given y:
(10-143)
or
irst-order re
ction. is the chemic
l r
te coe icient
sed on the e ect
ive
Porous
ch
r
Tur ulent Bound
ry l
yer
ree stre
m
CO2 + O2
O2
CO
CO2
CO2
q = Kd (Pg – Ps)
Pg
Ps
Kd
Kd
24 φ D
dp R Tm
= -------------------
Tm
dp
Kd
Kd 5.06 10–12 Tm
0.75
dp
------------ kgm–2(Nm–2)–1 =
Kd
q = Kc Ps
Kc
Ch
Co
l Com ustion
Version 4.12 10-35
extern
l sur
ce
re
o ch
r
nd is expressed m
them
tic
lly
s:
(10-144)
where is the pre-exponenti
l
ctor (kgm–2s–1(Nm–2)–n, n = re
ction
order)
is the
ctiv
tion energy or ch
r oxid
tion (J/kmol–1)
R is the univers
l g
s const
nt (8314.3 J/kmol K)
is the p
rticle temper

ture (K)
ince the ch
r com ustion r
te c
n e controlled y either the di usion r
te li
mit or
thechemic
l re
ction r
te limit, the model implemented in TAR-CD [10.18]
com ines
nd to orm
n e ective r
te model. This ‘switches’ etween the
di usion limit
nd the kinetic r
te limit
s the co
l ch
r progresses through t
he
com ustion dom
in. For
irst-order model, the over
ll r
te is de ined
s:
(10-145)
Consequently, the ch
r urning r
te c
n e o t
ined y:
(10-146)
H
l -order com ined r
te model
This model is very simil
r to the irst-order model descri ed
ove. The only
di erence is th
t the sur
ce re
ction r
te is now h
l -order in oxygen. As
r
esult,
the over
ll r
te is de ined
s:
(10-147)
G
seous com ustion
Vol
tile m
tter consists o com usti le hydroc
r ong
ses, oxygen, moisture
nd
some inorg
nic species (e.g. N, , Cl) which contri ute to the orm
tion o
pollut
nts. Two models
re implemented in TAR-CD to simul
te the com ustion
r
te o vol
tile m
tter:
• Conserved sc
l
rs mixed-is- urnt (MIB) model [10.19]
• Extended eddy re
k-up (EBU) model [10.1]
The MIB model solves tr
nsport equ
tions or the mixture r
ction o vol
tiles
nd
urnt ch
r. It then uses

st-chemistry
ssumption
nd
single delt
pro
il
ity
density unction to derive the composition o g
seous species. ince only two
tr
nsport equ
tions need to e solved, the model is very e icient in terms o
comput
tion
l requirements. Furthermore, or ull-sc
le multi- urner urn
ce

pplic
tions, where the comput
tion
l mesh c
n e
sily exceed h
l
million cell
s,
Kc Ach
r
Ech
r
R Tp
⎝– ------------ ⎠
= exp ⎛ ⎞
Acha
Echa
Tp

K Kc
q
Kc K
Kc + K
⎝ ------------------- ⎠
= ⎛ ⎞ Pg
cha
-------------- q π d
= – 2
q Kd Pg
q
Kc
⎝ ----- ⎠
⎛ ⎞2
= –
CHEMICAL
He e ogeneous Reac ions
10-36 sion 4.12
Ve
his
mo el may be heonly p ac ical me ho o solve hese kin s of p oblems.
Un e ce ain cicums ances (e.g. ebu n echnologies in pulve ise fuel

funaces)
whe e he MIB mo el is no
applicable, use s
may use ins
ea he
exen e EBU mo elfo coalcombus ion. This is an ex ension of he s an a EBU
mo el ha allows he simul aneous combus ion of coal pa icles an up o five o
he
gaseous
fuels.
Ra ia ion
The isc ee ansfe mo el of Lockwoo an
Shah [9.1] is employe he e. Uses
also
have he op ion of specifying he a ia ion p ope ies of he backg oun fl
ui
(see Chap e 9, “Ra ia ion in Pa icipa ing Me ia P oblems”). In this case, partic e
effects on radiation intensity and the effect of radiation on partic e temperatu
re are
a so mode ed.
Heterogeneous Reactions
As an examp e of a heterogeneous chemica reaction, consider the case of gaseous
reactants A and B combining to form a gaseous product C and a so id product E
which deposits on the surface. A specia boundary condition app ies in this inst
ance,
ref ecting the fact that for species Y its reaction rate at the surface is (in t
he
steady state) ba anced by the rate at which it diffuses to the surface, i.e.
(10-148)
where n is the norma to the surface. This re ation, with rep aced by the rate
expression given by equation (10-4), is discretised to provide a ink between th
e
wa f ux of species Y and its mass fraction at the ce centre node p. For exam
p e,
the appropriate expression for reactant A is:
(10-149)
or
(10-150)
where — va ue of at ce p
— va ue of at the wa
— va ue of at the wa
h — mass transfer coefficient at the wa
— reaction rate coefficient
There are severa ways of representing heterogeneous reactions within STAR-CD.
A the mode s that have been imp emented so far have invo ved user coding. User
s
are advised to contact CD adapco before setting up such mode s.
Rm
– ρ Dm
∂Ym
∂n
---------- = Rm
Rm
(YA)p (YA){ – } kA(YA)(YB)=
(YA)
(YA)p
1 kA

(YB)
+ --------------
⎝ ⎠
⎛ ⎞
= ------------------------------------
(YA)p YA
(YA)w YA
(YB)w YB
kA
Chap e 10CHEMICAL REACTION AND COMBUSTION
Disc e isa ion Me ho
Ve sion 4.12
10-37
Disc e isa ion Me ho
In all cases of chemically
eac ing flows ha may be mo elle in STAR-CD, i is
necessa y o solve iffe en ial conse va ion equa ions fo some of he pa icipa
ing
species in he eacion. In gene al, some of hese equa ionswill con ain ‘sou ce’
e ms ep esen ing he a e of p o uc ion o consump ion of he species conce ne
,
e.g. Equa ion (10-4) fo he kine ically- con olle consump ion of species ‘l ’,
given he e in abb evia e fo m:
(10-151)
whe e is he a e coefficien
, an m is hespecies in ex.
The species
anspo equa ions a eof s an a fo m an a e isc e ise
ing o he p ac ices esc ibe ea lie . The only no ewo hy poin is he n
acco
ee
o ca efully linea ise he eac ion sou ce e ms fo he usual easons of p omo
ing
nume ical s abili y an avoi ing non-physical esul s. One of he key equi emen
s
is ha he species mass f ac ions shoul be boun e in he ange 0 ≤ ≤ 1.
This can be accomplishe in he case of he a e equa ion (10-151) by he follow
ing
linea isa ion, amongs o he s:
(10-152)
e he * in ica es ha he quan i ies in he b acke s a e o be evalua e a
whe
he

‘ol ’ ime (o i e a ion) level. Compa ison of he above wi
h he linea
ise sou ce
exp ession
given by
Equa ion (4-10) allows he coefficien s an con aine in
he la e obe e uce .
The eac ion e ms con aine wi hin he buil -in eacion moels in STAR-CD
al ea y been app op ia ely linea ise an no fu he ac ions a e equi e o
have
f he
use in his espec . Howeve , in he case of use -supplie eac ion a es, i w
ill be

a visable o ake hee of he above a vice.
STAR-CD Implemen a ion
The
ove all p ocess
of c ea ing a mo el involving
chemically
eac ing flows is
esc
ibe in
Chap e 8 of
he CCM Use
Gui e. Tha
esc
ip ion also inclu
es
e ails of he use inpu equi e an impo an poin s o bea in min when se
ing
up p oblems of his kin .
Rl kl Ml Tβ ρYm
Mm
⎝-----------⎠
⎛ ⎞
νm
all m
= – Π
kl ≡ A exp (–Ea /R T)
Ym Ym
Rl kl ρ Tβ ρYl
Ml
⎝----------⎠
⎛ ⎞
νlr – 1 ρYm
Mm
⎝-----------⎠
⎛ ⎞
νm
m lr ≠
Π
*
= – Yl
s1 s2
Chapte 11 IC ENGINE COMBUSTION MODELS
Int oduction
Ve sion 4.12 11-1
Chapte 11 IC ENGINE COMBUSTION MODELS
Int oduction
This chapte desc ibes STAR-CD’s capabilities in pe fo ming combustion
calculations specific to inte nal combustion engines. Models fo both spa k igni
tion
(SI) and Diesel engines a e available.
The available facilities take into account the following featu es of engine
p ocesses:
• Fluid dynamics, including tu bulence
• Heat t ansfe
• Multi-component gaseous mixing
• Momentum, heat and mass exchange with d oplets (Diesel engines only)
• Auto-ignition and spa k ignition
• Combustion
• Complex geomet y
• Moving bounda ies
The diffe ential equations a e fo mulated in a density-weighted ensemble-ave age
d
f ame to facilitate the use of mathematical models of the tu bulent t anspo t an
d
combustion p ocesses, as will be outlined late .
emixed Combustion in Spa k Ignition Engines
Five p emixed combustion models a e implemented in STAR-CD. Fou of them,
namely the Welle 1-equation and 2-equation models [11.1], the Cohe ent Flame
with Inte mittent Tu bulent Net Flame St etch model (CFM-ITNFS) [11.2] and the
G-Equation model [11.43] a e flame-a ea models. The latte may also be used as a
pa tially-p emixed model and is desc ibed in detail in the “The G-Equation model”
section. The fifth mode is a variant of the eddy break-up (EBU) mode due to
Magnussen [11.3].
A common assumption in f ame-area mode s is that the f ame is an
infinitesima y thin surface which propagates in space whi e being affected by
various physica processes, such as stretching, curvature and cusp formation. Th
ese
processes are mode ed through a transport equation for the f ame area density
[11.4,11.5] or a re ated variab e that describes the distribution of the f ame s
urface
[11.1,11.6,11.7].
The EBU-type mode s are we -known; they assume that the combustion is
contro ed by turbu ent mixing of the unburnt and the burnt gases and, therefore
, the
burning rate is inverse y proportiona to the turbu ence time sca e.
For each of the aforementioned mode s, corresponding ignition treatments have
been deve oped. The task of these treatments is to initia ise the turbu ent
combustion mode s, which require that the f ame is proper y reso ved in time and
space. No attempt has been made in STAR-CD to represent the spark p asma
processes in detai since the sma time and ength sca es and comp ex physics
wou d require specia mode ing, very short timesteps and high y refined meshes
in
the vicinity of the spark p ug e ectrodes. Rather, the ca cu ation starts from a
spherica aminar f ame kerne which is assumed to appear at the first timestep
after
the spark onset. The kerne then grows spherica y as a transient aminar-turbu
ent
IC ENGINE COMBUSTION MODELS Chapter 11
Premixed Combustion in Spark Ignition Engines
11-2 Version 4.12
f ame unti it is deemed to be reso ved by the main combustion mode , at which
stage the ignition mode is switched off. Since the mesh density in the vicinity
of
the spark p ug gap can vary significant y from app ication to app ication, the
ignition mode can be activated in more than one ce . In this case, the combine
d
vo ume of the ignition ce s is considered as the ignition vo ume and the forego
ing
treatment is app ied. More information on how to choose the ignition vo ume size
together with descriptions of the ignition mode s are given in the re evant sect
ions
be ow.
For a combustion mode s other than the Magnussen mode , the unstrained
aminar f ame speed and the temperature of the unburnt gas are required. STAR-CD
incorporates two corre ations for ca cu ating the unstrained aminar f ame speed
.
The one proposed in Metgha chi and Keck [11.8] is given by
(11-1)
where p is the pressure, T is the temperature, the subscripts 0 and u denote ref
erence
and unburnt gas properties, respective y, and S is the aminar f ame speed. The
reference aminar f ame speed Su0 and the exponents α
nd β depend on the
equiv
lence r
tio φ o the uel. I 0.4 ≤ p ≤ 50
tm, 300 ≤ Tu ≤ 700 K
nd
0.8 ≤ φ ≤ 1.5, the
uthors cl
im th
t the l
min
r l
me speed is within 10%
o the
me
sured d
t
. ince none o the com ustion models c
n
ccur
tely predict urnin
g
in very le
n mixtures
nd ec
use the l
min
r l
me speed correl
tion unction
progressively diverges rom the experiment
lly o served d
t
in very le
n mixtur
es,
it is recommended th
t φ ≥ 0.65.

The second l
min
r l
me speed correl
tion w
s proposed y Gülder [11.23]
nd
is given y:
(11-2)
where Z, W, η, ξ, α
nd β
re uel-dependent const
nts de ined in the t
le elow:
Note th
t,
s Metgh
lchi’s
nd Keck’s correl
tion is only v
lid or φ close to 1, the
use o Gülder’s correl
tion or gener
l
pplic
tions is recommended.
The un urnt g
s temper
ture is c
lcul
ted rom
tr
nsport equ
tion or the
condition
l-
ver
ged speci ic enth
lpy o the un urnt g
s:
Fuel Z W η ξ α
β
φ < 1 φ > 1
Meth
ne 1 0.422 0.15 5.18 2.00 –0.5
Prop
ne 1 0.446 0.12 4.95 1.77 –0.2
Meth
nol 1 0.492 0.25 5.11 1.75 –0.2/√φ–0.2 φ
Eth
nol 1 0.465 0.25 6.34 1.75 –0.17/√φ–0.17 φ
Isooct
ne 1 0.4658 –0.326 4.48 1.56 –0.22
u u0
Tu
T0
⎝ ------ ⎠
⎛ ⎞α p
p0
⎝ ----- ⎠
⎛ ⎞β
= m/s
u Z Wφη [– ξ (φ – 1.075)2] T
T0
⎝------ ⎠
⎛ ⎞α P
P0
⎝----- ⎠
⎛ ⎞β
= exp
Ch
pter 11 IC
ENGINE COMBU TION MODEL
Premixed Com ustion in p
rk Ignition Engines
Version 4.12 11-3
(11-3)
Note th
t the l
st two terms on the le t-h
nd-side o the
ove equ
tion
re
neglected in the current TAR-CD implement
tion.
In equ
tion (11-3), the term qu is the di usive he
t lux, Dht the tur ulent th
erm
l
di usivity
nd the regress v
ri
le
(11-4)
i.e. the norm
lised uel m
ss r
ction, which h
s the v
lue 1 in the un urnt g
s

nd
0 in the urnt g
s. Here Y is the uel m
ss r
ction, Y t is the tot
l uel m
s
s r
ction,
i.e. the uel m
ss r
ction in the un urnt g
s,
nd Yres is the
mount o uel l
e t when
thede icient re
ct
nt is consumed, i.e. the
mount o uel le t
t the end o
com ustion. The l
tter equ
ls 0 in le
n
nd stoichiometric mixtures
nd is posit
ive
in rich mixtures.
Altern
tively, the un urnt temper
ture m
y e determined rom
n isentropic
rel
tionship
sed on pre-ignition v
lues o T
nd p,
s ollows:
(11-5)
As with
ny other type o numeric
l simul
tion, it is import
nt to resolve the
shortest sc
les o the physic
l processes involved, oth in time
nd sp
ce, or
ccur
te solution. The sc
les th
t
re import
nt in premixed com ustion

c
lcul
tions
re domin
ted y the l
me itsel . Thus, the mesh resolution should
e
such th
t there
re
t le
st
out 10 comput
tion
l cells
cross the tur ulent r
e
ction
zone (in the me
n direction o the l
me prop
g
tion), which in
ully develope
d
st
ge sp
ns sever
l integr
l length sc
les (th
t is
round 10 -20 mm). Around th
e
sp
rk plug g
p, however, the mesh should e even iner th
n th
t due to the sm
l
l
size o the l
me. imil
rly, the comput
tion
l time step size must re lect the

ct
th
t the re
ction zone
cceler

tes the low
he
d o it
nd gener
tes velocities
tow
rds the ignition point ehind the l
me. There ore, the m
ximum velocities
encountered in com usting lows
re higher th
n in cold lows,
t the s
me cr
nk
ngle. The user should e

w
re, however, th
t other restrictions on the require
d
mesh resolution
nd comput
tion
l timestep,
common to numeric
l simul
tions in
gener

l,
lso
pply to premixed com ustion c
lcul
tions
nd th
t these will not
e
repe
ted here.
In order to help the user estim
te
n
ppropri
tev
lue or the comput
tion
l
timestep, the
ver
ge
nd the m
ximum Cour
nt num ers de ined
s
(11-6)
∂(ρ u)
∂t ----------------- + ∇ ⋅ (ρuhu) – ∇ (ρDh ∇hu) ρDh
∇b ⋅ ∇hu
b
– --------------------- ∇ ρ
ρu
⎝-----qu⎠
⎛ ⎞ ρ
ρu
----- ∇b
b
⋅ + ⋅ + ------ ⋅ qu =
ρ
ρu
-----
∂p
∂
⎝------ + u ⋅ ∇p⎠
⎛ ⎞ + ρε
b
Y f – Yr s
Y ft – Yr s
= ------------------------
Tu T0
p
p0
⎝ ----- ⎠
⎛ ⎞
γ 1 –
γ
-----------
=
Co δt
Δtc
= -------
IC ENGINE COMBU TION MODEL Ch
pter 11
rk Ignition Engines
11-4 Version 4.12

re c
lcul
ted
nd printed in ile c
se.in o during c
lcul
tion. Here, δt is th
computatio al tim st p a is th harmoic av rag of th cov ctio a

mom tum
iffusio tim scal sfor th c ll i qu stio . Th tim st pfor a
pr mix combustio calculatio shoul b such that th maximum Coura t
umb r Comax always r mais small r tha 0.5. If this coitio is violat , th

tim st p shoul b short . As a or r-of- magitu gui , a tim st p of

0.5 CA at 3000 rpm is usually appropriat wh th m sh has approximat ly 4000
c lls at TDC. i icat s a r latioship b tw th
Not that th abov crit rio
tim st p a th m sh siz . Thus, th fi r th m sh, th short r th tim st p s
houl
b .
A scriptio of ach combustio mo l a its associat igitio tr atm t ar
giv i th followi g s ctio s, alo g with th ma r of impl m tatio i

STAR-CD.

Th C M-ITN S mo l

Th mo l’s full am is ‘Coh r t lam Mo l with I t rmitt t Turbul t N t
lam Str tch’. This is a flam ar a mo l i which th variabl that scrib s th

flam istributio is th flam ar a sity
(11-7)
wh r δA is th flam ar a i a volum δV a th ov rbar ot s s mbl
av ragig. A trasport quatio for Σ c
n e derived rom the und
ment
l studies
o the evolution o m
teri
l sur
ces [11.4,11.5,11.9]
nd c
n e written
s
(11-8)
where w is the tot
l velocity o the sur
ce, KT is the l
me str
in r
te, the s
econd
term on the right h
nd side represents l
me curv
ture
nd 〈 〉 indic
tes sur
ce

ver
ging de ined
s
(11-9)
Following [11.2,11.9,11.10], the Σ tr
nsport equ
tion or
l
me sur
ce is
modelled
s
(11-10)
where Kt is the net l
me stretch, ρ is t gas d nsity, k is t tu bul nc kin t
ic
n gy, S is t unst ain d lamina flam sp d, α, β
nd

re the model
coe icients
nd su script u denotes the un urnt g
s. The irst term on the righ
t h
nd
side o this equ
tion represents the l
me
re
incre
se due to the com ined e
ects
o str
in r
te
nd curv
ture
nd the second term represents the l
me
re
decre

se
Δtc
Σ Σ′ δA
δV
-------
δV → 0
= = lim
∂Σ
∂t
------ + ∇ ⋅ ( 〈w〉S Σ) 〈KT〉 Σ 2 〈KC 〉 = + Σ
〈Φ〉S
ΦΣ′
Σ′
---------- ΦΣ′
Σ
= = ----------
∂Σ
∂t
------ ∇ uΣ ( ) ∇ Γε + ⋅ – ⋅ ( ∇Σ) αKt Σ β
ρuY ft Su 1 a k Su
( + ⁄ )
ρY f
= – ------------------------------------------------------Σ2
Ch
pter 11 IC ENGINE COMBU TION MODEL
rk Ignition Engines
Version 4.12 11-5
due to uel consumption. Note th
t the l
tter term signi ic
ntly destroys the l

me
sur
ce only when the uel m
ss r
ction Y goes to zero, i.e. when
ll the uel
is
consumed.
The net l
me stretch is c
lcul
ted rom the Intermittent Tur ulent Net Fl
me
tretch (ITNF ) model presented in [11.11].
The
uthors o this model h
ve used
experiment
l d
t

out intermittent tur ulence to determine the distri ution o
stretch
long the l
me ront
nd direct numeric
l simul
tions o l
me-vortex
inter
ctions to construct
li r
ry o the net l
me stretch unction Kt. To sim
pli y
use o their results or engineering c
lcul
tions, they curve- itted their l
the
i r
ry
d
t
in the orm o
dimensionless net l
me stretch unction involving the
ollowing p
r
meters
(11-11)
Here ε is th turbul dissipatio rat , u′ is th turbul it sity, Il is th
it gral l gth s al d fi d as
(11-12)
wh r Cμ an κ are the turbulent viscosit coefficient and von Karman constant of
the -ε mod l, r sp tiv ly, ad fially δl is th th rmal lamiar flam thick ss

calculat followi g [11.10,11.12] as
(11-13)
I this xpr ssio, Pr is th lamiar Pra tl umb r of th burt gas, assum t
o b
costat a qualto 0.9a μb is he molecula viscosi y of he bu n gas
calcula e f om Su he lan ’s law
(11-14)
He e, μ1 an μ2 a e coefficien s wi h values
(11-15)

an Tb is he bu n gas empe a u e. The mean eac ion a e use in he anspo

equa ion fo he eg ess va iable b (see Equa ion (11-28)) is
(11-16)
Two fea u es of he CFM-ITNFS mo el shoul be no e . This mo el shoul only
ΓK
Kt
ε ⁄ k --------- f u′
Su
-----
Il
δl
⎝ , ---- ⎠
= = ⎛ ⎞
Il
Cμ
3 ⁄ 4
κ
----------- 3 2 ⁄
ε
= ⋅ ----------
δl 2
μb
P ρu Su
= -------------------
μb
μ1 Tb
1.5
μ2 + Tb
= ------------------
μ1 1.457 10– 6 kgm–2 K–1.5 =
μ2 = 110 K
ωcfm = – ρu Su Σ
TION MODEL Ch
pter 11
IC ENGINE COMBU
rk Ignition Engines
11-6 Version 4.12
e
pplied to le
n or stoichiometric mixtures. econdly, in our experience, the
v
lues o the model coe icients m
y need to e modi ied rom the v
lues suggest
ed
in [11.2], α = 2.1, β = 1.0
nd
= 0.1, depending on the c
se. It usu
lly su ices
to

djust the α coe icient, which directly controls the tur ulent l
me speed t

ccording to
(11-17)

s suggested y the KPP
n
lysis [11.13]
Ignition tre
tment or the CFM-ITNF model
The ignition tre
tment or the CFM-ITNF
model in TAR-CD is
simpli ied
version o the
ppro
ch proposed y Boudier et
l. [11.2].
In the origin
l
ppro
ch, the ignition period is tre
ted in two distinct ph
ses.
In
the irst ph
se,
n electric disch
rge occurs etween the electrodes
nd he
ts u
p the
mixture to ignition point. An
pproxim
tely spheric
l kernel orms with
r
pidl
y
exp
nding re
ction zone. The prop
g
tion speed incre
ses rom its minimum v
lue

nd
symptotic
lly
ppro
ches the l
min
r l
me speed or
pl
n
r unstretched
l
me, given y
(11-18)
The
ssumed spheric
l kernel growth during this st
ge c
n e c
lcul
ted rom
n
ordin
ry di erenti
l equ
tion
(11-19)
When the kernel prop
g
tion speed re
ches the v
lue o u∞, the irst tr
nsition
criterion is met. This is denoted
s the irst tr
nsition time t1; the kernel
t
this time
h
s re
ched the r
dius r1.
During the second st
ge, it is
ssumed th
t the re
ction zone o the l
min
r ker
nel
still
prop
g
tes with the l
min
r l
me speed,
ugmented y the exp
nsion r
tio,
ut
is simult
neously wrinkled
nd thickened y tur ulence. The kernel r
dius is sti
ll
c
lcul
ted rom Equ
tion (11-19) ut the kernel sur
ce
re
during this ph
se
equ
ls the sum o the
re
o the spheric
l l
min
r kernel
nd the
re
o the
wrinkles. The r
te o incre
se o the kernel
re
is c
lcul
ted rom
(11-20)
The irst term on the right-h
nd side o this equ
tion represents the incre
se o
the
kernel sur
ce due to l
min
r prop
g
tion. The second term is the r
te o the
r
e

incre
se due to the tur ulent stretch, given y Equ
tion (11-11).
The initi
l conditions or these two equ
tions
re
(11-21)
t ∝ α
u∞
T
Tu
= ------ u
dr
dt
-----

T
Tu
= ------ u
dA
dt
------- d
dt
= ----- (4π r2(t)) + (α Kt A)
r(t1) = r1
Ch
rk Ignition Engines
Version 4.12 11-7
(11-22)
The second st
ge ends when the second tr
nsition criterion is met. This is de in
ed
s the time t2 when the l

min
r stretch Kl
(11-23)
decre
ses elow the level o the tur ulent stretch Kt, given y Equ
tion (11-11)
.
It is
ssumed th
t the ignition kernel does not in luence the in-cylinder low
nd
temper
ture ields during these processes. Ultim
tely, it is the second tr
nsiti
on
time t2
nd the kernel
re

t th
t time th
t
re used or the initi
lis
tion o
the

tur ulent premixed com ustion model.
The l
st oper
tion o the ignition tre
tment is the initi
lis
tion o the l
me-
re
per-
unit-volume v
ri
le Σ. It is
ssumed th
t
t t = t2, the Σ distri ution is
dou le
error unction
(11-24)
where Ω∞ i the no mali ation volume
(11-25)
which en u e that at time t2 on an infinite domain
(11-26)
The quantity l2 in Equation (11-24) i the diffu ion length cale at time t2 def
ined a
(11-27)
He e νt is th ki mati vis osity ad σΣ i th chmidt numb r for Σ [11.10].
Th impl m nt
tion of thi mod l in TAR-CD diff r from th
bov only in
th tr
tm nt of th fir t ph
. Th k rn l rowth i not c
lcul
t d durin thi
ph

but th
pp
r
nc of
l
min
r ph ric
l k rn l of u r- p cifi d di
m t r d1
(typic
lly qu
l to 2 mm) i
um d
t th u r- p cifi d tim t1
ft r th tim
of
p
rk. Thi tim d p nd on m
ny p
r
m t r , uch
th n in i nition y t m
ch
r
ct ri tic , flow
nd th rmodyn
mic condition
round th p
rk plu
l ctrod , th om try of th l ctrod , tc. Typic
lly t1 ~ 0.1-0.2 m [11.1
0].
Du to th n
tur of thi i nition tr
tm nt, it i uffici nt for th u r to
p cify
A t1 ( ) 4π r1 2 =
Kl
1
Al
-----
dAl
dt
-------- 2r
-- dr
dt
= = -----
Σ(r, t2)
A2
Ω∞
------- 1 e f
– 2
2l2
-----------------
⎝ ⎠
⎜ ⎟
⎛ ⎞
–
⎩ ⎭
⎨ ⎬
⎧ ⎫
=
Ω∞ 4π u2 1 erf
u – r2
2l2
⎝ ----------------- ⎠
– ⎛ ⎞
⎩ ⎭
⎨ ⎬
⎧ ⎫
u
0
∞∫
=
A2 4π u2 Σ(u, t2) du
0
∞∫
=
l2(t)
νt
σΣ
= ------ (t2 – t1)
pt r 11
Pr mix d Combu tion in p
rk I nition En in
11-8 V r ion 4.12
only th loc
tion of th p
rk-plu
p, without th n d to d cid on th i nit
ion
volum iz . To thi nd, th u r hould p cify only on i nition c ll. Not t
h
t
thi impli th
t only on i nition loc
tion c
n b imul
t d, i. . thi mod l c

nnot
b u d for mod llin combu tion in multi- p
rk-p r-cylind r n in .
Impl m nt
tion in TAR-CD
Th m
n fu l m
fr
ction i c
lcul
t d from th r r v
ri
bl b, for which

tr
n port qu
tion i olv d. In
ddition, th tr
n port qu
tion for fl
m
r
d n ity Σ i olv d in ord r to v

lu
t th r
ction r
t .
Th b tr
n port qu
tion for th CFM-ITNF mod l c
n b writt n
(11-28)
wh r th m
n r
ction r
t ωcfm is giv n by Equation (11-16).
In quation (11-10) t Σ term is repl
ced y ρσ, wh r σ i r
vim tric, i. .
fl
m
r
p r unit m
. Thu , th qu
tion b com :
(11-29)
wh r
Th W ll r fl
m
r
mod l
Th W ll r mod l [11.1,11.21] i
fl
m
r
mod l in which th v
ri
bl th
t
d crib th fl
m urf
c i th wrinklin f
ctor Ξ, defined as
(11-30)
where Σ
nd
re the volumetric
ver
ge l
me
re

nd the
ver
ge l
me
re
projected into the me

n prop
g
tion direction, respectively. A tr
nsport equ
tio
n
or Ξ can be derived from those for and Σ y noting th
t
(11-31)
where is the ensem le-
ver
ged regress v
ri
le, i.e. the norm
lised uel m
ss
r
ction, which h
s the v
lue 1 in the un urnt g
s
nd 0 in the urnt g
s. The
resulting modelled tr
nsport equ
tion or Ξ is, from [11.1]
∂ρ b
∂t
---------- ∇ ρ u b ( ) ∇ Γb + ⋅ – ⋅ ( ∇ b) = ωcfm
∂(ρσ)
∂t -------------- ∇ ρ u σ ( ) ∇ ρΓσ + ⋅ – ⋅ ( ∇σ) = Σ + ∇ ⋅ (Γσ σ ∇ρ)
SΣ α KtΣ β
ρu Y ft Su 1 a k Su
( + ⁄ )
ρY f
= – --------------------------------------------------------- Σ2
Ξ Σ
Σl
= ----
Σl
Ξ Σ
∇b
= ----------
∂Ξ
∂t
------ + us ⋅ ∇Ξ – ∇ ⋅ (Dl ∇Ξ) = GΞ – RΞ2
Ξ nˆ 〈ut 〉s nˆ 1Ξ
--- nˆ 〈us 〉+ ⋅ ∇ ⋅ – ⋅ ∇ s ⋅ nˆ
Chap e 11 IC ENGINE COMBUSTION MODELS

P emixe Combus ion in Spa k Igni ion Engines
Ve sion 4.12 11-9
(11-32)
whe e is he su face p opaga ion veloci he o al anspo veloci
y, y,
G he
w inkling gene a ion a e coefficien , R he emoval a e coefficien , he
mean
flame
su face
p opaga ion i ec
ion, he in
e face
p opaga
ion spee
he
an
in eface iffusion coefficien . The fi s wo e ms on he igh han si e ep
esen ,
espec ively, w inkling gene aion an emoval, he combine hi an fou h
e ms ep
esen
he flames e ch by he mean flow an he las e m ep esen s
emoval ue o cusp fo ma ion. Due o nume ical ifficul ies in i ec ly calcula
ing
he hi , fou h an las e ms in he above equa ion, hey a e mo elle in i e
c ly
by inclu ing hei effec in he value of G.
The Ξ transport equation can be simp ified if we consider the propagation of the
surface at the point in the f ame where = 0. At this point, the cusp formation
term is zero and a other terms except the generation and remova terms are sma

due to the ow gradients of Ξ. Under these conditions, the generation and remova
rates must ba ance at equi ibrium, thus
(11-33)
It fo ows that in these circumstances Ξ is given by its equi ibrium va ue , which
is a so equa to the turbu ent/ aminar f ame speed ratio, thus
(11-34)
In STAR-CD, three versions of the We er mode are imp emented:
• The equi ibrium version, referred to as the one-equation mode
• The fu version, referred to as the two-equation mode , in which the Ξ
transport equation is so ved
• The three-equation mode , described in “Partia y Premixed Combustion in
Spark Ignition Engines” on page 11-14
In these mode s, the corre ation for the turbu ent/ aminar f ame speed ratio use
d is
(11-35)
where A is a mode coefficient whose va ue is of the order 1.5 to 2. However, si
nce
the equi ibrium condition c ear y cannot prevai during the ear y stages of f am
e
propagation, the Ξ evo ution in the 1-equation version is mode ed by a time de ay
function
(11-36)
where is the time of spark ignition, is a time-de ay coefficient of the order of
15-20 and = is the Ko mogorov time sca e.
〈 S 〉sΞ Ξ 1Ξ
⎝ – ---⎠
⎛ ⎞ + Dl ∇Ξ ⎝ ⎠
⎛ ⎞ ∇ ∇b
∇b +⋅ ---------------
us u
nˆ
Sl Dl
∇ ∇b
R G
Ξeq
= --------
Ξeq
Ξeq
St
Su
= -----
St
Su
----- 1 A u′
Su
= + -----
Ξ 1 (Ξeq – 1) 1 e t tsp – ( ) τ – ⁄ τη
= + (– )
tsp τ
τη ν ⁄ ε
IC ENGINE COMBUSTION MODELS Chapt r 11
Pr mix d Combustio i Spark Igitio Egi s
11-10 V rsio 4.12
A simplifi d trasport quatio for Ξ is so ved for in the fu version
(two-equation mode ). This equation is given by
(11-37)
where
(11-38)
is the f ame re ated f ux, and
(11-39)
(11-40)
(11-41)
(11-42)
The mean reaction rate for the regress variab e b transport equation is
(11-43)
gnition treatment for the We er mode
Due to the nature of the We er ignition mode , it is presented in its discretis
ed form.
As described in the introduction to this section, an initia kerne is assumed.
For the
We er mode , the initia combustion rate is estimated from the vo ume of the in
itia
spherica kerne and the assumption that the kerne vo ume of fue is burnt in o
ne
timestep
(11-44)
Here is the density of the gas in the ignition ce (s), is the vo ume of the
kerne , assumed to be a sphere with typica diameter = 1 mm [11.14] (can be
changed by the user) and is the timestep. The discretisation error, which arises
because the f ame kerne is spatia y not reso ved, is accounted for in the igni
tion
vo ume by the fo owing ignition rate expression
∂
∂t ----(ρΞ) + ∇ ⋅ (ρuΞ) + ∇ ⋅ (φΞ Ξ) =ρGFAC Ξ – ρRFAC (Ξ – 1) + Ξ ∇ ⋅ φΞ
φΞ (ρu – ρ) Ξ Su
ρΞ
--- Su
∇ρD
μ
σt
⎝ + -----⎠
⋅ ⎛ ⎞∇b
∇b
≡ + – ----------------------------------------------- nˆ
RFAC
CΞ2
(μu ⁄ ρuε)1 ⁄ 2 -------------------------------
R1
R1 – 1
-------------- ; R1 1 CΞ1
u′
Su
= = + ----- Rη
CΞ1 0.62 ; CΞ2 = = 0.28
u′ 23
⎝-- k⎠
⎛ ⎞ 1 ⁄ 2
; Rη
u′
(μuε ⁄ ρu)1 ⁄ 4 = = -------------------------------
GFAC
RFAC 2 1 b˜ [ ( – ) (R1 – 1)]
1 2 1 b˜ + ( – ) (R1 – 1)
= -----------------------------------------------------------
ωW = – ρu Su Ξ ∇b
Sig
ρig Vk
Δt – -- - - -- --------- t = tsp + Δt
0 other times ⎩
⎪
⎨
⎪
⎧
=
ρig Vk
k0
Δt
Ch
rk Ignition Engines
Version 4.12 11-11
(11-45)
where the discretis
tion error E c
n e c
lcul
ted
s
(11-46)
In thisexpression, is the
re
o the equiv
lent spheric
l volume occupied
y the urnt g
s, c
lcul
ted
s
(11-47)

nd is the
re
o the urnt g
s volume
(11-48)
The initi
l ignition r
te o this model (Equ
tion (11-44)) is inversely proporti
on
l
to the irst comput
tion
l timestep
ter the sp
rk onset: there ore, the shorte
r the
timestep, the stronger the ignition r
te. I this time step is very short
nd th
e ignition
volume is sm
ll,
l
rge proportion o the uel within it will urn in the time
step

nd this m
y c
use numeric
l di iculties. On the other h
nd, i the ignition vo
lume
is too l
rge, the ignition model m
y not properly initi
te urning ec
use the i
niti
l
urning r
te will e too sm
ll. As
rough guide, the ignition timestep should
e o
the order o 3 10–5 s
nd the com ined volume o the ignition cells should e

round 50 mm3.
Implement
tion in TAR-CD
As st
ted e
rlier, oth the ull
nd the equili rium version o the Weller model
h
s
een implemented in TAR-CD. In oth c
ses, this requires the solution o
n

ddition
l tr
nsport equ
tion, n
mely th
t or the me
n regress v
ri
le,
s ol
lows:
(11-49)
uel consumption term due to ignition, the discretised orm o which
Here is the
is given y Equ
tion (11-44);
is the discretis
tion error term, the discretised
orm o which is given y Equ
tion (11-45);
nd is the me
n re
ction r
te
given y Equ
tion (11-43).
For the ull implement
tion,
n
ddition
l tr
nsport equ
tion involving the
wrinkling
ctor Ξ and given by Equation (11-37) is a so so ved.
The Magnussen mode
The eddy break-up mode of Magnussen can be used for either premixed or Diese
combustion. It is described in detai in Chapter 10, “Turbu ence-contro ed eddy
Serr ( ρu – ρ)SubE Vig [(Ξ – Ξeq),ρE]min = –{ }
E
A q – Ab
Vig
= --------------------
A q V q
V q 1 – bi Vi
i=1
NΣ
=
A
A ∇b i Vi
i=1
NΣ
=
∂ρb
∂t
--------- ∇ ρub ( ) ∇ Γb + ⋅ – ⋅ ( ∇b) = Sig + Se + SWe
Sig
Se
SWe ωW
IC ENGINE COMBUSTION MODELS C apt 11
P mix d Combustion in Spa k Ignition Engin s
11-12 V sion 4.12
b ak-up mod l” and a so in “Diese combustion mode s” on page 11-19. Brief y,
this mode requires so ving a transport equation for the regress variab e, with
the
reaction rate given by
(11-50)
where A and B are the mode coefficients.
Ignition treatment for the Magnussen mode
The ignition treatment for the premixed combustion ca cu ation is performed by
assuming that a fixed fraction of fue is burnt (i.e. = bi, where bi < 1) in ign
ition
ce s, and substituting this in Equation (11-50).
Imp ementation in STAR-CD
For this mode , on y one additiona transport equation, name y the one for the f
ue
regress variab e, has to be so ved during combustion:
(11-51)
The source term Sb is either the ignition source term for the ce s within the i
gnition
vo ume during the operationa time of the ignition treatment or the reaction rat
e
given by the Magnussen mode (Equation (11-50)), i.e.
(11-52)
Knock mode ing
In addition to performing premixed combustion ca cu ations, STAR-CD can a so
predict knock. To this end, the ‘She ’ auto-ignition mode [11.15], described in
more detai on page 11-21, is used to simu ate the chemica kinetics and estimat
e
the oca reaction rates of the generic ignition species, the radica s R, B and
Q. Their
rates of transport by convection and diffusion are then eva uated by so ving the
conditiona -averaged transport equation for each of these species, the condition
being that the f uid considered is the unburnt gas (simi ar to the so ution of u
nburnt
entha py).
To prevent the ‘She ’ mode from fa se y predicting auto-ignition because of gas
heating within the f ame, the conditiona -averaged unburnt gas temperature ( ) i
s
used to eva uate the reaction rates. The comp ete separation of the auto-ignitio
n
mode from the turbu ent combustion mode can, however, on y be achieved if a
conditiona -averaged transport equation for the fue mass fraction Y is introduc
ed
and the transport equations for the ‘She ’ mode radica s R, B and Q are rewritten
in the framework of conditiona averaging rather than Favre averaging. These
equations can be obtained in the same manner as Equation for the
conditiona -averaged unburnt gas specific entha py:
SMag
A ρ ε
k
------------ min (b, B[1 – b]) kg m– 3 s–1 = –
b ˜
∂ρb
∂t
--------- ∇ ρub ( ) ∇ Γb + ⋅ – ⋅ ( ∇b) = Sb
Sb
Sig sp ≤ ≤ e
SMag o he wise
⎩ ⎪ ⎨ ⎪ ⎧
=
Tu

P emixe Combus ion in Spa k Igni ion Engines
Ve sion 4.12 11-13
(11-53)

In his equa ion he hi e m on he lef -han si e, which accoun s fo hea
ansfe
ac oss he flame f on , is neglec e in he cu en STAR-CD
implemen a ion. The
va iable Ψ sta sfor , R, B a Q a is th corr spo i g sourc t rm giv

by th ‘Sh ll’ mo l.
Th mass fractio of ra icals obtai i this way, how v r, o ot corr spo

to th actual mass fractios fou i a gi . Th co itioal-av rag ra ica
l
quatios o ot pr ict th ra ical pl tio withi th flam a o woul
obs rv positiv mass fractios v i th fully burt r gios of th combustio

chamb r. Th ra ical mass fractio must th r for b multipli by th probabili
ty
of th ra icals b ig pr s t at a c rtai locatio of th computatioal omai.
This
probability is assum to b qual to th probability of th uburt gas b ig p
r s t
at th cosi r poit which is itur qual to th r gr ss variabl b.
It is worthm tioig that th co itioal-av rag uburt gas fu l mass

fractio a thalpy quatio o ot
co tai sourc
t rms u to th turbul t

combustio mo l. Th corr spo i g avr -av
rag quatio s, how v r, co tai
sourc
t rms from both th auto-ig itio mo l a th turbul t combustio
mo l. This ff ctiv ly m as that th auto-igitio mo l is aff ct by th
pr s c of th turbul t flam o ly through th pr ssur fi l a , as scrib

abov , by th probability of th pr s c of th uburt gas. H c th r is o

to r sort to sp cial tr atm ts i iff r t parts of th combustio chamb r. Th

turbul t combustio mo l, how v r, is aff ct byth auto-igitio mo l

through th i cr (with corr spo i g i cr as of th lamiar

as of t mp ratur

flam sp ) a through th r uctio of th fu l availabl

for turbul t

combustio (b caus a part of it is
co v rt i to pro ucts by th auto-ig itio
m cha ism) i th u bur t gas ah a of th flam .
Th typical
coc tratios of th ra icals R, B a Q ar s v ral or rs of
magitu small r tha th fu l mass fractio i th uburt gas. Th y ar th r
for
omitt from th th rmo yamic calculatios i STAR-CD. Th oly situatio
whr this approximatio s ms u suitabl is uri g th rmal ruaway, wh th Q

ra ical mass fractio b com s comparabl to th fu l mass fractio. Sic th ai
m

is to pr ict th probability a locatio of auto-igitio sit s rath r tha to
simulat
th proc ss s i th combustio chamb r of a SI gi urig kock, th
omissio of th Q ra ical mass fractio ca b acc pt as a r asoabl
approximatio v i this cas . I ay v t, th ‘Sh ll’ mo l is iapplicabl at
high t mp ratur s.
Th compl t proc ur of usig th ‘Sh ll’ mo l to pr ict auto-igitio
i

STAR-CD thus co sists of th solutio of th
‘Sh
ll’ ki tics schm a tra sport
quatio s for ra icals R, B a Q, th co itio al-av rag u bur t gas sp cific
thalpy a th coitioal-av rag uburt gas fu l mass fractio. A aitio
al

sourc t rm app ars i ach of th usual avr -av rag quatios for th sp cif
ic
thalpy a fu l mass fractio.

Th ‘Sh ll’ mo l i STAR-CD ca b us for pr ictig auto-igitio for fu ls
with a r s arch octa umb r RON of 70, 90 or 100, irr sp ctiv of th actual f
u l
us for th pr mix combustio calculatio. I othr wor s, although it is
possibl
to us iso-octa , propa or a us r- fi fu l as th fu l for pr mi

x
∂t
∂ (ρ Ψu) ∇ ρuΨ+ ⋅ ( u) 2Γu
∇b
b
– ------ ⋅ ∇Ψu – ∇ ⋅ (Γu ∇Ψu) ρ Ψ˙
= k
Ψ˙ k
Partially Pr mix Combustio i Spark Igitio Egi s
11-14 V rsio 4.12
combustio calculatios, th us r ca i p tly s t th RON umb r for th
kock calculatioto ay of th abov valu s.
Partially pr mix combustio is o of th ss tial f atur s i mo r GDI
(Gasoli Dir ct Ij ctio) gi s. I th s , fu l ca b istribut withi th

cyli r i a wi rag , from v ry l a to v ry rich mixtur s. This strat gy al
lows
b tt r cotrol ofpr ssur a t mp ratur p aks a of th mass fractio of
polluta
ts u r iff r t gi loa s.
All mo ls us for u
pr mix / iffusio typ r actio syst ms ( y br ak-up,

ki tically co troll , hybri , compl x ch mistry) ar also availabl for this k
i of
syst m, xc pt for PPD -typ mo ls. I a itio, STAR-CD off rs:
• A r gr ss variabl
-typ mo l, bas o a xt sio of th W ll r
2- quatio mo l scrib o pag 11-10. This is call th W ll r
3- quatio mo l a is outli b low.
• Th G-Equatio mo l, mployig th L v l S t fuctio G a its variac

to obtai th flam brush thick ssfrom which a valu for th progr ss
variabl c is alg braically comput . Th latt r t rmi s th compositio of
th r actig mixtur . Th mo l is may also b us for pr mix combustio
but is curr tly support oly for trasi t simulatios.
Th W ll r 3- quatio mo l
This r li s o th solutio of a r gr ss variabl quatio a a wriklig facto
r
quatio, as for th W ll r 2- quatio mo l, s “Impl m tatio i STAR-CD”
on page 11-11. However, since diffusion processes are now at work, the mode a s
o
so ves a third equation for the mixture fraction, corresponding to the quantity
Yft in
Equation (11-4), which takes the inhomogeneity of fue distribution into account
.
The mixture fraction equation is as fo ows:
(11-54)
where the source term S represents the addition of fue into the gaseous phase
originating from fue drop ets.
The ignition mode discussed under “ gnition treatment for the We er mode ” on
page 11-10 is a so used in this case.
The G-Equation mode
This mode offers a robust and efficient means of tracking interfaces moving und
er
a generic ve ocity fie d, and is natura y capab e of hand ing topo ogica merge
s and
breaks in any number of spatia dimensions.
A front propagating with speed F can be represented as the zero eve of a
function G which evo ves according to the fo owing transport equation:
(11-55)
G′
∂t
∂(ρY ft ) ∇ ρuY ( f ) ∇ ρ Df
μ
σf , t
⎝ + --------- ∇Y f ⎠
+ ⋅ – ⋅ ⎛ ⎞ = S
∂
∂G F|∇G|
+ 0 =
Chap e 11 IC ENGINE
COMBUSTION
MODELS
Pa ially P emixe Combus ion in Spa k Igni ion Engines
Ve sion
4.12 11-15
Equa ion (11-55) is he Level Se equa ion as given by Oshe an Se hian [11.43]
,
esc ibing he ime evolu ion of he level se func ion G in such a way ha he
ze o
level of he func ion is always ien ifie wi h he p opaga
ing in e face.
Smiljanovski e al. [11.46] ex en e his me ho o he ea men of eflag a io
ns
an e ona ions. Unlike o he echniques which ely on a ificial b oa ening of
he
flame f on , he Level Se app oach ea s he la e as an exac hy o ynamic
iscon inui y.
F om a nume ical poin of view, G isa smoo h func ion ha a ains posi ive
values in he bu ne egion an nega ive values in he unbu n egion. Al hough
he
signe is ance func ion sa isfies he above p ope ies, i canno be e e mine
by
equa ion (11-55) alone. The la e mus be supplemen e by he con i ion:
(11-56)
The se ofequa ions (11-55) an (11-56) is no vali eve ywhe e in he solu ion
omain as he p opaga ion veloci y is efine only on he in e face whe e G=0. T
o
obvia e his p oblem wo app oachesa e possible: cons uc ion of exension
veloci ies o e-ini ialisa ion of he level se func ion af e solu ion of equa
ion
(11-55) [11.45].
The la e p ac
ice has been a op e in STAR-CD because of i s
obus ness an ela ive compu a ional economy.
Re-ini ialisa ion
The e-ini ialisa ion p ocess has he effec of smoo hing ou he level se func
ion
on
he si e of he ze o level se , hus p o ucing a func ion which sa isfies con
ei
i ion

(11-56) an is he efo e a signe is ance. The e-ini ialisa ion me ho p opose
by
by Reinecke e al. [11.44] isimplemen e in STAR-CD.

Thisis base on he cons uc ion ofan app oxima e isc e e esc ip ion of he
fon . Fi s , a se of poin s whe e he func ion G c osses i s ze o value is con
s uc e
by linea in e pola ion of cell ve ices. Subsequen ly, he minimum is ance o
f all
cell cen es f om he isc e e f on is compu e an he G func ion is assigne
a
value ha is a weigh e ave age be ween i s ol value an he is ance hus
compu e :
(11-57)
whe e
(11-58)

wi h 0 ≈ 3Δ
nd δ ≈ Δ, where Δ is
me
sure o the mesh size ( ).
The re-initi
lis
tion technique is rendered more e icient y the n
rrow-
nd

ppro
ch, where y only
region in the immedi
te vicinity o the ront is consid
ered
or the
ove comput
tions.
A minimum o our cells
re included y de
ult in the n
rrow-
nd on either
side o the l
me ront, i.e. in the urnt
nd un urnt region. There ore, the wi
dth o
the n
rrow-
nd in the urnt
nd un urnt regions is
|∇G| =1
G = H( )G0 + (1 – H( ))sign(G0)
H( )1
– 0
δ ⁄ 3
⎝--------------⎠

– anh⎛ ⎞ 1
– 0
δ ⁄ 3
⎝---------⎠

= ⁄ – anh⎛ ⎞
Δ Volcell
1 ⁄ 3 =
pter 11
P
rti
lly Premixed Com ustion in p
rk Ignition Engines
11-16 Version 4.12
(11-59)

nd
the G ield is re-initi
lised only in the n
rrow-
nd,
suit
le v
lue must
As
e

ssigned to G in the rest o the comput
tion
l dom
in. I denotes thedist
nce
unction o t
ined rom the re-initi
lis
tion o the G ield produced y equ
tion
(11-55), the re-initi
lised G ield to e used or descri ing the l
me ront is
given
y
(11-60)
The set o equ
tions
nd procedures illustr
ted
ove provide
description o t
he
evolution o
ront in
generic velocity ield. In the speci ic c
se o com us
tion,
they
re used to o t
in in orm
tion on the position o
tr
velling l
me ront
in
g
s mixture.
The Level et equ
tions
The ollowing tr
nsport equ
tions
re solved or G
nd its v
ri
nce :
(11-61)
(11-62)
cs = 2 [11.40]
nd sT is the tur ulent l
me speed descri ed elow.
where
Tur ulent l
me speed
The l
min
r l
me speed is o t
ined rom the empiric
l correl
tions proposed y
Gülder [11.41]:
(11-63)
where
, , (11-64)

with su script t denoting stoichiometric conditions
nd eing the uel m
ss
r
ction in the resh mixture. represents
the mole r
ction o theresidu
l g
s.
in equ
tion (11-63) represents the un urnt temper
ture, which c
n e
computed

ccording to the isentropic rel
tionship
dh = n ⋅ Δ
dhu
= nu ⋅ Δ
n = nu= 4
Gd
G
dh + Δ i Gd ≥ dh
–dhu – Δ i Gd ≤ dhu
Gd otherwise ⎩
⎪
⎨
⎪
⎧
=
G′

∂
∂ ρG xi ∂
+∂ ρuiG ρs= T|∇G|
∂
∂ ρG′
∂xi
∂ ρuiG′ ρsT
∇G′ ⋅ ∇G
|∇G|
+– ----------------------- 2
μ
σt
----- ∂G
∂xi
-------∂G
∂xi
------- c ρεk
= – --G′
sl
0(Φ) f Z f wΦη xp( ξ Φ φ
( – )2)
Tu
Tre
⎝--------⎠
⎛ ⎞α P
Pre
⎝--------⎠
⎛ ⎞β
= – (1 – xEGR)
Z = YF Φ Z
1 – Z
------------
1 – ZSt
ZSt
= ----------------

xEGR
Tu
Chapt r 11 IC ENGINE
COMBUSTION MODELS
V rsio 4.12 11-17
(11-65)
wh r a ar pr -igitio valu s of t mp ratur a pr ssur .
Alt r ativ ly, it ca b comput by solvi g a tra sport quatio, as giv by

quatio (11-3).
Th turbul t flam sp is giv by
(11-66)
wh r
(11-67)
Th turbul t flam sp so comput is th av rag ov r th mixtur fractio
spac :
(11-68)
wh r is th stoichiom
tric mixtur fractio. Th it gratio of quatio
(11-68) is carri out followigKaub [11.42].
I th abov quatio, is th PD of th mixtur fractio, assum to b a
β unction
nd p
r
meterized
s
(11-69)
where
(11-70)
The mixture r
ction
nd mixture r
ction v
ri
nce
re o t
ined y solving the
ollowing tr
nsport equ
tions:
(11-71)
(11-72)
Tu T0
P
P0
⎝ -----⎠
⎛ ⎞
γ 1 –
γ
-----------
=
P0 T0
T(Φ) sl
0(Φ) 1 A u
sl
0(Φ)
-------------
⎝ ⎠
⎜ ⎟
⎛ ⎞ 5 ⁄ 6
= +
u 23
⎝--k⎠
⎛ ⎞
12
--
=
sT sT(Φ)P(Z) Z
0
ZSt, S ∫ sT(Φ)P(Z) Z ZSt, S
1 = + ∫
ZSt,s
P(Z)
P(Z, x, t) Γ(r + s)
Γ(r)Γ(s)
----------------------Zr – 1(1 Z)s – 1 = –
r Z s (1 – Z) Z 1 Z ( – )
Z′
= = = --------------------- – 1
Z′
∂t
∂ ρZ xi ∂
+ ∂ ρuiZ
∂xi
∂DZρ
μ
σt
⎝ + -----⎠
⎛ ⎞
xi ∂
∂Z
=
∂
∂ ρZ′
∂xi
∂ ρuiZ′
∂xi
∂DZρ
μ
σt
⎝ + -----⎠
⎛ ⎞
∂xi
+– ∂ Z′ 2
μ
σt
----- ∂Z
∂xi ------- ∂Z
∂xi ------- c ρεk
= – --Z′
Pa tially P mix d Combustion in Spa k Ignition Engin s
11-18 V sion 4.12
Raction p og ss va iabl
T action
p og ss va iabl c(xi,t) is obtain d f om t folloing alg b aic
lations ip [11.42]:
(11-73)
lF,t is t tu bul nt flam b us tickn ss giv n by [11.40]
(11-74)
R action at
STAR-CD suppo ts a global action of t fo m:
(11-75)
f atu s t follo ingfiv sp ci s:fu l (CnHm), O2, N2, H2O and CO2.
and
T mass f action of fu l ic can b t o tically bu n d is d t min d f om
(11-76)
(11-77)

T actual mass f action of fu l bu nt is t n giv n by
(11-78)

T mass f action of fu l p s nt in ac cont ol volum at any tim is giv n by
t
folloing alg b aic lations ip:
(11-79)

T mass f actions
of O2 and p oducts a obtain d f om quation (11-79) and t
action stoic iom t y. T t mp atu is obtain d by solving a t anspo t quat
ion
fo t c mico-t mal nt alpy (s quation (1-10) in C apt 1 of t is volum
).
Ignition t atm nt fo t G-Equation
mod l
Ignition occu s by initialising t l v l s t function at t = tig it t valu
1 at t
ignition location. Aft initialisation, t G-fi ldund go s a p limina y
-initialisation p oc ss to nfo c t condition t at t function G is a sign
d
distanc function at all tim s. If multipl spa ks a p s nt, -initialisatio
n occu s
c
0.5( f(5.0G ⁄ lF, t – 2.5) + 1) if G ≥ 0
0 if G 0 < ⎩
⎨
⎧
=
lF,
G
|∇G|
= ------------
CnHm n m4
⎝ + ----⎠
+ ⎛ ⎞O2 nCO2
m2
⇉ + ----H2O
ρ F(Z)
ZSt
1 – ZSt
----------------(1 – Z) if Z > ZSt
Z if Z ZSt ≤ ⎩
⎪
⎨
⎪
⎧
=
)
ρF ρ F(Z)P(Z) Z
0
1 = ∫
)
ρF, b = cρF
YF =Z – ρF, b
Chap e 11 ICENGINE COMBUSTION
MODELS
Combus ion an Igni ion Mo els in Diesel Engines
Vesion 4.12
11-19
af e igni ion of each spa k p io o he a vancemen of he solu ion fo he G
fiel .
When a single spa k is p esen fo he u a ion of igni ion, he magni u e of h
e
u bulen veloci y in equa ion (11-66) is g a ually inc ease acco ing o he
following ela ionships:
(11-80)
whe e
(11-81)

an
(11-82)

In he above exp essions, is he igni ion s a ing ime an a u bulen ime
scale compu e as .

Igni ion an combus ion a e ep esen e as wo sepa a e p ocesses in he cu en
ve sion of STAR-CD.

Diesel combus ion mo els

The e a e wo ecommen
e mo els fo Diesel
combusion, he Magnussen mo el
an a lamina -an - ubulen cha ac e is ic- ime mo el.
The Magnussen combus ion mo el
The main feau es of he Magnussen
mo elfo u bulen combus ion
canbefoun
in [11.3] an a e also esc ibe in Chap e 10, “Tu bulence-con olle e y
b eak-up mo el”.
The aminar-and-turbu ent characteristic-time combustion mode
A aminar-and-turbu ent characteristic-time combustion mode based on the works
of Magnussen et a . [11.3], Abraham et a . [11.16] and Patterson et a . [11.17]
is
presented in this section.
Magnussen et a . [11.3] presented a mode , based on the eddy break-up (EBU)
concept, which re ates the rate of combustion to the rate of dissipation of eddi
es and
expresses the rate of reaction by the mean mass fraction of a reacting species,
the
turbu ence kinetic energy and the rate of dissipation of this energy (see previo
us
section).
Abraham et a . [11.16] presented a aminar-and-turbu ent characteristic-time
combustion mode for spark ignition engines. Patterson et a . [11.17] extended t
his
concept to mode Diese engines. In Diese engines, a significant portion of the
u
u = u 0 f (t)
u 0
23
⎝--k⎠
⎛ ⎞ 1 ⁄ 2
=
f ( )
– ig
τ
⎝-------------⎠
⎛ ⎞1⁄ 3
if ( – ig ) ≤ τ
1 o he wise ⎩
⎪
⎨
⎪
⎧
=
ig τ
τ = k ⁄ ε
Combustio ad Igitio Mod ls i Di s l Egi s
11-20 V rsio 4.12
ombustio is thought to b mixig otroll d, so Maguss ’s mod l pr s t d
arli r should b abl to d s rib th rat of ombustio. How v r, it is r og
is d
[11.17,11.18] that th iitiatio of ombustio r li s o lamiar h mistry.
Turbul starts to hav a iflu oly aft r ombustio v ts hav alr ady
b obs rv d. Ev tually, ombustio
will b domiat d by turbul t mixig

ff ts i th r gio s of τl << τ ; whe e τl is he lamina (o chemical) ime scale a
n
τ is he ubulence (o mixing) ime scale.
The lamina ime scale, howeve , is no negligible nea he injec o egions

(whe e he high injec ion veloci y makes he u bulence ime scale ve y small),
in
shea laye s gene a e by he fuel sp ays an in nea -wall egions. Fo his ea
son,
he mo el esc ibe below has been ma e available.
Desc ip ion
of he mo el
Acco ing o Magnussen e al.
(11-83)
whe e τ = k/ε, th turbul tim s al .
As m tio d i th pr vious s tio, Patt rso t al. [11.17] r ogis d that t
h
lamiar tim s al aot b assum d to b gligibl i a umb r of importat
r gios of th Di s l gi ombustio hamb r. It is for this r aso that th
turbul tim s al i Equatio (11-83) is ow r pla d by a hara t risti ti
m
τc o give:
(11-84)
whe e
(11-85)
The lamina
ime scale
τl is e
ive f om an A henius- ype eac ion a e [11.19]
wi h he p e-exponen ial cons an A = 2.0 1010 [sec-1]:
(11-86)
whe e [C7H16] is he fuel concen a ion an E he ac iva ion ene gy. The la e
is
equal o180 kJ/mol if n-hep ane is use . F om Equa ion (11-86), he following
lamina ime scale is ob aine :
(11-87)

The u bulence ime scale τ is p opo ional o he e y u nove ime
Rf
ρA

τ
------- min Y f
YO2
f
---------
BY p
1 + f
⎝ , , -------------- ⎠
⎛ ⎞ kg m– 3 s–1 = [ ]
Rf
ρA
τc
------- min Y f
YO2
f
---------
BY p
1 + f
⎝ , , -------------- ⎠
= ⎛ ⎞
τc = τl + f τ
Rf lamina A[C7H16] –E
Rm T
⎝ ------------ ⎠
= exp ⎛ ⎞
τl A–1 E
Rm T
⎝ ------------ ⎠
= exp ⎛ ⎞

Ve sion 4.12 11-21
(11-88)
whe e C2 = 0.142 an is aken fom [11.17].
The elay coefficien f,p esen in Equa ion(11-85), was chosen
o simula e he
inc easing influence of u bulence on combus ion af e igni ion has occu e an
has he fo m [11.17]
(11-89)
whe e he pa ame e c is a eac ion p og ess va iable given by
(11-90)

an he cha ac e is ic combus ion ime scale is given by
(11-91)
Dieseligni ion mo els
The mo els cu en
ly available a e he ‘Shell’
au o-igni ion
mo el [11.15],

op ia ely moifie fo Diesel au o-igni ion [11.20]
app an he ‘fou -s
ep’ va iable
ce ane numbe moel [11.24].
complemen STAR-CD’s s an a
These mo els
nume ical combus ion mo el given in Chap e 10, “Igni ion” and are described in
the sections be ow.
The ‘She ’ auto-ignition mode
This mode was origina y deve oped for the study of knock in gaso ine engines
[11.15]. It has been extended to predict ignition for fue s of higher mo ecu ar
weight
typica of Diese fue s [11.20]. Reaction constants for this mode have been giv
en
for fue s of different octane number by Ha stead et a . [11.22].
The chain-propagation cyc e provides the framework for the mathematica
mode . It is assumed that the reaction chain may be propagated by any number of
radica reactions, but that each propagation step shows a first-order dependence
on
the radica invo ved. It is further assumed that the radica mass fractions are
in a
steady-state re ation to each other.
In the mode , generic mo ecu ar species are introduced. Species which p ay a
simi ar ro e in the ignition chemistry, but which may be of varying detai ed
structure, are combined and accounted for as a sing e entity. The mode is capab
e
of simu ating the coo f ame phenomenon, a sharp, we -defined two-stage ignitio
n,
a rapid acce eration of the reaction rate after the onset of ignition and a tran
sition
from two-stage to sing e-stage ignition with increasing temperature [11.20].
‘She ’ auto-ignition mode makes use of the fo owing generic mo ecu es:
The
τ C2
kε
⎝ --- ⎠
= ⎛ ⎞
f 1 e c – –
0.632
= ---------------
c
Y f – Y f
Y f – Y es
= -----------------------
τc
τl a he limi of no
combus ion
τl + τ a he limi of comple e combus ion
⎩ ⎪ ⎨ ⎪ ⎧
=
IC ENGINE
COMBUSTION
MODELS Chap e 11
11-22Ve sion 4.12
RH hy oca bon fuel
of nominal composi
ion CmH2n+2

R* a ical fo me f om he fuel (* eno es a ical)
B b anching
agen
Q in e me
ia e species

P p o uc s consis ing of CO, CO2 an H2O
The chemical mo el consis s of he following se of equa ions:
p ima y ini ia ion (I)
main p opaga ion (II)
(III)
(IV)
(V)
b anching
(VI)
e mina ion
linea (VII)
qua a ic emina ion (VIII)
non- eac ive species (ine p o uc s) in he e mina ion equa ions a e assum
The
e
o be equivalen oni ogen.
The a e coefficien s of he above eac ions ake he A henius fo m:
(11-92)
gene ic species a e use in he mo el, heabove eac ions, as w i en,
Because
woul no conse ve mass. To use he eac ion se , he equa ions a e mass balance
.
This is achieve byapp op ia ely efining he molecula weigh s of he gene ic
species R*,B, Q an P.
The ma hema ical mo el fo he above simul aneous eac ions comp ises he
following se of iffe en ial equa ions [11.20]:
(11-93)
(11-94)
(11-95)
(11-96)
RH + O2 → 2R*
R* → R* + P
R* → R* + B
R* → R* + Q
R* + Q → R* + B
B → 2R*
R* → ine p o uc s
2R* → ine p o uc s
k AeE(– ⁄ RT) =
SR
1V
----
nR
≡ --------- = 2{kQ[RH][O2] + kB [B] – kT [R]2} – f 3 kP [R]
SB
1V
----
nB
≡ --------- = f 1 kP [R] + f 2 kP [Q][R] – kB [B]
SQ
1V----
nQ
≡ --------- = f 4 kP [R] – f 2kp[Q][R]
So
1V
----

nO2
≡ -----------
= – p kP [R]
Chap e 11 ICENGINE COMBUSTION
MODELS
Ve sion 4.12 11-23
(11-97)
Implemen a ion in STAR-CD
The fo egoing equa ions give he local eac ion a es fo he igni ion species,
which
ae gene al func ions of he a es of anspo by convec ion an iffusion f om
o he pa s of heflow.
Thus, fo each of he species Φ (Φ ≡ R, B, or Q), a trasport quatio of th form
(11-98)
is solv i cojuctio with th oth r sp ci s quatios m tio arli r, wit
h th
appropriat SΦ t rm is rt from abov .
A w thalpy sourc r lat to th t mp ratur ris caus by th igitio

mo l (Equatio (11-98)) is also calculat at this stag a is us as a sourc
t rm
i th th rmal thalpy trasport quatio.
Th ‘four-st p’ variabl c ta umb r igitio mo l
This ch mical-ki tic mo l of th auto-igitio of -h pta /air mixtur s, lat
r
mo ifi to allow artificial a justm t of th ff ctiv c ta umb r to simula
t
oth r fu ls, was v lop by Müll r a P t rs [11.24].
Th basis of th mo l, us to simulat th auto-igitio of ahomog ous
stoichiom tric C7H16 — O2 mixtur at high t mp ratur s, pro uc a sch m
cotaiig 39 l m tary r actios a 28 sp ci s [11.25]. A r uc r actio

m cha ism was th v lop for -h pta /air mixtur s at high pr ssur s a

s [11.26]. A four-st p a hoc mo l was also
t mp ratur
s, co tai i g 16 r actio
v lop [11.27] for th ig itio of -h pta at high pr ssur s a t mp ratur

s
i th rag 600 K — 1500 K. R sultsfrom both th r uc 16-st p m chaism as
w ll as th four-st p mo l show goo agr m t with th fullki tic m chaism
which compris s 1011 I or r to
r actio s a 171 sp ci s [11.28].
achi v a
c was also
simpl igitio mo l for r al Di s l fu ls, a c ta umb r p
itro uc ito th four-st pmo l [11.24].
Th basic a hoc -h pta mo l cosists of th followig s t of quatios:

(11-99)
(11-100)
(11-101)
(11-102)
Th thir bo y coc tratio [M] is fi as
RH
O2 O2 ( – (t=0))
pm
= ----------------------------------------- + RH (t=0)
∂ρ YΦ
∂t
--------------- + ∇ ⋅ (ρuYΦ – Γ∇YΦ) = SΦ
C7H16
1
→ 3C2H4 + CH3 + H
3C2H4 CH3 H 11O2
M
2
+ + + + → 7CO2 + 8H2O + M
C7H16 2O2
3
+ → OC7H13OOH + H2O
OC7H13OOH H2O 9O2
4
+ + → 7CO2 + 8H2O
IC ENGINE COMBUSTION
MODELS Chapt r 11
Combustio a Igitio Mo ls i Di s l Egi s
11-24 V rsio 4.12
(11-103)
wh r a Mmix ar th sity a m a mol cular w ight of th mixtur ,
r sp ctiv ly. Th latt r is giv by
(11-104)

a th summatio is ov r all sp ci s.
Th rat s for th abov r actios ar giv by Arrh ius quatios as follows:
(11-105)
(11-106)
(11-107)
(11-108)
(11-109)
H r X a ar ‘ra icals’ a P r pr s ts ‘pro ucts’, fi as
(11-110)
(11-111)
(11-112)
Th c ta umb r p c is itro uc ito th fourth st p of th mo l. As
a cos qu c , th r actio rat chag s to
(11-113)
Th math matical mo l for th abov simulta ous r actios compris s th
[M] ρ
Mmix
= - -----------3.5
ρ
Mmix 1
Yi
Mi
------
i=1
nsp c Σ⎝ ⎠
⎜ ⎟
⎛ ⎞
= ⁄
ω1 (2.0 1010)[C7H16] 180 – 106
Rm T
-----------------------
⎝ ⎠
⎜ ⎟
⎛ ⎞
= exp
ω2 (2.0 1015)[O2][X] –60 106
Rm T
--------------------
⎝ ⎠
⎜ ⎟
⎛ ⎞
= exp [M]
ω3 f (2.0 1021)[C7H16][O2] P1.75 180 – 106
Rm T
-----------------------
⎝ ⎠
⎜ ⎟
⎛ ⎞
= exp [M]
ω3b (2.0 1025)[Y]P1.75 –310 106
Rm T
-----------------------
⎝ ⎠
⎜ ⎟
⎛ ⎞
= exp
ω4 (1.0 1014)[O2][Y] –110 106
Rm T
-----------------------
⎝ ⎠
⎜ ⎟
⎛ ⎞
= exp
X ≡ 3C2H4 + CH3 + H
Y ≡ OC7H13OOH + H2O
P ≡ 7CO2 + 8H2O
ω4, n ω4, old
CN
60
⎝--------⎠
⎛ ⎞2
=
Exhaus Gas Reci cula ion
Ve sion 4.1211-25
following se of iffe en ial equa ions fo he species an ene gy:
(11-114)
(11-115)
whe e is he specific hea of he mix u e an
(11-116)
Implemen a ion in STAR-CD
Themass f ac ion of each species, , is ob aine by solving a anspo equa ion
of he fo m
(11-117)

wi h he app op ia e SΦ t rm ( i / t) is rt from abov ; s Equatio (11-114).

A w th rmal thalpy valu u to th tmp ratur
ris caus by th ig itio
mo l is also calculat at this stag a is us to co struct a th rmal sourc
t rm
i th thalpy balac quatio; s Equatio (11-115).
Exhaust Gas R circulatio

A commo ly us m tho for low rig gi NOx missios is th so-call

Exhaust Gas R circulatio (EGR) t ch iqu . I this cas , a small amou t of xhau
st
gas (usually
about 10% of th total mixtur ) ismix with fr sh air a th
i tro uc i to th combustio chamb r. This mo ifi s th fu l/air ratio a low
rs
th pak t mp ratur so thatth ch mical r actio rat b tw itrog a ay

u us oxyg is stro gly r uc .
STAR-CD provi s a optio for ru
i g gi combustio
simulatios i

combi atio with EGR. I this mo , it is abl to istiguish b tw ch mical

sp ci s origi ati g as pro ucts of th combustio proc ss i th curr t cycl a

thos itro uc via th EGR proc ss.STAR-CD also calculat s th
corr ct fu l/air ratio a , wh r , th lamiar flam sp .
EGR simulatios may b p rform with all W ll r mo ls as w ll as th C M
a
Maguss
mo l (i its r gr ss variabl impl m tatio).
A va Egi Mo ls
c I t r al Combustio
A C D simulatio of a it ral combustio gi shoul giv , as far as possibl
,
a compr h siv isight ito th wi -ragig physics of th vic , such as
turbul t mixig b tw fu l a air, th igitio a combustio chmistry,
kock occurr c , formatio a
structio of pollutats lik NOx a soot, th
i
t
--------
Mi
ρ ------ ωk νik
k=1
r a = Σ
dT*
dt
---------
Mmix
ρ Cp T f
---------------------- –ΔHk ωk
k=1
n ac = Σ
Cp
T* T
Tre
= ---------
YΦ
∂ρ YΦ
∂t
--------------- ∇ ρ u YΦ ( ) ∇ ΓΦ + ⋅ – ⋅ ( ∇ YΦ) = SΦ
IC
ENGINE
COMBUSTION MODELS Chapt r 11
A vac It ral Combustio Egi Mo ls
11-26 V rsio 4.12
iflu c of xhaust gas r circulatio (EGR) o th missios, a th pow r out
put
a ffici cy. STAR-CD off rs a s t of mo ls to simulat th abov proc ss s.

Th Ext Coh r t lam Mo l (EC M), th Thr -Zo EC M
(EC M-3Z)
[11.29, 11.30, 11.31, 11.38, 11.39] a th Equilibrium-Limit

ECM (EC M-CLEH)
[11.47, 11.48] broa lyb lo g to th Coh r t lam Mo l
(C M) family, tails of which ar giv i “Th C M-ITN S mo l” on page
11-4 of this chapter, but are extended to non-homogeneous turbu ent premixed and
unpremixed (diffusion) combustion.
Genera y speaking, ECFM-3Z and ECFM-CLEH can be used for a types of
combustion regime whereas ECFM, being a subset of ECFM-3Z, is most y suitab e
for non-homogeneous turbu ent premixed combustion with spark ignition. As part
of these mode s, two options are provided for mode ing spark ignition:
• A spark ignition mode emp oying a corre ation to account for the de ay
between spark and f ame kerne appearance
• A more comp ex mode (AKTIM) where the physics of the spark are
mode ed in more detai . This option is not avai ab e for ECFM-CLEH.
On the subject of autoignition, two options are a so provided, a simp e mode an
d a
doub e-de ay mode for more accurate predictions, especia y with HCCI engine
simu ations. ECFM-CLEH adopts its own autoignition mode from pre-computed
tab es for C7H16.
For emission simu ation, the 3-step Ze dovich mode is avai ab e for NOx and
three options are provided for soot (see Chapter 10, “Soot Mode ing”).
• The ERC mode
• The Mauss mode based on a pre-computed soot source-term ibrary
• The PSDF mode of moments, where the moments of the soot partic e size
distribution are transported. The moment source terms are ca cu ated using
the soot f ame et ibrary.
The tab e be ow summarizes the app icabi ity of each mode :
Tab e 11-1: List of Imp emented CFM and Re ated Mode s
Mode
Ignition
Soot App icabi ity
S.I. A.I.
CFM Standard Premixed S.I.
ECFM • Standard
• AKTIM
• Library
(Mauss)
• PSDF
Moments
Non-homogeneous
Premixed S.I.
ECFM-3Z • Standard
• AKTIM
• Standard
• Doub ede ay
• ERC mode
• Library
(Mauss)
• PSDF
Moments
A regimes
Chapter 11 IC ENGINE COMBUSTION MODELS
Advanced Interna Combustion Engine Mode s
Version 4.12 11-27
The Extended Coherent F ame mode s (ECFM)
The ECFM mode is suitab e for non-homogeneous premixed combustion and
emp oys the conditiona average technique. The mode sp its the combustion
process into two parts:
• The premixed part, where the f ame surface density equation is so ved
• The post-f ame part, where the Magnussen eddy break-up mode is adopted
Premixed stage
This stage dea s with premixed combustion and the mode ’s equations are very
simi ar to STAR-CD’s standard CFM mode .
F ame area density
The f ame area (mass) density σ ob y
tr
n port qu
tion of th form:
(11-118)
wh r i th pro r v
ri
bl ,
th R ynold -
v r
d pro r v
ri
bl ,
th l
min
r fl
m p d,
th fu l m
fr
ction,
th fu l tr
c r m
fr
ction,
α
nd β empiric
l coe icients or the production
nd destruction
terms in equ
tion (11-118),
Γ the ITNFS function [11.11],

μ he viscosi
molecula y,
he u bulen viscosi y,
γ th polytropic co ffici nt,

nd th d n ity of th unburnt
nd burnt
, r p ctiv ly,
th fl
m urf
c ,
th volum of burnt
,
th fl
m
r
(volum ) d n ity,

nd , th l
min
r
nd turbul nt chmidt numb r , r p ctiv ly.
Th w
ll-fl
m int r
ction ff ct
r t
k n into
ccount
nd mod l th
conv ction ff ct
t th p
rk plu [11.39].
ECFM-CLEH t
nd
rd T
bl -b
d All r im
T
bl 11-1: Li t of Impl m nt d CFM
nd R l
t d Mod l
Mod l
I nition
oot Applic
bility
.I. A.I.
∂ρσ
∂t --------- ∇ (ρσu) ∇ μ
σΣ
------

μ
σtΣ
⎝ + -------⎠
+ ⋅ – ⋅ ⎛ ⎞ ∇σ
= 23
-- ∇ u α Γεk
-- 23
--
ρu
ρb
----- Ul
S
Vb
------ β Ul
Σ
1 – c
---------- – 23-- 1
γp
-----
dt
dp ⋅ + + – Σ + φ(Σ)
c = 1 – Y ⁄ YT
c 1 ρY f ( ) ρu YTf = – ⁄ ( )
Ul
Y f
YTf

μ
ρu ρb
Vb
Σ = ρσ
σΣ σtΣ
φ(Σ)
pter 11
Adv
nced Intern
l Com ustion Engine Models
11-28 Version 4.12
L
min
r l
me speed
The l
min
r l
me speed is computed using
correl
tion rom [11.8]:
(11-119)
where is the
di

tic l
min
r l
me speed
t 300 K
nd 1
r,

nd empiric
l coe icients,
p the
solute pressure,

nd the re erence
solute pressure (1
r)
nd temper
ture
(300 K), respectively,
the
solute temper
ture o the un urnt g
ses,
nd the mole r
ction o the residu
l g
ses.
is l
ter corrected to
ccount or he
t losses.
pecies tr
nsport equ
tions
The species me
n m
ss r
ctions o ey the ollowing equ
tion:
(11-120)
where
nd
re the re
ction r
te
nd chmidt num er or species i,
respectively. In p
rticul
r, the expression or the uel m
ss r
ction is:
(11-121)
where
(11-122)
The re
ction r
tes or
ll other species ollow rom the stoichiometry o the u
el
oxid
tion re
ction.
ources due to ev
por
tion
I uel droplets
re ev
por
ting, the uel m
ss r
ction tr
nsport equ
tion
cqu
ires
the ollowing
ddition
l source term:
(11-123)
where is the uel ev
por
tion r
te. There ore the in
l orm o is:
(11-124)
The equ
tion or indic
tes th
t only
r
ction o the ev
por
ted
uel
is
dded
to the uel m
ss r
ction , the rem
ining p
rt going into species
‘ ’ ( uel ehind the l
me).
Ul
Ul l0
Tu
T0
⎝------⎠
⎛ ⎞a p
p0
⎝-----⎠
⎛ ⎞b
= (1 – 2.1X es)
Sl0
p0 T0
Tu
X es
Ul
Yi
∂ρYi

∂ ----------- ∇ ρ Yi u ( ) ∇
μ eff
σt, i
⎝-------- ∇Yi⎠
+ ⋅ – ⋅ ⎛ ⎞ ω˙ = i
ω˙ i σt, i
∂ρYf
∂t ------------- ∇ ρYf u ( ) ∇
μ eff
σt, i
⎝-------- ∇Yf ⎠
+ ⋅ – ⋅ ⎛ ⎞ ω˙ = f
ω˙ f = – ρu YTf Ul Σ
ω˙ f , vap = (1 – c) ω˙
ω˙ Y f
∂ρYf
∂t
------------- ∇ ρ Yf u ( ) ∇
μeff
σt
⎝-------- ∇Yf ⎠
+ ⋅ – ⋅ ⎛ ⎞ ω˙ = f + ω˙ f , vap
ω˙ f , vap (1 – c)
Yf
(c)
C apt 11 IC ENGINE COMBUSTION MODELS
Advanc d Int nal Combustion Engin Mod ls
V sion 4.12 11-29
T sou c t m fo t latt t n ads:
(11-125)

and t t anspo t quation fo its mass f action b com s:
(11-126)
is t action at d t min d by t Magnuss n EBU mod l.
T ac t anspo t quations
T ac s k p t ac of sp ci s in t unbu nt gas s. ECFM solv s fo to t ac s,
on
fo fu l and on fo oxyg n . T i t anspo t quations a :
(11-127)
(11-128)

T mal ntalpy t anspo t quation

In lin it t action sou c s fo sp ci s, t t mal nt alpy quation sou
c
t m ads:
(11-129)
is t at of fo mation fo sp ci s i.

T t mal nt alpy t anspo t quation t n ads:
(11-130)
is t sou c t m du to d opl t vapo ation/cond nsation.

alpy of unbu nt gas s
Ent
T t anspo t quation fo ads:
(11-131)
Post-flam
stag
T is stag d als it t diffusion pa t of t flam and accounts fo c mical
actions taking plac b ind t flam , nam ly:
1. Post oxidation of sp ci s ‘fb’ (Magnussen EBU mode )
2. Chemica equi ibrium/dissociation
ω˙ f b, vap = cω˙
Yfb
∂ρY fb
∂t --------------- ∇ ρ Yfb u ( ) ∇
μeff
σt
⎝-------- ∇Yfb ⎠
+ ⋅ – ⋅ ⎛ ⎞ ω˙ = fb + ω˙ fb, vap
ω˙ fb
YTf YTO2
∂ρYT, f
∂t
------------------ ∇ ρ YTf u ( ) ∇
μeff
σt
⎝-------- ∇YTf⎠
+ ⋅ – ⋅ ⎛ ⎞ = ω˙
∂ρYT, O2
∂t
-------------------- ∇ ρYTO2 u ( ) ∇
μeff
σt
-------- YTO2
⎝ ∇ ⎠
+ ⋅– ⋅ ⎛ ⎞ = 0
ω˙ Σi ω˙ i (ΔH)i
= – 0
(ΔH)i
0
∂ρ
∂t --------- ∇ ρhu ( ) ∇
μ eff
σh, t
⎝---------∇h⎠
+⋅ – ⋅ ⎛ ⎞ Dp
D
= -------
+ ρε + ω˙ + ω˙ , vap
ω˙ , vap
u
∂ρ u
∂t
------------ ∇ ρhuu ( ) ∇
μeff
σh, t
⎝---------∇hu⎠
+ ⋅ – ⋅ ⎛ ⎞ ρ
ρu
-----Dp

D
= ------- + ρε + ω˙ , vap
Advanc d Int nal Combustion Engin Mod ls
11-30 V sion 4.12
3. NOx (Z ldovic xt nd d m c anism)
All t s ts of actions abov a calculat d using t conditional bu nt sp
ci s
and bu nt sp ci s nt alpy .
M an pop ti s updat
Onc t bu nt sp ci s and bu nt gas nt alpy av b n comput d in t
post-flam stag , updat d valu s fo t m an mass f actions and nt alpy a
obtain d using t p og ss va iabl c, t conditional unbu nt sp ci s mass
f actions and t unbu nt sp ci s nt alpy :
(11-132)
(11-133)
Ignition

ECFM comput s t d lay b t n t spa k disc a g and t app a anc of a
flam k n l. Aft t is d lay, a flam k n l is d t min d and t flam a a
d nsity σ
nd burnt

r initi
li d
nd th n di tribut d
round th i nition
loc
tion.
Th ECFM-3Z mod l
Comp
r d to ECFM, ECFM-3Z off r
n
ddition
l l v l of r fin m nt involvin
th mod llin of ub- rid turbul nt mixin b tw n
ir
nd fu l. Thi n
bl u
r
to p rform mor
ccur
t imul
tion of unpr mix d (diffu ion) combu tion.
Mixin mod l
‘3Z’ t
nd for thr zon of mixin , in which th loc
l mixtur i d compo d into
• th unmix d fu l ,
• th unmix d
ir plu EGR
(both
r function of th unmix d oxy n
),
• th mix d
.
Th mix d

r th product of mixin b tw n th unmix d fu l
nd unmix d

ir+EGR ( Fi ur 11-1).
Yb hb
Yi, b hb
Yi
Yi, u hu
Yi
n w (1 – c)Y= i, u + cYi, b
hn w = (1 – c)hu + chb
Y fum
YO2um
Ch
pt r 11 IC ENGINE COMBU TION MODEL
Adv
nc d Int rn
l Combu tion En in Mod l
V r ion 4.12 11-31
Fi ur 11-1 D compo ition of
in th 3Z mod l
Th d compo ition i p rform d u in
mixin mod l in which tr
n port qu
tion
r olv d for th unmix d fu l

nd unmix d oxidi r.
G n r
l comput
tion
l ch m
Th n r
l proc of comput
tion in thi c
i
follow :
• C
lcul
tion of th mix d qu
ntiti
• Combu tion c
lcul
tion (
utoi nition + pr mix d + po t-fl
m )
in ECFM
• R con truction of th m
n qu
ntiti
Autoi nition
Th
utoi nition mod l i b
d on th condition
l unburnt mix d

nd it
pr dict th
utoi nition d l
y u in
n Arrh niu -typ corr l
tion [11.32].
An int rm di
t function i u d to t
bli h wh th r or not
utoi nition
occur . Onc
utoi nition i r
ch d, th mix d fu l i burn d
t
r
t d t rmi
n d
by
ch mic
l ch
r
ct ri tic tim
nd
fl
m k rn l i cr
t d.
Th
utoi nition mod l i
l o xt nd d to ncomp
th ff ct of cold fl
m .
Pr mix d
nd po t-fl
m t

Lik
utoi nition, thi p
rt i
l o comput d ov r th mix d

follow :
• Th ECFM mod l i
ppli d
• Equ
tion (11-118) i u d to comput th fu l con umption r
t
t th
pr mix d t

• Th po t-fl
m t
i c
lcul
t d
ft rw
rd
Th po t-fl
m p
rt in 3Z diff r from it ECFM count rp
rt in th followin w
y
:
• A kin tic r
ction m ch
ni m i introduc d for CO
nd CO2 m
fr
ction
• Th ERC oot mod l [11.17] i
ctiv
t d
EGR compo ition
Th EGR compo ition in ECFM-3Z i
um d to con i t of N2, CO2, H2O, NO,
CO, H2
nd oot. Thi diff r from th t
nd
rd ECFM formul
tion, wh r th EGR
mixtur i
um d to includ only N2, CO2
nd H2O.
Equiv
l nc
R
tio
Unburnt
Yu Burn d
Yb
Unmix d fu l
Unmix d
ir+EGR
Pro r V
ri
bl
Mix d G

Pr mix d

Yi i
pt r 11
Adv
nc d Int rn
11-32 V r ion 4.12
R r ion mod l
It i
um d th
t if th loc
l burnt
t mp r
tur f
ll b low 1200 K, fl
m
xtinction occur . In thi itu
tion, th r r ion mod l tr
n f r burnt
m

into unburnt
(EGR)
t th xp n of th tot
l fu l m
.
Th ECM-CLEH mod l
ECFM-CLEH i
furth r d v lopm nt of ECFM-3Z in th n th
t th burnin
r
t
r now limit d by quilibrium ch mi try. Lik ECFM-3Z, ECFM-CLEH
plit th comput
tion
l c ll into thr zon : unmix d, pr mix d
nd diffu ion.
Th
fu l in th diff r nt zon i th n di tin ui h d
“Fu l Pr mix d”, “Fue
Unmixed” and “Fue Diffusion”. Its corresponding mass fractions are ,
and . The “unmixed” and “premixed” zones are defined in the
unburnt gases on y, whereas the diffusion zone is defined on y in the burnt gase
s.
As we as the mass fractions, ECFM-CLEH a so makes use of three other
sca ars: , and . Broad y speaking, these correspond to the
“tracers” in ECFM-3Z. Their transport equations have no source terms due to
combustion.
Figure 11-2 ECFM-CLEH combustion zones
Figure 11-2 above i ustrates the ce ’s zones. The idea here is simi ar to ECFM-3
Z.
Turbu ence mixes the fue in the unburnt gases, which is initia y a “unmixed”.
The “premixed” fue (and its corresponding “tracer” ) increase at
expense of (and its corresponding “tracer” ). Combustion can
happen on y in the premixed and diffusion zones. As the combustion progresses,
fue diffusion (and ) is generated in the burnt gases area and then
burnt.
The transport equations governing the above quantities in the various zones are:
Y f PM
Y f UM Y f DF
Zf PM Zf UM Zf DF
Y f PM Zf PM
Y f UM Zf UM
Y f DF Zf DF
Chapter 11 IC ENGINE COMBUSTION MODELS
Advanced Interna Combustion Engine Mode s
Version 4.12 11-33
(11-134)
(11-135)
(11-136)
(11-137)
(11-138)
(11-139)
with the mixing terms given by
and the reaction terms by
aboveand τ ae a abula e u bulen
In the iffusion
cons an (func ion of
he u bulen Reynol s numbe )an he u bulen imescale,
espec ively.
The flame
su face ensi y is
ob aine f om i s anspo
equa ion

(equa
ion (11-118))
an
is he lamina
flame spee
given by equa ion (11-119).

Ohe quan i ies in
he above equa ions a e a uning
paame e , he Heavisi e
s ep func ion H an a p emixe p og ess va iable efine in ECFM-CLEH by
∂ρZ
f UM
∂ ---------------------- ∇ ρZ f UMu ( ) ∇ μσ
---

μ
σt
⎝ + -----⎠
+ ⋅ – ⋅ ⎛ ⎞ ∇Z f UM (1 – c)ω˙ = f , vap – TUM
∂ρZ f PM
∂t
--------------------- ∇ ρZ f PMu ( ) ∇
μσ
---

μ
σt
⎝ + -----⎠
+ ⋅ – ⋅ ⎛ ⎞ ∇Z f PM T= UM – Tz PM
∂ρZ
f DF
∂
-------------------- ∇ ρZ f DFu ( ) ∇
μσ
---

μ
σt
⎝ + -----⎠
+ ⋅ – ⋅ ⎛ ⎞ ∇Z f DF cω˙ = f , vap + Tz PM
∂ρY f UM
∂t ---------------------- ∇ ρY f UMu ( ) ∇ μσ
---

μ
σt
⎝ + -----⎠
+ ⋅ – ⋅ ⎛ ⎞ ∇Y f UM (1 – c)ω˙ = f , vap – TUM
∂ρY f PM
∂t
--------------------- ∇ ρY f PMu ( ) ∇ μσ
---

μ
σt
⎝ + -----⎠
+ ⋅ – ⋅ ⎛ ⎞ ∇Y f PM T= UM – Ty PM – ω˙ f PM
∂ρY f DF
∂t --------------------- ∇ ρY f DFu ( ) ∇
μσ
---

μ
σt
⎝ + -----⎠
+ ⋅ – ⋅ ⎛ ⎞ ∇Y f DF cω˙ = f , vap + Ty PM – ω˙ f DF
TUM ρ
C R t
( )
τ = ----------------Z f UM
Ty PM ρH c cg ( – )
C Re
( )
τ
= ----------------cY f PM
Tz PM ρH c cg ( – )
C Re
( )
τ
= ----------------cZ f PM
ω˙ f PM ρmixUlΣ Z PM Y PM
= ( – eq )
ω˙ f DF ρ
C R t
( )
τ ----------------α Y (DF) Y (DF)
= ( – eq )
C Ret
( )
Ret
Σ(= ρσ)
Ul
c
pt r 11
Adv
nc d Int rn
11-34 V r ion 4.12
(11-140)
Th diffu ion pro r v
ri
bl α i d fin d

(11-141)
nd th quilibrium fu l m
fr
ction
nd
r t
bul
t d function
of th form
wh r i th EGR m
fr
ction,
nd th t mp r
tur
nd mixtur
fr
ction r
tion f
ctor , r p ctiv ly,
nd , th d n ity
nd
t mp r
tur in th mixin (unburnt) zon . In TAR, th
r t
k n to b qu
l t
o
th condition
l unburnt
d n ity
nd t mp r
tur , r p ctiv ly.
i ov rn d by th followin tr
n port qu
tion:
(11-142)
ECFM-CLEH
l o u th on - t p irr v r ibl r
ction m ch
ni m
(11-143)
wh r i th lob
l fu l m
fr
ction iv n by th um of fu l m
fr
ction
in th diff r nt zon , i. .
(11-144)
In
imil
r w
y, th tr
c r of th lob
l fu l i
(11-145)
Th
mount of fu l burnt i comput d from
(11-146)
Th oxidiz r O2
nd th product CO2, H2O
r th r for :
c
Z f PM – Y f PM
Zf UM Zf PM Y f PM
+ – q
= ----------------------------------------------------------
α
Z f DF – Y f DF
Zf DF Y f DF
– q
= ----------------------------------
Y f PM
q Y f DF
q
Y f PM
q = f (Z f PM, Tmix, T, ZEGR, p)
Y f DF
q = f (Z f DF, Tmix, Z, ZEGR, p)
ZEGR T Z
ρmix Tmix
ρu Tu
ZEGR
∂ρZEGR
∂t
------------------- ∇ ρZEGRu ( ) ∇
μσ
---

μ
σt
⎝ + -----⎠
+ ⋅ – ⋅ ⎛ ⎞ ∇ZEGR = 0
YF + YO2 → YCO2 + YH2O
YF
YF= Y f PM + Y f UM + Y f DF
ZF= Z f PM + Z f UM + Z f DF
Ωbf
Ωbf = ZF – YF
YO2 β(1 – ZF – ZEGR) sO2Ω= – bf
YCO2 CO2Ω= bf
Chapte 11 IC ENGINE COMBU TION MODEL
Advanced Inte nal Combu tion Engine Model
Ve ion 4.12 11-35
whe e , , a e the toichiomet ic coefficient of the one- tep eaction
and β is the m
ss r
tio
O2/AIR in pure
ir.
The m
in di erences etween this model
nd ECFM-3Z
re
s ollows:
1. The uel consumption in oth regimes (premixed
nd di usion) is limited y
equili rium ,
2. In ev
lu
ting the equ
tion o st
te, the g
s mixture
nd the he
t rele
se,
only the sc
l
rs representing uel, O2, CO2, H2O
nd EGR
re considered.
Other species, such
s NOx, do not p
rticip
te in the mixture composition.
3. CO2, H2O
re products o com ustion only. They c
nnot include EGR g
ses,
which must e lumped into the EGR sc
l
r.
4. By de
ult, EGR is composed only o N2.
The Arc
nd Kernel Tr
cking ignition model (AKTIM)
The qu
lity o numeric
l solutions in sp
rk ignition ( .I.) engine simul
tions r
elies
gre
tly on their
ility to descri e the sp
rk physics in
re
son
ly det
iled
w
y. A
new .I. model h
s there ore een implemented in conjunction with TAR-CD’s
ECFM models.
AKTIM [11.33] models sever
l di erent
spects o the sp
rk: the second
ry
electric circuit, the cre
tion
nd evolution o the sp
rk, the l
me kernel, mul
tiple
re
kdowns
nd sp
rk he
t losses.
The electric circuit model
The prim
ry side o the electric circuit includes the
ttery
nd
prim
ry indu
ct
nce
where energy is stored. Due to electric
l resist
nces in the circuit, only
r
ction E2
o this energy is tr
ns erred to the sp
rk plug through the second
ry circuit. I
n
AKTIM only the second
ry circuit is modelled.
At the time o ignition, the initi
l energy is given
s
n input p
r
meter.
The equ
tions or the second
ry circuit
re then:
(11-147)
(11-148)
where R, I, V, L
re the resist
nce, electric current, volt
ge etween the elect
rodes

nd induct
nce in the second
ry circuit, respectively. A ter
ew microseconds,
V
re
ches the re
kdown v
lue
nd
sp
rk is cre
ted.
The sp
rk evolution is divided into three ph
ses: re
kdown ph
se,
rc ph
se
nd
glow ph
se. The irst two ph
ses
re very r
pid
nd
re
ssumed y the model to
e
inst
nt
neous. In the glow ph
se, the volt
ge etween the electrodes is given y
(11-149)
where , ,
re the volt
ges
t the
node, c
thode
nd in the g
s column
etween the electrodes. The l
tter is given y [11.34]
YH2O = sH2OΩbf
O2 CO2 H2O
Y f PM
eq Y f DF
eq
cp
E2(t I )
dt
dE2 RI2 = – – VI
I = 2E2 ⁄ L
Vc
V = Van + Vct + Vg
Van Vct Vg
IC ENGINE COMBU TION MODEL Chapte 11
Advanced Inte nal Combu tion Engine Model
11-36 Ve ion 4.12
(11-150)
whe e
, a, b a e model coefficient ,
l i the pa k length,
p i the mean ga p e u e.
pa k de c iption
The pa k i modelled by a et of Lag angian pa ticle that a e convected by the
mean flow. The pa k length l may become eve al time la ge than the
inte -elect ode di tance d. Thu , condition may be ati fied again and a
new b eakdown may occu leading to the fo mation of a new pa k. In thi ca e, t
he
old pa k pa ticle a e upp e ed and a new et of pa k pa ticle initialized.
Du ing the b eakdown, the ene gy t an fe ed to the pa k i given by
(11-151)
whe e i a model coefficient.
An efficiency of 0.6 i a umed du ing thi t an fe , the efo e the amount of
ene gy which i ubt acted f om the econda y ci cuit i . A pa k end it
life when .
Flame ke nel de c iption
AKTIM al o u e a et of Lag angian pa ticle to model the flame ke nel. The
pa ticle a e initialized along the pa k at the time of it c eation (i.e. the
b eakdown) and a e convected by the mean flow.
Each pa ticle bu n and p oduce bu nt ga e . The pa ticle a e given an initial
bu nt ga ma and an initial exce ene gy which a e
gove ned by the following equation :
(11-152)
(11-153)
whe e
i the unbu nt ga den ity,
the heat lo at the pa k plug wall ,
the lamina flame peed of the flame ke nel u face [11.35].
i the flame ke nel u face given by
(11-154)
whe e i the bu nt ga den ity in ide the flame ke nel pa ticle and F i a facto

Vg Bakt = lI –ap b
Bakt
V = Vc
Ec
Ec
Vc
2
Cc
2d
= ---------
Cc
Ec ⁄ 0.6
E2 = 0
mk(t I ) = 0 Ek(t I ) = Ec
dt
dmk ρfg kUl eff = ,
dt
dEk Vg I q˙w = –
ρ fg
q˙w
Ul, eff
k
k 4π
3mk
4πρk
⎝------------⎠
⎛ ⎞2 ⁄ 3
= F
ρk
Chap e 11IC ENGINE COMBUSTION MODELS
Implemen a ion De ails
Ve sion
4.12 11-37
ha akes in oaccoun non-s a iona y effec s, convec ion an u bulence.
(whe e is
When he c i ical ene gy), igni ion occu s an is
se o a f ac ion of he o al unbu n gas mass given by
(11-155)
whe e is a mo el cons an equal o 2mm.
Du ing heglow phase, fuel in he gas is bu n a he same a e as in he flame
ke nel pa icles. Once a ke nel pa icle has bu n all i s fuel, i s excess ene
is
gy
ansfe e o he gas an a flame su face ensi y is ini ialize .
The Double-Delay Au oigni ion mo el
In HCCI Diesel engines, he au oigni ion p ocess is con olle by he effec of
cool
flames.
This effec is cha ac e ise by a weak inc ease in empe a u e af e an
ini ial
elay,
followe by a slow- own of he eac ion a es un il a secon elay is ea
che
.
Afe his secon elay, he eac ion a es inc ease api ly an he main au oig
ni ion
akes
ove .
In he efaul ECFM-3Z
au oigni ionmo el, he effec of cool flames is only
pa ially mo elle , gene
ally esul ing in an
ove -p e
ic ion of he
elay. The
Double-Delay Au oigni ion mo el [11.36]
was evelope
o ove come his
eficiency,
making use of p e-compu e ables con aining he esul s of complex
chemis y calcula
ions of he au oigni ion of n-hep ane [11.37]. The ables give
values fo he wo elays an a e a func ion of p essu e, empe a u e, equivalen
ce
a io an EGR.
Implemen a ion De ails
The ove all p ocess of c ea ing a mo el fo engine combus ion simula ion is
ibe in
esc Chap e 8 of he CCMUse Gui e. Tha
ip ion also inclu
esc es
e ails of he use inpu equi e an impo an poin s o bea in min when se
ing
up p oblems of his kin .
Ek = Ec i Ec i mk
m0 4πρfg 0
= 2d
0
Ek
Σini
Ch
pter 12 DI PER ED MULTI-PHA E FLOW (LAGRANGIAN MODEL)
Introduction
Version 4.12 12-1
Ch
pter 12 DI PER ED MULTI-PHA E FLOW (LAGRANGIAN
MODEL)
Introduction
Dispersed multi-ph
se lows
re ound in
wide v
riety o industri
l pl
nt
nd
processes, including
• liquid
nd solid- uelled com ustors
• spr
y driers
• cyclone dust sep
r
tors
• chemic
l re
ctors
In
ll c
ses the low consists o
continuous ph
se, which m
y e g
seous or
liquid,
nd one ormore dispersed ph
ses in the orm o solid p
rticles, liquid

droplets org
s u les. In gener
l, the motion o the dispersed ph
se will e
in luenced y th
t o the continuous one
nd vice vers
vi
displ
cement
nd
interph
se momentum, m
ss
nd he
t tr
ns er e ects. The strength o the
inter
ctions will depend on the dispersed p
rticle’s size, density
nd num er
density.
I the low is l
min
r, e
ch element rele
sed rom
point will ollow
smooth
unique tr
jectory, i.e. the motion is deterministic. On the other h
nd, individu
l
elements introduced into
tur ulent c
rrier low will e
ch h
ve their own, r
nd
om
p
th due to inter
ction with the luctu
ting tur ulent velocity ield. Elements
m
y
lso inter
ct with e
ch other (i.e. collision).

the dispersed ph
se is vol
tile, solule or re
ctive, m
ss tr
ns er occurs
I
etween the ph
ses. This is
ccomp
nied y interph
se he
t tr
ns er, which m
y
lso
rise due to the interph
se temper
ture di erences. Interph
se m
ss tr
ns
er
c
usessize ch
nges in the dispersed elements. Thus, even i the initi
l size
distri ution is uni orm (monodispersed), these e ects will produce
v
ri
le-s
ize
(polydispersed) popul
tion.
The size ch
nge m
y
lso e produced y luid-dyn
mic orces
cting on the
dispersed elements, c
using them to re
k up into sm
ller elements. Inter-elemen
t
collision processes m
y
lso produce the opposite e ect, i.e. size incre
se due
to
co
lescence or
gglomer
tion.
Fin
lly,
ddition
l phenomen
m
y occur i the dispersed elements strike
w
ll.
For ex
mple, the result m
y e ouncing or sh
ttering,
ccording to the imp
ct
conditions.
TAR-CD provides
dispersed multiph
se low modelling r
mework th
t is
le to encomp
ss
ll o the
ove phenomen
. The r
mework is o the
L
gr
ngi
n/Euleri
n kind [12.1], in which the conserv
tion equ
tions o m
ss,
momentum
nd energy or the dispersed ph
se
re written or e
ch individu
l
element. The governing equ
tions or the c
rrier ph
se
re expressed in Euleri
n
orm
nd
re suit
ly modi ied to t
ke
ccount o the presence o the dispersed
ph
se.
For lows involving
(comp
r
tively) sm
ll num er o dispersed elements, it is
possi le to solve
set o the
orementioned L
gr
ngi
n equ
tions or every
element. However, i the num er o p
rticles is l
rge,
st
tistic
l
ppro
ch is
more
pr
ctic
l. In this, the tot
l popul
tion is represented y
inite num er o
DI PER ED MULTI-PHA E FLOW (LAGRANGIAN MODEL) Ch
pter 12
B
sic Conserv
tion Equ
tions (Dispersed Ph
se)
12-2 Version 4.12
comput
tion
l p
rcels (s
mples), e
ch o which represents
group (cluster) o
elements
h
ving the s
me properties. O course, the num er o s
mples is not
r itr
ry; it must e l
rge enough so th
t the properties o the ull popul
tion

re
well represented. This c
n e
ssessed, inthe
sence o
ny other me
sures, y
per orming c
lcul
tions with di erent num ers o s
mples
nd comp
ring the
results.
In tur ulent lows, the r
ndom w
lk technique [12.2] is employed to introduce
the luctu
ting n
ture o the tur ulent velocity ield, which results in tur ule
nt
dispersion o the dispersed elements.
Det
ils o these modelling pr
ctices
re given in the ollowing sections. For th
e
s
ke o revity, the dispersed ph
se will here
ter o ten e re erred to
s ‘dropl
ets’;
indeed, some o the system-speci ic unctions
nd correl
tions (‘su -models’) will
speci ic
lly re er to liquid droplets in
g
seous c
rrier stre
m. However, the
over
ll
r
mework,
nd TAR-CD itsel , is designed to
ccept
ltern
tive su -models

ppropri
te to other systems, e.g. involving solid p
rticles or g
s u les. The
r
mework
lso
llows up to ten di erent ‘droplet’ ields, e
ch o
di erent lui
d
or solid, to e present simult
neously. E
ch ield c
n e single- or multi-compo
nent
so th
t
ll ‘droplets’ involved in m
ss tr
ns er m
y produce one or more v
pour
components.
B
sic Conserv
tion Equ
tions (Dispersed Ph
se)
The inst
nt
neous luid
velocity
nd droplet velocity
re denoted y
nd ,
respectively. The su script d denotes the droplet/dispersed ph
se, non-su script
ed
qu
ntities
re t
ken to re er to the continuous ph
se
nd the droplet position v
ector
is denoted y . The conserv
tion equ
tions or droplets in the L
gr
ngi
n
r
mework
re
s ollows:
Momentum
The momentum equ
tion or
droplet o m
ss is
(12-1)
Here:
1. is the dr
g orce (see Figure 12-1), given y
(12-2)
is thedr
g coe icient (
unction o the ‘droplet Reynolds
where
num er’, to e given l
ter)
ndthe droplet cross-section
l
re
.
2. is the pressure orce given y
(12-3)
where is the droplet volume
nd the pressure gr
dient in the c
rrier
luid. p includes
ny hydrost
tic components.
u ud
xd
md
md
dud
dt
--------- F
dr
F
p
F
m
F

= + + +
Fdr
Fdr
12
= -- Cd ρ Ad u – ud (u – ud)
Cd
Ad
Fp
F
p
=– Vd ∇p
V ∇p
Chap e 12 DISPERSED
MULTI-PHASE
FLOW (LAGRANGIAN MODEL)
Basic Conse va ion Equa ions (Dispe se Phase)
Ve sion 4.12 12-3
Figu e12-1 Lag angian
ople mo ion
3. is he so-calle ‘vi ual mass’ fo ce, i.e. ha equi e o accele a e he

ca ie flui ‘en aine ’ by he ople . The exp ession fo his is
(12-4)
whe e is he vi ual mass coefficien
, usuallyse o 0.5 [12.3].
4. is a gene al bo yfo ce e m which ep esen s he effec s of g avi y an
a ions p esen in a non-ine ial coo ina e f ame. In he case of a
accele
o a ing f ame, becomes
(12-5)
whe e is he g avi aional
accele a ion vec o , he angula veloci y vec o
an he is anceveco o he axis of o a ion. Ohe fo ce fiel s, e.g.
magne ic o elec os a ic, may also be inclu
e an p ovision
is ma e in
STAR-CD
fo inse
ion by he use . I shoul also be no e ha he esul
s
ob aine on a o a ing f ame of efe ence ae jus an app oxima ion o he eal
(in insically ansien ) flow behaviou an shoul he efo e be use wi h
cau ion.
Knowle
ge of he ople veloci y allows i s ins an aneous posi ion vec o o be
D
u
F
m , q
..
x
x2
x1
x3
Fam
F
am
Camρ V
(u – u)
= – -----------------------
Cam
Fb
Fb
F
b
= m [g – ω (ω )–2(ω ud)]
g ω

xd
DISPERSED MULTI-PHASE FLOW (LAGRANGIAN MODEL)
C apt 12
Basic Cons vation Equations (Disp s d P as )
12-4 V sion 4.12
d t min d by int g ating:
(12-6)
F om Equation (12-2), t mom ntum laxation tim scal can b id ntifi d as
(12-7)
Mass
In t p s nc of mass t ansf at a at p unit su fac a a, t d opl t ma
ss
at of c ang is giv n by
(12-8)
is t d opl t su fac a a. Fo an vapo ating/cond nsing singl compon nt
d opl t, is xp ss d as [12.4]
(12-9)
is t mass t ansf co ffici nt (obtain d f om a co lation giv n in
“Mass t ansf co ffici nt” on page 12-6) and , and are the gas
pressure and partia pressures of the vapour in the drop et surroundings and at
its
surface, respective y. The surface vapour pressure is assumed to be equa to the
saturation pressure at the drop et temperature .
From Equation (12-8) and (12-9), the mass re axation time sca e may be
defined as
(12-10)
Energy
The drop et energy ba ance takes into account the mechanisms of surface heat
transfer rates per unit surface area and oss/gain due to phase change, thus:
(12-11)
where is the drop et surface area, the drop et specific heat and the
atent heat of phase change. The surface heat f ux, , is given by the fo owing
re ation:
dxd
dt
-------- = ud
τM
τM

m u – u
F

--------------------------

2m

C ρ A u – u
--------------------------------------

4ρ D
3C ρ u – u
= = = ---------------------------------
Fm
m
---------- = – As Fm
As
Fm
Fm Kg p
( p – pv, ∞)
( p – pv, s)
= ln--------------------------
Kg

p pv, ∞ pv, s
T
τm
τm

m
As Fm
------------------

ρ D
6 Fm
-------------

ρ D
6Kgp
( p – pv, ∞)
( p – pv, s)
ln --------------------------
= = = -----------------------------------------------------
q˙″

m cp,
T
---------- As q˙″
– h fg
m
= + ----------

As cp, h fg
q˙″

Chap e 12 DISPERSED
MULTI-PHASE
FLOW (LAGRANGIAN MODEL)
Basic Conse va ion Equa ions (Con inuous Phase)
Ve sion 4.12 12-5
(12-12)
whe e h is he hea ansfe coefficien , ob aine via a co ela ion given in “Hea

ansfe coefficien ” on page 12-6.
From Equation (12-11) and (12-12), the therma re axation time sca e for
drop ets can be identified as
(12-13)
where is the carrier f uid’s conductivity and Nu the Nusse t number.
Basic Conservation Equations (Continuous Phase)
The continuous phase conservation equations are essentia y those of Chapters 1,
2,
8 and 10 with modifications whose origins and nature are as fo ows:
1. Account is taken of the disp acement of the carrier f uid by the dispersed
phase, measured by the fractiona vo ume α occupied y the luid. The
necess
ry modi ic
tions to the luid equ
tions
re:
(
) Repl
cement
o the density ρand ff ctiv viscosity in t t anspo t
t ms on t l ft- and sid by t p oducts and , sp ctiv ly.
(b) Multiplication
of t ig t- and t ms p s nting volum -int g at d
sou c s and ot ff cts by α.
2. Interph
se tr
ns er e ects
re
llowed or y including the
ppropri
te
source/sink terms, derived rom the L
gr
ngi
n equ
tions.
Concerning the second point, the precise orm which the interph
se tr
ns er term
s
t
ke is shown in the section on “Discretis
tion Methods” on p
ge 12-42. The
L
gr
ngi
n equ
tions, when integr
ted over the control volume,
yield the ch
nges
in the momentum, m
ss
nd energy o e
ch discrete element etween its entry
nd
exit. The sum o these ch
nges or
ll elements crossing the volume provides, wi
th
ch
nge o sign, the net momentum, m
ss
nd energy exch
nged with the c
rrier
luid. These
re the ‘source terms’ or the continuous ph
se equ
tions.
It should e noted th
t,
lthough
simil
r
n
lysis could e per ormed in the c

se
o the conserv
tion equ
tions or the tur ulence p
r
meters, there is consider
le
uncert
inty
s to how to
ccount or the direct e ects o the discrete ph
se on
the
continuous ph
se tur ulence. For the time eing, there ore, these e ects
re
ignored.
Coe icients o Dr
g, He
t
nd M
ss Tr
ns er
The dr
g coe icient , m
ss tr
ns er coe icient
nd he
t tr
ns er coe icient
h
ppe
ring in equ
tions (12-2), (12-9)
nd (12-12), respectively,
re unctions
o
the sm
ll-sc
le low e
tures
round the individu
l droplets. These e
tures
re
impr
ctic
l to resolve sp
ti
lly when there
re more th
n just
ew droplets. T
he
usu
l pr
ctice is there ore to o t
in them rom correl
tions, derived rom
experiment or sep
r
te theoretic
l studies. In gener
l, these correl
tions di e
r
q˙″
d
= h(Td – T)
τT
τT
cp, ρ D
6h
-------------------------

cp, ρ D 2
6km Nu
= = ------------------------
km
μeff
αρ
αμeff
C Kg
DISPERSED MULTI-PHASE FLOW (LAGRANGIAN
MODEL) Chap e 12
Coefficien s of D ag, Hea an Mass T ansfe
12-6 Ve sion
4.12
acco ing o he na u e of he ispe se phase, i.e. ople /bubble/soli pa ic
le, he
shape of he pa icle, he p esenceof in e phase mass an enegy ansfe , e c.
STAR-CD cu en ly incopo a esa se of co ela ions app op ia e o
single-componen liqui ople s in a gaseous ca ie , wi h o wi hou mass an
sfe .
They a e as follows:

D ag coefficien

The s an a co ela ion in STAR-CD is as follows:
(12-14)

An al e na ive co ela ion by Yuen & Chen [12.5] is also available
(12-15)
whe e is he ople Reynol s numbe , efine as
(12-16)

Hea ansfe coefficien

He e, he fo mula ionof El Wakil [12.6] is use , in which he hea ansfe
coefficien is evalua e f om a co ela ion applicable in he absence of mass

ansfe
an hen mul iplie by a co ec ion fac o o accoun fo he la e p ocess. Th
e
co ec e h is given by
(12-17)
whe e he Nussel numbe , Nu, is ob aine f om he following Ranz-Ma shall
co ela ion [12.7]:
(12-18)
in which P is he P an l numbe . The quan i y Z is efine as
(12-19)

Mass ansfe coefficien
The mass ansfe coefficien is ob aine f om he following co ela ion, aken
fom Ranz [12.7]:
C
24 1 0.15Re
( + 0.687) Re⁄ , Re ≤ 103
0.44 , Re > 103
⎩ ⎪ ⎨ ⎪ ⎧
=
C 24 1 0.15Re
2 ⁄ 3 = ( + ) ⁄ Re , Re ≤ 103
Re
Re
ρ uu
– D
μ
≡ ------------------------------
h
km Nu Z
(eZ – 1)D
= --------------------------

Nu 2 1 0.3Re
1 ⁄ 2P 1 ⁄ 3 = ( + )
Z
–cp( m ⁄ )
π Dd km Nu
≡ ---------------------------------
Kg
Chapt r 12 DISPERSED MULTI-PHASE LOW (LAGRANGIAN MODEL)
Dropl t Br ak-Up Mo ls
V rsio 4.12 12-7
(12-20)
wh r Sc is th Schmit umb r a Sh is th Sh rwoo umb r. Th mass trasf r

co ffici t is fi as
(12-21)
i which is th mixtur gas costat, is th vapour iffusivity a is

th m a (film) t mp ratur .
All of th abov corr latios ca b r plac by alt rativ s, wh r r quir , v
ia
th us r programmig faciliti s of STAR-CD.
Dropl tBr ak-Up Mo ls
As ot arli r, ropl ts (a bubbl s) may b com ustabl u r th actio of
th it rfacial forc
s i uc by th ir motio rlativ to th co ti uous phas .
Syst
m-sp cific mo ls xist for thisproc ss a STAR-CD i corporat s a s t
wi ly us for th br ak-up of liqui ropl ts i a gas ous str am. Th curr t
ly
availabl mo ls ar u to:
• R itz a Diwakar

• Pilch a Er ma
• Hsiag a a th
D tails ar giv b low. Br ak-up mo ls may also b sp cifi via us r co ig.
R itza Diwakar mo l
Accor ig to this mo l [12.8,12.9], ropl t br ak-up u to a ro yamic forc s

occurs i o of th followi g mo s:

1. ‘Bag br ak-up’,i which th o-uiform pr ssur fi l arou th ropl t

causs it to xpa i th low-pr ssur wak r gio a v tually
isi t grat wh surfac t sio forc s ar ov rcom .

2. ‘Strippi g br ak-up’, a proc ss i which liqui is sh ar or stripp from th
ropl t surfac .
I ach cas , th or tical stu i s hav provi a crit rio for th os t of br
ak-up

a cocurr tly a stimat of th stabl ropl t iam t r, , a th
charact ristic tim scal of th br ak-up proc ss. This allows th br ak-up rat
to b calculat from
(12-22)
wh r is th istata ous ropl t iam t r. Th crit ria a tim scal s ar as
follows:
Bag br ak-up
H r , istability is t rmi by a critical valu of th W b r umb r, W , thu
s:
Sh 2 1 0.3R
1 ⁄ 2Sc1 ⁄ 3 = ( + )
Kg
Kg
Sh Dm
RmTm D
= ------------------------
Rm
Dm Tm
D , stabl
τb
D
----------

(D – D , s able)
τb
=–------------------------------------
D
DISPERSED
MULTI-PHASE FLOW (LAGRANGIAN MODEL) Chap e 12
D ople B eak-Up Mo els
12-8 Ve sion 4.12
(12-23)
whe e is he su face ension coefficien
, an is an empi ical coefficien

having
a valuein he ange 3.6 o 8.4 [12.9]. STAR-CD
uses
as he efaul
se ing. The s able ople size is ha which sa isfies he equali y in he abo
ve
equa ion.
The associa e cha ac e is ic ime is
(12-24)
in
which .
S ipping b eak-up
The c i e ion fo he onse of his egime is
(12-25)
whe e is he ople Reynol s numbe efine in Equa ion (12-16) an is
a coefficien wi
h he value 0.5 [12.9].
The cha ac e is ic ime scale fo his egime is
(12-26)
He e, he empi ical coefficien is in he ange 2 o 20 [12.9]. The efaul se
ing
in STAR-CD fo is 20.

Pilch an E man mo el
D ople b eak-up is calcula e f om co ela ions evelope by Pilch an E man a

San ia Na ional Laboa o ies [12.16]. B eak-up occu s if he op Webe numbe
,
We, is g ea e han he c i ical Webe numbe , Wec. The la e is ob aine f om
he
following fo mulae:
(12-27)
(12-28)
in which he Ohneso ge numbe
We
ρu u
– 2D
2σd
≡ ------------------------------- ≥ Cb1
σd Cb1
Cb1 = 6
τb
Cb2 ρ
1 ⁄ 2 D
3 ⁄ 2
4σd
1 ⁄ 2 = ------------------------------------
Cb2 ≈ π
We
Red
------------ ≥ Cs1
Red Cs1
τb
Cs2
2
-------

ρ
ρ
-----
⎝ ⎠
⎜ ⎟
⎛ ⎞
1⁄ 2
D
u u
–
= -----------------
Cs2
Cs2
Wec = 12(1 + 1.077(Oh)1.6)
We
ρ u u
– 2 D
σd
= --------------------------------
Ch
pt r 12 DI PER ED MULTI-PHA E FLOW (LAGRANGIAN MODEL)
Dropl t Br
k-Up Mod l
V r ion 4.12 12-9
(12-29)
llow for th vi cou ff ct .

Fiv br
k-up r im
r di tin ui h d,
hown in Fi ur 12-2. Th y
r
ch
r
ct ri d by th ir dim n ionl tot
l br
k-up tim T iv n by th followi
n
formul
:
(
) Vibr
tion
l br
k-up,
(12-30)
(b) B
br
k-up
(12-31)
(c) B
-
nd- t
m n br
k-up,
(12-32)
(d) h t trippin ,
(12-33)
( ) W
v cr t trippin ,
(12-34)
Th tot
l br
k-up tim τ is calcula e f om
(12-35)

an he s able ople iame e is evalua e f om
(12-36)
whe e
(12-37)

wi hB1 = 0.375
an
B2 = 0.2274.
The ople iame e changes acco ing o he following a e equa ion:
(12-38)
Oh

μ
(ρ D σd)1 ⁄ 2 = ---------------------------------
T = 6(W – 12)– 0 . 25 ; 12 ≤ W ≤ 18
T = 2.45(W – 12)0.25 ; 18 < W ≤ 45
T = 14.1(W – 12)– 0 . 25 ; 45 < W ≤ 350
T = 0.766(W – 12)0.25 ; 350 < W ≤ 2670
T = 5.5 ; 2670 < W
τ T

D
u u
–
-----------------

ρ
ρ ⎝ ----- ⎠
⎛ ⎞1 ⁄ 2
=
Ds Wec
σd
ρ u ud
– 2
------------------------ 1
Vd
u ud
–
⎝ – -----------------⎠
⎛ ⎞ –2
=
V u u
–ρ
ρ
⎝ ----- ⎠
⎛ ⎞ 1 ⁄ 2
= (B1 T + B2 T2)
D
----------

D – Ds
τ
= – ------------------
DISPERSED
MULTI-PHASE FLOW (LAGRANGIAN MODEL) Chap e 12
D ople B eak-Up Mo els
12-10 Ve sion 4.12
Figu e 12-2 Dimensionless
b eak-up ime vs Webe numbe
Hsiang
an Fae h mo el
The
hi ion implemen e in STAR-CD is
op he Hsiang an Fae h mo el [12.17].
I is vali fo We < 1000 an cove s all ypes of b eak-up ha a e of in e es
in
Diesel engine sp ay applica ions. The cha ac e is ic b eak-up ime is:
(12-39)
The s able iame e is given by he equa ion:
(12-40)
B eak-up akes place if
(12-41)

an he ople iame e changes acco ing o he following a e equa ion:
(12-42)
Use co ing
As wi hSTAR-CD’s s an a b eak-up
mo els, he efaul use sub ou ine is base
on a a e equa ion fo he ins an aneous ople iame e , as follows:
(12-43)
whe e is he s able ople
iame e an a cha ac e is ic ime scale.
Beak-up
oes
no cause new ople pa cels o be c ea e , bu a he he ople coun i
n he
pa cel is a jus e o conse ve mass as he ople s b eak up an hei iame e
Tb
We
τ 5
1 – (Oh ⁄ 7)
----------------------------

D
u u
–
-----------------

ρ
ρ
= -----
Ds
6.2D
ρ
ρ
⎝ ----- ⎠
⎛⎞1⁄ 4 μ
ρ D u u
–
= --------------------------------
We
ρ u u
– 2 D
2σd
= -------------------------------- > 6
dDd
dt
----------
Dd – D
τ
=– ------------------
D
D
----------

(D – Ds)
τ
= – -----------------------
Ds τ
e 12 DISPERSED
Chap MULTI-PHASE FLOW
(LAGRANGIAN MODEL)
In e -D ople Collisions (T ansien Only)
Ve sion 4.12 12-11
ec eases. The efo e,
fo each
pa cel, b eak-up is comple elyspecifie by
an . These a e he wo quan i ieswhich may be specifie by he use .
In e -D ople Collisions (T ansien
Only)
The mo el use fo ine - ople collisions in ansien cases follows
ha of
O’Rou ke [12.18] fo he gene al in e ac ion, bu has been ex en e wi h a spee -u
p
algo i hm sugges e by Schmi an Ru lan [12.26],
a coalescence
imescale

highligh e by Aami an Wa kins [12.27],a i ional cons ain s no e by No in
[12.28], an a cell clus e ing mechanism ha allows pa cels in neighbou ing cel
ls
o colli e. No e ha he las h ee ex ensions a e un e he con ol of he use

.
A i ional sub
use ou
ines have also been p ovi e fo collision e ec ion an
numbe ensi
y es ima ion.
Cons ain s
No in [12.28] highligh e he fac ha wo p e equisi es mus be me if wo pa
cels
a e o colli e. The fi s is ha hey mus be avelling owa s each o he , i.
e.
, whe e
(12-44)

an , a e he pa cel veloci y vec o s; an a e he pa cel posi ion
vec o s.

The secon con iion ha mus besa isfie is ha he pa cels’ ela ive
isplacemen mus be la ge han he is ance be ween hem, o
(12-45)
whe e is he ela ivemo ion fac o ( efaul value=1.0), an a e he
ople a ii an is he imes ep. The use can se he ela ive mo ion fac o
o a
highe value shoul some elaxa ion of he con i ion be equi e . Se ing i o
a high
value
effec ively emoves he cons ain .
If hese wo equiemen s a e me , he pa cels have a chance of colli ing.
Cell clus e ing an spee up
The collision
moel in STAR-CD
allows pa cels ha a eno in he samecell o
colli e, povi e hey mee he con i ions se by equa ions (12-44) an (12-45).
Howeve , i woul be compua ionally expensive o apply
hese
ions o all
equa
possible pai s in hesolu ion omain; some
means mus be a op e o e uce he
of pai s consi e e . A cell clus e ing app
numbe oach has been implemen
e ha
ga
he s all pa cels in a cen al cell, along wi h hose in a jacen cells, an
e ec s
collisions be ween hem. Collisions be ween pa cels in he same cell will only b
e
e ec e once pe ime s ep. The size of he cell clus e can be se by he use
. A
clus e ing level of 1 will inclu e cells ha sha e a face wi h he cen al cell
; a
clus e inglevel of 2 will inclu e neighbousof he a jacen cells,an so on.
Obviously he e will be an inc easing compu a ional cos as he clus e size
inceases.
If he collision mo el is ac iva e wi hou cell clus e ing, only collisions be
ween
Ds( )
τ( )
U12 > 0
U12
(u , 1 – u , 2)
x, 2 – x, 1
x , 2 – x , 1
=⋅ ----------------------------

u , 1 u , 2 x , 1 x , 2
K mU12Δt > xd, 2 – xd, 1 – (rd, 1 + rd, 2)
Krm rd, 1 rd, 2
Δt
pter 12
Inter-Droplet Collisions (Tr
nsient Only)
12-12 Version 4.12
p
rcels in the s
me cell will e considered.
Gener
l inter
ction
The origin
l collision model o O’Rourke distinguishes etween the ollowing three
types o inter
ction:
• Co
lescence
• ep
r
tion
• Bouncing
When sep
r
tion or ouncing occur, only momentum is exch
nged etween
droplets; in co
lescence m
ss
nd energy
re
lso exch
nged. In modelling these
processes,
st
tistic
l r
ther th
n
deterministic
ppro
ch is used to
void c
re
ting

n excessive num er o new p
rcels. In
ct, the num er o p
rcels rem
ins
const
nt, unless the sm
ller-di
meter droplets
re
ll
sor ed y co
lescence,
in
which c
se the tot
l num er o
ctive p
rcels is reduced y remov
l o the sm
ll
droplets. Once the type o collision h
s een resolved, then
ll droplets in the
p
rcel
with the l
rger di
meter (c
lled the collector) undergo collisions with the drop
lets
rom the p
rcels with sm
ller di
meter (donors).
The droplets
re considered to e uni ormly distri uted throughout the cell, so
th
t the collision requency, ν, of a oll tor dropl t with all dropl ts i th o
th r
par l is giv by
(12-46)
H r th subs ripts 1 ad 2 r f r to th oll tor ad door par ls, r sp tiv
ly,
Nd,2 is th umb r of dropl ts i th s od par l, ad δV is th c ll volum .
Th collisio ffici cy, E1,2, is valuat from
(12-47)
oth rwis E1,2 = 0. I this quatio, W is a im siol ss param t r giv by
(12-48)
Th probability that th coll ctor u rgo s collisios with ropl ts from a

o or
parc l urig th tim it rval δt is tak to follow a Poisso istributio with
a
m a valu ′ = ν δt, i. .
(12-49)
Th cas ′ = 0 giv s probability ofo collisio s, Po = –′. To t rmi wh th r

collisios tak plac b tw i ivi ual ropl ts, a ra om umb r Nr,1 is chos

i th it rval (0 — 1). If Nr,1 < Po, o collisio occurs.
If a collisio occurs, th probability that th outcom is coal sc c of th
ν π4
--- (Dd, 1 + Dd, 2)2 ud, 1 – ud, 2 E1, 2
Nd, 2
δV
= -----------
E1, 2 1 0.75 l (2W)
W – 1.214
⎝ + --------------------------------⎠
⎛ ⎞ – 2
= ; W > 1.214
W
ρ , 2 u , 1 – u , 2 D , 2
2
9μ D , 1
= ------------------------------------------------------
Pn
(n′)n
n!
------------
e–n′ =
Chap
e 12 DISPERSED
MULTI-PHASE FLOW
(LAGRANGIAN MODEL)
In e -D ople Collisions (T ansien Only)
Ve sion 4.12 12-13
ople s is given in [12.19] by:
(12-50)
whe e f(γ) i th function f(γ) = γ3 – 2.4 γ2 + 2.7γ, γ = Dd,1/Dd,2,
nd W L i th
dropl t W b r numb r d fin d

(12-51)
To d t rmin wh th r
n individu
l colli ion r ult in co
l c nc or p
r
tio
n,
cond r
ndom numb r Nr,2 i cho n. If Nr,2 < Eco
l, co
l c nc occur
nd th
numb r of dropl t m which t
k p
rt in th co
l c nc with
ch coll ctor drop
l t
i
(12-52)
Thu , th n w numb r of dropl t in th donor p
rc l i = Nd,2 – mNd,1. Th
prop rti of th coll ctor dropl t
r r comput d o th
t m
, mom ntum
nd
n r y
r con rv d. In th c
wh n th condition Nr,2 < Eco
l
nd th
dditi
on
l
r quir m nt W L < W bou
r
ti fi d,
noth r typ of colli ion c
ll d ‘bouncin ’
occur , wh r W bou i obt
in d from:
(12-53)
Wh n p
r
tion or bouncin occur , only mom ntum i xch
n d (
nd con rv d
ov r
ll).
Colli ion
nd co
l c nc tim c
l
It hould b not d th
t th r i
tim c
l
oci
t d with colli ion, n
m ly
th colli ion tim . Id
lly, th comput
tion
l tim t p Δt should e sm
ller th
n
the
collision time. However, with the st
tistic
l
ppro
ch employed here, this limit
m
y
e exceeded without the
ccur
cy o the results eing compromised,
s long
s on
ly
ew collisions
re so
ected.
When
tion
l timestep is sm
ller th
n the collision time , the
the comput
pro
le num er o droplets th
t c
n co
lesce is reduced.A
mir
nd W
tkins
modiied the O’Rourke model to
ccount or this, y irst c
lcul
ting the
[12.27]
pro
le num er o droplets th
t will e removed rom the donor p
rcel
s
(12-54)
where is given y
(12-55)
Eco
l min 2.4 (γ )
W L
= -------------------, 1
W L
ρd ud, 1 – ud, 2 2 Dd, 2
2σ
= ----------------------------------------------------
Pi
P0
-----
Nr, 1
P0
----------
Pi
P0
-----
i=0
i=m
< < Σ
i=0
i=m– 1
Σ
Nd, 2
n
W bou 2.4 f (γ ) Nr, 2
= 3
Δtd
Δtd
npr = vdΔtNd, 2
vd
vd
1
Δtd
--------
Nd, 1
δV
-----------π4
---(Dd, 1 + Dd, 2)2 = = ud, 1 – ud, 2
DISPERSED MULTI-PHASE FLOW (LA RAN IAN MODEL) Chater 12
Boiling Model
12-14 Version 4.12
The roortion of drolets removed from the donor arcel is taken to be the
minimum of from equation (12-52) or .
User coding
Two user subroutines are sulied, enabling you to rovide your own estimate of:
• Drolet number density
The number density is defined in equation (12-46) as (number of
drolets er unit volume). This entire term can be relaced by , a
user-sulied number density. Two examle ieces of code are given in the
subroutine, which attemt to relace with an estimate that does not
deend on the cell volume . This is likely to be imortant when arcels
not residing in the same cell collide. Note that no statement can be made as to
the suitability of the examle coding or otherwise: the user must exercise his
own judgment.
• Drolet collision detection
This subroutine returns a value of 1 or 0 to indicate whether a collision takes
lace or not. If a collision does take lace, the outcome will be determined
according to the usual method given by equations (12-50) to (12-53). An
examle section of code rovides an alternative method based on Nordin
[12.28].
Boiling Model
The model covers those situations when the drolet temerature reaches the boili
ng
or critical temerature. The following conditions are considered:
1.
Here, Tc is the critical temerature, i.e. the temerature at which
2.
Here, Tb is the boiling temerature at the ambient ressure. The boiling
temerature is defined by the temerature at which the ressure of saturation,
s, balances the gas ressure, i.e.
Note that the user must suly s(T) as a monotonic function.
Since s is a monotonic function in T, condition 2 above is relaced by the
following:
m nrb ⁄ Nd, 1
Nd, 2 ⁄ δV
σ
Nd, 2 ⁄ δV
δV

T > Tc
∂p
∂V ⎝ -------⎠
⎛ ⎞
Tc
=0
T ≥ Tb ( p )
ps (Tb)
= p
ps (T ) ≥ p
Chap e 12 DISPERSED MULTI-PHASE FLOW (LAGRANGIAN MODEL)
Tu bulen Dispe sion
Ve sion
4.12 12-15
Mass ansfe

If
con i ion 1 is sa isfie , hen he ople evapo a es ins an aneously. If con
i ion
2 is sa isfie , hen he a e of mass ansfe , m / , is given by:
(12-56)

wheek is he con uc ivi y an cp he specific hea of he mix u e.
Hea ansfe
Du ing boiling T emains cons an . The efo e, he a e of hea ansfe f om ca
ie
flui o ople is given by:
(12-57)
Tu bulen Dispe sion
As esc ibe ea lie , a ople in a u bulen flow expe iences a an omly-va yi
ng
veloci y fiel o which i espon s acco ing o i s ine ia. This p ocess is mo
elle
in STAR-CD by a s ochas ic app oach esc ibe in [12.2] an wi ely use
(e.g.[12.10]).
The s ochas ic mo el assumes ha as a ople ave ses he u bulen flow fiel
,
i in eac s wi h a sequence of u bulen e ies. I is also assume ha he
fluc
ua ing veloci y wi hin each e y is iso opic an obeys a Gaussian p obabil
i y
ensi y func ion (pf). Mo eove , he ine ac ion ime is assume o be
sufficien
ly sho ha he flui veloci y in a given e y is effec ively cons a
n
u ing
his p ocess.
The in eac ion ime
is aken
o be he
smalle
of he e y
life ime an he ime equi e fo he ople o ave se he
e y.
Following hese assump
ions, he ople expe iences an ins an aneous flui
veloci y in each e y given by
(12-58)
whee is he local (ensemble/ ime) ave age veloci y an is he an om
pe u ba ion. The la e is calcula e f om a Gaussian p obabili y func ion wi h
ze o
mean value an a s an a evia ion given by
(12-59)
whe e k is he u bulence kine ic ene gy. Thus, as e aile above is he quan i
y
use in heequaions on pages12-2 o 12-7 fo u bulen flow calcula ions.
The in e ac ion ime is evalua e as
(12-60)
e y life ime is ela e o he iffusivi y of a flui pa icle acco ing o
The
he
e lying u bulence mo el, giving
un
m
---------- 2π k
c
---- Dd 1 0.23Re1 ⁄ 2 ( + ) 1
c (T – Td)
h fg
= – ln + ---------------------------
q˙
g h fg
dmd
dt
= – ----------
τI
τe τ
u
u = U + u′
U u′
σ (2k ⁄ 3)1 ⁄ 2 =
u
τI

τI = min(τe,τ )
DISPERSED
MULTI-PHASE
FLOW (LAGRANGIAN MODEL) Chap e 12
‘Boun a y’ Con i ions
12-16 Ve sion 4.12
, (12-61)

an he ansi ime is es ima e f om
(12-62)
whe e l is he u bulence in eg al leng hscale, efine in Equa ion (6-42) an
he momen
um elaxa
ion ime scale efine in Equa ion (12-7).
The Lag angianna u e of he ispe se phase equa ions in o uces some novel
ies

as fa as boun a y con i ions a e conce ne , especially as ega s ‘inle s’ an wall
s,
as iscusse below.
Inles
The e m‘inle s’ shoul s ic ly be eplace by ‘in o uc ion loca ions’, because he
ispese phase may be in o uce anywhe e wi hin he flow omain, a one o
mo e isc e e poin s.
The manne an loca ion of he in o
uc ion will epen on
he applica
ion, bu he following
shoul be bo
ne in min :
• The o al numbe of compu a ional
pa cels in o uce pe uni ime mus be a
sufficien s a is ical sample of he eal popula ion.
•In gene al, i is necessa y o specify, a each in o uc ion loca ion, he eleme
n
size
an veloci y
(vec o ) o he is ibu ions of hese quan iies, if hey a e
no cons an . In a i ion, fo hea /mass ansfe cases, elemen
empea ue/composi ion will also
have o be specifie
.

• If he ispese phase is in o uce via a u bulen wo-phase inle s eam,
hen a s ochas ic ea men of he in o uc ion veloci ies via hei p fs may be
app op iae (see, fo example, [12.11]). A s ochas ic app oach o he
specifica
ion of ini ial veloci y an also
size may also be app op ia e if he
ople s a e gene a e by some fo m of a omise (see,fo example, [12.12]).
STAR-CD con ains buil -in capabili ies fo mo elling hebehaviou of
special-pu pose a omise s (nozzles) use in fuel-injec e in e nal combus ion
engines. The injec ion p ocess being mo elle inclu es he flow in he nozzle ho
le
(mos impo an ly i s exi veloci y) an a omisa ion. The la e gives ise o a
fuel
ople spay ep esen e by a se of compu a ionalpa cels, each con aining a
numbe of ople s wi h he same p ope ies (veloci y, size, empe a u e, ensi
y,

e c.). These p ope ies a e calcula e on he basis of va ious a omisa ion mo el
s
whosecha ac e is ics an assump ions a e given below. The his o ies of he
compu a ional pa cels a e ob aine f om he Lag angian conse va ion equa ions of
mass, momen um an ene gy in he no mal way.
τe 3Cμ
kε
=--
τ
∞ τM
l
u u
–
≤ -----------------
τM 1 l
τMu u
–
⎝ – -------------------------⎠
– ln⎛ ⎞ τM
l

u u
–
> -----------------
⎩ ⎪ ⎪ ⎨ ⎪ ⎪ ⎧
=
τM
Chap e 12 DISPERSED
MULTI-PHASE FLOW (LAGRANGIAN MODEL)
Ve sion 4.12 12-17
Nozzle flow mo els
The injec ion veloci y, uch, i.e. he veloci y of he liqui fuel as i exi s h
e nozzle

an en e s he combus ion chambe , is one of he mos impo an pa ame e s in a
spay calcula ion. I s ongly influences he a omisa ion an b eak-up p ocesses
, he
aypene a ion, he in e -phase ansfe p ocesses an also he ople - opl
sp
e an
ople -wall in e ac ions.
The following h ee nozzle flow mo els fo calcula ing he injec ion veloci y a
e
suppo e :
‘Effec ive’ mo el
This mo el calcula es he injec ion veloci y f om he given fuel flow a e an
he
nozzle geome ical a ea. I equi es he nozzle hole iame e , D, as a pa ame e
.
MPI moel (MPI-1)
The mo el use fo es ima ing he injec ionveloci y is base on he empi ical
app oach p esen e in [12.29]. The main fea u e of his mo el is ecogni ion of
he
c ea ion of a sepa a ion/cavi a ion egion emana ing f om he nozzle hole en an
ce,
which esul s in a e uc ion of he exi c oss-sec ional a ea below i s geome i
cal
value. This in u n causes he injec ion veloci y o be highe han he appa en
value

base on he la e a ea, a ai which was only ecen ly ecognise . The e uc
ion
is cha ac e ise by he a ea con ac ion a io c:
(12-63)
whe e Ac is he je c oss-sec ional a ea an Ao is he geome ical sec ion a ea;
i.e. Ao
= π D2/4, where D is the nozzle hole diameter (see Figure 12-3).
Figure 12-3 Nozzle geometry schematic
The volumetric flow rate through the injector, , is given by the following
exression:
rc
Ac
Ao
= ------
Ac
xo
uc
L
D
uch ch
Cc = Ac /Ao
Cch = Ach /Ao
Ao = π D2/4
Q˙

DISPERSED MULTI-PHASE FLOW (LA RAN IAN MODEL) Chater 12
‘Boundary’ Conditions
12-18 Version 4.12
(12-64)
where cd is the discharge coefficient, ρd t liquid fu l d nsity and Δp the injecto
r
pressure drop. According to the
n
lysis given in [12.30], under cert
in
ssumptions, the
ctu
l injection velocity uch is linked to y the expression
(12-65)
where rch, the r
tio o the
ctu
l jet cross-section
l
re

t the nozzle hole e
xit
nd
the geometric
l section
re
Ao, is determined rom
(12-66)
The
ove equ
tion or uch gives results which closely correspond with me
sured
injection velocities,
s reported in [12.30].
Modi ied MPI model (MPI-2)
The modi ied
model is presented in [12.30]
nd [12.29]. imil
r to the MPI model
descri ed
ove, it recognises the cre
tion o
sep
r
tion/c
vit
tion region
em
n
ting rom the nozzle hole entr
nce. This results in
reduction o the exit
cross-section
re
elow its geometric
l v
lue
nd
n incre
se in the injection
velocity. In the modi ied MPI model, this reduction in exit cross-section
l
re
is
ch
r
cterised y the exit
re
contr
ction r
tio, rch, de ined y
(12-67)
where Ach is the cross-section
l
re

t the nozzle exit
v
il
le to the liquid
(see
Figure 12-3).
Depending on the pressure in the ch
m er, pch, rel
tive to the critic
l pressure
in
the ch
m er pch,crit
t which c
vit
tion commences
nd the length o the c
vit
t
ion
region, the model distinguishes three low regimes in the nozzle hole:
1. Non-c
vit
ting low, pch > pch,crit
rch = 1
2. C
vit
ting low, pch ≤ pch,crit
rch = 1, c
vit
tion ends inside the nozzle
3. C
vit
ting low, pch ≤ pch,crit
rch < 1, c
vit
tion re
ches the nozzle exit.
The critic
l pressure, pch,crit, is derived rom
simpli ied, one-dimension
l m
ss
Q˙ cd Ao
2
ρd
= ----- Δp
Q˙
uch
Q˙
Ao rch
= --------------
rch
2cd 2 rc
2
rc
2 2rc cd 2 cd 2 + –
= -----------------------------------
rch
Ach
Ao
= --------
Ch
‘Bound
ry’ Conditions
Version 4.12 12-19
nd momentum conserv
tion equ
tions, with the ollowing result:
(12-68)
where rc is the entr
nce
re
contr
ction r
tio, uc is the velocity
t the loc
t
ion o
m
ximum contr
ction, ue is the e ective velocity,
nd λ is the friction factor.
The ve ocities uc and ueff are ca cu ated from the given vo umetric f ow rate an
d
ho e area Ao as
(12-69)
(12-70)
The friction factor (which depends on the nozz e ho e wa roughness, kr, and th
e
Reyno ds number, Re) is obtained from the fo owing formu ae:
(12-71)
(12-72)
If conditions eading to cavitation occur, i.e. pch < pch,crit, the deve opment
of the
boundary and cavitation ayers and ve ocity ucen, in the ho e (see Figure 12-4),
are
ca cu ated from the governing ordinary differentia equations. The boundary aye
r
is assumed to be turbu ent with a ve ocity profi e that obeys the 1 / 7 power a
w. The
initia va ue of boundary ayer thickness δ is tak to b 0 at xo = D, whil th
iitial
thick ss of th cavitatio r gio, δcav at xo = D is calculat from th cotiui
ty
quatio, assumig a ‘plug’ v locity profil .
pch,crit ρd c uc
2 c λ LD
⎝--- – 1⎠
+ ⎛ ⎞ ueff
– 2
⎩ ⎭
⎨ ⎬
⎧ ⎫
=
ueff
Q˙
Ao
= ------
uc
ueff
c
= --------
1
λ
------- 2 2.51
Re λ
-------------
kr
3.71D
= – og + --------------
Re
ρd u ff D
μ
= ---------------------
DISPERSED MULTI-PHASE FLOW (LAGRANGIAN MODEL) Chap e 12

12-20 Ve sion 4.12

Figu e 12-4 Boun ay an cavi a ion evelopmen
laye
The following equa ions esc ibe he evelopmen of boun a y laye hickness, h
e
hickness of cavi a ion egion an he ‘plug’ veloci y:
• If , hen:
(12-73)
(12-74)
(12-75)

• If he boun a y laye eaches he cavi a ion egion, , hen:
(12-76)
(12-77)

In he above fo mulae,an a e he a ii of he boun a y an cavi a ion
su faces measu e f om he nozzle axis, no malise by he nozzle a ius, a
laye
n
cf is he skin f ic ion coefficien , cf = 0.167λ.
The area exit contraction ratio is obtained from the combined mass and
momentum conservation equations at the nozz e exit as
xo
L
u R cen cav
Rδ
δcav
δ
Rδ > Rcav
Rδ
x
--------- c f
1
7
90
---- 7
60
+ ----Rδ
= – -----------------------
Rcav
49
60
---- 7
60
---- Rδ
1
15
---- Rδ 2 = + + – rc
uc = uc
Rδ = Rcav
Rδ
x
--------- c f
49
240
------- 7
240
------- Rδ
7
30
---- Rδ 2 + –
49
180
------- Rδ
49
360
------- Rδ 2 49
120
------- Rδ 3 + –
= – ---------------------------------------------------------
uc
uc rc
49
60
---- 7
60
---- Rδ
14
15
---- Rδ 2 + –
= ------------------------------------------
Rδ Rcav
Chaptr 12 DISPERSED
MULTI-PHASE LOW (LAGRANGIAN MODEL)

‘Bou ary’ Co itio s
V rsio 4.12 12-21
(12-78)
If th outcom of this formula o s ot yi l rch < 1, cavitatio o s ot r ach
th
ozzl xit a th actual xit v locity is qual to th ff ctiv v locity (uch
= u ff).
Oth rwis , th actual v locity is obtai from
(12-79)
Atomisatio mo ls
Th followi
g four atomisatio mo ls ar support :
1. Huh’s mo l [12.14]
2. Th R itz-Diwakar
mo l [12.9]
3. Th MPI mo l
4. Th Mo ifi MPI mo l
Huh’s atomisatio mo l

Huh’s mo l is bas o th pr mis , support by or r-of-magitu stimat s,
that th two most importa t m cha isms i spray atomisatio ar th gas i rtia

a
th it ral turbul c str ss s g rat i th ozzl . A coc ptual pictur c

a b
scrib i two stag s:
1. Th turbul c g rat i th ozzl hol pro uc s iitial p rturbatios o

th j t surfac wh it xits th hol.
2. Oc th p rturbatio
s hav r ach a c rtai
l v l, th y grow xpo tially

via pr ssur forc s i uc through i t ractio with th surrou

i g gas
(surfac wav
growth), u til th s p rturbatio s b com tach from th j t
surfac as ropl ts.
Th mo l stimat s th iitial p rturbatios from a aalysis of th flow throu
gh
th hol a th us s stablish wav growth th ory, coupl with oth r

hypoth s s, to r pr s t th atomisatio proc ss.
• Nozzl turbul c a its cay
Th av rag turbul c ki tic rgy, ka a its issipatio
rat , εa at th

hol xit ar calculat from th followi g r latio s, riv from forc a

rgy balac s:
(12-80)
(12-81)
rch
uc
2 rc
2
uc
2(L) 49
72
---- 7
36
---- Rδ(L) 1
8
-- Rδ 2 (L) Rcav
2 [ + + – (L)]
pch
ρd
– -------
= ------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------

uc
Q˙
c Ao
= --------------
ka
U2
8LD
---
------- 1
cd 2
---- – Kc – 1
⎝ ⎠
⎜ ⎟
⎛ ⎞
=
εa
Kε U3
2L
-------------- 1
d 2
---- – K – 1
⎝ ⎠
⎜ ⎟
⎛ ⎞
=
DISPERSED
MULTI-PHASE
12-22 Ve sion 4.12
whe
e U is he ave age injec
ion veloci y ove he ime pe io
of injec ion, L
an Kc a e he hole leng h an fo m loss coefficien , espec ively, Kε is a
mpiri al o ffi i t ad d is th ozzl ’s dis harg o ffi i t. K ad Kε
ar giv i Tabl 12-1.
Th orr spodig turbul l gth ad tim s al s ar :
(12-82)
(12-83)
wh r Cμ is he coefficien of he k-ε mod l. Ea h ij t d (par t) dropl t is
assig d th s as th i itial valu s. Th r aft r th turbul withi it d ays

with tim , ad th followig r latios d s rib this tim d p d :
(12-84)
(12-85)
wh r Ca1 ad Ca2 ar th mod l o ffi i ts, giv i Tabl 12-1.
• Surfa wav growth
Th s od stag of th atomisatio pro ss is th it ra tio b tw liquid
j t ad surroudig gas fi ld. This i r as s th amplitud of th p rturbatio

with
wav growth rat R (ω)until t s p tu bations bcom d tac d f om
t j t su fac (R (ω) is t al pa t of t compl x av c l ity, ω; its
valu is qual to t cip ocal valu of av g ot tim scal , τW).
t
These
eache pa sc ea e he so-calle
‘secona y ople s’. The
pe u ba ion ampli u e obeys he ispe sion equa ion, e ive by Taylo
[12.15]:
(12-86)
whe e σ i th co ffici nt of urf
c t n ion, ν is th liquid ki mati
vis osity, κ is the wave number (κ = 2π/LW; LW is the wavelength of
Table 12-1: Coefficients in the Huh Atomisation Model
Cμ Kc Kε Ca1 Ca2 C1 C2 C3 C4
0.09 0.45 0.5 0.92 0.4565 2.0 0.5 1.0 1.5
Lt
o Cμ
3 ⁄ 4 ka
3 ⁄ 2
εa
=----------
τ
o Cμ
3 ⁄ 4 ka
εa
= ----
Lt(t) Lt
o 1 Ca1
t
τ
o
+ ----
⎝ ⎠
⎜ ⎟
⎛ ⎞Ca2
=
τ ( ) τ
o 1 Ca1

τ
o
+ ----
⎝ ⎠
⎜ ⎟
⎛ ⎞
=
(ω + 2 νκ2)2 σ κ3
ρd
---------- 4 ν2κ3 κ2 ων
⎝ + ---⎠
⎛ ⎞ 1 ⁄ 2
– (ω + jU κ)2 ρ
ρd
++ ----- = 0
C apt 12 DISPERSED MULTI-PHASE FLOW (LAGRANGIAN MODEL)
‘Bounda y’ Conditions
Version 4.12 12-23
perturbation),
ρ is t gas d nsity, and j is t imagina y unit (j2 = –1).
T atomisation l ngt scal , LA, is valuat d f om
(12-87)

and t av l ngt of su fac p tu bation, LW, f om
(12-88)
C1 and C2 a mod l co ffici nts giv n in Tabl 12-1.

T tim scal ofatomisation, τA, is aken o be a linea combina ion of he
u bulen , τ , an wave g ow h ime scale, τW, i.e.
(12-89)
whe e
(12-90)
(12-91)
Hee, C3an C4a e coefficien
s given in Table12-1 an he subsc ip s spn
an exp eno e hesponaneous an exponen ial ime scales.
• D ople size is ibu ion
As alea y no e , i is assume ha he je issuing f om he nozzle p o uces
pa en ople s of iame e D . Thei b eak-up a e is given by:
(12-92)
Thisiniial b eak-up p ocess s ops when he spon aneous ime scale becomes
g eae han heexponen ial scale.

The iame e of he secon ay ople s fo me f ompaen ople
b eak-up is es ima e f om he following p obabili y ensi y func ion:
(12-93)
whe e x esigna es he ople size, C is a no malisa ion cons an , an Φ(x) is
th im
sio l ss turbul c rgy sp ctrum, (isotropic turbul c is
assum ). Th latt r is stimat from:
(12-94)
wh r th p ak wav umb r is giv by κe = 2π /Le, and Le = Lt /0.75.
LA = C1 Lt
LW
LA
C2
= ------
τA = C3 τ + C4 τW = τspn + τ exp
τspn = C3 τ
exp = C4τW
τ
D
----------
2LA
(τA 0.1)
= – -----------------------
f (x) C Φ(x)
τA(x)
= -------------
Φ(x)
κ x ( ) κe ( ⁄ )2
1 κ x ( ) κe ( + ( ⁄ )2)11 ⁄ 6 = ---------------------------------------------------
DISPERSED MULTI-PHASE FLOW (LAGRANGIAN MODEL) Chapter 12
‘Boundar’ Conditions
12-24 Version 4.12
The distribution function, F(x), is calculated from:
(12-95)
The above integration starts from the minimum droplet size, xmin, calculated
from Kelvin-Helmholtz instabilit theor b the expression:
(12-96)
In the application of the model, the sizes of secondar droplets and their
number are determined from a randoml chosen value of the distribution
function, F, and from the mass balance of liquid. The velocit of the
secondar droplets is set to the velocit of the primar droplet.
• Spra angle and initial velocit
The spra semi-cone angle β is c
lcul
ted rom:
(12-97)
nd is used to determine the upper limit or the initi

l r
di
l droplet velocity
component.
The estim
tion o initi
l velocity or e
ch droplet is
sed on the

ssumption o equ
l pro
ility o velocity direction within
spr
y cone
(Figure 12-5). The components o droplet velocity
re c
lcul
ted
s ollows:
(12-98)
where βd
nd αd
re the ‘r
ndomised’
ngles given y:
(12-99)
where Xr,1
nd Xr,2
re r
ndom num ers in the r
nge [0 — 1].
F(x) (x) dx
xmin
x∫
=
xmin 2π
σd(ρd + ρ)
U2 ρd ρ
= --------------------------
tanβ
LA ⁄ τA
U
=----------------
u , x = uch sin βd cos αd
ud, y = uch sin βd sin αd
ud, z = uch cos βd
βd = Xr, 1 β
αd = 2π Xr, 2
Chater 12 DISPERSED MULTI-PHASE FLOW (LA RAN IAN MODEL)
Version 4.12 12-25
Figure 12-5 Initial drolet velocity
The Reitz-Diwakar atomisation model
The details of this model are given in the section on “Drolet Break-U Models” on
age 12-7. In contrast to Huh’s model, where the sray semi-cone angle is
redicted, here this angle must be known and given as art of the inut data. Ba
sed
on this angle, the initial drolet velocity is determined in the same way as in
Huh’s
model (see “Sray angle and initial velocity” on age 12-24). For Reitz-Diwakar
atomisation to be utilised, the Reitz-Diwakar break-u model must be switched on
.
The MPI atomisation model (MPI-1)
This atomisation model was develoed at the Max Planck Institute (MPI) by
Obermeier and Chaves [12.31]. In the model, the liquid core is reresented by a
chain of rimary drolets which leave the nozzle with a velocity uch, and initia
l
diameter equal to the nozzle diameter, D (see Figure 12-6). Secondary drolets a
re
stried off from the rimary ones over the length of the liquid core, Lc.
β
αd
βd
P
y x
z
injector
xis
Pβx
, y, z
– injector loc
tion
– spr
y cone
ngle
– loc
l coordin
te system
(the z
xis points in the
direction o injection)
pter 12
‘Bound
ry’ Conditions
12-26 Version 4.12
Figure 12-6 MPI
tomis
tion
The model
ssumes th
t there
re two mech
nisms responsi le or spr
y orm
tion:
• Det
chment o drops rom the liquid jet core emerging rom the nozzle y
erodyn
mic orces; the sizes o the drops produced depend on the position
long the liquid core where stripping

occurs
nd on the ejection
ngle, whose
m
ximum v
lue must e prescri ed.
• Collision etween the prim
ry drops in the liquid core c
used y the time
v
rying injection velocity.
The
tomis
tion r
te
long the core is
ssumed const
nt, so the ch
nge o the
di
meter o the prim
ry drops is given y
(12-100)
where Dc is the di
meter
t the tip o the core, t
ken to e equ
l to the size o
the
second
ry drops ormed there. The core length is c
lcul
ted
ccording to the
empiric
l expression o Cheroudi [12.32]:
(12-101)
The di
meter o the second
ry drops is c
lcul
ted rom the presumed equili rium
o the li t orce, Fα,
nd the sur
ce tension orce, Fσ, d crib d by th followin
r l
tion t
k n from M i [12.33]
nd D
ndy [12.34]:
(12-102)
y
x d
α
Dc
Dd
D
Lc
Dd Dc
( 2 – D2) x
Lc
= ---- + D2
Lc 7.0D
ρd
ρ
= -----
Fα Fs 1 0.3314α1 ⁄ 2 ( – ) e (–Rer ⁄ 10) 0.3314α1 ⁄ 2 = [ + ] ; Rer ≤ 40
Fα = 0.0524Fs (α Rer )1 ⁄ 2 ; Rer > 40
Ch
‘Bound
ry’ Conditions
Version 4.12 12-27
(12-103)
(12-104)
where σ
nd d
r th liquid urf
c t n ion co ffici nt
nd th di
m t r of th
cond
ry dropl t, r p ctiv ly. Th j ction
n l α i r
ndomly v
ri d in th
r
n (0,αm
x), wh r αm
x i th pr
y mi-con
n l p cifi d by th u r.
Th di tribution of th r l
tiv
xi
l v locity b tw n th dropl t
nd th
urroundin
, ur l,
nd it r
di nt norm
l to th inj ction dir ction
r
pproxim
t d

(12-105)
(12-106)
Colli ion b tw n prim
ry drop in th liquid cor i
ccount d for only for th
two
drop
t th tip, Fi ur 12-7. If
colli ion t
k pl
c , th l
din drop
( ub cript 1), i
um d to di int r
t into two cond
ry drop who di
m t
r
nd v locity
r v
lu
t d from th followin r l
tion , b
d on m

nd
mom ntum con rv
tion:
(12-107)
(12-108)
(12-109)
wh r t i
r
ndomly cho n unit v ctor in
pl
n p rp ndicul
r to th inj cti
on
dir ction, Fi ur 12-8.
All prop rti of th cond drop involv d in
colli ion,
p
rt from v locity,
r m
in th
m . It v locity i ch
n d to
(12-110)
F 1.615 ur l
μρ
--- u
y
⎝ ------⎠
⎛ ⎞ 1 ⁄ 2
= 2ρ
Fσ = π σ d
ur l uch 1 3
4
-- x
Lc
⎝ – ---- ⎠
= ⎛ ⎞
u
y
------
2u el
D – D
----------------
=
s = 0.1D 1
u ,s 1, 2
=u , s u 1 – u 2
u, s
u1 m 1+ u 2 m 2
m 1 + m 2
=--------------------------------------------
u 2
n = u s
DISPERSED
MULTI-PHASE
12-28 Ve sion 4.12
Figu e 12-7 Collision
in he liqui co e
Figu e12-8Ran om a ial i ec ions of ople s af e collision
The Moifie MPI aomisaion moel (MPI-2)
The mo ifie MPI a omisa ion mo el was p opose
by Obe meie
[12.35] an i s
basic concep has no been change . The mo ifie co ela ions a e given as follo
ws:
The change of he iame e of he p ima y ops is given by
(12-111)
whe e Dc is he iame e a he ip of he co e, aken o be equal o he size o
f he
secon a y ops fo me he e.The co e leng h is calcula e acco ing o an
empi ical exp ession simila o ha of Che ou i [12.32]:
Befo
e collision Af e collision
m2
u2
m1
D1
u1
m 2
s

u,s1
us
u ,s2
Injec o
loca ion
Injecion
i ec ion
-

= 1
D D D Dc ( – ) x
Lc
= – ----
Chap e 12 DISPERSED
Ve sion 4.12 12-29
(12-112)

The is ibu ion of he ela ive axial veloci y be ween he op an he su oun
ing
gas, u el, an i s g a ien no mal o he injec ion i ec ion a e app oxima e b
y
(12-113)
(12-114)
The quani y X is efine in Figu e 12-9.
The ejec ion angle α is r
ndomly v
ried in the r
nge (0,αm
x), where αm
x is
given y
(12-115)
αexp is the experiment
lly o served spr
y semi-cone
ngle which the user must
speci y
s input.
12-9 Modi ied MPI
tomis
tion
Figure
Pro
ility density unctions or initi
l droplet
size distri utions
The
tomis
tion models
descri ed
ove c
n e employed to c
lcul
te the initi
l
droplet size distri ution in the vicinity o
n injector nozzle. However, these
models
m
y not e
ppropri
te to
ll types o nozzle, or users m
y pre er to
pply thei
r own
test d
t
where
v
il
le. Furthermore, the nozzle community h
ve over the ye
rs
g
thered v
st
mounts o test d
t
with reg
rd to droplet size distri utions or
v
rious types o nozzle [12.24]. The d
t

recorrel
ted into numerous size
distri ution unctions whose orm
nd
pplic
ility
re well known. It is there
ore
Lc 4.0D
ρd
= --ρ---
u l
uc
2
------- 1 3
4
-- xX
⎝ – --- ⎠
= ⎛ ⎞
u
y
------
2u el
1.2D – D
= ------------------------
αm
x α exp 1 1 x
Lc
⎝ – ---- ⎠
= + ⎛ ⎞
y
x
Dc
Lc
X
DISPERSED
MULTI-PHASE
Ve sion 4.12
12-30
of en he case ha use s p efe o use hese func ions o ob ain a mo e accu a
e
esc ip ion of ini ial ople sizes fo hei pa icula applica ion.
The following ma hema ical an empi ical size is ibu ion func ions a e
available in STAR-CD:
1. Rosin-Rammle
(12-116)
whe eQ is he f ac ion of he o al volume occupie by ople s of iame e
less han D. The quan i ies X an q a e empi ical cons an s supplie by he
use .
2. No mal Dis ibu ion
(12-117)
whe eis ameasue of he evia ion of he iame e D f om henumbe
mean iame e an is efe e o as he s an a evia ion. an a e
supplie by he use .
The p obabili y ensi y func ion esc ibe by Equa ion (12-117) can be in eg a e

o ob ain a cumula ive p obabili y func ion, which is hen use o e e mine he
size
is ibu ion of elease ople s by aking an om samples, each wi h a p obabil
i y
( ).
The ople injec ionangle is an omise wihin he specifie inne an ou e
cone angles, whe eas he ini ial
veloci y es ima eis base on he assump ionof
equal p obabili y of veloci y is ibu ion wi hin he cone. The nominal injec io
n
veloci y is calcula e f om he injecion a ean he nozzle hole e . The
iame
numbe of ople spe pa cel is base on he o al mass injec e ivi e by he
accumula e ople masses.
Walls
The impac of pa icles, ople s o bubbles on igi soli su faces may p o uce
a
wi e va ie y of consequences, acco ing o he size, veloci y an ma e ial of h
e
impac ing elemen s an he na u e of he su face [12.13]. Fo example, ople s
may

a he e, bounce o sha e ; an he liqui eposi e on he su face may e ain i
s
ople fo m o me ge in o a liqui film. A esc ip ion of he me ho ology a op
e
fo mo elling he la e is given sepa a ely in Chap e 15.
In he absence of gene al heoiesfo hese phenomena, STAR-CD cu en ly
offe s he following op ional ea men s of wall impac :
• Pe fec eboun
• A heence, ei he in he fo m of sphe ical ople s o as a liqui film.
D ople
s a he ing o walls will exchange hea wi h hem an will
also
con inue o in e ac wih he ca ie flui as fa as hea an mass ansfe is
concene (see “Hea an mass ansfe fo wall-a he ing ople s” on page
Q 1 D
⎝---⎠
⎛ ⎞q
= – exp –
f (D) 1
2πsn
--------------- 1
2sn 2-------(D – D)2 = ex –
sn
D sn D
γ i 0 < γ i < 1
Ch
pt r 12 DI PER ED MULTI-PHA E FLOW (LAGRANGIAN MODEL)
‘Bound
ry’ Condition
V r ion 4.12 12-31
12-38). Th tr
tm nt for liquid film i di cu d in Ch
pt r 15.
• In t
nt
n ou v
por
tion
• U r- p cifi d mod l
• Th MPI mod l,
pplic
bl to tr
n i nt c
only
• B
i’ pr
y impin m nt mod l,
l o only
pplic
bl to tr
n i nt c

Th l
t two mod l
r d crib d b low in mor d t
il.
Th MPI dropl t-w
ll int r
ction mod l
Dropl t-w
ll int r
ction
r mod ll d
ccordin to th corr l
tion iv n by
Ob rm i r
nd Ch
v [12.36]. Th mod l
ccount for multipl dropl t imp
ct
nd n l ct th ff ct of th dropl t incid nc
n l xc pt on th dropl t
incid nc W b r numb r. Thr diff r nt r im
r di tin ui h d:
1. Dropl t tick on th w
ll
2. Dropl t br
k up into m
ll r dropl t which
r r fl ct d with ch
r
ct ri t
ic
v locity m
nitud
nd dir ction ( pl
hin r im )
3. Dropl t i fr
m nt d into m
ll r dropl t which t
y on th w
ll
(fr
m nt
tion r im )
Th occurr nc of th r im i d p nd nt on th m
nitud of th dropl t
incid nc W b r numb r (W d)
nd th dim n ionl dropl t di
m t r d* d fin d
follow :
(12-118)
(12-119)
wh r
(12-120)
(12-121)
nd i th unit norm
l to th w
ll, th w
ll v locity, Vd,n th norm
l
compon nt of dropl t v locity r l
tiv to th w
ll, σ th urf
c t n ion co ffici
nt
nd μ he ynamic viscosi y of he liqui fuel.

• Splashing
Splashing occu s when We > Wec i , whe e Wec i is evalua e f om [12.19]:
(12-122)
(12-123)
e TL is he Lei enf os empe a u e an TW he wall empe a u e.
whe
We

ρ D V , n
2
σ = --------------------------
d*
ρd
Dd σ
μ 2
=------------------

V u uw
=–
V , n V = ( ⋅ n)n
n uw
Wec i = (2.5 103)( *)– 0 . 2 ; TW ≤ TL
Wec i = (7.9 1010)( *)– 1 . 4 ; TW > TL

DISPERSED
MULTI-PHASE
12-32 Ve sion 4.12
No mally in DI engines, TW < TL.
The volume of
eflec e ops an he eflecion angles ae co ela e wi h
expe imen al a a via a imensionless pa ame e Ch efine as:
(12-124)
He e Re an S a e he Reynol s an S ouhal numbe s efine as
(12-125)
(12-126)
a is he ave age
in which in e - ople is ance no mal o he wall, calcula e
f om
he ople numbe ensi y assuminga homogeneous
ople
is ibu ion in he compu
a ional cell a jacen o he wall.

The veloci
yof splashe oples consis s of a componen
pa allel o he
wall,
aken o be equal o he angen ial componen of he incoming ople
,
anone wi h a an omly is ibu e eflec
ion angle. The magni u e of he
e componen
la is aken o be us = V ,n.
I is assume ha he eflec ion angle is unifo mly is ibu e in he ange
(0°,αs), where αs is the m
ximum re lection
ngle given y the ollowing
empiric
l ormul
e:
(12-127)
re lection
ngles o the spl
shed droplets
re r
ndomly s
mpled rom the
The

ove r
nge.
The volume o newly ormed droplets, Vs, is empiric
lly correl
ted to Ch

ccording to the ollowing expression:
(12-128)
where Vd is the volume o incoming droplets. The rem
ining liquid m
ss,
(Vd – Vs) mains
ρd on t all and is assum d to vapo at as a d opl t.
T diam t of t splas d d opl ts is Ds = 0.12Dd,
and t numb of
n ly fo m d d opl ts is sp cifi d by t us . T sam numb is also
calculat d on t basis of mass cons vation and t small of t to is t n
us
d in t cod .
C W d
2 ⁄ 3 R d
1 ⁄ 3 St–1 =
R d
ρd
Vd, n Dd
μ
=--------------------------
S
D
a
= ------
αs
Ch – 2000
1500
------------------------60° ; 2000 ≤ Ch ≤ 3500
60° ; Ch 3500 > ⎩
⎪
⎨
⎪
⎧
=
Vs

V
------
0 ; Ch < 2000
5.3 10–4 ( )Ch – 1 .06 ; 2000 ≤ Ch ≤ 3500
0.8 ; Ch 3500 > ⎩
⎪
⎨
⎪
⎧
=
Chap e 12 DISPERSED
Ve sion 4.12
12-33
• Fagmen a ion
In he case whe e hewall empe a u e TW > TL an We > Wef g
g = 80),
(Wef f agmena ion
occu s. These s, wi h iame e Df = D /3,
ople
a he e o he wall un il hey evapo a e comple ely.
Bai’s sp ay impingemen mo el
This sp ay impingemen mo el [12.20] isfo mula e wi hin he f amewo k of he
Lag angian app oach, on he basis e a u e finings
of li an
mass, momen um an
ene gy conse va ion cons ain s. In o e o eflec he s ochas ic na u e of h
e
impingemen
p ocess, a an ompoce u e is a op e o e e mine some of he
ople pos -impingemen quan i ies. This allows secon a y ople s esul ing f
om
a p ima y ople splash o have a is ibu ion ofsizes an veloci ies.
The mo el fo mula ion is inguishe be ween yan we e wall impingemen
an he STAR-CD implemen a ion also makes his is inc ion. The e is a va ie y o
f
egimes,
impingemen govene bya numbe of pa ame e s such as:
• Incien ople veloci y ela ive o he wall
• Inci ence angle
• D ople size an p ope ies
as wellas
• Wall empe a u e
• Wall su face oughness
• Liqui film hickness
• Nea -wall
gas con i ions
Some of he physical quan i ies involve a e combine in o imensionless
pa ame e s, e.g.
• A va ian
he ople Webe
of numbe We (see Equa ion(12-28)) ha uses
ople ensi y an no mal-
o- he-wall componen s of ela ive veloci ies
be ween he wall an he ople s
• The Laplace numbe , La, efine as
(12-129)
Two chaac e is ic empe aues, he eboun empe a u e an he sli ing
empe a u e a e also inclu e , efine as
(12-130)
whe e is a mul iplying fac o of he ople boiling empe a u e ( efaul value
is
1.5)
(12-131)
whe e is a mul iplying fac o of he Lei enf os empe a u e ( efaul value is 1
).
La

ρ σ dDd
μ 2
= ---------------------
TS *
TLEID
*
TS * = BSTboiling
BS
TLEID
* = BLTLei enf os
BL

DISPERSED
MULTI-PHASE
12-34 Ve sion4.12
Regime ansi ion c ie ia
Themo el ecognises hefollowing egimes:
• S ick— he impinging
ople
ahe es o he wall in nea ly sphe ical fo m
• Spea — he ople sp ea s ou along he wall su face c ea ing awall
film
(in
he case
of a y wall) o me ging wi h an exis ing film
on a we
e wall
if
he wall empe a u e is less han ; o he wise he ople will sli e along he
wall.
• Reboun — he impinging ople bounces off he wall af e he impac
• Splash — he impinging
ople b eaks up in o smalle ople s, some of
which a e eflec e f om he
wall
• B eak-up — he impinging ople b eaks upin o smalle ople s. These
ei he eboun f om he wall o sli e along
he wall.
Fo he sake of comple eness, he ansi ion c i e ia fo bo h y an we e wa
lls
a e given below fo iffe en wall empe a u e anges.
Range 1:
1. D y wall (applies only when
he liqui film
mo el is in use):
(a) A hesion (combines he s ick an sp ea egimes):
(12-132)
whe e Wea is:
(12-133)

an A is a coefficien which epen s on he su face oughness, s (see
Table 12-2).
(b) Splash:
(12-134)

2. We e wall:
(a) Reboun :
(12-135)
(b) Sp ea :
(12-136)
Table 12-2: Depen ence of Coefficien A on he Wall Su face Roughness
s [μm] 0.05 0.14 0.84 3.1 12.0
A 5264 4534 2634 2056 1322
TS *
TwTS * ≤
We ≤ Wea
Wea A La–0.18 =
We > Wea
We ≤ 5
5 We < ≤ Wes
Chap e 12 DISPERSED
Ve sion 4.12 12-35
whe e Wes is efine as:
(12-137)

an Aw is an empi ical coefficien ; i s efaul value is se o 1320.
(c) Splash:
(12-138)
Range 2:
This makesuse of wo cha ac e is ic Webe numbe s , as follows:
(a) Reboun :
(12-139)
(b) B eak-up an eboun :
(12-140)
(c) B eak-up
an sp ea :
(fo we e walls) (12-141)
( ) Splash wi hou eposi ion:

( fo we e walls)(12-142)
Following [12.37], efaul values of 30.0 an 80.0 fo wa e a e use fo an
, espec ively.
Range 3:
(a) Sp ea :
(12-143)
(b) B eak-up
an sp ea :
( fo we e walls) (12-144)

(c) Splash wi hou eposi ion:
( fo we e walls) (12-145)
Wes
Aw La–0.18 =
We > Wes
TS * <Tw TLEID
≤ *
We1
T We2
T
We We1
≤ T
We1
T We We2
< ≤ T
We2
T < We We≤ a Wes
We > Wea Wes
We1
T
We2
T
Tw TLEID
< *
We We1
≤ T
We1
T < We We≤ a Wes
We > Wea Wes
DISPERSED
MULTI-PHASE
12-36 Vesion 4.12
Implemen
a ion of ople pos -impingemen
cha ac e is ics
• A hesion:The ople s icks o he wall in a sphe ical fo m, an gains he
wall veloci
y
• Sp ea : The ople loses
y componen no mal o he wall, an i s
i s veloci
pos -impingemen veloci y ela ive o he wall, , is:
(12-146)
whee is he angen componen of ople inci en veloci y ela ive
ial
o he wall, e e mine by:
(12-147)
• Reboun : Theno malan angen ial componen
s of ople pos impingemen
eboun veloci y ela ive o he wall, an , a e given
by:
(12-148)
(12-149)
whe e en an e a e he no malan angen ial es i u ion coefficien s,
espec ively. The fo me epen s on he ople inci ence angle θ (measured
from the wall) as:
(12-150)
and the latter is constant:
(12-151)
In the case of an elastic rebound, both coefficients are set to 1.
• Splash: It is assumed that each impinging parcel, of mass md, produces two
secondary parcels which are randomly reflected from the wall within an
ejection cone. The secondary parcels have the same mass, and their total
mass, , is determined by the total secondary to incident droplet mass ratio:
(12-152)
where Xr is a random number uniformly distributed in the range (0 — 1).
The size and number of droplets in the secondary parcels are calculated, on
Vd
p
Vd
p Vd, t
=
Vd, t
Vd, t Vd Vd, n
= –
Vd n ,
p Vd t ,
p
Vd n ,
p en Vd, n
= –
Vd t ,
p et Vd, t
=
en = 0.993 – 1.76θ + 1.56θ2 – 0.49θ3
et
57
= --
md s
rs
md s
md
-------
0.2 + 0 . 6Xr , for dry walls
0.2 + 0 . 9Xr , for wetted walls
⎩ ⎪ ⎨ ⎪ ⎧
= =
Chap e 12 DISPERSED
Ve sion 4.12 12-37
he basis of mass conse va ion, f om he following ela ions:
(12-153)
(12-154)
(12-155)
whe e N1 an N2 a e henumbe of ople s wi h sizesD ,1 an D ,2,
espec ively,
an N is he o al numbe of secon a y ople s. The coefficien
ao is es ima e o be5, an N1 is an omly chosen in he ange (1— N).
The veloci
y of secon a y
ople s is calcula
e f om ibu ions;
wo con
one ue
o he no
mal inci en
componen an ano
he ue o he
angenial inci en componen . They a e eno e by an ,
espec ively.

The magni u es of an a e calcula
e f om he ove all
conse va ion of enegy an he size-veloci y co ela ion of secon a y
ople s, which ea , espec ively:
(12-156)
(12-157)
The ejec ion angle of one of he secon a y ople s, θ1, is randomly chosen in
the range (5°, 50°), and the angle of the other is determined to conserve the
tangential momentum due to :
(12-158)
so the normal and tangential components of are:
(12-159)
(12-160)
where i = 1, 2.
The component contributes only to the tangential direction by:
(12-161)
N1 Dd, 1
3 N2 Dd 2 ,
+ 3
md s
md
------- Dd 3 =
N1 + N2 = N
N ao
Wed
Wes
⎝---------- – 1⎠
=⎛ ⎞
V , n V , V′ V″
V′
, 1 V′ , 2
m sV′ 1 ,
2 V′ 2 ,
2 ( + )
4
------------------------------------------ π σ N1 Dd, 1
2 N2 Dd 2 ,
+ ( + 2 )
md Vd, n
2
2
------------------- π σ
12
------- r W Dd 2 = –
V′d, 1
V′d, 2
---------------
ln(Dd, 1 ⁄ Dd)
ln(Dd, 2 ⁄ Dd)
= --------------------------------
Vd, n
V′d, 1 co (θ1) + V′d, 2 cos (θ2) = 0
V′d
V′d, i, n = V′d, i cos (θi)
V′d, i, t = V′d, i sin (θi)
Vd, t
Vd″, i, t c f Vd, t , i 1 2 = = ,
12-38 Version 4.12
where cf is the wall friction coefficient which is estimated to be in the range
0.6 to 0.8; its default value is set to 0.7.
The part of the incident droplet that sticks to the wall has mass (1 – rs) md,
and diameter (1 – rs)1/3 Dd. This part will exchange heat with the wall and
will also continue to interact with the carrier fluid as far as heat and mass
transfer is concerned, as described below.
Heat and mass transfer for wall-adhering droplets
Heat transfer between droplets and a wall can be accounted for in transient
simulations, when either the adherence (stick) option or the Bai impingement mod
el
has been selected for droplet-wall interaction (see “Walls” on page 12-30). Heat
transfer is calculated for droplets (or parts thereof) that are stuck to a wall,
based on
the method used by Eckhause and Reitz [12.21].
On impacting a wall, a droplet is assumed to spread in a cylindrical form to a
maximum spreading diameter, , given by
(12-162)
where Wed is a variant of the droplet Weber number that uses droplet density and
normal-to-the-wall components of relative velocities between the wall and the
droplets. Thus, Wed is given by
(12-163)
where uw and ud are the wall and droplet velocities, respectively. The spread dr
oplet
thickness is calculated from the droplet volume and spreading diameter on impact
.
In addition, the boiling model has been extended to account for droplets adherin
g
to walls. The same conditions as those given in “Boiling Model” on page 12-14
must be satisfied before boiling will take place.
Mass transfer
Mass transfer between a wall-adhering droplet and the surrounding carrier fluid
is
given by the following expression from Crowe et al. [12.25]:
(12-164)
where is the spread area of the droplet, the mass transfer coefficient,
the droplet vapour density evaluated at the film temperature and , are the
mass fractions of droplet vapour at the droplet surface and in the surrounding f
luid,
respectively. The surface vapour pressure is assumed to be eual to the saturati
on
pressure at the droplet temperature, .
Mass transfer coefficient
The mass transfer coefficient used in Euation (12-164) is given by
Ds
Ds 0.613DdWed
= 0.39
Wed
ρd u ud – 2n
Dd
σd
= ---------------------------------------
dmd
dt
----------
= –Achmρv, f (ωsat – ω∞)
Ac m ρv, f
ωsat ω∞
Td

C apt 12 DISPERSED MULTI-PHASE FLOW (LAGRANGIAN MODEL)
‘Bounda y’ Conditions
Version 4.12 12-39
(12-165)
where is the drop et spread diameter and the vapour diffusivity. The
Sherwood number is ca cu ated from the fo owing corre ation given by Incopera
and DeWitt [12.22] for aminar f ow over a f at p ate:
(12-166)
where is the Reyno ds number for the spread drop et given by
(12-167)
Mass transfer during boi ing
The boi ing mode requires specification of the Leidenfrost temperature, TL, bey
ond
which a drop et wi be evitating on a continuous vapour fi m above the heated
wa
surface. Two conditions are accounted for: the first when the wa temperature,
Tw,
is be ow TL; the second when it is above it.
1.
Heat transfer due to boi ing is given by a corre ation due to Rohsenow
[12.23], so that the corresponding mass transfer can be expressed as:
(12-168)
where drop et properties subscripted are those of the iquid, and those
subscripted v are of the vapour. is a coefficient that depends on the
surface- iquid combination, and is the saturation temperature of the
drop et on the wa . Exponent a so depends on the surface- iquid
combination and has a defau t va ue of 1. The defau t va ue of is 0.0154,
but other va ues can be supp ied if desired.
2.
When the wa temperature is above the Leidenfrost temperature, the drop et
is assumed to be evitating on a vapour fi m whose temperature is that of the
carrier f uid. No direct heat transfer from the wa is accounted for under this
condition. The particu ar behaviour of a drop et arriving at a wa under this
condition depends on the option chosen for drop et-wa interaction. If the
adherence (stick) behaviour has been chosen, drop ets wi s ide a ong the
wa . If the Bai impingement mode has been chosen, no drop et deposition
wi take p ace, and the tota mass of the rebounding drop et(s) wi equa that
of the initia incoming drop et.
hm
Sh Dm
Ds
= --------------
Ds Dm
Sh 0.664Res
1 ⁄ 2Sc1 ⁄ 3 =
Res
Res
ρ u – ud Ds
μ
= ---------------------------
Tb< Tw < TL
m
---------- –Ac μl
g (ρl – ρv)
σd
------------------------
1 ⁄ 2 cp, l(Tw – T
t )
C , f h f Prn
l
------------------------------------
3
Ach
h f
= + -----------(T
t – T )
C , f
T
t
n
C , f
Tw > TL
pt r 12
Tr
tm nt of Porou M di
12-40 V r ion 4.12

En r y
Th n r y b
l
nc for
dropl t tuck on
w
ll i :
(12-169)
Th h
t flux b tw n dropl t
nd th ir c
rri r fluid, , i iv n by th follow
in
r l
tion:
(12-170)
wh r h i th c
rri r ph
h
t tr
n f r co ffici nt. Th h
t flux b tw n
dropl t
nd
w
ll, , i iv n by:
(12-171)
wh r hw i th w
ll h
t tr
n f r co ffici nt
nd Tw th w
ll t mp r
tur .
H
t tr
n f r co ffici nt
H
t tr
n f r co ffici nt for n r y tr
n f r b tw n dropl t
nd th ir c
rri
r
fluid,
nd b tw n dropl t
nd
w
ll,
r iv n by
nd (12-172)
r p ctiv ly, wh r kd i th dropl t th rm
l conductivity, km th c
rri r
conductivity
nd th thickn of th pr
d dropl t. For h
t tr
n f r b tw n
dropl t
nd c
rri r, th Nu lt numb r i c
lcul
t d from th followin corr l
tion
for l
min
r flow ov r
fl
t pl
t [12.22]:
(12-173)
wh r i iv n by Equ
tion (12-167).
Tr
tm nt of Porou M di
In th v nt th
t th L
r
n i
n multi-ph
tr
tm nt i invok d in
n
pplic
t
ion
involvin flow throu h
porou olid or b
ffl ,
impl lip r l
tion i
um
d to
xi t b tw n th two ph
in th porou ub-dom
in. Thu , it i
um d th
t
(12-174)
wh r i
pr crib d lip f
ctor b tw n 0
nd 1. p cifyin
lip f
ctor of
1
ff ctiv ly pr v nt th di p r d ph
l m nt from p
in throu h th porou

m dium. Thu , on trikin th int rf
c b tw n
fluid
nd
porou m dium, th
dropl t b h
viour i
follow :
• ≠ 1 — nt r th porou m dium;
md
d(cp, d Td)
dt
------------------------- – Ac q˙ ″ Ac q˙″w – h f
dmd
dt
= + ----------
q˙″
q˙ ″ = h (Td – T)
q˙″w
q˙″w = hw(Td – Tw)
h
Nu km
D
= ----------------- hw
kd
δs
= ------
δs
Nug
hg
Ds
k
------------ 0.664R s
1 ⁄ 2Pr1 ⁄3 = =
Rs
u = u(1 – S)
Chapt r 12 DISPERSED MULTI-PHASE LOW (LAGRANGIAN MODEL)
Multicompo t Dropl ts
V rsio 4.12
12-41
• S = 1 — a h r to or bouc off th m ium, as if it was a soli wall.
Multicompo t Dropl ts

Th ropl ts/particl s may b ma up of may compo ts. or xampl , a coal
particl may compris carbo , m tha , wat r, ash, tc. u ls such as gasoli a

i s l ar bl s of various compo
ts. Basically, th r ar two typ s of

multicompo t mixtur s, mulsifi mixtur s a miscibl mixtur s. STAR-CD

is capabl of mo llig both, o th assumptio that th ir compo ts ar uifor
mly
istribut .
Emulsifi mixtur
s
or mulsifi liqui multicompo t ropl ts, th vaporatio of ach immiscibl

compo t is assum to b uaff ct by th pr s c of th oth r compo
ts.

As a r sult, th rat of mass cha g for ach of th m ca b obtai by applyi
g
quatios (12-8) a (12-9) as:
(12-175)
(12-176)
wh r is th xpos surfac ar a of compo t i, calculat by
(12-177)
I th abov , is th ropl t surfac ar a, th compo t mass fractio a
th mass trasf r co ffici t (obtai from th corr latio giv i “Mass

tra sf r co ffici t” on page 12-6) for component i. and are the partia
pressures of the corresponding vapour in the drop et surroundings and at its sur
face,
respective y. By defau t, the vapour pressure of each component is assumed to be
equa to the pure component saturation pressure at the drop et temperature .
Miscib e mixtures
For miscib e iquid mu ticomponent drop ets, the evaporation of each component
depends on the other components because its vapour pressure is a function of the
concentration of these components in the mixture.
If an idea mixture is assumed, Raou t’s aw can be app ied in the form:
(12-178)
where is the partia pressure of component i at the iquid-vapour interface,
the component’s mo e fraction in the iquid and the saturation pressure
of the pure substance that constitutes component i.
The evaporation rate of each component can be obtained by
dmdi
dt
----------- Asi Fmi
= –
Fmi Kgi pt
( pt – pvi, ∞)
( pt – pvi, s) = n---------------------------
Asi
Asi = As Yi
As Yi
Kgi pvi, ∞ pvi, s
Td
pvi, s i, pvi, s
= o
pvi, s
i, pvi, s
o
Discretisation Methods
12-42 Version 4.12
(12-179)
where is the mo ecu ar weight of component i and is given by
(12-180)
The drop et is considered to be boi ing when the fo owing condition is satisfie
d:
(12-181)
and the boi ing evaporation rate is ca cu ated as
where is the atent heat of component i and a other quantities are defined as
for equation (12-56).
Discretisation Methods
The Lagrangian conservation equations governing the ve ocity, position, size,
density and temperature of dispersed partic es in a continuous f uid phase are o
f
first-order ordinary differentia form. These equations are integrated a ong the
trajectories of each of the ‘computationa parce s’(see Figure 12-10) comprising the
statistica samp e of the rea popu ation.
dmdi
dt
----------- –εi
Wi
ε jWj
j = 1
NΣ
----------------------AKg pt
(εi pt – pvi, ∞)
εi pt Xi, l pvi, s
( – o )
= l----------------------------------------
Wi εi
εi – Xi, ∞
εi – Xi, s
--------------------
1 Xj, ∞
j = 1
NΣ
–
1 Xj, s
j = 1
NΣ
–
= ------------------------------
Xi, l pvi, s
Σ o p≥ t
dmdi
dt
----------- –2πXi, s
Wi
Xj, sWj
j = 1
NΣ
--------------------------- k
cp
----Dd 1 0.23Re1 ⁄ 2 ( + ) 1
cp (T – Td)
Xi, s
Wi
Xj, sWj
j = 1
NΣ
---------------------------
⎝ ⎠
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎛ ⎞
Σ h g, i
= ln + --------------------------------------------------------------
h g, i
Ch
Discretis
tion Methods
Version 4.12 12-43
Figure 12-10 Illustr
tion o L
gr
ngi
n ‘p
rcel’ p
ssing through
comput
tion
l cel
l
The tr
jectories
re determined
s p
rt o the solution. For this purpose, the
governing equ
tions
re discretised into irst-order Euler-implicit orm. For
ex
mple, the momentum Equ
tion (12-1) is
pproxim
ted
s
(12-182)
where n
nd o denote ‘new’
nd ‘old’ v
lues sp
nning the integr
tion time step ,
which is some r
ction o the luid ph
se integr
tion step .
The droplet time step, , is determined in the ollowing m
nner:
• First, the cell droplet time sc
le, , is de ined
s the time t
ken to tr
verse
r
ction o
ch
r
cteristic loc
l cell dimension l
(12-183)
where is re erred to
s the droplet Cour
nt num er
nd should e
(typic
lly) set to
v
lue o 0.35.
• Next, is ev
lu
ted rom the expression
(12-184)
where is the c
rrier ph
se time step re erred to
ove,
re the
momentum, m
ss
nd therm
lrel
x
tion time sc
les
nd the ch
r
cteristic
time sc
le o the droplet re
k-up model (see the sections on “B
sic
Conserv
tion Equ
tions (Dispersed Ph
se)”
nd “Droplet Bre
k-Up Models”,
respectively). Option
lly, the tur ulence time sc
le m
y e included,
s
de ined in “Tur ulent Dispersion”, Equ
tion (12-62). O viously, these time
sc
les
re employed in the c
lcul
tion o only i their corresponding
md
ud
n ud
o –
δt
----------------- r
b
am
p
= + + +
δt
δt
δt
δtc

Co
δtc
Co l
u
= --------
Co
δt
δt
= mi [δt, δtc, τM,τm,τT,0.3τb]
δ τM,τm,τT
τb

τ
δ
DISPERSED MULTI-PHASE FLOW (LAGRANGIAN
MODEL)Chap e 12
Nume ical Calcula ion of Mul i-phase Dispe se Flow
12-44 Ve sion 4.12
physical mo el is acive.
The localvalues
of he flui veloci y equi e fo he evalua ion of a e
in e pola e on he basis of cell veloci y g a ien s, an likewise fo any o he
ca
ie
flui p ope y equi e . Simila p ac ices a e employe fo he o he equa ions
of
he ispe se phase. O he in e pola ion me ho s a e also available, base ei he
on
no al (i.e. cell-cen e ) o ve ex-base values. No e ha if he las op ion i
schosen,
i is only applie o he veloci y calcula ion fo hexahe al cells; all o he v
a iables
an cell shapes willuse he g a ien s me ho .
As noe ea lie in his chap e , he mo el accoun s fo he fac ha each
compu a ional pa cel may exchange mass, momen um an ene gy wi h he ca ie
flui ; a loss f om a pa cel is a gain fo he flui an vice ve sa. These exchan
ges a e
ob aine f om he in eg a ionof he Lagangian equa ions. Fo example, Equa ion
(12-182) gives he ave age a e of momen um loss o gain of a single compu a ion
al
pa cel ue o ag an a e -mass effec s ove a single ime inc emen .
The efo e, he o al loss/gain of a g oup of pacels ave sing a given cell
u ing a pe io (whe e is he numbe of pa cel ime s eps) is simply
(12-185)
This quan i y, wi h opposi
e sign, hus ep esen s he ave age a e of momen um
gain/loss of he flui fo a given cell an is he efo e inse e as a ‘sou ce’ in
he
momen
um equaions of he ca ie phase. Analogous evalua
ions a e pe fo me fo
o al mass an ene gy exchange a es by in eg a ion an summa ion ove he
app op ia e equa
ions.
Boun a ycon i ions
The bouna y con i ion equi emen s an op ions fo Lag angian calcula
ions of
ispe se mul iphase flows a e iscusse in he sec ion on “‘Boun a y’ Con i ions”
on page 12-16. This topic shou d be reviewed before undertaking such ca cu ation
s.
There is itt e that needs adding here by way of exp anation since imp ementatio
n is
re ative y straightforward. It shou d perhaps be reiterated that, part y for wan
t of
information, the treatment of wa impact for dispersed partic es covers on y a
few
of the possib e outcomes. However, this is at east partia y compensated for by
providing for the insertion of a ternative, user-defined treatments.
Numerica Ca cu ation of Mu ti-phase Dispersed F ow
A the a gorithms described in Chapter 7, “The PISO and SIMPLE A gorithms” are
extended to a ow mu tiphase dispersed f ows to be ca cu ated using the Lagrangi
an
approach. The Lagrangian equations are discretised in the manner described in
“Discretisation Methods” on page 12-42 and then so ved, in conjunction with the
equations for the carrier f uid, by one of severa procedures. The avai ab e cho
ices
are dictated by the nature of the app ication, thus:
• Steady-state or transient f ows — In the former case, the extended SIMPLE
a gorithm is used; in the atter, extended PISO is emp oyed.
Fdr
δt
ΔMd t = nd δt
ΔMd
1
nd
----- md
ud
n ud
o –
δt
----------------- g
– p
–
⎝ ⎠
⎜ ⎟
⎛⎞
n
Σ
ll
droplets
= Σ
Ch
TAR-CD Implement
tion
Version 4.12 12-45
• Coupled or uncoupled lows — Coupling re ers to the situ
tion where the
continuous ph
se signi ic
ntly in luences the motion o the dispersed ph
se
nd vice vers
. By contr
st, in uncoupled lows the eed
ck rom the
dispersed to the continuous ph
se is negligi ly sm
ll.
The solution procedures or these di erent situ
tions
re outlined elow.
Coupled procedures
Tr
nsient c
lcul
tions
For the gener
l c
se o tr
nsient lows, the solution o the L
gr
ngi
n equ
tion
s is
em edded in the solution
lgorithm,
s descri ed in its single-ph
se orm in Ch
pter
7. Thus, the positions,
velocities, temper
tures
nd sizes o the comput
tion
l
droplets
re o t
ined y simult
neous solution o the dispersed
nd continuous
ph
se equ
tions, using the su -cycling time step or the ormer to cover the
over
ll time step employed or the l
tter. The two sets o equ
tions
re implici
tly
tre
ted. This is
ccomplished y me
ns o the dispersed-ph
se-rel
ted source/sin
k
terms in the c
rrier luid equ
tions (c . Equ
tion (12-185)). An under-rel
x
tio
n

ctor m
y e
pplied to these terms to improve convergence.
The s
me procedure is repe
ted in the PI O corrector st
ges or the IMPLE
iter
tions,
t the end o which the dispersed elements
re
ssigned their in
l
positions, velocities, etc. or the interv
l . The next time step is then commen
ced.
With PI O,
‘predictor only’ procedure m
y
lso e used to yp
ss the corrector
st
ges completely. This will signi ic
ntly speed up the comput
tion ut
t the
expense o solution
ccur
cy.
te
dy-st
te c
lcul
tions
The ste
dy-st
te procedure is implemented using IMPLE
nd di ers rom th
t jus
t
descri ed in two import
nt respects. Firstly, the L
gr
ngi
n equ
tions
re solve
d or
e
ch iter
tion on the c
rrier luid equ
tions (still with implicit coupling etw
een the
two sets). econdly, the L
gr
ngi
n solution
t e
ch iter
tion tr
cks e
ch dispe
rsed
element through the mesh rom its st
rting point to the st
ge where it le
ves th
e
c
lcul
tion dom
in or is depleted. In order to
llow or the
ct th
t the L
gr
ngi
n
tr
jectories ch
nge due to evolution o the c
rrier low during the iter
tive pr
ocess,
the rel
ted ‘sources’ o momentum, he
t
nd m
ss in e
ch cell should e
under-rel
xed.
Uncoupled procedures
These procedures ollow the s
me p
th
s their coupled counterp
rts in the
integr
tion o the L
gr
ngi
n equ
tions. However, there is now no contri ution t
o
the source terms or the continuous ph
se equ
tions. There
re consequenti
l
s
vings in computing e ort which, in the ste
dy-st
te
pplic
tions, m
y e urt
her
enh
nced y irst o t
ining
single-ph
se solution e ore commencing the
multi-ph
se c
lcul
tion. In this inst
nce, just one integr
tion o the L
gr
ngi
n
equ
tions is su icient.
TAR-CD Implement
tion

ll process o cre
ting
model involving dispersed multiph
se low is
The over
descri
ed in Ch
pter 9 o the CCM User Guide. Th
t description
lso includes
δt
δt
δt
DISPERSED MULTI-PHASE LOW (LAGRANGIAN MODEL) Chapt r 12

12-46 V rsio 4.12
tails of th us r i put r quir a importat poits to b ar i mi wh s t
tig
up probl ms of this ki .
Chaptr 13 EULERIAN MULTIPHASE LOW
Itro uctio
V rsio 4.12 13-1
Chaptr 13 EULERIAN MULTIPHASE LOW

I tro uctio

Multiphas flows r f r to flows of s v ral flui s ith omai
ofi t r st. I

g ral, w associat flui phas s with gas s, liqui s or soli s a as such som
simpl xampl s of multiphas flows ar : air bubbl s risig i a glass of wat r,
sa

particl s carri by wi , rai rops i air. I fact, th fiitio of ‘phas ’ ca
b
g ralis a appli to oth r flui charact ristics such as siz a shap ,
sity,

t mp ratur , tc. With this broa r fi itio , multipl phas s ca b us to

r pr s t th
tir siz istributio of particl s i s v ral siz groups or ‘pha
s s’
of a multiphas mo l.

I th Eul ria multiphas mo l, th phas s ar tr at as it rp tratig

cotiua coxistig i th flow omai. Equatios for cos rvatio ofmass,

mom tum rgy ar solv for ach phas . Th shar of th flow omai
a
occupi by ach phas is giv by its volum fractio a ach phas has its ow

v locity, t mp ratur a physical prop rti s. It ractios b tw phas s u t
o
iff r c s i v locity a t mp ratur ar tak ito accout via th it r-pha
s
trasf r t rms i th trasport quatio
s.

Eul ria multiphas mo lli g provi s a g ral
fram work for all typ s of
particl flows) a
multiphas flows; both isp rs ( .g. bubbl , roplt, a
stratifi ( .g. fr -surfac flows) flows ca b mo ll . Comparig th Eul ri
a
multiphas
with th Lagra gia two-phas
m tho (s Chapt r 12), th form r has
th a va tag of bi g computatio ally mor ffici t i situatios wh r th
phas sar wi ly isp rs a /or wh th isp rs phas volum fractio
is

high. or fr -surfac a cavitatio probl ms, similar a va tag s coul b fou

i th Eul ria mo l r lativ to th curr t multi-flui approach (s Chapt r
14).
How
v r, th fr surfac calculat will b l ss sharp i compariso with th V
O
m tho us i th multi-flui
mo l.
I this ocum t, w a opt th am ‘particl s’,

to scrib iscr t l mts
g rically, wh th r bubbl s, ropl ts, or soli s. I th quatio s a mo ls,

th
subscript
c sta s for ‘cotiuous phas ’ a for ‘ isp rs phas ’. Th subscript

k sta s for a g ric phas .
Wh th umb r of phas s is gr at r tha two, out of all possibl it r-phas

i tractio s, o ly th o s that ar xp ct to b sig ifica t b sp cifi
i
STAR-CD. Th sup rscript (ik) sta s for a pair of phas s i,k co ct by such
a
it ractio. ot s th valu of phas -k variabl at th it rfac b tw
phas s i,k.
Eul ria Multiphas
Mo l
I this s for mass, mom tum a rgy ar
mo l, th co s rvatio quatio
solv for ach phas . Th HighR yol s umb r k-ε mo l, mo ifi for
multiphas flow, is us for mo
lli g turbul c . Th pr ssur is assum to b
th sam i all phas s. Sub-mo ls ar provi to scrib th it rphas xcha
g

t rms for mom tum, h at a mass trasf rs.
Th cos rvatio quatios for a g ric phas k ar :
φk
(ik) φ
EULERIAN MULTIPHA E FLOW Ch
pter 13
Euleri
n Multiph
se Model
13-2 Version 4.12
Continuity
(13-1)
where — volume r
ction
— density
— me
n ph
se velocity
— m
ss tr
ns er r
te to ph
se k, rom ph
se i ( )
— m
ss tr
ns er r
te to ph
se i, rom ph
se k ( )
In
ddition, the volume r
ctions must s
tis y .
Momentum
(13-2)
where
nd — molecul
r
ndtur ulent stresses, respectively
p — pressure,
ssumed to e equ
l in oth ph
ses
— inter-ph
se momentum tr
ns er per unit volume
— intern
l orces
— gr
vity vector
The inter-ph
se momentum tr
ns er represents the sum o
ll the orces the ph
se
s
exert on one
nother
nd s
tis ies . The intern
l orces represent orces
within
ph
se. In the current rele
se, they
re limited to p
rticle-p
rticle in
ter
ction
orces in the dispersed ph
se.
Energy
Energy is solved or st
tic enth
lpy in chemico-therm
l orm.
(13-3)
where — st
tic enth
lpy
— therm
l conductivity

ture
— temper
— tur ulent eddy viscosity
∂
∂t
----- αk ρk ( ) ∇ αk + ⋅ ( ρk uk) (mki – mik)
i k ≠
Σ =
αk
ρk
uk
mki mki ≥ 0
mik mik ≥ 0
αi
i Σ
= 1
∂
∂t
----- αk ρk uk ( ) ∇ αk + ⋅ ( ρk uk uk) =
αk p αk ρk g ∇ αk τk τk [ ( + )] Mk (Fin )– ∇ + + ⋅ + + k
+ mkiuk
(ik) ( –mikuk)
i k ≠
Σ
τk τk
Mk
(Fin )k
g
ΣMk = 0
∂
∂t
-----
αk ρk k ( ) ∇ αk ( ρk uk k) ∇ αk λk∇Tk
μk
σh t
+ -----∇hk
⎝ ⎠
⎜ ⎟
⎛ ⎞
⎝ ⎠
⎜ ⎟
⎛ ⎞
+ ⋅ – ⋅
= αk
Dk p
Dt
--------- αk τk τk ( + ): uk Qki Qk
(ik) mkihk
(ik) ( –mikhk)
i k ≠
Σ +
(ik)
+ Σ
i k ≠
Σ + ∇ +
hk
λk
Tk
μk
Chap e 13 EULERIAN
MULTIPHASE
FLOW
Eule ian Mul iphase Mo el
Vesion 4.12 13-3
— ubulen he mal iffusion P an l numbe
— in e -phase hea ansfe a e o phase k f om phase i
— hea ansfe
a e o phase k f om phase pai in e face (ik)
— ma e ial e iva
ive fo phase
Whe e hea is ansfe e only by he mal iffusion be ween phases, he in e -ph
ase
hea ansfe a es sa isfy . Whee hea an mass a e only ansfe e by
phase change (bulk boiling o con ensa ion), he hea ansfe a es be ween eac
h
phase i,k an a phase pai in e face (ik) sa isfy a hea balance
(13-4)

is hehea equi e o p o uce phase k f om phase i. This is a signe quan i y
so ha .
Tu bulence
In his elease, flow u bulence is mo elle base on he High Reynol s numbe k
-ε
mod l. Modifi d quatios ar solv d for th otiuous phas ad th turbul
of th disp rs d phas is orr lat d usig s mi- mpiri al mod ls. Th additioal
t rms a out for th ff t of parti l s o th turbul fi ld.
Th quatios ar :
(13-5)
(13-6)
wh r — otiuous phas turbul t ki ti rgy
— otiuous phas mol ular vis osity
— turbul t Pradtl umb r for quatio
— dissipatio rat of
— turbul t Pradtl umb r for quatio
— ostats for th High R yolds umb r k-ε mod l
σh t
Qki
Qk
(ik)
Dk ⁄ Dt k
Qki = –Qik
Qk
(ik) Qi
(ik) (mki – mik)Δhk
(ik) + + = 0
Δhk
(ik)
Δhk
(ik) Δhi
(ik) = –
∂
∂t
----- αc ρc kc ( ) ∇ αc ρc uc kc + ⋅ ( ) =
∇
αc μc μc ( + )
σk
----------------------------∇kc
⎝ ⎠
⎜ ⎟
⎛ ⎞
⋅ + αc (G – ρc εc) + Sk2
+ mcikc
(ic) ( –mickc)
i c ≠
Σ
∂
∂t
----- αc ρc εc ( ) ∇ αc ρ+ ⋅ ( c uc εc) =
∇
αc μc μc ( + )
σε
----------------------------∇ε
⎝ ⎠
⎜ ⎟
⎛ ⎞
αc
ε
k
---- C1G C2 ρc ⋅ + ( – εc) + Sε2
+ mciεc
(ic) ( –micεc)
i c ≠
Σ
kc
μc
σk k
εc kc
σε ε
C1, C2
pt r 13
Int r-ph
Mom ntum Tr
n f r
13-4 V r ion 4.12
(13-7)
nd th t rm
nd r pr nt ph
int r
ction which mu t b mod ll d
nd
r d crib d in th “Multiph
Turbul nc Mod l” section be ow.
Sca ar variab es
Mu tiphase sca ar variab es have been introduced to a ow users to deve op
additiona physica mode s, for examp e for reacting systems. A number of forms
of
transport equation for mode ing different c asses of sca ar variab e are possib
e, but
the initia re ease of this feature is main y focussed on the ‘mass fraction’ c ass.
The
equation for this sca ar c ass is:
(13-8)
(13-9)
where — any sca ar variab e transported with phase- mass f ux
— se f-diffusion coefficient
— mo ecu ar diffusion coefficient
— mo ecu ar Schmidt number
— turbu ent Schmidt number
— sca ar source per unit vo ume
— sca ar source inearisation coefficient
— sca ar va ue imported by mass transfer from phase
A terms in equation (13-8) are optiona and may be se ective y omitted. A user
subroutine is a so avai ab e to define, or modify, any of the fo owing: the
convection coefficient, the se f-diffusion coefficient, the source term and the
interface va ue for inter-phase mass transfer.
Basic boundary conditions inc ude a fixed sca ar va ue at in ets and pressure
boundaries and zero sca ar f ux at wa s. Out ets and degassing boundaries are a
so
supported.
Inter-phase Momentum Transfer
In STAR-CD, the momentum transfer term inc udes the drag, turbu ence drag,
virtua mass, ift and wa ubrication forces:
(13-10)
G = μc (∇uc + (∇ uc )T) :∇uc
Sk2 Sε2
∂
∂t
----- αk ρkφl ( ) ∇ αk ρk uk φl + ⋅ ( ) =
∇ (αkΓl∇φl) [ cl – plφl]+ mkiφl
(ik) ( –mikφl)
i k ≠
Σ ⋅ +
Γl Γl
m μk
σl
t
+ -----
μk
σl
m
-------

μk
σl
t
= = + -----
φl k
Γl
Γl
m
σl
m
σl
t
cl
pl
φl
(ik) i
M = FD + FTD + FVM + FL + FWL
Ch
pter 13 EULERIAN MULTIPHA E FLOW
Inter-ph
se Momentum Tr
ns er
Version 4.12 13-5
The individu
l orces
re descri ed elow
long with the su -models
v
il
le to
c
lcul
te them.
Dr
g orce
Depending on the
pplic
tion, the dr
g orce c
n e c
lcul
ted vi
the ollowing
methods:
1. For gener
l
pplic
tions, the dr
g orce is computed
s
unction o the dr
g
coe icient which c
n e:
• et to
user-speci
ied const
nt v
lue (de
ult = 0.44).
• Computed on the
sis o the chiller
nd N
um
nn correl
tion (equ
tion
(13-15)) or spheric
l p
rticles.
• Computed using the W
ng curve- it model or u les (equ
tion
(13-17)).
2. For
pplic
tions with solid p
rticles such
s luidised eds,
di erent
ormul
tion o the dr
g orce is provided which
ccounts or the high p
rticle
lo
ding.
3. Users m
y progr
m their own orce model through user coding.
Gener
l
pplic
tions
The inter-ph
se dr
g orce, , includes
me
n
nd
luctu
ting component,
o
which the l
tter
ccounts or the
ddition
l dr
g due to inter
ction etween the
dispersed ph
se
nd the surrounding tur ulent eddies.
In gener
l orm, ollowing the deriv
tion o Gosm
n et
l. [13.1], the dr
g orc
e
is modelled
s
(13-11)
The me
n dr
g orce or the dispersed ph
se is
(13-12)
The tur ulent dr
g orce (
c
re ully-derived ex
mple o
tur ulent dispersion
orce) or the dispersed ph
se is
(13-13)
where
(13-14)
nd — rel
tive velocity etween the ph
ses
— dr
g coe icient (modelled)
— dispersed
ph
se me
n di
meter
— tur ulent Pr
ndtl num er (usu
lly set to 1.0)
FDr
g
FDr
g = FD + FTD
FD
34
--
αd ρcCD
d
= -------------------- u u = ADu
FTD –AD
ν t
σα
------
∇αd
αd
----------
∇αc
αc
⎝ – ----------⎠
= ⎛ ⎞
AD
34
--
αd ρcCD
d
= -------------------- u
u = uc – ud
CD
d
σα
pt r 13
Int r-ph
Mom ntum Tr
n f r
13-6 V r ion 4.12
— continuou ph
turbul nt kin m
tic vi co ity
With thi formul
tion, th dr
forc i th n fully d fin d
ft r
mod l h
b
n
cho n for . v r
l formul
tion
r uppli d.
Dr
co ffici nt for ph ric
l p
rticl
Th dr
co ffici nt of ph ric
l, ri id p
rticl i comput d b
d on th
corr l
tion of chill r
nd N
um
nn [13.2]:
(13-15)
Th p
rticl R ynold numb r, , i d fin d
:
(13-16)
Thi corr l
tion i n r
lly uit
bl for ph ric
l olid p
rticl , liquid dro
pl t
nd
m
ll-di
m t r bubbl .
Dr
co ffici nt for bubbl
Bubbl m
y d form
nd d p
rt from th ph ric
l h
p . Th mpiric
l corr l
tio
n
of W
n t
l. [13.3], d riv d by curv -fittin m
ur m nt for
in l bubbl
ri in in w
t r, m
y b u d to obt
in mor r
li tic v
lu :
(13-17)
Th co ffici nt
r iv n in T
bl 13-1 b low:
Hi h p
rticl lo
din
pplic
tion
In olid di p r d-ph

pplic
tion uch
fluidi d b d , p
rticl lo
din
m
y
b v ry hi h,
nd
diff r nt t of dr
forc formul
i mor
ppropri
t .
Th mo t wid ly u d formul

r th Er un qu
tion for r ion of hi h olid
T
bl 13-1: Dr
Co ffici nt for
in l Bubbl Ri in in W
t r
R d
b c
R d ≤1 ln 24 –1 0
1 < R d ≤ 450 2.699467 –0.33581596 –0.07135617
450 < R d ≤ 4000 –51.77171 13.1670725 –0.8235592
R d > 4000 ln (8/3) 0 0
ν t
CD
CD
24
R d
-------- 1 0.15R d
( + 0.687) ; 0 < R d ≤ 1000
0.44 ; R d 1000 > ⎩
⎪
⎨
⎪
⎧
=
Re
Re
ρc u
μc
= ---------------------
CD =exp [a + b ln Re + c ( ln Re )2]
e 13 EULERIAN
Chap MULTIPHASE FLOW
In e -phase Momen um T ansfe
Ve sion 4.12 13-7
pa icle concen a ions an a mo ifie S okes’ law fo egions of lowe
concen
a ions [13.4,13.5,13.6].

A
ansi ion volume f ac ion, , is use as he basis fo swi ching be ween
hese fo mulae as follows:
(13-18)

The ag coefficien
in equa ion (13-18) is given
by equa ion (13-15).
Even
below
he ansi
ion volume
f ac ion,
, in e -pa
icle foces
affec
hepa icle veloci y. This hin e e se ling effec is accoun e fo by he co
ecion
fac o in equa ion (13-18).
Use s may specify
bo h he value of he ansi ion volume f ac ion (by efaul
) an he hin e e -se ling exponen (by efaul , ).
Vi ualmass fo ce
The vi ualmass fo ce, , accoun s fo he a i ional esis ance expe ience by
a bubble un e going accele a ion an is given by Au on e al. [13.7] as:
(13-19)

whe e is he ma e ial e iva ive fo phase .
Thevi ual
mass coefficien , , can be p esc ibe by he use an is se o 0.5
by efaul .
Lif fo ce
When he con inuous-phase
flowfiel is non-unifo
m o o a ional, pa icles
expe ience
a lif fo ce pe pen icula o he ela ive veloci y. This fo ce, , is
e ive by Au on e al. [13.7] as:
(13-20)
The lif coefficien , , can be a cons an supplie by he use an , following La
nce

e al. [13.8], is se o by efaul .
I is known ha la ge bubbles become is o e in shape an behave iffe en ly
fom sphe ical bubbles un e he lif fo ce influence. Fo bubbly upflow in a ve
ical
pipe, while sphe ical
bubbles
concen
a e nea he pipe wall, la ge bubbles
ypically
mig a e owa s he cen e of he pipe, implying a nega ive lif coeff
icien .
The lif mo el of Tomiyama e al. [13.13] cove s his ange of effec s an uses
a
mo ifie Eö vös numbe o cha ac e ise bubble is o ion:
αtr
FD
150
αd 2 μc
αcd2
----------- 1.75
αdρc u
d
+ -------------------- u ; αd > αtr
34
--CD
αdρc u
d
--------------------u αc
n ; αd ≤ αtr
⎩ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎨ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎧
=
αd ≤ αtr
αc
n
αtr = 0.2 n = –1.7
FVM
FVM CVM αd ρc
Dc uc
Dt
-------------
Dd ud
Dt
– --------------
⎝ ⎠
⎜ ⎟
⎛ ⎞
=
Dk ⁄ D k
CVM
FL
FL = CL αd ρc(uc – ud ) (∇ uc )
CL
CL = 0.25
EULERIAN MULTIPHASE FLOW Chap e 13

In e -phase Momen um T ansfe
13-8 Ve sion 4.12
(13-21)
whe e is he su face ension coefficien fo he in e face an is he maximum
ho izon al imension of a bubble. The empi ical Tomiyama co ela ion fo lif
coefficien is given in he li e a u e as
(13-22)
whe e
Howeve , as implemen e in STAR-CD, he boun s on he Tomiyama lif
coefficien a e a low an
-0.2700
a high . These a jusmen s a e nee e o emove small iscon inui ies
in heempi ical co ela ion ha migh in e fe e wi h conve gence in nume ical
simula ions va iable bubble iame e.
involving
To evalua e in he efini ion of , Tomiyama e al. apply anempi ical
co ela ion, a ibu e o Wellek, fo he bubble aspec a io of sphe oi al bub
bles
in a fully con amina e sys em:
(13-23)
whe e is he bubble size in he ve ical i ec ion. This lea s o he following
ela ionships in e ms of he mean bubble size :
(13-24)
(13-25)

O he kin s of lif coefficien mo el ha ake accoun of bubble concen a ion
o of
flow con i ions can also be foun in he li e a u e. Such mo els can be inclu e
in
STAR-CD simula ions byspecifying he lif coefficien as an a bi a y
exp ession via use co ing.
Wall
lub
ica ion fo ce
An al e al. [13.14] popose ha bubbles ising in close
p oximi
y o awall
expe ience a fo ce ha p even s he bubbles ouching he wall; he effec esul
ing
fom he asymme
y of flui
ainage aoun he bubble. The An al mo el (an
o he s ha can be foun in he li e a u e) can be cas in o he fo m shown belo
w,as
Eo
ρc ρ – ( )g H 2
σ = --------------------------------
σ dH
CL
min[0.288t
nh(0.121R d), f (Eod)] for Eod < 4
f (Eod) for 4 ≤ Eod ≤ 10
– 0.29 for 10 < Eod
⎩ ⎪ ⎪ ⎨ ⎪ ⎪ ⎧
=
f Eo ( )0.00105Eo 3 0.0159Eo 2 = – – 0.0204Eo + 0.474
min[0.288
anh(0.121max(Re ,7.374)), f (Eo )] Eo
Eo
H Eo
E
V
H
------ 1
1 + 0.163 Eo0.757
= = ---------------------------------------
V
Eo
(ρc – ρ )g 2
σ
= -------------------------------
Eod Eo E
23
–--
=
CL
Ch
pt r 13 EULERIAN MULTIPHA E FLOW
Int rn
l Forc
V r ion 4.12 13-9
impl m nt d in TAR-CD. Accordin ly, th forc p r unit volum xp ri nc d by
th di p r d ph

t di t
nc from
w
ll i
(13-26)
wh r i
function th
t h
dim n ion of inv r l n th
nd f
ll off r
pidly
with incr
in di t
nc . Th v ctor i th outw
rd-f
cin unit norm
l
t th
n
r t point on th w
ll, o th
t th forc i dir ct d inw
rd . Th v locity
c
l in
thi mod l i b
d on th lip v locity compon nt th
t i p
r
ll l to th w
ll,
i .
(13-27)
Th Ant
l mod l i impl m nt d in TAR-CD in th implifi d form hown b low
nd includ two c
libr
tion co ffici nt ,
nd :
(13-28)
Th co ffici nt
r cho n o th
t i n
tiv
nd th forc v
ni h for
, which i u u
lly
f w bubbl di
m t r
w
y from th w
ll.
R comm nd d v
lu for turbul nt flow condition
r
(13-29)
Thi r comm nd
tion i b
d on m
tchin
mor r c nt mpirici
l mod l by
Tomiy
m
t
l. [13.13] for th turbul nt-flow w
ll lubric
tion forc
t th poi
nt
nd
nd it h

n ff ctiv r
n of bubbl
di
m t r
w
y from th w
ll.
TAR-CD
l o
llow
lt rn
tiv mod l for th w
ll lubric
tion forc ( uch

th mod l u d
bov for c
libr
tion) to b impl m nt d dir ctly by providin
n
rbitr
ry xpr ion for in
u r ubroutin .
Int rn
l Forc
In thi r l
, mod l for int rn
l forc within ph

r provid d only for
p
rticl -p
rticl int r
ction ,
nd hould ol ly b u d for olid di p r d-ph
pplic
tion , for which th y w r d riv d.
Th mod l d crib d in thi ub- ction hould only b u d in
two-ph

imul
tion
nd th di p r d ph
mu t b th cond ph
in th mod l.
Gr
nul
r tr
P
rticl -p
rticl int r
ction c
n b v ry i nific
nt in olid p
rticl flow
nd th y
r quir th ir own t of mod l . In TAR-CD, two mod l
r
v
il
bl to
ccount
for th p
rticl -p
rticl int r
ction forc . Th mod l
pply xclu iv ly to
th
di p r d ph
.
olid pr ur forc
A comp
ction (or ‘ olid pr ur ’) forc [13.4,13.5] i
dd d to th olid, di p r
d
yw
FWL CWL yw ( )αd
– ρc u //
2= n
CWL
y n
u // = u – (u ⋅ n)n
CW1 CW2
CWL( y) max
CW1
d
----------
CW2
y
+ ----------, 0
⎩ ⎭
⎨ ⎬
⎧ ⎫
=
CW1
yw ⁄ > –CW2 ⁄ CW1
CW1 =–0.0167 CW2 = 0.0667
yw ⁄ = 1 yw ⁄ = 3 yw ⁄ = 4
CWL
EULERIAN
MULTIPHASE FLOW Chap e 13
In e nal Fo ces
13-10 Ve sion 4.12
phase momen um equa ions.
Close o hespecifie maximum his fo ce
packing,
becomes significan an ac s o epel he pa icles an p even hem f om excee
ing
he maximum volume f ac ion, .
(13-30)
Use s may specify he maximum packing.By efaul , ,
ep esena ive of igi sphe ical soli pa icles.
Kine ic heo y s ess enso
By analogy wi h gas kine ic heo y, an af e assuming is ibu ion an collisio
n
p ope ies fo he pa icles, a kine ic heo y of g anula
flows
can be e ive
[13.6,13.9,13.10].
Afulls ess enso is henob aine ha esc ibes he
pa icle-pa icle in e ac ion e ms in he soli phase momen um equa ion:
(13-31)
whe e he g anula s ess enso is efine as:
(13-32)

an — soli p essu e
— soli phase bulk viscosi y
— soli shea viscosi y
phase
I — i en i y enso
Exp essions fo he soli
p essue, bulk, an shea viscosi ies a e ob aine as
func ions of he soli g anula empe a u e, .
The soli p essu e is
(13-33)
he soli -phase bulk viscosi y
(13-34)

an he soli -phase shea viscosi y is
(13-35)
(13-36)
whe e — es i u ion
coefficien
— a ial is ibu ion
αd, m
x
(Fint )d e –600(αd, m
x – αd) = – ∇αd
αd, m
x = 0.63
(Fint )d = ∇ ⋅ Ss
Ss – Ps ξs
2
3
= [ + ( – -- μs) ∇ ⋅ u ] I
Ps
ξs
μs
Θ
Ps = αd ρd Θ [1 + 2 (1 + e) go αd]
ξs
43
--αd 2 ρddgo 1 + ( ) Θπ
= ----
μs
2μs, il
(1 + e) go
----------------------- 1 45
+ -- (1 + e) go αd
2 45
--αd 2 ρddgo 1 + ( ) Θπ
= + ----
μs, il
5 π
96
= ---------- ρd d Θ
e
go
Chapter 13 EULERIAN MULTIPHASE FLOW
Internal Forces
Version 4.12 13-11
The restitution coefficient provides a measure of the elasticity of the particle
s and
the amount of energy absorbed in collisions. Users may specify (by default
).
The radial distribution function represents the spatial distribution of the part
icles,
and therefore their proximity, and can be related to the dispersed-phase volume
fraction. The form given by Ding and Gidaspow [13.9] has been implemented:
(13-37)
This function becomes undefined when approaches the maximum packing
density . In this limit, euation (13-37) is supplemented by the euation
proposed by van Wachem et al. [13.10] for :
(13-38)
where .
In the kinetic theory of granular flow, is obtained by solving the conservation
euation for fluctuating energy. By assuming local euilibrium, where energy
dissipation and production balance each other, the energy euation can be reduce
d
to a uadratic euation which is solved directly for . The euilibrium form has
been implemented in STAR-CD, and the granular temperature is computed as:
(13-39)
where
(13-40)
(13-41)
(13-42)
(13-43)
(13-44)
(13-45)
(13-46)
e
e = 0.9
go
35
-- 1
αd
αd, m
x
⎝----------------⎠
⎛ ⎞1 ⁄ 3
–
–1
=
αd
αd, m
x
αd > αcrit
go = 1.08 103 + 1.08 106(αd – αcrit ) + 1.08 109(αd – αcrit )2
+ 1.08 1012(αd – αcrit )3
αcrit = αd, m
x – 0.001
Θ
Θ
Θ – B B+ 2 + 4AC
2A
= ------------------------------------------
A = αd K4
B = (αdK1 + ρd)t (Ds)
C K2 t 2 (Ds) 2K3 t D= + ( 2)
K1 2 1 + ( )ρd = go
K3 d ρd
π
6(3 – e) ------------------- 1 25
-- 1 e + ( ) 3e 1 – ( )αd ⎝ – go⎠
⎛ ⎞45
-- (1 + e)
π
= + ---------------- αd go
K2
4(1 + e)
3 π
-------------------dρd αd go
23
= – -- K3
K4
12(1 – e2)
π
------------------------
ρd go
d
= ------------
EULERIAN
MULTIPHASE
FLOW C apt 13
P as l ngt scal
13-12 V sion 4.12
is t st ain at t nso .
and
P as l ngt scal
In most flos ca ying bubbl s o pa ticl s, only t l ngt scal of a disp s
d
p as (i. . t pa ticl diam t ) n ds tob sp cifi d o modlld.
Mo g n ally, any p as poss ss s a l ngt scal va iabl , ic can b
• input as a constant,
• sp cifi d by an xp ssion in a us outin ,
•p dict
d by t S-gamma mod l.
T is p as l ngt scal can b acc ss d in us mod ls and plott d by p o-STAR.
Int facial
a a d nsity
Eac p as pai (ik) poss ss s an int facial a a d nsity t at is availabl fo
us in int -p as t ansf mod ls. Alt nativ mod ls fo can b cod d as
xp ssions in a us outin.
T d fault xp ssion fo t a a d nsity is bas don t su fac a a of
sp ical pa ticl s and is suitabl it fo to-p as continuous-disp s d fl
o o

fo multip as flos it on continuous p as and s v al dilut disp s d p as
s:
(13-47)
c is t continuous pas , and i is any disp s d pas .
Mass T ansf
-p as mass t ansf at
Int
T us may sp cify an xp ssion fo t mass t ansf at f om p as i to
p as k, and t t ansf at in t v s di ction , by m ans of a us
outin
.
Alt oug any xp ssion may b codd, s o t solutiontim st ps o avy
und - laxation may b n d d it if t int -p as mass t ansf is a domi
nant
t m, o if t at as st ong d p nd nci s on va iabl s ot t an an app oxim
at ly
lin a d p nd ncy on volum f action.
Boiling mass t ansf
Boiling mod ls a no mally only to-p as (liquid and vapou ) but t multip as

f am o k also allos t possibility t at diff nt class s of bubbl siz coul
d b
t at d as a numb
of s pa at disp s p as s, ac it t i on mom ntum
quation and t i on at of g ot o collaps .
Fo bulk
boiling o cond nsation,
t int -p as masst ansf at is comput d
f om t at balanc at t p as c ang int fac , t at is basically quation
(13-4).
Fi st t (sign d) n t p oduction at of p as -k is comput d f om t at xt
act d
f om ac p as by p as c ang :
Ds
dk
A(ik)
A(ik)
A(ci) 6αi
di
= --------
mki
mik
Ch
pter 13 EULERIAN MULTIPHA E FLOW
M
ss Tr
ns er
Version 4.12 13-13
(13-48)
econdly, the contri ution o this oiling or condens
tion r
te is
dded into th
e
(positive or zero) tot
ls or orw
rd
nd reverse interph
se m
ss tr
ns er r
tes
:
← (13-49)
← (13-50)
The he
t o ph
se ch
nge c
n e input
s
const
nt or speci ied
s
n
expression in user coding.
econd
ry tr
ns ers
The interph
se m
ss tr
ns er r
tes
ppe
r directly in ph
se m
ss conserv
tion
equ
tions ut
lso implicitly introduce tr
ns er terms into
ll other tr
nsport
equ
tions. The term in the tr
nsport equ
tion or
ny ph
se-k v
ri
le h
s the
orm:
(13-51)
In gener
l, the v
ri
le c
n only e removed y m
ss sink
t its loc
l v
lue .
Just
s or
n ordin
ry outlet, the user h
s no in luence on this v
lue, since o
therwise
this would over-speci
y the inter
ce condition.
However,
num er o
ltern
tive closures
re possi le or the v
lue

imported ym
ss source . Note th
t
conserv
tion error m
y e introduced into
the glo
l
l
nce or the v
ri
le y some o theseclosure options. This error
m
y e
ssumed to e sm
ll either i the di erence etween removed/imported
v
ri
les is sm
ll or i the m
ss tr
ns er r
te is not the domin
nt tr
nsport te
rm.
1. Where the v
ri
le is de ined to econtinuous etween ph
ses, the v
lue
imported into one ph
se will norm
lly e the v
lue removed rom the other
ph
se. For ex
mple, or the velocity v
ri
le,
(13-52)
2. Where the v
ri
le is discontinuous or h
s
di erent de inition in e
ch
ph
se, the user c
n speci y the inter
ce v
lue to e imported
s
n expression
in user coding. For ex
mple, ph
se-k enth
lpy is imported
t inter
ce
temper
ture or s
tur
tion temper
ture:
(13-53)
3. Where the v
ri
le h
s not een de ined in oth ph
ses,
irst
pproxim
tion might e to
ssume th
t
zero v
lue is imported y m
ss
tr
ns er. It is
lso possi le to speci y
n expression or the inter
ce v
lue v
i
mk
(ik) Qk
(ik) – Qi
(ik) –
Δhk
(ik) = ---------------------------------
mki m
x mk
(ik) ( , 0)
mik m
x mk
(ik) (– , 0)
Δhk
(ik)
φ
mkiφk
(ik) ( – mikφk)
i k ≠
Σ
mik φk
φk
(ik)
mki
φ
φ
uk
(ik) = ui
φ
hk
(ik) = hk(T(ij))
φ
pter 13
Energy Tr
ns er
13-14 Version 4.12
user coding. For ex
mple, i the tur ulence model v
ri
les k
nd
re only
solved in one o the ph
ses, the inter
ce v
lues could e speci ied
s:
(or
user-speci ied v
lue) (13-54)
(or
user-speci ied v
lue) (13-55)
Energy Tr
ns er
Inter-ph
se he
t tr
ns er
The he
t tr
ns er y therm
l di usion etween two ph
ses i
nd k is modelled
s
(13-56)
where — he
t tr
ns er r
te rom ph
se i to ph
se k
— me
n, sur
ce-
ver
ged, he
t tr
ns er coe icient
— inter
ci
l
re
per unit volume
I c
nd d represent the continuous
nd dispersed ph
ses in the ph
se p
ir (ik),
the
me
n he
t tr
ns er coe icient is computed

s
unction o the continuous ph
se
therm
l conductivity, the Nusselt num er,
nd the p
rticle di
meter:
(13-57)
In TAR-CD, the Nusselt num er m
y e:
1. et to
user-speci ied, const
nt v
lue (de
ult = 2.0).
2. C
lcul
ted vi
the R
nz
nd M
rsh
ll [13.11] correl
tion:
(13-58)
where is the continuous-ph
se Pr
ndtl num er.
Boiling he
t tr
ns er
The he
t tr
ns er due to ph
se ch
nge etween two ph
ses i
nd k is modelled
s
(13-59)
(13-60)
where — he
t tr
ns er r
te rom ph
se p
ir inter
ce (ik) to ph
se k
— he
t tr
ns er r
te rom ph
se p
ir inter
ce (ik) to ph
se i
— he
t tr
ns er coe icient to ph
se k
— he
t tr
ns er coe icient to ph
se i
— inter
ci
l
re
per unit volume
ε
kk
(ik) = 0
εk
(ik) = 0
Qki –Qik H(ik)A(ik) = = (Ti – Tk)
Qki
H(ik)
A(ik)
H(ik) λcNu
dd
= ------------
Nu 2 0.6Red
0.5 Prc
= + 0.3
Prc
Qk
(ik) Hk
(ik)A(ik) T(ik) = ( – Tk)
Qi
(ik) Hi
(ik)A(ik) T(ik) = ( – Ti)
Qk
(ik)
Qi
(ik)
Hk
(ik)
Hi
(ik)
A(ik)
Chapter 13 EULERIAN MULTIPHASE FLOW
Mu tiphase Turbu ence Mode
Version 4.12 13-15
— interface temperature
The heat transfer coefficients , need to be specified via user coding. For
examp e, they can be based on the Ranz-Marsha corre ation (13-58) on the
continuous-phase side of the interface and some suitab e constant va ue of Nusse
t
number within a dispersed-phase partic e. The interface temperature wi
usua y be the saturation temperature for the f uid, and can be input as a const
ant or
specified as an expression in user coding.
Mu tiphase Turbu ence Mode
High Reyno ds number k-ε mod l
Th High R yolds umb r k-ε mod l modifi d for multiphas flow is us d to
d s rib turbul .
Th turbul t str ss is mod ll d usig th ddy-vis osity o pt:
(13-61)
with th turbul t vis osity giv by
(13-62)
Wall fu tios provid losur at o-slip boudari s.
I th multiphas mod l, th modifi d k-ε quatios ar solv d for th
otiuous phas , ad th turbul of th disp rs d phas is orr lat d to tha
t of
th otiuous phas . Th orr latio is provid d by th r spos fu tio, ,
d fi d as th ratio of th disp rs d phas v lo ity flu tuatio to that of th
otiuous phas :
(13-63)
With th s d fiitios, th dis r t -phas turbul t ddy vis osity b om s
(13-64)
ad th additioal phas it ra tio t rms i quatios (13-5) ad (13-6) ar
obtai d as
(13-65)
ad
(13-66)
T(ik)
Hk
(ik) Hi
(ik)
T(ik)

τk μk uk (∇ uk )T 2
3
(∇ + + (–(--∇ ⋅ uk )) I ) 2
3
= –-- ρk kk I
μk Cμ ρk
kk
2
εk
= -------
Ct
Ct
u′d
u′
=-------

μ (ρ ⁄ ρc) C
2μc

=
Sk2 A
ν t
αc αd σα
= – -------------------- ur ⋅ ∇αd + 2Ad (Ct – 1) kc
ε2 2Ad Ct 1 – ( )ε =
EULERIAN MULTIPHASE FLOW Chapt r 13
Multiphas Turbul Mod l
13-16 V rsio 4.12
R spos fu tio
I STAR-CD, th r spos fu tio may b o of th followig:
1. Costat: .
2. Cal ulat d via th Issa orr latio [13.3] with volum fra tio orr tio
[13.12].
3. Obtai d via us r odig.
Costat: Ct = 1
I this ista , th turbul hara t risti s of th disp rs d phas ar assu
m d to
b id ti al to thos of th otiuous phas .
Issa orr latio with volum fra tio orr tio
Th r is vid that is a strog fu tio of volum fra tio ad that b yod a
rtai limitig valu , whi h ould b as small as 6%, approa h s uity.
A orr latio for as a fu tio of volum fra tio is propos d i [13.12]
whi h has th followig form:
(13-67)
wh r
(13-68)
ad is omput d with th Issa mod l [13.3]:
(13-69)
wh r β is de ined
s
(13-70)
nd
(13-71)
(13-72)
(13-73)
Ct = 1
Ct
Ct
Ct
Ct(αd) 1 Ct= + ( – 1) exp(– (αd))
αd ( ) 180.0αd 4.71 103αd 2 – 4.26 104αd 3 = +
Ct
Ct 3 + β
1 + β + 2ρd ⁄ ρc
= -------------------------------------
β
2AD le
2
αd μc Re
= ----------------------
le Cμ
kc
3 ⁄ 2
ε
= ------------
R t
u ′ l
ν
= ---------------
u ′ 2
3
= -- k
Chapt r 13 EULERIAN MULTIPHASE FLOW
Wall boudary oditios
V rsio 4.12 13-17
Wall boudary oditios
Itrodu tio
A boudary oditio sp ifi d at a wall a b partitio d ito boudary
oditios appli abl to idividual phas s usig th followig thr o pts:

1. O d gr
of fr dom has to b r mov d by assumi g a physi ally-plausibl
ostrait, for xampl :
(a) All phas s xp ri a uiform flux at th wall ll fa , or
(b) all phas s ar i ota t with th sam uiform boudary valu at th wall
ll fa .
2. I a h wall grid ll, a h phas -k has a wall ota t ar a whi h is
som fra tio of th g om tri wall ar a .
3. Withi th wall-phas ota t ar a , sigl -phas lamiar boudary
oditios or sigl -phas turbul t wall fu tios ar appli abl
Th stadard wall oditios availabl i STAR-CD assum th followig
ostraits:
• No slip walls — uiform wall v lo ity is appli d to all phas s
• Slip walls — z ro str ss is appli d to all phas s
• Fix d wall t mp ratur — uiform wall t mp ratur is appli d to all phas s
• Fix d wall h at flux — uiform wall h at flux is appli d to all phas s
• Adiabati — z ro h at flux is appli d to all phas s
For mod llig boilig at wall boudari s, a diff r t ombiatio of ostraits
is
d d:
• Fix d wall t mp ratur — uiform wall t mp ratur is appli d to all phas s
• Fix d wall h at flux — uiform wall t mp ratur is appli d to all phas s
For th stadard boudary oditios, th phas -wall ota t ar a is assum d to
b
proportioal to th volum fra tio i th grid ll xt to th wall:
(13-74)
This provid s a us ful subs t of possibl wall boudary oditios for multiphas
flows. Thus, it l arly l ads to xp t d sigl -phas r sults as o phas or a
oth r
b om s domiat, as w ll as givig plausibl r sults for dilut mixtur s or
arly-homog ous flow oditios.
Us r it rfa for wall o ffi i ts
Th partitioig of str ss or h at flux by wall ota t ar a is ot always physi
ally
appropriat . For xampl , i wall boilig mod ls th wall h at flux is partitio
d by
h at trasf r o ffi i ts. Us rs may also b it r st d i impl m tig th ir o
w
mod ls for multiphas wall rough ss or wall fu tios.
For this r aso, a us r routi is provid d wh r us rs a dir tly sp ify th
o ffi i ts otrollig th str ss or h at flux b tw th wall ad a h phas
.
I th d s riptio b low, su h flux s or o ffi i ts ar mark d with a ~ symbol
to show that th y alr ady otai ay partitioig fa tors ad that th y r f r t
o th
A˜
Wk
AW
A˜
Wk
A˜
Wk = αkAW
EULERIAN
MULTIPHA E FLOW Ch
pter 13
W
ll ound
ry conditions
13-18 Version 4.12
luxes rel
tive to the ull geometric w
ll
ce
re
(r
ther th
n to
ny ph
se
cont
ct
re
).
No-slip condition
The w
ll she
r orce experienced y ph
se-k in the ne
r-w
ll grid cell is:
(13-75)
where — w
ll stress line
ris
tion coe icient
— me
n ph
se velocity or grid cells next to w
lls
— w
ll velocity

This s
me term
lso contri utes to
tur ulence production term
t the w
ll. The
coe icient
pplies to the ull geometric w
ll
re

nd implicitly includes

ny p
rtitioning
ctor, or ex
mple or modelling the cont
ct
re
etween the
w
ll

nd ph
se-k. The not
tion indic
tes the vector components p
r
llel to the w
ll.
I the w
ll norm
l vector is , then
(13-76)
The tot
l orce experienced y the w
ll is:
(13-77)
Fixed w
ll-temper
ture condition
The ixed w
ll-temper
ture condition
ssumes th
t e
ch ph
se sees the s
me
(uni orm) w
ll temper
ture:
(13-78)
(13-79)
(13-80)
where — he
t lux
pplied
y the environment to the w
ll
ce
— he
t lux
pplied y the w
ll
ce to ph
se-k
— w
ll he
t lux coe icient to ph
se-k
— ph
se-k temper
ture
t w
ll
ce
— me
n ph
se-k temper
ture or grid cells next to w
lls
With this ound
ry condition, e
ch ph
se sees
di erent he
t lux. Interph
se
he
t
tr
ns er is possi le
t the w
ll even when there h
ppens to e no he
t exch
nge
with
the environment. Under
pproxim
tely homogeneous low conditions (th
t is
when

re close or
ll ph
ses-k), the he
t lux
t the w
ll could e s
id to e p
rti
tioned
y ph
se he
t tr
ns er coe icient .
AW
A˜
Wk
F˜
Wk Cτk
˜ [uW – uk]= //AW
Cτk
˜
uk
uW
Cτk
˜ AW
[ ]//
n
[u]// = u – (u • n)n
FW – F˜
Wk
k Σ
= –
TWk = TW
q˜Wk Hk
= ˜ (TW – Tk)
qW q˜Wk
k Σ
=
qW
q˜Wk
H˜
k
TWk
Tk
Tk
H˜
k
Ch
pter
13 EULERIAN MULTIPHA E FLOW
W
ll ound
ry conditions
Version 4.12 13-19
Fixed w
ll-he
t lux condition
The ixed w
ll-he
t lux condition
ssumes th
t e
ch ph
se sees the s
me uni orm
he
t lux over its w
ll cont
ct
re

s is
pplied to the whole cell
ce :
(13-81)
(13-82)
(13-83)
With this ound
ry condition,e
ch ph
se sees
di erent w
ll temper
ture ,
nde
ch o the terms h
s to e
lw
ys non-zero to
llow thisw
ll temper
ture
to e c
lcul
ted. The w
ll he
t lux p
rtitioning is cle
rly
sed on volume r
ction.
Boiling w
ll he
t
nd m
ss tr
ns er
Boiling w
ll conditions h
ve een implemented or oth ixed w
ll he
t lux or
ixed w
ll temper
ture conditions. However, in either c
se, the ormul
tion is
sed
on the
ssumption th
t e
ch ph
se sees the s
me uni orm w
ll temper
ture. This
choice is necess
ry in order to ensure th
t not
ll ph
ses
re in cont
ct with t
he w
ll
during oiling or dryout (th
t is, some ph
se he
t tr
ns er coe icients
re
ll
owed
to e zero). This condition
lso
llows he
t lux to e p
rtitioned y he
t tr
n
s er
coe icient r
ther th
n y volume r
ction, this eing
key ingredient o su -c
ooled
w
ll oiling models.
(13-84)
(13-85)
(13-86)
(13-87)
where — he
t tr
ns er r
te rom w
ll to ph
se p
ir inter
ce (ik)
— he
t tr
ns er coe icient rom w
ll to ph
se p
ir inter
ce (ik)
— ph
se p
ir inter
ce temper
ture
The implement
tion o these conditions is str
ight orw
rd when
ixed w
ll
temper
ture is speci ied. However,
when
he
t lux condition is imposed
on the
w
ll, the he
t luxes distri uted to e
ch ph
se (13-85),
nd to the oiling inte
r
ces
(13-86),
c
nnot e computed until the w
ll temper
ture is solved using
he
t

l
nce (13-87).

For w
ll oiling c
lcul
tions, oth
nd should e speci ied in user
routines. The results o the de
ult model or rem
ins
v
il
le to these routin
es
to descri e the contri ution o orced convective cooling in the oiling model.
qW A˜
Wk AW
q˜WkAW qWA˜ = Wk = (αkqW)AW
q˜Wk Hk
= ˜ (TWk – Tk)
qW q˜Wk
k Σ
=
TWk
Hk
˜
TWk = TW
q˜Wk Hk
= ˜ (TW – Tk)
q˜W
(ik) H˜ (ik) TW T(ik) = ( – )
qW q˜Wk
k Σ
q˜W
(ik)
(ik)
= + Σ
q˜W
(ik)
H˜
(ik)
T(ik)
Hk
˜ H˜ (ik)
Hk
˜
EULERIAN
MULTIPHA E FLOW Ch
pter 13
W
ll ound
ry conditions
13-20Version 4.12
W
ll oiling gener
tes
n interph
se m
ss tr
ns er r
te
t the w
ll:
(13-88)
The contri ution o the w
ll oiling r
te is
dded into the tot
ls or orw
rd
nd
reverse interph
se m
ss tr
ns er r
tes
t the w
ll
ces:
← (13-89)
← (13-90)
The user needs to speci y the he
t o ph
se ch
nge , the inter
ce
temper
ture (s
tur
tion temper
ture) ,
nd second
ry equ
tion closure options
s discussed in the “M
ss Tr
ns er” section.
W
ll unctions
The de
ult models or the coe icients
nd th
t control the distri ution o
w
ll stress
nd w
ll he
t lux etween the ph
ses
ssume th
t:
• E
ch ph
se h
s
w
ll cont
ct
re
in proportion to its volume r
ction in the
grid cells next to the w
ll
• Either single-ph

se l
min
r w
ll conditions or single-ph
se tur ulent w
ll
unctions
c
n e
pplied to e
ch ph
se within its own w
ll cont
ct
re
For tur ulent multiph

se lows, the de
ult w
ll tre
tment is
sed on single-ph
se
w
ll unctions or
high Reynolds num er tur ulence model,
pplied sep
r
tely t
o
e
ch ph
se. The st
rting point is the
ssertion (see Ch
pter 6) th
t under equil
i rium
conditions ne
r the w
ll, the tur ulence energy in the cell next to the w
ll is
rel
ted to w
ll velocity sc
le y:
(13-91)
I the high-Reynolds num er k-epsilon model is solved or the continuous ph
se,
nd
n
ssumption is m
de th
t the dispersed ph
se low ne
r the w
ll responds w
ith
simil
r velocity luctu
tions to th
t in the continuous ph
se, then or
ny ph
s
e-k:
(13-92)
is
convenient intern
l model coe icient. For multiph
se use, this
coe icient is tr
ns ormed rom
one-ph
se result y
ssuming th
t it
pplies t
o
r
ction o the ull w
ll
ce
re
:
(13-93)
This le
ds to the over
ll multiph
se w
ll stress coe icient:
mk
(ik) mi
(ik) –
qW
(ik)AW
Δhk
(ik) = = -------------------
mki m
x mk
(ik) ( , 0)
mik m
x mk
(ik) (– , 0)
Δhk
(ik)
T(ik)
Cτk
˜ Hk
˜
k
uτ (τW ⁄ ρ)1 ⁄ 2 =
k+ k
uτ
2
≡ ----- Cμ
–1 ⁄ 2 =
(ρuτ)k ρkCμ
0.25kc
= 0.5
(ρuτ)k
αk
(ρuτ)k
˜ αk(ρuτ)=
k
Chap e 13 EULERIAN
MULTIPHASE FLOW
Wall boun a y con i ions
Ve sion 4.12 13-21
(13-94)
He e is he unive sal veloci
yp ofile fo a smoohwall (o a ough wall
as app op ia e), evalua e a he cell cen e nex o he wall using scaling pa
ame e s
fo phase-k. If y is he is ance f om he wall:
(13-95)
ly, he ove all mul iphase wall hea
Simila ansfe coefficien is ob aine usi
ng he
one-phase es ima e esc ibe in Chap e 6:
(13-96)

I is also possible fo use s o implemen o he kin s of wall con ac mo els o
o he
kin s of mul iphase
wall func ions by i ec ly co ing an exp ession fo he
coefficien s an in a use ou ine.
Cτk
˜ (ρuτ)k
˜
uk
+
= ---------------
uk
+ u+( y+)
uk
+ u+ (ρu)k y
μk
⎝-----------------⎠
= ⎛ ⎞
H˜
k = αkHk
Cτk
˜ Hk
˜

Chap e 14MULTI-FLUID AND PHASE-CHANGE MODELS
Mul i-Flui Flow
Ve sion
4.12 14-1
Chap e 14MULTI-FLUID AND PHASE-CHANGE MODELS
Mul i-Flui
Flow
In o uc ion
Flows of wo (o mo e) fluis a e of en encoun e e inbo h enginee ing an
envi onmen
poblems.
al If he flui s wi hin he flow omain a e immiscible wi h
each o he , is inc in e facesfo mbe ween hem. Suchflows a e usually
calle

f ee- su face flows. The cha ac e is ic leng h scale an he shape of he in e f
ace
changewi h he flow con i ions. These can be classifie in o h ee g oups:
1. In he fi s g oup, he flui s a e sepa a e by a smoo h in e face possessing
a
cha ac e is ic leng h scale compa ablewi h ha of he solu ion omain.
Examples
a e flows in open channels wih non-b eaking waves, flows in
s i ing vessels, non-b eaking
je s an flows in anks whichshakegen ly.
2. The secon g oup inclu es ansi
ional
flows in which pa s of he in e face
b eak in o egions fille by bo h flui s. Examples a e open channel flows,
flows in moving anks an flows a oun ships wi h b eaking waves,
as well as
flows occu ing u ing fo m filling
(coolan
, fuel, liqui
me al in cas
ing
applica ions, e c.) whe e ove u ning an fol ing of he f ee su face akes
place.
3.
The hi g oup inclues ispe se flows in which some flui s fom small
s uc u es wih a cha ac e is ic leng h scale consi e ably smalle han ha of
he solu
ion omain,
e.g. flui s in a vigo ously shaken ank, gas bubbles in a
liqui o liqui ops in agas.
The p ima y applica
ion of he mul i-flui mo el in STAR-CD conce ns flows
whe e flui in e faces a e of g oup 1 an
g oup 2 ype, i.e. whe
e he nume ical
mesh size is smalle han he ep esen a ive leng h scale of he in e face. Howe
ve ,
he mo el can also be applie o p oblems whe e he in e face is no esolve by
he
nume ical mesh an he shape an exac movemen of he in e face oes no have a
significan influence on he simula ion esul s, which is of en he case, fo ex
ample,
in cavi a ing flows.
Thesolu ion me ho ology evelope in STAR-CD ealswi h a single
con inuum whose p ope ies va y in space acco ing o i s composi ion, as e ive

f om he solu ion of anspo
equa ions fo he componen flui s.
The mo els evelope in his ca ego y can han le mul i-flui flows wi h lage
ensi y a ios, inclu ingphysical phenomena such as su face- ension effec s,
cavi a ion, comp essibili y, hea ansfe , New onian an non-New onian viscosi
y.
Flows in accele a ing ( ansla ing an o a ing) sys ems of coo ina es, in po o
us
me ia an po ous baffles a e also suppo e , as well as “be a fea u e” mode s for
me ting and so idification. These capabi ities provide an effective too for so
ving a
arge variety of scientific and engineering prob ems.
Assumptions and imitations
The fo owing assumption app ies to STAR-CD’s mu ti-f uid mode s:
• A f uids present in a given contro vo ume share the variab es computed for
the f uid mixture. These are obtained by so ving transport equations for
MULTI-FLUID AND PHASE-CHANGE MODELS Chapter 14
Mu ti-F uid F ow
14-2 Version 4.12
ve ocity, pressure, temperature, turbu ence quantities, etc.
The fo owing features are current y supported:
• Heat transfer, inc uding so id-f uid conjugate heat transfer
• A turbu ence mode s
• Porous media and porous baff es
• Externa momentum and/or energy sources
• Moving grids
• Mass transfer and phase change
• Compressibi ity and variab e f uid properties for each f uid component. Note,
however, that the compressibi ity mode is suitab e on y for subsonic f ows.
• Eu erian imp icit and three-time- eve tempora discretisation schemes
The fo owing features are not supported:
• Lagrangian and Eu erian mu ti-phase f ows
• Chemica reactions
• Radiative heat transfer
The mu ti-f uid f ow mode use the SIMPLE transient so ution a gorithm.
Neverthe ess, it is a so suitab e for steady-f ow prob ems by just running the c
ase
unti a steady-state so ution is reached.
Mathematica mode
The distribution of component f uids is defined by the vo ume fraction of each f
uid
in the fo owing manner:
(14-1)
where is the fraction of the contro vo ume V occupied by f uid c. In addition t
o
the mass conservation equation for the f uid mixture, one needs to so ve
transport equations for the vo ume fractions of the component f uids, where is
the tota number of f uid components. These equations are derived from the mass
conservation condition for the mixture.
The resu ting transport equation for is:
(14-2)
where
is the mass transfer rate for f uid c. Its va ue is positive when the f uid
gains mass and negative when it oses mass during the transfer process. The
remaining terms on the right-hand-side of equation (14-2) arise from the
density change of the component f uids.
is the vo ume fraction of f uid c
is the density of f uid c
αc
Vc
V
= ------
Vc
Nc – 1
Nc
αc
∂αc
∂t --------
∂xi
+ ∂ (αcui)
m˙ c
ρc
------
αc
ρc
-----
∂t
∂ρc αcui xi ∂
∂ρc +
⎝ ⎠
⎜ ⎟
⎛ ⎞
= –
m˙ c
αc
ρc

C apt 14 MULTI-FLUID AND PHASE-CHANGE MODELS
Multi-Fluid Flo
V sion 4.12 14-3
(i=1, 2, 3) is t v locity compon nt in di ction i.
It is assum d t at all fluids in a giv n computational c ll s a t sam v loc
ity,
t mp atu and p ssu .
It s ould b m ntion d t at, in t cu nt impl m ntation, on of t fluids
(usually t last on in t sp ci s list) is not solv d by a t anspo t quation
. Inst ad,
it is d t min d by t folloing lations ip:
(14-3)
is t total numb of fluids in t solution domain.

T mixtu p op ti s ( .g. d nsity ρ, viscosity
μ, specific
hea , he mal
con uc ivi y k) va y in space acco ing o he volume f ac ion of each flui , i.
e.
(14-4)
whe e subsc ip c eno es in ivi ual flui s. All anspo equa ions fo he mix
u e
have he same fo m as hose fo single-flui cases.
The mass conse va ion
law fo
he flui
mix u e is use o e ive he anspo
equa ion fo he mix u e. I akes he following fo m:
(14-5)

A vance
compu
a ional echniques
a e use o bo h isc e ise he anspo
ions an o implemen he physical mo els, esul ing in g ea e obus ness
equa
an
accu acy.
highe
Ma e ial p ope ies fo componen flui s
The mul i-flui flow moelin STAR-CD
allows each flui o have a iffe en
equa
ion of s a e fo i s ensi y, molecula viscosi y, specific hea capaci y a
n
he mal
con uc ivi y.
Densi y
The ensi y op ions fo each flui a e:
• Cons an
(14-6)

• I eal Gas Law
(14-7)
whe e
ui
αc
c=1
NcΣ = 1
Nc
Cp
ρ αcρc , μ
c=1
NcΣ αcμc , Cp
c=1
NcΣ αcρcCp, c
ρ
---------------------- , k
c=1
NcΣ αckc
c=1
NcΣ = = = =
∂ui
∂xi
-------
m˙ c
ρc
------
c=1
NcΣ αc
ρc
-----
∂t
∂ρc αc
ρc
-----ui xi ∂
∂ρc +
⎝ ⎠
⎜ ⎟
⎛ ⎞
c=1
NcΣ = –
ρc = constant
ρc = pMc ⁄ RgT
MULTI-FLUID AND PHASE-CHANGE MODELS C apt 14
Multi-Fluid Flo
14-4V sion 4.12
is t mola ig t of fluid c
is t univ sal gas constant
and a t p ssu and t mp atu , sp ctiv ly
• Log la [14.4]
(14-8)

is t d nsity co sponding to p ssu
and a pa am t s d iv d f om xp im ntal data. Fo at at
T= 298K:
and
• Po la [14.5]
(14-9)

and a mat ial-d p nd nt constants. Fo at :
and
is t t mal volum t ic xpansion co ffici nt. Fo at :
Not t at t Log-la and Po -la quations of stat a only suitabl fo liq
uids.
A us -cod option is also p ovid d so t at t fluid d nsity can b a
us -sp cifi d function of p ssu and t mp atu . T is option is applicabl o
nly
to t sp cifi d fluid. If t d nsiti s of mo t an on fluid a sp cifi d by
us
coding, all of t m must b includ d in t sam us sub outin . Wit t is opti
on

t us is also qui d to sp cify t folloing t ms:

Mo impl m ntation d tails a giv n in C apt 11, “Mat ial p op ti s” of the
CCM User Guide but p ease note that none of the compressibi ity mode s app ies t
o
supersonic f ows.
Mo ecu ar viscosity
The avai ab e options are Constant, Non-Newtonian, Suther and and User. The firs
t
three can be app ied to each f uid independent y of the others. For the User opt
ion,
Mc
Rg
p T
ρc ρc0 a0
a1 + p
a1 + p0
= + ln-----------------
ρc0 p0
a0 a1
a0 = 214 kg ⁄ m3 a1 = 4.767 108Pa
ρc ρ0
a1 + p
a1 + p0
⎝-----------------⎠
⎛ ⎞βp 1
1 + βT(T – T0)
= ------------------------------------

1 βp

1 3 108
= P
βp = 1 ⁄ 7
βT
βT 3.914 10–4 K–1 =
∂ p
∂ρc
∂T
∂ρc
,
C apt 14 MULTI-FLUID AND PHASE-CHANGE MODELS
Multi-Fluid Flo
V sion 4.12 14-5
o v , it is t mol cula viscosity of t mixtu and not t fluid compon n
ts

t at must b sp cifi d.
Fo non-N tonian fluids, t mol cula viscosity is giv n by
(14-10)

and a mat ial-d p nd nt pa am t s fo fluid c
is
t s
cond inva iant of t at of st ain t nso , comput d int nally.
T Sut land option is only applicabl to gas s. Its fo mula is as follos:
(14-11)

is t fluid dynamic viscosity at f nc t mp atu
and f nc p ssu
is t Sut land constant fo fluid c
t absolut t mp atu
is
W n t us coding option is s l ct d, t us -sp cifi d mol cula viscosity
of

t mixtu must b impl m nt d in t co sponding sub outin . Mo
impl m ntation d tails a giv n in C apt 11, “Mat ial p op ti s” of the CCM
User Guide.
Specific heat coefficient and therma conductivity
Two options for the specific heat coefficient and therma conductivity are
supported, Constant and User. The options for different f uids are independent o
f
each other. This a ows, for examp e, a constant or specification for f uid 1
and a user-coding specification for f uid 2.
Surface tension mode
An imba ance of the adhesion and cohesion forces at the interface between two
f uids resu ts in a surface tension force that acts at that interface. This forc
e is
proportiona to the interface curvature, the surface tension coefficient and its
variation a ong the interface. The contribution to the surface tension force due
to
variations of the surface tension coefficient is ca ed Marangoni convection. Th
is
phenomenon is typica y caused by a variation of temperature or the presence of
certain impurities, e.g. surfactants.
In STAR-CD, the norma force due to surface tension is treated using the
continuum surface force (CSF) mode proposed by Brackbi , et a . [14.1]. The
tangentia force is not considered. The CSF mode defines a vo umetric source in
the momentum equation that is expressed as
μc mc Πs
nc – 1
2
-------------
=
mc nc
Πs
μc μc0
T
273.15
⎝---------------⎠
⎛ ⎞
32
-- 273.15 + Csc
T + Csc
⎝-----------------------------⎠
= ⎛ ⎞
μc0 T0 = 273.15K
p0 = 101.325kPa
Csc
T
Cpc kc
Cpc kc
σ
MULTI-FLUID AND PHA E-CHANGE MODEL Ch
pt r 14
Multi-Fluid Flow
14-6 V r ion 4.12
(14-12)
wh r
i th volum fr
ction of th m
in fluid (i. . th liquid in th c
of
liquid-
int rf
c )
i th urf
c t n ion co ffici nt for th fluid p
ir
It hould b not d th
t TAR-CD’ multi-fluid
ppro
ch r quir th
t urf
c
t n ion ff ct
r mod ll d in t rm of fluid p
ir . Thu ,
ll fluid in th fl
ow
dom
in mu t b p
ir d
nd th urf
c t n ion co ffici nt p cifi d for
ch of
th m.
Not
l o th
t om fluid , uch

, m
y not form
n int rf
c wh n th y
mix. uch fluid hould b i nor d in th p
irin proc . For x
mpl , if th f
low
dom
in con i t of on liquid
nd thr
, th r
r thr p
ir for th ur
f
c
t n ion mod l, not ix.
Th r
r two option for p cifyin th urf
c t n ion co ffici nt;
Con t
nt
v
lu for
ch p
ir or U r. For th cond option, th co ffici nt for
ch p
i
r mu t
b p cifi d within th
m u r ubroutin
nd c
n b
function of t mp r
tur
nd/or pr ur or oth r flow condition . Mor d t

il i iv n on p
11-6 of
th
CCM U r Guid .
Th volum fr
ction r
di nt d fin th norm
l to th int rf
c whil th
div r nc of th unit norm
l v ctor d fin th int rf
c curv
tur .
Cont
ct
n l
t w
ll
nd b
ffl bound
ri
Wh n
multi-fluid int rf
c i in cont
ct with
olid w
ll, it t nd to form
n
n l
with th
t w
ll, wh r th
n l i m
ur d b tw n th t
n nt to th w
ll
nd
th t
n nt to th int rf
c , vi w d from in id th fluid with th l
r t d n
ity.
On di tin ui h b tw n w ttin (wh r < 90°)
nd non-w ttin (wh r >
90°) cont
ct ,
w ll
b tw n t
tic ( t
tion
ry int rf
c )
nd dyn
mic (movin

int rf
c ) cont
ct
n l ( Fi ur 14-1).
Fi ur 14-1 Cont
ct
n l
t
w
ll for th w ttin (
)
nd non-w ttin (b) c

Th w
ll cont
ct
n l i impo d

con tr
int on th int rf
c ori nt
tion
t th
cont
ct lin .
Not th
t,
t pr nt, only
in l v
lu of th cont
ct
n l c
n b p cifi d
σ σ c∇
∇αc
∇αc
⎝--------------⎠
⋅ ⎛ ⎞∇αc
c=1
NcΣ = –
αc
σc
βc
βc βc
Fluid 2
Fluid1
(
) ( )
βc
Fluid 2
Fluid 1
W
ll
βc
W
ll
Ch
pter 14 MULTI-FLUID AND PHA E-CHANGE MODEL
Multi-Fluid Flow
Version 4.12 14-7
using pro- TAR. However, the cont
ct
ngle is
p
r
meter dependent on the
properties o the luids
nd the w
ll in cont
ct. In c
ses where
const
nt v
lu
e o
cont
ct
ngle c
nnot e used, the user coding option provides
w
y o speci yin
g
the cont
ct
ngle pro ile.
Discretis
tion
nd solution method
In order to m
int
in the inter
ce sh
rpness o ree-sur
ce lows, which orm
p
rt
o the generic multi- luid low cl
ss, the convective terms in the volume r
cti
on
equ
tions
re computed using the High-Resolution Inter
ce-C
pturing (HRIC)
scheme [14.2]. This ev
lu
tes the cell-
ce volume r
ction v
lue
s
weighted

ver
ge o the upstre
m
nd downstre
m cell-centre v
lues, where the weighting

ctor is determined on the
sis o the inter
ce orient
tion rel
tive to the c
ell
ce,
loc
l Cour
nt num er,
nd the pro ile o in the vicinity o the cell
ce. The t
wo
extreme v
lues
re the upwind
nd downwind cell-centre v
lues. For optim
l resul
ts
with respect to inter
ce sh
rpness (resolution within one to two cells), the Co
ur
nt
num er should e
round 0.5; l
rger v
lues le
d to gre
ter inter
ce sme
ring.
Another convective scheme th
t ul ils the oundedness criterion is the
irst-order upwind scheme; however,it results in excessive sme
ring o the
inter
ce
nd should there ore not e used to compute lows with sh
rp inter
ce
s.
The three-time-level discretis
tion scheme is second-order
ccur
te in time.
However, it requires
ddition
l memory
nd
signi ic
nt CPU overhe
d. It is
there ore recommended th
t you only use this scheme when time-dom
in
ccur
cy
is cruci
l to your
pplic
tion
nd the de
ult ully-implicit Euler scheme c
nno
t

chieve the required
ccur
cy.
The ollowing st
nd
rd ound
ry conditions
re supported in multi- luid lows:
• Inlet
• Outlet
• lip
nd no-slip imperme
le w
lls
• ymmetry pl
nes
• t
tic
nd piezometric pressure
• B
les
• Cyclic ound
ries (except or p
rti
l cyclics in which the m
ss low r
te is
speci ied)
• Att
chment ound
ries
• Monitoring ound
ries
All other types o ound
ry condition
re not currently supported. Also,
num e
r
o limit
tions
pply to inlet
nd outlet ound
ries:
1. The ‘ ixed m
ss lux’ condition is not
pplic
le to inlet ound
ries or
compressi le lows or to outlet ound
ries or incompressi le lows (see
“Prescri ed inlet low”
nd “Outlet Bound
ries” in Ch
pter 5 o this volume
or
discussion
o the ‘ ixedm
ss lux’ condition).

2. Outlet ound
ries must not e de ined in pro lems where one or more o the
constituent luids h
ve v
ri
le density.
Implement
tion det
ils
The over
ll process o setting up multi- luid pro lems, including det
ils o the
user
αi
MULTI-FLUID AND PHA E-CHANGE MODEL Ch
pter 14
Multi- luid C
vit
ting Flows
14-8 Version 4.12
input required, is descri ed in Ch
pter 11, “ etting Up Multi- luid
nd C
vit
tion
C
ses” o the CCM User Guide.
Multi- luid C
vit
ting Flows
Introduction
When
liquid is su jected to
pressure elow its s
tur
tion pressure
t
give
n
temper
ture, it egins to ev
por
te. This phenomenon is c
lled ‘c
vit
tion’ or ‘cold
oiling’,

s opposed to oiling due to supplying he
t
t const
nt pressure. In the

sence o
ree sur
ce, the ev
por
tion (
nd su sequent condens
tion i the
luid
re
ches
zone o pressure
ove the s
tur
tion level) c
n only t
ke pl
ce i so
me
kind o seed (or nucleus) is present. While pure liquids c
n sust
in rel
tively
high
tensile stresses,
lmost
ll commonly encountered liquids in engineering
nd

environment
l
pplic
tions cont
in some impurities (solid p
rticles or u les o

dissolved g
s) which c
n
ct
s seeds or c
vit
tion
nd there ore st
rt the
ev
por
tion
t s
tur
tion pressure.
C
vit
tion
is encountered in m
ny engineering
pplic
tions, e.g. liquid pumps

nd tur ines, injection nozzles, throttles, pipes
nd ch
nnels with o st
cles, s
hip
propellers, etc. In most c
ses c
vit
tion is undesir
le since it c
uses per orm

nce
loss, m
teri
l d
m
ge, noise
nd vi r
tions.
In c
vit
ting lows, l
rge zones illed completely with v
pour c
n e present; o
n
the other h
nd, c
vit
ting regions m
y e sm
ll
nd the volume r
ction o v
pou
r
u les m
y e low. In order to e
le to cover
ll these regimes, the c
vit
ti
on
model is implemented
s
m
ss tr
ns er etween luids cont
ining two or more
constituents, one or more o which must e liquid, which “c
vit
te” to produce
v
pour ph
se under cert
in conditions.
The physics o the c
vit
ting low
re modelled y providing relev
nt source
terms to the tr
nsport equ
tion o e
ch luid
nd to the continuity
nd momentum
equ
tions o the luid mixture. There
re two options or speci ying these terms
:
1. The intern
l “C
vit
tion” model
2. A user-speci ied m
ss tr
ns er model, implemented vi

user su routine
For option 2, the m
ss tr
ns er r
te
nd its deriv
tive with respect to pressure

nd
the source term distri ution must e speci ied.
Note th
t more th
n one c
vit
ting phenomenon
using di erent models or the
s
me model with di erent p
r
meters c
n e speci ied or
p
rticul
r
pplic
ti
on.
For the det
ils o setting up
c
vit
tion simul
tion, re er to Ch
pter 11 o th
e
TAR-CD User Guide.
Assumptions
nd limit
tions
TAR-CD’s c
vit
tion model is
sed on u le growth theory
nd involves the
ollowing
ssumptions:
• C
vit
tion seed u les
re present in the liquid
nd
re homogeneously
distri uted
nd o equ
l size; the initi
l seed r
dius is one o the model
p
r
meters
nd must e speci
ied y the user. The de
ult v
lue is 1.0 10-6 m.
• The num er o seed u les per unit volume o liquid is const
nt
nd is
lso
model p
r
meter to e speci ied. This p
r
meter h
s
strong in luence on the

mount o gener
ted v
pour (see the “M
them
tic
l model” description
Ch
Multi- luid C
vit
ting Flows
Version 4.12 14-9
elow)
nd h
s to e set with re erence to experiment
l d
t
or
given
liquid. Roughness elements on w
lls
lso
ct
s
ddition
l seeds ut
re not
sep
r
tely
t
ken into
ccount. The de
ult v
lue is 1.0 1012.
• All u les present in
control volume
t
ny time
re spheric
l
nd o the
s
me size
• Both liquid
nd v
pour densities
re const
nt. Other liquid
nd v
pour
properties (such
s molecul
r viscosity, speci ic he
t c
p
city,
l
therm
conductivity, etc.),
s well
s the s
tur
tion pressure, c
n e v
ri
le.
• The density r
tioo v
pour to liquid is sm
ll, << 1
• There is no slip etween u les
nd liquid, i.e. v
pour u les
re tre
ted
s

component o the luid mixture

In gener
l, the c
vit
tion eh
viour depends strongly on the num er o nuclei
n
d
much less on the initi
l r
dius. In the
sence o experiment
l d
t
, the ollow
ing
recommend
tions c
n e given or choosing the model p
r
meters in v
rious
pplic
tion
re
s:
• For high-pressure, high-velocity systems such
s engine injectors,
higher
v
lue o nuclei num er density (in the r
nge 1.0 1011 — 1.0 1014) m
y e
used
• For lower-pressure, l
rger-dimension
systems such
s pumps, hydro oils, ship
propellers, pipelines, etc.,
num er density in the r
nge 1.0 106 — 1.0 1010
is
ppropri
te
• The de
ult v
lue o the initi
l seed- u le r
dius is
ppropri
te or
ll
pplic
tions.
However, one h
s to m
ke sure th
t the initi
l seed r
dius
nd
nuclei num er density give
re
son
le v
lue or the initi
l v
pour volume
r
ction, , i.e.
(14-13)
should e o the order o 1.0 10-6 to 1.0 10-4 (depending on liquid
properties).
The ollowing e
tures
re supported when computing c
vit
ting lows:
• He
t tr
ns er, including solid- luid conjug
te he
t tr
ns er
• All tur ulence models
• Porous medi

nd porous
les
• User-de ined momentum
nd/or energy sources
• Moving grids
• Free sur
ce lows (
su set o multi- luid lows)
• Euleri
n implicit
nd three-time-level tempor
l discretis
tion schemes
The ollowing e
tures
re not supported:
• L
gr
ngi
n
nd Euleri
n multi-ph
se lows
• Chemic
l re
ctions
• R
di
tive he
t tr
ns er
ρv ⁄ ρ1
α0
α0
4πR0
( 3 ⁄ 3)n0
1 4πR0
( 3 ⁄ 3)n+ 0
= -----------------------------------------

MULTI-FLUID AND PHASE-CHAN E MODELS Chater 14
Multi-fluid Cavitating Flows
14-10 Version 4.12
Mathematical model
The transort of vaour is comuted using equation (14-2). In cavitating flows,
the
fact that we do not attemt to resolve the interface between the fluids results
in a
ossible absence of a shar interface between vaour and liquid.
The initial volume fraction of vaour is defined by the number of seed bubbles
and their initial radius (see equation (14-15) below). As bubbles move through t
he
solution domain, their radius changes according to the local ressure. The rate
of
change of a bubble’s radius along its ath (the bubble growth rate) is estimated
using the Rayleigh equation:
(14-14)
where R is the bubble radius, the saturation ressure and the local absolute
ressure around the bubble. With the hel of this equation, an exression for th
e
volumetric vaour source or sink at a given location in sace is derived [14.3].
Note
that the rate at which a vaour bubble grows when it asses a given location in
the
flow domain deends, according to the above exression, only on the local ressu
re
and not on its radius or the history of revious changes. This fact makes for an
easy
transition from a Lagrangian (along the bubble ath) to an Eulerian (within a fi
xed
volume) analysis.
Following the assumtion of a rescribed number of sherical bubbles of
radius R within a unit volume of liquid and the definition of volume fraction gi
ven
by equation (14-1), the vaour volume fraction can be exressed as
(14-15)
From the exression for the material derivative of one arrives, after some
re-arrangement and using the continuity equation for the mixture, to the exress
ion
for the source term in equation (14-2). This is of the following form:
(14-16)
Substitution of equation (14-14) for the bubble growth rate leads to the final
exression for the source term.
Equation (14-14) is a simlification of the more general Rayleigh-Plesset
equation which in addition takes inertial, surface tension and viscous effects i
nto
account. However, research results resented so far in the literature suggest th
at the
trouble of taking the extended form of the bubble growth rate equation into acco
unt
is not justified in most ractical alications. The largest modelling error ari
ses
from the assumtion that bubble growth and collase velocities are fully symmetr
ic,
see equation (14-14); so that while this equation describes bubble growth relati
vely
well, it is not a fully accurate descrition of the bubble collase hase. Anoth
er
imortant factor not taken into account is the effect of non-condensable gases
dR
dt
------ sign( v – )
2 v –
3ρ1
= ---------------------
pv
n0
αv
(4πR3 ⁄ 3)n0
1 + (4πR3 ⁄ 3)n0
= ---------------------------------------
αv
sαv
4πR2n0
1 + (4πR3 ⁄ 3)n0
--------------------------------------- dR
dt
= ------
Chater 14 MULTI-FLUID AND PHASE-CHAN E MODELS
Melting and Solidification
Version 4.12 14-11
(mostly air dissolved in the liquid which may accumulate in bubbles along with t
he
vaour).
Boundary conditions for vaour volume fraction are of the same kind as gas
volume fraction conditions in free-surface flows.
Discretisation and solution method
Since there may be no shar interface between vaour and liquid, the HRIC scheme
used for volume fraction in free-surface flows should not be alied to the vao
ur
volume fraction in a cavitating flow. The equation for vaour volume fraction is
usually dominated by the source term, which makes the solution less sensitive to
the
choice of differencing scheme for convective fluxes. While it is imortant that
the
velocity of the mixture is comuted with a higher-order aroximation, the
convective fluxes for the vaour volume fraction can be comuted using either th
e
first-order uwind or the MARS scheme.
The following boundary tyes are suorted when comuting cavitating flows:
• Inlet
• Sli and no-sli walls
• Symmetry lanes
• Static and iezometric ressure
• Baffles
• Cyclic boundaries (excet for artial cyclics in which the mass flow rate is
secified)
• Attachment boundaries
• Monitoring boundaries
Note that the ‘fixed mass flux’ limitation for inlet boundaries in free-surface flow
s
mentioned on age 14-7 also alies to cavitation roblems.
Imlementation details
The overall rocess of setting u cavitation roblems, including details of the
user
inut required, is described
in Chater 11, “Setting U Multi-fluid and Cavitation
Cases” of the CCM User uide.
Melting and Solidification
Introduction
STAR-CD’s melting/solidification model allows users to simulate hase changes in
a material, along with solving for a velocity field, ressure, temerature and,
if
necessary, turbulence. The model assumes that hase changes for a ure substance
or one containing a “mushy” region can be reresented by a linearly-varying liquid
fraction .vs. temerature hase diagram. The following list summarises current
caabilities:
1. eneral hase change model for any material tye
2. Pouring and filling of a cast with solidification
3. Solidification or melting with natural convection
4. Macro-orosity rediction (hase change
shrinkage due to ρl ≠ ρs )
MULTI-FLUID AND PHASE-CHANGE MODELS C apt 14
M lting and Solidification
14-12
V sion 4.12
T folloing is a list of cu nt limitations:
1. T m lting/solidification
mod l can only b appli d to on substanc
und going p as c ang
2. T cu nt v sion of t mod l do s not suppo t adiation f om all
bounda i s
3. If an scap (op n) bounda y xists in t solution domain, it must b of typ
P ssu o Inl t.
4. STAR-CD’s iquid fi m mode is not supported
Physica mode
The conservation of static entha py is the on y avai ab e energy mode for
me ting/so idification and is expressed as fo ows:
(14-17)
A entities appearing in the above equation are defined in this manua , except
that
in this case is defined for a mu ti-component system as fo ows:
(14-18)
where
(14-19)
In the above, represents the component number, the vo ume fraction of
component and the tota number of components. A typica
entha py-temperature diagram for a pure substance is depicted in Figure 14-2.
∂t
∂ (ρ )
∂x j
∂ ρuj F j + ( + , )
t ∂
∂ p uj x j ∂
∂ p τij x j ∂
∂ui sh = + + +
h
h
αmρm
ρ
-------------- m
m = 1
NmΣ =
ρ ρmαm
m = 1
NmΣ =
m αm
m Nm
Ch
Melting
nd olidi ic
tion
Version 4.12 14-13
Figure 14-2 Typic
l di
gr
m or
pure su st
nce
nd its
pproxim
tion y
inite slope
Following the di
gr
m, the enth
lpy or
ph
se-ch
nge p
ir is:
(14-20)
(14-21)
where ,
nd
re the solidus
nd liquidus temper
ture
or
su st
nce. For
component in the mixture th
t does not ch
nge ph
se, the
enth
lpy is .
For
pure su st
nce so the slope o is in inite
t .
For this re
son,
inite di erence rel
tionship
(14-22)
h – T
h – T
h1
cp1T i T T1
≤ h
cp1T1
h i T1
h T T2 l < <
⎩ ⎪ ⎨ ⎪ ⎧
=
h2
cp2T cp1 cp2 – ( )Tm L + + if T T2 l ≥
cp2T2 l + (cp1 – cp2)Tm + L if T1
h T T2 l < <
⎩ ⎪ ⎨ ⎪ ⎧
=
Tm T1
h T2 l = ( + ) ⁄ 2 T1
h T2 l
hm = cpmT
T1
h T2 l = = Tm h(T) T = Tm
T1
h T2 l – = ε
MULTI-FLUID AND PHASE-CHANGE MODELS Chapt r 14
M ltig ad Solidifi atio
14-14 V rsio 4.12
is itrodu d to obtai a fiit slop , as d pi t d by th dash d li i Figur
14-2.
Num ri al pro dur
Th volum fra tios of th liquid ad solid phas s ar tr at d as a tiv s alar
variabl s. If shrikag ad possibl r atio of aviti s is to b simulat d, a
additioal s alar r pr s tig th volum fra tio of a “vapour” phas ds to b
r at d as w ll. If fillig of a mould is b ig simulat d, th fr surfa b tw
th
liquid m lt ad th gas is tak ito a out.
For a fillig probl m with solidifi atio, it is v ry importat to hoos th ri
ght
tim st p ssary for a stabl ad a urat simulatio. A rul of thumb approa
h
is to adjust th st p siz so that it tak s at l ast two st ps for th liquid m
tal to t r
ad fill a av rag -siz d fiit volum ll. M sh s of uiform ll siz ar o
t
ommoly us d i pra ti al appli atios; th r for , a it rativ approa h is usu
ally
ssary to fid th optimum tim st p. If solidifi atio tak s pla wh r th
v lo ity fi ld is r lativ ly los to z ro, it is also advisabl to arrag for
th
solidifi atio frot to tak two tim st ps i passig through a ll. This is
sp ially
importat wh takig ito a out phas - hag -r lat d shrikag .
Additioal f atur s
Ma ro-porosity
For th pr di tio of ma ro-porosity, us of th STAR-CD avitatio mod l is
r quir d alog with ompr ssibility mod llig for th liquid m tal (s “Mat rial
prop rti s for ompo t fluids” i this hapt r for a d s riptio of th availabl
ompr ssibility mod ls). Th sugg st d liquid m tal ompr ssibility mod l is th
log-law r latioship, usig th mod l’s param t rs for wat r.
R gardig avitatio, th sugg st d valu s for th umb r of u l i is 105
[1/m3], for av rag u l ar radius is 10-6 [m], ad for saturatio pr ssur is 2
000
[Pa] (s also th s tio o th avitatio mod l’s “Assumptios ad limitatios”).
Not that w ar ot a tually mod llig ompr ssibility or avitatio of th liq
uid
m tal but rath r usig th ompr ssibility mod l to obtai a pr ssur history a
d th
avitatio mod l to r pla th volum lost du to phas - hag shrikag . Th
abov pro dur is oly appli abl wh th solid d sity is gr at r tha th li
quid
d sity.
For simulatios wh r th solid d sity is l ss tha th liquid d sity, it is
importat to ith r hav a boudary oditio that will a ommodat th i r as
i volum of th solidifi d m lt or to itrodu ompr ssibility for th liquid
m lt.
Th a ura y of th pr ssur ris du to th diff r t d siti s will d p d o
th
param t rs us d i th ompr ssibility mod l.
Impl m tatio d tails
Th ov rall pro ss of s ttig up m ltig/solidifi atio probl ms, i ludig d t
ails
of th us r iput r quir d, is d s rib d i Chapt r 11, “S ttig Up
M ltig/Solidifi atio Cas s” of th CCM Us r Guid .
Chapt r 15 LIQUID FILMS
Mass Cos rvatio Equatios
V rsio 4.12 15-1
Th liquid film mod l of STAR-CD V3.2 has b r -d sig d for us i STAR-CD
V4.02. Th mod l pr di ts th dyami hara t risti s of wall films. This is a
ommo ph om o pr s t i a wid rag of situatios, su h as automotiv
gi s, gas turbi s, spray- oolig syst ms, ik-j t prit rs, t . A parti ula
r
xampl is th port fu l ij t d (PFI) gasoli gi , wh r sprays from fu l
i j tors impi g a d form a film o th walls of itak ports, valv s ad pisto

s.
Th subs qu t b haviour of th film has a strog iflu o mixtur pr parati
o,
ombustio ad missios. Th ability to pr di t th film’s dyami hara t risti
s
is th r for importat to th d v lopm t of su h gi s.
Th basi Eul ria mod l to solv liquid film quatios is bas d o th work of
Bai ad Gosma [15.1]. Th mod l for multi- ompo t vaporatio ad
od satio o th film surfa is bas d o th th ory giv i [15.2] ad [15.
3].
Th mod l a outs for ov tiv trasport of os rv d quatiti s withi th f
ilm
ad from/to th gas phas . Major assumptios mad i th basi mod l formulatio
ar :
• Th film is thi ough for th boudary lay r approximatio to apply
• Th film stays atta h d to th boudary ul ss a it ral/s parat mod l is
us d to pr di t film s paratio
• Th v lo ity profil a ross th film is paraboli ad th t mp ratur profil is
pi wis -li ar
• Th flow is lamiar ad i ompr ssibl
• Th work do by sh ar for s is gligibl
• Th aalysis is trasi t
Usig th s assumptios, th film os rvatio quatios giv b low ar
it grat d ov r th volum of liquid film o a h film ll to obtai a s t of
alg brai quatios.
A d s riptio of th way film mod llig is impl m t d i STAR-CD is giv
i Chapt r 12 of th CCM Us r Guid . That d s riptio also i lud s
ross-r f r s to appropriat parts of th o-li H lp syst m, otaiig
d tails of th us r iput r quir d ad importat poits to b ar i mid wh s t
tig
up probl ms of this kid.
Mass Cos rvatio Equatios
Th mass os rvatio quatio is giv by
(15-1)
wh r is th film d sity, h th film thi k ss, th film v lo ity, ad subs rip
t
l d ot s th liquid film valu s. Th quatity is th mass sour /sik p r uit
ar a du to dropl t wall impig m t or film s paratio ad is assum d to apply
uiformly alog th liquid film d pth.
Th sp i s mass os rvatio quatios ar giv by
∂ρl
∂t ------- + ∇ ⋅ (ρl ul)
m˙ imp
h
= ------------
ρl ul
m˙ imp
LIQUID FILMS Chape 15
Momen um Conse va ion Equa ion
15-2 Ve sion 4.12
(15-2)
whe e is he mass f ac ion of species i, an he mass iffusion coefficien
.
The quan i y is he mass sou ce/sink fo species i an is ela e o by
Taking ξ as th local coordinat normal to th wall, with its origin at th bounda
ry
and its positiv dir ction into th liquid film, th condition at th gas-film i
nt rfac
is giv n by [15.3]
(15-3)
wh r is th mass cond nsation rat at th gas-liquid film int rfac , th
d nsity, and th mass diffusion co ffici nt of th gas phas . Subscripts g and i
nt
ar us d to indicat th gas and int rfac valu s.
Mom ntum Cons rvation Equation
Th mom ntum cons rvation quation is giv n by
(15-4)
wh r is th mom ntum sourc corr sponding to th mass sourc , th
pr ssur , g th acc l ration du to gravity, th str ss t nsor within th liquid
film,
and δ ot
s th Dirac lta fuctio. Th co itio at th it rfac is
wh r a
ot th viscosity of th liqui film a gas phas , r sp ctiv ly.
Assumig that th ormal compo ts of th viscous a co v ctiv t rms ar
gligibl , from quatio (15-4) w obtai th pr ssur istributio withi th

liqui film as
(15-5)
wh r is th wall ormal poitig ito th flui .
Eff
ct of Co tact A gl o ilm Mov m t
U r th actio of surfac t sio, liqui films ca stick to walls i th form
of
rops. This s ctio scrib s a approach origially v lop by oucart [15.4]
to

mo l this ph om o.
∂
∂t ---- ρl Yi l , ( ) ∇ ρl + ⋅ ( ul Yi, l) ∇ (ρl Dl ∇Yi, l)
m˙ iimp
h
= ⋅ + -----------
Yi, l Dl
m˙ iimp m˙ imp
m˙ imp m˙ iimp
i Σ
=
m˙ con (Yi, lint – Yi, gint ) ρlint Dl
∂Yi, l
∂ξ
⎝-----------⎠
⎛ ⎞
lin

ρgin Dg
∂Yi
∂ξ
⎝--------⎠
⎛ ⎞
gin
+ – = 0
m˙ con ρg
Dg
∂
∂
---- ρl ul ( ) ∇ ρl + ⋅ ( ul ul) = –∇pl + ρl g + ∇ ⋅ τl + Simp δ(ξ – h)
Simp pl
τl
μl ξ ∂
∂u
⎝ ⎠
⎛ ⎞
lin
μg ξ ∂
∂u
⎝ ⎠
⎛ ⎞
gin
= = τin
μl μg
pl(ξ) pgint Simp n n
∂
∂t
⋅ ---- (ρl ul) dξ – ρl(g ⋅ n)( – ξ)
ξ
h
= – ⋅ + ∫
Eff ct of Contact Angl on Film Mov m nt
V rsion 4.12 15-3
Volum of wall-adh ring drops
Th mod l assum s that a drop adh ring to th wall ta s th form of a sph rical
cap, as shown in Figur 15-1.
Figur 15-1 Drop on a hori ontal plan
In th abov figur , R is th drop radius and th contact angl . On may comput
th drop volum as
, with (15-6)
From quation (15-6), th drop radius can b comput d as
(15-7)
Forc acting on drops
A drop attach d to an inclin d wall is subj ct to th forc s illustrat d in Figu
r 15-2.
Wall
drop
con R
O

θc
θc
θc
Vg
23
= --πR3 f (θc) f (θc) 1 θc
12
= – cos – --( sinθc)2 cosθc
R 3
2π ------
Vg
f (θc) -------------
1 ⁄ 3
=
LI UID FILMS Chapter 15
Effect of Contact Angle on Film Movement
15-4 Version 4.12
Figure 15-2 Forces acting on a drop adhering to an inclined wall
Given a drop mass of
and a gravity field g, the weight of the drop can be written as
(15-8)
The surface tension force T is given as the gradient of the drop’s surface energy
, where
where σ i th urf
c t n ion co ffici nt. W th r for h
v wh r t
i
unit v ctor in th t
n nti
l dir ction to th w
ll,
nd
(15-9)
Th r
ction forc W i p rp ndicul
r to th w
ll.
Th r l
tion hip b tw n th forc
ctin on th drop
nd it
cc l r
tion
c
n
b writt n

(15-10)
Aft r implific
tion
nd proj ction into th dir ction of t, w obt
in
(15-11)
t
n
W
P

T
α
m ρ23
= --πR3 f (θc)
P = mg g
P ρ23
= --πR3 f (θc)g
Es = πσr2(1 – co θc) r = Rsinθc
T ∂r
∂Es = – t
T = –2πσR inθc(1 – cosθc)t
P + W + T = mga
13
--R2 f θc ( )ρg α σ θc
sin – cos 1 θc cos – ( ) 13
=--R2 f (θc)ρa
C apt 15 LIQUID FILMS
Eff ct of Contact Angl on Film Mov m nt
V sion 4.12 15-5
Solving
fo R and placing
a by , is t film v locity and is
t tim st p, obtain t c itical adius as
(15-12)
T ansition c it
ion
To fo mulat t is c it ion, consid a film of t ickn ss and associat it
it
a volum
, (15-13)
is t footp int diam t of a d op it c itical adius on a v tical al
l
and is d fin d as
(15-14)

T d op adius R at any point in tim and spac may b calculat d by placing
in quation (15-7) by t xp ssion fo V giv n in (15-13) abov . T t ansitio
n
c it ion
may t nb fo mulat d as:
• If, t film ad s to t all
•Ot is , t film continu s to mov
T co ffici nt c abov (d fault valu 1.0) is off d as a tuning pa am t .
ical p oc du
Num
T contact angl mod l is impl m nt d as s o n b lo :
1. D t min t a liquid film dg xists at ac fac b t n t o
adjac nt film c lls. A fac is d m d to b a film dg if t film t ickn ss is
z o on on sid and non-z o on t ot .
2. If a liquid film dg is found fo a giv n fac , apply t c it ion d sc ib
din
t “T ansition c it ion” section. If the drop is to adhere to the wa , set a
f uxes through this face to zero and mark the ce with finite thickness for a
ater visit.
3. For each marked fi m ce in step 2, app y a brake term of the form
to the momentum equation, where b is a numerica
coefficient, m the fi m mass in the ce , the fi m ve ocity re ative to the
wa and n a unit vector in the direction of the fi m thickness gradient.
The current imp ementation in STAR-CD assumes the fo owing conditions:
• The wa is stationary or moves at a constant ve ocity
• The grid movement, if any, needs to conform with the wa movement.
–v f ⁄ Δt v Δt
Rc
Rc
3σ inθc(1 – cosθc)
ρ f (θc) g cosα
v
Δt
⎝ + -----⎠
⎛ ⎞
= ---------------------------------------------------
h f
V π4
---Lc
= 2h f
Lc Rc
Lc 2 θc
3σ inθc(1 – cosθc)
ρ f (θc)g
= sin ------------------------------------------------
Vg
R cRc
<
–bm(n ⋅ urel)n
urel

LI UID FILMS Chapter 15
Enthalpy Conservation Euation
15-6 Version 4.12
Enthalpy Conservation Euation
The enthalpy conservation euation is given by
(15-15)
where is the enthalpy, the temperature and the thermal conductivity of the
liuid film. Term is the enthalpy source corresponding to and is
assumed to spread uniformly along the liuid film depth. The condition at the
interface is given by [15.3]
(15-16)
where is the heat source due to condensation, defined as
(15-17)
where is the latent heat of condensation and the condensation rate of
species i. Evaporation is modelled in a similar way, by reversing the sign of th
e
source term given above.
Condensation / Evaporation
The condensation/evaporation rate at the surface of the liuid film is evaluated
as
follows:
(15-18)
(15-19)
where subscript cell denotes the value at the centroid of the cell next to the l
iuid
film cell and B is the Spalding transfer number defined as
(15-20)
The summations are taken over all species contained within the liuid film. The
term can be expressed as
∂
∂t
---- ρl l ( ) ∇ ρl + ⋅ ( ul hl) ∇ (kl ∇Tl) Q˙imp
h
= ⋅ + -----------
hl Tl kl
Q˙imp m˙ imp
kg
∂T
∂ξ
⎝------⎠
⎛ ⎞
gin
Q˙con kl
∂T
∂ξ
⎝------⎠
⎛ ⎞
lin
+ – = 0
Q˙con
Q˙con Licon m˙ icon
i Σ
=
Licon m˙ icon
m˙ con
ρi, gint Di, g (1 + B) Yi g, c ll Yi, gint ln ( – )
i Σ
⎝ ⎠
⎛ ⎞
B 1 Yi, gin
i Σ
⎝ – ⎠
⎛ ⎞
= ------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------

m˙ icon m˙ con Yi, lin ρlin Dl
∂Yi
∂z
⎝--------⎠
⎛ ⎞
lin
= +
B
Yi, gin Yi, gcell
i Σ
–
i Σ
⎝ ⎠
⎛ ⎞
1 Yi, gin
i Σ
⎝ – ⎠
⎛ ⎞
= --------------------------------------------------------

Yi, gin
Chap e 15 LIQUID FILMS
Film S ipping
Ve sion 4.12 15-7
(15-21)
whe e is he pa ial p essu e of species i a he in e face an is he species
molecula weigh . Raoul ’s law mo els as
(15-22)
whe e is he mola f ac ion of species i in he liqui phase a he in e face an

is he equilib ium vapou p essu e of a pu e species i a he in e face
empe a u e T.
Film S ipping
Depen ing on he physical p ocesses
ope a ion an he
in y of
geome he wall on
which he liqui film esi es, he la e can become e ache f om he wall an
fo m
ople s wi hin he con inuous phase (film s ipping). The e a e h ee mechanism
s
of in e es fo engine
simula ions:
1. S ipping ue o wave ins abili y gene a e by an a jacen
gas
flow
2. S ipping ue o bo y-fo ce in uce ins abili y (g avi y, pis on accele a ion
)
3. B eak-up cause
by flow ove a shape ge, such as an in ake valve
sea
A physical mo el ha cove s hefi s wo mechanisms is esc ibe in sec ion
“Wave an bo y-fo ce in uce ins abili y” be ow. The third mechanism is
described in section “Fi m break-up from a sharp edge”.
Wave and body-force induced instabi ity
Due to externa forces such as gravity or shearing at the interface between a i
quid
fi m and its surrounding gas, the fi m surface may deve op instabi ities and sta
rt
shedding drop ets. The mode described here is based on the origina documentati
on
of Herve Foucart [15.4] and it postu ates that stripping at the surface occurs i
n a
three-stage process, as represented schematica y in Figure 15-3.
Figure 15-3 I ustration of iquid fi m stripping mechanism
First, waves deve op at the iquid-gas interface, as shown in (a). As these wave
s
grow, they become unstab e and form cy inders of iquid which are ejected into t
he
surrounding gas, as shown in (b). The cy inders then break up further forming
Yi, gint
pi, gintWi
pj, gintWj
j Σ
= -----------------------------
pi, gint Wi
pi, gint
pi, gint = Xi, lint pi, pure(T)
Xi, lint
pi, pure(T)

(
) ( ) (c)
n
h
Liquid
Film n n
u u u
ud
h -h
h
n
W
ll
Ejected
Cylinder
Ejected
Droplets
LIQUID FILM Ch
pter 15
Film tripping
15-8 Version 4.12
spheric
l droplets,
s shown in (c). The model is closed y computing the r
dius
o
the child droplets
s
unction o the most unst
le w
velength ch
r
cterising
the
sur
ce inst
ility.
It is gener
lly
ccepted [15.5] th
t or sur
ce stripping:
• Ejection occurs when critic
l conditions
re s
tis ied, i.e.
minimum height is
required or droplet ejection
• Theejected luid volume orms
cylinder,
s
result o the Kelvin-Helmotz
inst
ility
• The cylinder then re
ks into droplets due to R
yleigh-T
ylor inst
ilities
H
ving ch
r
cterised sur
ce stripping
s
unction o w
velength, the strippin
g
model rel
tionships
re now closed y computing the w
velength
or which sur
ce
re
k-up is most likely to occur. This is the most unst
le w
velength, c
lcul
t
ed

s the reson
nce w
velength using the dispersion equ
tion.
olving the dispersion equ
tion or sur
ce w
ves, we o t
in the reson
nce
w
velength
s:
(15-23)
where is the ilm density, the g
s density, the g
s/ ilm rel
tive velocity,
the sur
ce tension, the gr
vity vector
nd the vector norm
l to the ilm
sur
ce,
s shown in Figure 15-3.
The minimum height necess
ry or droplet ejection is then
(15-24)
The ilm height to e stripped, i.e. the sur
ce w
ve
mplitude, is
(15-25)
The resulting droplet r
dius is
(15-26)
The num er 1.89 in equ
tion (15-25)
nd (15-26)
rises rom R
yleigh theory
nd
me
ns th
t the r
dius o e
ch droplet gener
ted rom the cylinder is 1.89 times
the
r
dius o th
t cylinder.
All droplets initi
lly h
ve the s
me velocity
s the ilm
nd
re pl
ced
t
po
int

etween the cell centre
nd the ound
ry
ce centre, depending on the r
dius o
the
ejected droplet.
Although no consider
tion o time sc
le is included in the origin
l stripping
model, the time sc
le c
n e de ined in terms o
line
r growth r
te
s
λr
2π
ρl g ⋅ n --------------- 13
--ρg U2 Δ 13
--ρg UΔ 2 ⎝ ⎠
⎛ ⎞2
⎝ – – ρl g ⋅ nσ⎠
= ⎛ ⎞
ρl ρg U2
σ n
hmin
λr
2π
= ------
ha
34
-- 1
1.893
⎝ ------------⎠
⎛ ⎞2
= πλr
rd 1.89
λrha
π
= ----------
Chater 15 LIQUID FILMS
Film Striing
Version 4.12 15-9
(15-27)
where We is the Weber number and the most unstable mode occurs when
. Using this time scale, striing is exected to occur times
during a time ste . This correction for the striing frequency is available in
the
current STAR-CD imlementation.
Film break-u from a shar edge
A model for the break-u of liquid films over a shar edge has been roosed by
Maroteaux et al. [15.6] based on the Rayleigh-Taylor instability. This model
contains the break-u criterion and resulting drolet diameter distribution and
offers
enough detail to imlement the model in STAR-CD. However, ubaidullin [15.7]

has raised a question about the validity of the break-u criterion. Therefore, i
n this
version of STAR-CD we adot an alternative criterion roosed by Friedrich et al
.
[15.8], based on a force balance, but still use the drolet diameter distributio
n given
by Maroteaux et al.
Model details
The model is alied only for edges whose corner angle , shown in Figure 15-4,
is greater than a redefined minimum corner angle .
Figure 15-4 Illustration of edge film striing geometry
The force ratio FR, which is essentially the ratio of film momentum flux to the
surface tension and gravity force, is given by
(15-28)
where
— film Weber number,
— film Bond number,
— film density
— film velocity
— film thickness
tb
λr(ρl + ρg )
U 1 W – ( )ρl Δ ρg
= ---------------------------------------------

W = 2 ⁄ 3 Δt ⁄ t
Δt
θ
θmin
uf
θ
gθ
FR
Wef
Max 1 1
sinθ
---------- Bof
Lb
h f sinθ
----------------- 10–20 + + ,
= ------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------
Wef
ρ f u f
2 f ⁄ σ
Bof ρ f gθhf 2 ⁄ σ
ρ f
u f
f
LIQUID FILMS C apt 15
Boiling Mod l
15-10 V sion 4.12
—film su fac t nsion
T t m in t Bond numb d finition is t compon nt of accl ation
no mal

to t do nst am sid of t all, as s on in Figu 15-4. W n t film flo
coming into t co n is on a stationa y o izontal plan , av
g is t g avitational acc l ation. In tis cas , quation (15-28) duc
sto
t xp ssion givn in [15.8].
T b ak-up l ngt is giv n by A ai and Has imoto [15.9] as
(15-29)

— film R ynolds numb ,
— lativ W b numb ,
— film viscosity
— gas d nsity
—gas v locity
T b ak-up is d m d to occu if , t c itical fo c atio
is p opos d in [15.8].
adopt t mod l p s nt d in [15.6] by assuming
t d opl t fo mation,
Fo
av l ngt is p opo tional to t b ak-up l ngt . Und
tat t most unstabl
t is assumption, t pa nt d opl t diam t is stimat d by [15.6] as
(15-30)
is an adjustm nt constant os d fault valu is s t to 3.78. Tis

co sponds to s tting t most unstabl av l ngt qual to . T d opl t siz
dist ibution is d t min d by a Rosin-Ramml dist ibution
(15-31)
by d fault and
(15-32)
Fo ac d opl t pa c l c ation, a andom numb b t n 0 and 1 is g n at d a
s
t valu of and quation (15-31) is solv d to obtain t co sponding
d opl t diam t .
Boiling
Mod l
T standa d pool boiling co lation [15.10] is us d to mod l liquid film boili
ng.

W n t all t mp atu xc ds t satu ation t mp atu of t liquid
, t film sta ts to boil and at flux passing f om t
t
all to t film
inc as s in p opo tion to t cubic po of as:
σ
θ
gθ = g cosθ
Lb
Lb 0.0388h f
0.5Re f
0.6Werel
–0.5 =
Re f ρ f u f f ⁄ μf
We el h f ρg (Ug – u f )2 ⁄ (2σ)
μf
ρg
Ug
FR > FRc
FRc = 1
Lb

D
D = c1 Lbh f ⁄ π
c1
Lb
F(D)
F(D) = 1 – ex[–(D ⁄ X)q]
q = 1.5
X = Dd ⁄ (3ln10)1 ⁄ q
F(D)
Tw
Tsat
δTw ≡ Tw – Tsat
Chapt r 15LIQUID ILMS
Boilig Mo l
V rsio 4.12 15-11
(15-33)
wh r th viscosity , Pra tl umb
r a sp cific h at ar
valuat for
th liqui phas . a ot th sity of th liqui a gas phas ,
r sp ctiv ly. , a ot th h at of vaporizatio, gravity acc l ratio
a surfac
t sio co ffici t, r sp ctiv ly. Th co sta ts a charact riz
th flui a wall surfac [15.10]. or xampl , for a wat r-brass cotact, th
valu s
ar a .
Th h at flux icr as s as icr as s but o s ot xc a critical h at flux
giv by:
(15-34)
wh r . Aft r has b attai , th h at flux cr as s to its
miimum at th L i frost t mp ratur :
(15-35)
wh r .
Equatig quatios (15-33) a (15-34), o
obtai s th wall t mp ratur

at which th maximum h at flux is attai , wh r
(15-36)

Bas o th abov corr latios, STAR calculat s th h at flux from th wall as
follows:
If th
ls if th
ls if th
(15-37)
ls
qb
μf h fg
P f
n
-------------
cpf δTw
Csf h fg
⎝-----------------⎠
⎛ ⎞3 g (ρ f – ρg )
σ ⎝--------------------------⎠
⎛ ⎞1 ⁄ 2
=
μ f P f cpf
ρ f ρg
h fg g σ
C f n
C f = 0.006 n = 3
Tw
qm
x cm
xρg
1 ⁄ 2 fg [ g (ρ f – ρg )σ]1 ⁄ 4 =
cm
x = 0.15 qm
x
TL
qmin cminρg fg [ g (ρ f – ρg )σ]1 ⁄ 4(ρ f + ρg )–1 ⁄ 2 =
cmin = 0.09
TS = Tsat + δTS
δTS
Csf Cmax
1 ⁄ 3Prf ⁄ 3σ1 ⁄ 4ρg
1 ⁄ 6 fg
cpf μ f
1 ⁄ 3 g1 ⁄ 12(ρ f – ρg )1 ⁄ 12 = ----------------------------------------------------------
------
δTw < δTS
qw = qb
δTw < CSδTS
qw = qmax
δTw < δTL
qw qmin
δTL – δTw
δTL – CSδTS
= + -------------------------------(qmax
– qmin)
LIQUID FILMS Chap e 15
Nume ical Implemen a ion
15-12 Vesion 4.12
He e, an is assume
o be 1.2.

Once boiling s a s, he hea con uc ivi y of he liqui film is mo ifie in o
e
o allow he specifie
a e of hea flux h ough he liqui filmlaye
. Fo
muli-componen cases, hemass flux
of each componen
is assume
o be he same

as he mass f acion of sau a e vapou . The cu en implemen a ion igno es he
hys e esis effec ofwall empe a u e on boiling.
Nume ical Implemen a ion

Equa ions (15-2), (15-4) an (15-15) a e in eg a e ove he volume of liqui fi
lm
in each film cell o ob ain a se of algeb aic equa ions. A con ensa ion sou ce
/
a ion sink e m a ises as a boun a y e m when he in eg a ion is ca ie
evapo
ou .
The equa ions a e solve in ems of he following s eps:
1. Solve conse va ion equa
he ions in he gas an soli omains by ea ing he
convec ive e ms wihin liqui film as fixe . In he en halpy conseva ion
equa
ion, he liqui film is ea e as an a i ional he mal esis ance an hea

ese voi a he wall. Momen um/hea /mass ansfe an o he coefficien s a e
s o e along he way fo use in solving
he liqui film equa
ions
la e on.
2. Evaluae he con ensa ion/evapo a ion a e using
a New on me ho
.
3. Solve he liqui film anspo equa ions by ea ing he fiel values in he
gas

an soli omains as fixe .
I e a e s eps 2 an 3 a specifie numbe of imes if sub-i e a ion is specifi
4.
e .
5. I ea e s eps 1, 2, 3 an 4 in he PISO o SIMPLE loop un il conve gence is
eache
.
In he cu en implemen a ion, he film cell connec ivi y is also cons uc e
explici
ly wi hin he STAR-CD
solve . This enables he
liqui film va iable
solu ions o be ob aine i ec ly in he film cells ha esi e on no-slip walls
an
baffles.
qw qmin
δTw
δTL
⎝----------⎠
= ⎛ ⎞
δTL = TL – Tsa CS
e 16 ROTATING AND MOVING MESHES
Chap
Ro a ing Refe ence F ames
Ve sion
4.12 16-1
Chap
e 16 ROTATING AND MOVING MESHES
Ro a ing Refe ence F ames
The o a ing efe ence fame simula ionfea u eof STAR-CD enables he use o
mo el cases whe e he en ie mesh is o a ing a a cons an angula veloci y (ω)
about a p sc ib d axis. T sam f atu is xt nd d to multipl otating f am
s of
f nc , in ic diff nt angula v lociti s (and v n diff nt otating ax
s)
a assign d to diff nt m s blocks it in t mod l. Applications t is
facility may b us d includ :
• Tu bomac in y
• To qu conv t s
• Mixing v ss ls
• Axial and c nt ifugal pumps
• Duct d fans
Basic
conc pts
T mom ntum quations in otating f nc f am s a modifi d by taking into
account t Co iolis andc nt ifugal fo c s. STAR-CD automatically adds sou c
t ms co sponding to t s fo c s in t l vant quations. In suc a mod l,
t
f nc f am of t solution domain otat sit a constant angula v locity
about a fix d axis. T latt is d fin d as t z-axis of a local coo dinat sy
st m
ob ys t ig t- and ul .
and
T a t o typ s of otational motion t at may b simulat d, co sponding
to:
1. Global otation, using a singl otating f nc f am .
2. Simulat d m s otation, using
multipl f nc f am s. T is allos
diff nt m s blocks it in t mod l to otat at diff
nt angula
v lociti s,i. . t otational sou c t ms add d to t l vant quations
dp nd on t local spin andaxis of otation. STAR-CD off s a c oic of
t num ical solution t cniqu s fo t is typ of p obl m:
(a) Implicit fo mulation — t is is t simpl st app oac and is xplain d in
s ction “Implicit m t od” on page 16-3.
(b) Exp icit formu ation — this approach offers more f exibi ity in setting up
the interfaces between rotating b ocks and is exp ained in section
“Exp icit method” on page 16-2.
(c) Non-ref ecting exp icit formu ation — this approach basica y fo ows the
same princip es as option (b) above, but is specia y tai ored to
turbomachinery prob ems where b ades are c ose y spaced or shocks are
expected to hit one or more of the rotating b ocks.
Note that the mu tip e rotating reference frame mode ing faci ity is on y app i
cab e
to steady-state prob ems. However, a transient ca cu ation may sti be performe
d to
obtain a steady-state so ution.
G oba rotation
This is the simp est case, where the entire mesh is made to rotate at an angu ar
ROTATING AND MOVING MESHES Chapter 16
Rotating Reference Frames
16-2 Version 4.12
ve ocity ω about a p sc ib d axis. T is is us ful in, fo xampl , otating
mac in y applications suc as axial and c nt ifugal pumps.
As not d abov :
• T axis o i ntation and s ns of otation a d fin d by t z-axis of a local
coo dinat syst m and t conv ntion t at ω ob ys t ig t- and ul .
• S l ction of t is option caus s STAR-CD to activat t Co iolis and
c nt ifugal fo c t ms automatically in t t anspo t quations of t
mat matical mod l.
Simulat
d m s otation
T basic id a is to simulat lativ m s otation by activating
t
app op iat otational
t ms at c lls it in ac sp cifi d m s block, it out
actually causing t m s to otat . It is t n possibl to av multipl adjoin
ing
otating blocks, ac it its on otational sp d. It is not n c ssa y to xpl
icitly
d fin
any m s mov m nt, as in t p obl ms d sc ib d und “Int nal Sliding
M s ”. Moreover, the ca cu ation can be performed as a steady-state one.
The effective re ative motion between b ocks is accounted for by appropriate
transformations between the ve ocities on either side of the dividing interface(
s). Of
course, the treatment is approximate, a though it becomes exact if the f ow a on
g the
interfaces is axisymmetric with respect to the axis of rotation. In order to
accommodate situations where the atter is not the case, provision is made for
circumferentia y averaging the f ows on either side of the interface. This simp
ified
but approximate treatment is especia y usefu in app ications invo ving many
rotating b ocks, such as an entire mu ti-stage compressor or the turbine assemb
y of
a jet engine.
As far as numerica imp ementation is concerned, the re ative rotationa motion
between two or more adjacent mesh b ocks is simu ated using an iterative
steady-state so ution procedure but without actua y introducing a s iding bound
ary
between each pair. Two so ution methods are avai ab e, exp icit and imp icit:
Exp icit method
This invo ves insertion of appropriate rotationa terms into the equations for e
ach
part of the rotating mesh. The atter are treated as separate f uid domains and
information between them is exchanged regu ar y. Loca boundary conditions are
imposed at the interfaces on a ce -by-ce basis as fo ows:
• If the direction of f ow is into the domain in question, the magnitude is
ca cu ated using the ve ocity in the neighbouring ce of the adjacent domain.
• If the f ow direction is out of the considered domain, the outf ow magnitude is
ca cu ated using the pressures in the two adjoining ce s.
The exp icit method wi produce a ‘correct’ so ution in circumstances where the
f ow at the interface is steady and axisymmetric with respect to the axis of rot
ation.
In order to enab e it to provide an approximate so ution when these conditions d
o
not ho d, provision is made to circumferentia y average the boundary va ues bef
ore
imposing them on the neighbouring domain. If the f uid is an idea gas, the
non-ref ecting exp icit option may be used which a ows for a higher deviation f
rom
axisymmetric f ow. Note that:
Chapter 16 ROTATING AND MOVING MESHES
Rotating Reference Frames
Version 4.12 16-3
• The mesh topo ogy (and number of ce s) of the domain at either side of the
interface separating the different rotating b ocks can be different. For
instance, if an axia turbine with 20 rotating b ades and 21 guide vanes is to b
e
simu ated, one repeatab e segment from each stage may be mode ed. Even if
the numbers of b ades are the same but the two stages are severe y swept back
or curved in different directions, the ‘natura ’ mesh ines for each domain can
be maintained without needing any matching at the interface.
• The axis of rotation must be identica for a the domains. The spin rate may
be different.
• Separate boundary regions must be assigned to the ce faces on each side of
the interface, with user-specified, paired boundaries across each interface.
These boundary conditions are updated during the run according to
user-specified parameters, i.e. updating frequency and under-re axation
factors.
• In genera , the In et boundary type shou d be chosen for faces with f ow into
the domain and the Pressure boundary type for those where f ow is out of the
domain. Accuracy is degraded when there is recircu atory (i.e. both inf ow
and outf ow) f ow across an interface. However, for a mu tip e domain mode
with a c osed- oop f ow path (e.g. torque converters with pump, turbine and
stator), the recommended boundary condition distribution is P-P for one
domain (pump in a torque converter), I-I for another (stator) and I-P pairs for
a the other domains.
• Coup ing between the domains is achieved by transferring the f uid ve ocity
components at each interface (in a cy indrica coordinate system) to the In et
boundary and the pressure to the pressure boundary across the interface.
Thus, the mass f ux is not necessari y the same across the boundary on either
side (it depends on the area of the boundary, as the ve ocity is the same).
• Coup ing can be chosen to be boundary-wise as above, or region-wise. In the
atter case, the va ues to be transferred are first averaged over a the
boundaries comprising the region. The region-wise option is norma y used
when different-sized domains must be matched, and is compu sory for the
non-ref ecting exp icit method. Averaging is area-weighted for pressure,
f ux-weighted for other sca ars and area component-weighted for cy indrica
ve ocity components.
• Specia user action is required when a domain has on y In et type boundaries,
as recommended above for mu tip e-domain prob ems. Since these
boundaries are updated independent y, the conditions on one set of
boundaries must be sca ed in order to ba ance those in another set and thus
ensure mass conservation in the domain. This is done by using so-ca ed
boundary region groups and specifying the groups to be matched.
It shou d be noted that the exp icit and directiona nature of the inter-region
coup ing treatment can give rise to numerica instabi ity, particu ar y if the f
ow
across a given boundary region is not unidirectiona . In this case, the resu ts
shou d
be judged with caution.
Imp icit method
This approach has a number of advantages over the exp icit method, name y:
Genera Mesh Motion
16-4 Version 4.12
• Each mesh b ock can rotate about a different axis.
• No specia boundaries need to be defined at the interface between the b ocks,
i.e. the mesh is continuous across that interface.
• The entire so ution domain is treated as a sing e entity when so ving the f ow
fie d equations. Ce s across the interface are imp icit y coup ed, with the
so ution equation coefficients and source terms adjusted to account for the
differing rotations. Thus the stabi ity considerations are simi ar to a
non-rotating situation.
This method is therefore the defau t option in STAR-CD.
The imp icit formu ation is a ot simp er to set up and shou d therefore be used
whenever possib e. However, the exp icit formu ation may become necessary if, fo
r
examp e, the above condition on mesh structure at the interface is not met. One
of
the commonest reasons for using the exp icit method is that the angu ar extent o
f the
rotating b ocks in the mode is not the same.
Genera Mesh Motion
In the most genera case, the mesh can be made to trans ate, rotate or distort i
n any
prescribed way, by specifying time-varying positions for some or a of the ce
vertices. This type of mesh movement, which is sometimes referred to as ‘Arbitrary
Lagrangian-Eu erian’, can accommodate a wide range of moving-boundary
prob ems, such as the f ow in a reciprocating-engine combustion chamber with
moving piston and va ves.
For this type of prob em, an additiona equation ca ed the ‘space conservation
aw’ is so ved for the moving coordinate ve ocity components. This re ates the
change in ce vo ume to the ce -face ve ocity. The simu taneous satisfaction o
f the
space conservation aw and a other equations of f uid motion faci itates the g
enera
moving mesh operations performed.
Of course, the mesh motion is not entire y arbitrary, for there are imits on th
e
degree of distortion that can be to erated, imposed by accuracy and stabi ity
requirements. This matter is discussed further in “Mesh distortion” on page 1-5 of
the CCM User Guide. A so, mesh e ements ying on or within distributed resistanc
e
sub-domains (cf. Chapter 8, “Discretisation Method”) are not a owed to distort.
Mesh motion invo ving the ‘arbitrary’ (in rea ity, within distortion imits) motion
of the ce vertices has been catered for by working from the outset with the ge
nera
forms of the governing differentia equations in an arbitrary moving coordinate
frame. The deve opment and so ution of the discretised forms of these equations
is
straightforward within the finite vo ume framework, provided that appropriate
measures are taken to ensure obedience to the so-ca ed space conservation aw
[16.1].
S iding Boundaries
Any impermeab e or permeab e wa or baff e may s ide within its own surface at
a
user-specified ve ocity. This faci ity can be used to represent re ative motion
between a moving object and a fixed surface, such as a vehic e and the ground. I
n
that instance, the re ative motion is specified by assigning the vehic e ve ocit
y to the
ground p ane. The rotation of the whee s may be represented in a simi ar fashion
.
Interna S iding Mesh
Version 4.12 16-5
In many practica app ications of continuum mechanics, f uid motion is caused or
regu ated by the re ative movement between one part of a so id body and another.
This is usua y accompanied by a strong inherent unsteadiness in the f ow patter
n.
Examp es of situations where such f ows occur are:
• Mixing vesse s
• Turbomachinery
• Ducted fans
• Ship and aircraft prope ers
• Reciprocating engines
• Train passing through a tunne
The fan case of Figure 3-8 is a specific examp e of such a situation, where neit
her
g oba mesh rotation nor the s iding boundary treatment can accommodate the
re ative motion between key components, name y the rotating b ades of the impe
er
and the baff es fixed to the vesse wa s. Even the moving mesh feature, if used
,
wou d resu t in excessive mesh distortion after ess than one revo ution of the
fan.
The conventiona numerica technique of simu ating f ows invo ving re ative
motion is to fix the reference frame of the so ution to one of the components an
d
so ve the equations of motion in that frame. This method can dea with on y one
component of motion; the rest of the components are assumed to be symmetric. For
examp e, if the reference frame is fixed to the stationary baff es of a mixing v
esse ,
the number of impe er b ades has to be assumed as infinite. Furthermore, the
simu ation requires experimenta y-based input of some form.
By contrast, STAR-CD permits a fu transient simu ation of such f ows by using
a s iding interface that enab es ce s to change their connectivity during the s
o ution
process. In the s iding interface methodo ogy, the mesh of the so ution domain i
s
divided into two or more parts that are fixed to their respective frames of refe
rence;
say, one being stationary and the other moving. At the interface between these p
arts,
the moving mesh is made to s ide past the fixed one in an arbitrary fashion.
S iding invo ves a continuous change in connectivity for ce s on either side of
the interface. This change is accommodated by the indirect addressing methodo og
y
used in STAR-CD. In the treatment emp oyed here, the two sides remain imp icit y
coup ed during this process. Moreover, care is taken, via appropriate interpo at
ions
in time and space, to preserve f ux continuity across the interface and avoid
introducing spurious perturbations to the f ow fie d.
Note that an arbitrary number of such interfaces may exist within a given mode .
Regu ar s iding interfaces
One way of imp ementing the above technique is the regu ar s iding interface
method. This enab es the interface ce s to progressive y change their connectiv
ity
during the so ution, as shown in Figure 16-1, whi e a ways maintaining a one-to-
one
matching between ce faces on either side of the s iding surface.
16-6 Version 4.12
Figure 16-1 S iding mesh i ustration
The main requirements and characteristics of this methodo ogy are:
• The geometries of ce faces at the s iding interface are usua y identica
• There is a one-to-one correspondence at a times between ce faces on
opposite sides of the s iding interface
• The computation proceeds simu taneous y over the who e f ow fie d and the
so utions in both the moving and stationary parts of the domain are coup ed at
a times
• The domain size and hence the computing overheads can be minimised by
using periodic boundary conditions
• The so ution can be started from any initia conditions
• The so ution domain can have any number of s iding interfaces
1 2 3 4 5 6
11 12 13 14 15 16
1 2 3 4 5
6 7 8 9 10
Vertex number
Boundary number
Mesh b ock
Mesh b ock
1 2 3 4 5 6
11 12 13 14 15 16 Lower mesh b ock moves,
distorting the mesh
(1)
(2)
1 2 3 4 5 6
11 12 13 14 15 16 The interface s ides to
a new position
1 2 3 4 5 6
11 12 13 14 15 16
1 2 3 4 5
6 7 8 9 10
Lower mesh b ock moves,
reducing the distortion
(3)
(4)
Ce Layer Remova and Addition
Version 4.12 16-7
The change of ce connectivity during the so ution is activated through a speci
a
‘ce attachment’ operation. Note that this operation changes on y the ce
connectivity. The actua change of mesh geometry has to be done through a moving
mesh operation, as described in “Genera Mesh Motion”. The user a so has to ensure
that, for each ce attachment event, the interface vertices of the moving part
of the
mesh shift by exact y one ce width. Referring to the examp e shown in Figure
16-1, attachment events shou d occur at stages (1) and (3) of the s iding proces
s.
Arbitrary s iding interfaces
The regu ar s iding interface technique described in the previous section requir
es
that the mesh matches exact y across the interface (in a cyc ica sense), so tha
t the
boundaries on either side of it may be ‘attached’ to each other. STAR-CD’s
Arbitrary S iding Interface (ASI) feature a ows mesh mismatch across a s iding
interface.
This is done by a owing two or more arbitrari y-chosen, adjacent portions of th
e
mesh to s ide re ative to each other in sma , incrementa movements during the
(inherent y) transient simu ations. There are no restrictions on the re ative po
sitions
of ce faces on either side of the s iding interface at the end of each increme
nta
movement, i.e. vertices across the interface do not have to be coincidenta . Thi
s is
very usefu in prob ems where it is difficu t or impossib e to ensure that the
one-to-one correspondence between the attached boundary faces (as i ustrated in
Figure 16-1) can be maintained at a times.
Ce Layer Remova and Addition
Some practica app ications of moving meshes require a arge variation in the
so ution domain size. A typica examp e is f ow in piston engines. If the tota
number of ce s in the so ution domain remains fixed, the ce spacing may becom
e
too dense at some stages of the so ution and too sparse at others. This is undes
irab e
for the fo owing reasons:
• The time step required to obtain a tempora y accurate so ution is dependent
on the mesh Courant number (see Chapter 5, “Load step definition” in the
CCM User Guide). Thus, unnecessari y sma time steps might be necessary if
sma er ce s are generated during the transient process, eading to onger
computationa times.
• Numerica instabi ity prob ems associated with arge aspect ratios may occur.
STAR-CD overcomes these potentia prob ems by enab ing ce s to be removed or
added during the transient ca cu ation. Thus, the average ce size can remain
rough y constant.
The genera approach in remova is that mesh motion causes two or more
opposing pairs of ce faces to become coincident at a specified time step, ther
eby
causing a other faces to co apse to ines or points and thus making the ce
disappear. The opposite process is used for ce addition, i.e. a previous y rem
oved
ce (taken out either during or prior to the f uids ca cu ation) is made to rea
ppear.
In princip e, these processes cou d be performed on a more or ess arbitrary
se ection of individua ce s or assemb ies thereof. However, in order to simp i
fy
imp ementation and uti isation, STAR-CD current y assumes that they are a ways
app ied to ayers, i.e. assemb ies of sing e-ce thickness (see Chapter 3, Figu
re 3-9).
Conditiona Ce Attachment/Detachment
16-8 Version 4.12
Note that with ce shapes other than hexahedra ce s, it may be difficu t to i
dentify
ce ayers. Even if the ce ayers can be identified, it is sti necessary to
ensure that
ce faces on either side of a ce ayer to be removed remain conformant after
remova . STAR-CD a so requires that:
• The ce s forming the outer periphery of the ayer must ie adjacent to
boundaries (which may be of any type).
• The faces that co apse must be quadri atera s, but those forming the upper
and ower surfaces of the ayer may be of any standard shape, i.e.
quadri atera or triangu ar.
• Po yhedra ce s can on y be co apsed if they have been formed by extruding
another ce in the direction of co apse.
• Either the upper or ower surface of a ayer may coincide in who e or part
with a boundary, but not both surfaces simu taneous y.
• Layers may be added on y if they were previous y removed, and they must be
re-inserted in reverse order of remova . A though this may appear restrictive,
it shou d be reiterated that ‘remova ’ may be performed prior to the start of a
f uids ca cu ation, i.e. mu tip e co apsed ayers shou d be pre-generated.
• When ayers are restored, they re-acquire the boundaries they had when they
were removed.
Conditiona Ce Attachment/Detachment
It is possib e with STAR-CD to connect or disconnect adjoining ce s or groups
thereof dynamica y, according to some user condition. The atter might be, for
examp e, time-re ated or so ution-re ated. This can be done on both static and
moving meshes. A typica app ication of this feature might be the simu taneous
ca cu ation of the f ows within the intake manifo d and combustion chamber of a
reciprocating engine. When the intake va ve is open, the two mesh domains are
treated as one. At va ve c osure, they are disconnected and each domain is
ca cu ated separate y. Further detai s are given in “Ce Attachment and Change of
F uid Type” on page 13-28 of the CCM User Guide.
Mesh Region Exc usion
In some practica app ications, the so ution in certain parts of the mesh is of
no
further interest after a given time. For examp e, the f ow through the intake po
rt in
an engine simu ation is important whi e the intake va ve is open. Once the intak
e
va ve c oses, there is no further reason to compute the intake port f ow un ess
a
second cyc e is to be simu ated (and probab y not even then). Continuing the
so ution in the port has the fo owing disadvantages:
• Stabi ity — So ution time step may sti be governed by the ce sizes in the
va ve region. A arger number of corrector stages may be necessary to reduce
the residua s in this iso ated region.
• Boundary conditions — Reasonab e boundary conditions must be provided.
Pressure boundary conditions, for examp e, may cause divergence in the port
if the vo ume is too sma .
• Resources — CPU time spent computing the so ution in this region is wasted.
STAR-CD Imp ementation
Version 4.12 16-9
STAR-CD overcomes these prob ems by providing faci ities for exc uding an entire
b ock of ce s from the so ution process. Further detai s are given in “Mesh Regio
n
Exc usion” on page 13-33 of the CCM User Guide.
STAR-CD Imp ementation
The overa process of creating a mode invo ving moving meshes is described in
Chapter 13 of the CCM User Guide. That description a so inc udes detai s of the
user input required and important points to bear in mind when setting up prob em
s
of this kind.
Chapter 17 STRESS ANALYSIS
Basic Equations
Version 4.12 17-1
So id mechanics and stress ana ysis is the study of the deformations, strains an
d
stresses in a so id materia , where stress is a measure of the force divided by
the area
over which the force is app ied as the area shrinks to zero. STAR-CD provides
comprehensive faci ities for the prediction of stresses in a materia under oad
which
can be used to assess the potentia for fai ure and provide information of the
durabi ity and estimated ifetime of the part under investigation.
Basic Equations
The differentia form of the so id momentum equation is
(17-1)
where — disp acement fie d
— stress tensor fie d
— body force (due to inear and centrifuga acce eration)
The stress is given by a genera constitutive re ation as a function of the stra
in tensor
and temperature:
(17-2)
In the current formu ation, is assumed that the strain in the materia is re ati
ve y
sma , which a ows strain to be expressed as a inear function of the deformati
on
gradient:
(17-3)
The governing equations are subject to prescribed boundary conditions and the
fo owing initia conditions:
(17-4)
The finite vo ume form of equation (17-1) is obtained by integration by parts:
(17-5)
For a ce s in the so ution domain , the discrete form of the momentum
equation becomes:
(17-6)
where the sum is over a the faces that form ce with norma surface vector
ρu˙˙ = ∇ ⋅ + b
u

b
= (, T)
12
--
x ∂
∂u
x ∂
∂uT
⎝ + ⎠
= ⎛ ⎞
u(x,o) = uo(x)
v(x,
o)
∂
∂ u(x,
) v= = o(x)
ρu˙˙ V
V ∫

⋅ s
A ∫b V
V ∫
= +
i V
ρiui
˙˙ Vi k ⋅ sk + biVi ∀i
k ∈ f (i)
= Σ
k i
TRE ANALY I Ch
pter 17
Bound
ry Conditions
17-2 Version 4.12

nd volume .
Bound
ry Conditions

The ollowing ound
ry conditions h
ve een implemented:
Displ
cement
For
ound
ry
ce with
displ
cement ound
ry condition, the displ
cement
t
the ound
ry is prescri ed
s:
(17-7)
For this condition,
ll stress components
re
lso prescri ed. Unlike Finite Ele
ment

n
lyses, the Finite Volume description o this condition is en orced
t the cen
tre o

ound
ry
ce inste
d o
t
vertex (node).
Tr
ction
In the tr
ction ound
ry condition, the orce on the ound
ry
ce is prescri ed
:
(17-8)
where — outw
rd norm
l to the sur
ce
— tr
ction
t the ound
ry (in units o stress). For
stress- ree
condition,
ll tr
ction components must e zero
ymmetry
In the symmetry condition, the norm
l displ
cement component is zero
nd the
norm
l gr
dient o the t
ngenti
l displ
cement component is zero:
(17-9)
Together these imply th
t the t
ngenti
l tr
ction component is zero:
(17-10)
Pressure
The pressure ound
ry condition is
speci
l orm o the tr
ction condition, whe
re
the orce is proportion
l to the pressure
nd
cts in the opposite direction to
the
sur
ce norm
l vector. A neg
tive pressure is permissi le
nd corresponds to
tensile lo
d:
(17-11)
A stress ree condition h
s the pressure equ
l to zero.
Mixed
The mixed ound
ry condition is identic
l to
symmetric condition except th
t t
he
sk Vi
u(x ) = u
⋅ n(x ) = t
nt

u ⋅ n = 0
∂n
∂(u – (u ⋅ n) n) = 0
t – (t ⋅ n) n = 0
t = –p n
Ch
pter 17 TRE ANALY I
Constitutive L
ws
Version 4.12 17-3
norm
l displ
cement is
given v
lue :
(17-12)
olid/ olid Inter
ce condition
At the inter
ce etween solid dom
ins, the currentimplement
tion
ssumes
continuity o tr
ction
nd displ
cement
cross the ound
ry:
(17-13)
olid/Fluid Inter
ce condition
At the inter
ce etween solid
nd luid dom
ins, the tr
ction
t the ound
ry i
s
determined y the pressure o the luid:
(17-14)
The luid ound
ry moves to the current loc
tion o the solid ound
ry:
(17-15)
I the moving mesh option is selected, the solid mesh geometry will e upd
ted

ccording to the c
lcul
ted displ
cements. Otherwise, the ound
ry movement will
e tre
ted
s
lux o m
ss into/out o the initi
l ixed ound
ry . The swept
m
ss low r
te on

ce is then:
(17-16)
Constitutive L
ws
Three constitutive l
ws
re
v
il
le
nd descri ed elow. In
ddition,
user
inter
ce is provided to
llow or user-de ined constitutive l
ws.
Line
r thermoel
stic
In
line
r isotropic el
stic l
w, the stress c
n e expressed
s
unction o
str
in

nd temper
ture
s
(17-17)
where the she
r modulus , ulk modulus ,
nd L
mè modulus
re expressed
in terms o Young’s modulus
nd Poisson’s r
tio
s
(17-18)
un

u ⋅ n = un
∂n
∂ (u – (u ⋅ n) n) = 0
t x
( +) t x - = ( )
u x
( +) u x - = ( )
t(x
) = –p(x )n
x = x o + u(x o)
x o
m˙ ρ(xbo)
∂t
∂ u(xbo) ⎝ ⎠
= ⎛ ⎞ ⋅ s
ε
T
= 2G + [λ tr() – 3Kα(T – To)]
G K λ
E ν
G E
2(1 + ν)
-------------------- , K E
3(1 – 2ν)
----------------------- , λ E
(1 + ν)(1 – 2ν) = = = -------------------------------------
STRESS ANALYSIS Chapt r 17
Costitutiv Laws
17-4 V rsio 4.12
ad th th rmal strais ar d fi d by th produ t of th o ffi i t of th rmal
xpasio ad th t mp ratur abov th r f r t mp ratur at whi h th
th rmal strais ar z ro. Not if o d fi s d viatori strai as
(17-19)
th lasti law a b xpr ss d i t rms of d viatori ad volum tri ompo t
s:
(17-20)
Th rmo lastoplasti
Th plasti ity mod l is bas d o a yi ld surfa , asso iativ plasti pot tial
with
li ar isotropi ad ki mati hard ig. Th mod l d s rib d is t rm d “rat id p
d t”
si th str ss s do ot d p d o how fast th load is hagig but
rath r oly o th hag . This r l as of STAR-CD also i lud s a rat -d p d
t
mod l. I additio, th lasti prop rti s, th rmal xpasio, hard ig laws a
d
vis oplasti r p laws may b suppli d via us r subrouti s to a out for
t mp ratur , plasti strai ad oth r stat variabl d p d i s.
D fiig th d viatori str ss as
(ot to b ofus d with th ll surfa v tor) (17-21)
ad d viatori strai as
(17-22)
th str ss a b xpr ss d as
(17-23)
wh r th d viatori str ss is a li ar fu tio of th lasti d viatori strai
giv
by
(17-24)
Th rat of plasti strai, , is d fi d by th flow rul through yi ld surfa
: as
(17-25)
ad is th plasti strai magitud wh r th pot tial fu tio is d fi d as
th yi ld surfa :
(17-26)
α To
e 13
= – --tr()d
= 2G + K[tr() – 3α(T – To)]
J2
s 13
= – --tr()
e 13
= – --tr()
= s + K[tr() – 3α(T – To)]
s 2Gee 2G e e= = ( – p)
e˙p F
e˙p λ˙
s ∂
∂F =
λ F
J2
F s b – 23
--Y κ ( ) – 23
= = --[σ – Y(κ)]
Constitutive Laws
Version 4.12 17-5
where — isotropic ield radius
— effective plastic strain
— effective
stress (with )
— inematic hardening bac -stress
The rate of change of the plastic strain magnitude is then defined so that the s
tate of
stress remains on the ield surface when plasticall deforming, otherwise it is
zero:
(17-27)
Defining the unit tensor as
(17-28)
the plastic flow rule becomes
(17-29)
In the default formulation, a linear hardening rule is assumed such that the iso
topic
ield radius is
(17-30)
where is the isotropic hardening modulus.
The bac -stress is also expressed b a linear rule:
(17-31)
where is the inematic hardening modulus.
The total hardening modulus is expressed in terms of the tangent modulus
as
(17-32)
The isotropic and inematic hardening are then set b a blending factor :
(17-33)
Note, however, that in this version of STAR-CD an nonlinear hardening can be
Y(κ)
κ 23
= --λ
σ
32
= -- = :
Fλ˙ = 0
n s b –
s – b
---------------, nT= n = 1
e˙p λ˙ = n
Y(κ) = Yo + Hiκ
Hi
b˙ 23
--λ˙ = Hkn
Hk
ET ∂ε
∂σ =
H
EET
E – ET
= ---------------
θ
Hi = θH
Hk = (1 – θ)H
STRESS ANALYSIS Chapter 17
Constitutive Laws
17-6 Version 4.12
specified via a user subroutine.
A radial return method is used to integrate the system of euations and to arriv
e at
the tangent modulus. The plastic strain, effective plastic strain, and back-stre
ss are
updated at each time step and written to the analysis results file for the purpo
se of
restarting the analysis.
Linear thermoviscoelastic
The thermoviscoelastic model is derived from a linear viscoelastic convolution
integral:
(17-34)
The shear modulus relaxation function is expressed in terms of discrete modes as
(17-35)
where is the relaxation time for each of the M modes.
Using the following definitions
(17-36)
(17-37)
(17-38)
Simo and Hughs [17.1] demonstrated that stress can be written as
(17-39)
where the ‘initial” deviatoric stress is
(17-40)
and the “relaxation” stress for each mode is defined by the following rate euation:
(17-41)
In this model, the mean stress exhibits no viscoelastic behaviour. A second-orde
r
σ(t) G(t – )ε˙ ( )d
-∞
t
= ∫
G(t) G∞ Gm
t
τm
⎝–------⎠
exp⎛ ⎞
m = 1
MΣ
= +
τm
Go G( = 0) G∞ Gm
m Σ
= = +
γm
Gm
Go
= -------
γ∞
G∞
Go
------- 1 γm
m Σ
= = –
γ∞ o γmhm + K[tr( ) – 3α(T – To)]
m Σ
= +
o = 2Go
h˙m
hm
τm
+ ------ 2
γm
τm
= ------Goe

Chape 17 STRESS ANALYSIS
Soli Mesh Defo ma ion
Ve sion 4.12 17-7
app oxima ion is use o in eg a e he a e equa ions an o a ive a a consis
en
angen mo ulus. The elaxa ion s ess fo all mo es is up a e a each ime s e
p an
save in he .ccmp file fo es a ing pu poses.
Use - efine laws
A gene al cons i u ive ela ion be ween he s ess an s ain enso s, empe a u
e
an ime can be specifie as
(17-42)
whe e s an s fo any numbe of in e nals ae va iables.
The use - efine law mus also specify he angen mo ulus as
(17-43)
Please con ac CD-a apco fo fu he info ma ion.
Soli Mesh Defo ma ion
In soli s ess analysis p oblems, ve ex isplacemen s in he soli mesh a e
calcula e using cell isplacemen s an cell g a ien s in he fo m
(17-44)
whe e is a sum ove cells connec e o he ve ex in ques ion.
The cell- o-ve ex is ance vec o iscalcula e f om
whe e a e he ve ex coo ina esan he cell-cen
e coo ina es. If
STAR-CD’s
moving
mesh
op ion is hen ac iva e , he soli mesh ve ices a e
move acco ing o he isplacemen fiel .
This app oach isan implemen a ion of wha is commonly efee oas "Up a e
Langangian"
in he FEA communi y. I also emoves some of he es ic ions in
soli s ess fo mula ion of ea lie STAR-CD ve sions, in ha i will simula e l
a ge
isplacemen s an la ge o a ions. No e ha he soli s ess fo mula ion is s i
ll
es ic e o small s ains (s ains less han abou 0.1%) an he p o uc s of
he
o a ion a es wi h s ess a e consi e e small compa e o he a es of s ess
change.
This fo mula ion is app op ia e fo s u ying buckling effec s bu he emphasis i
n
he cu en implemen a ion is focuse on s able, implici flui /soli coupling i
n he
p esence
of la ge soli isplacemens.
No e ha since he moving
mesh fea u e only applies o a ansien mo e of
ope a ion, he la ge isplacemen capabili y only applies o calcula ions using
he
ansien SIMPLE algo i hm. In a i ion:
= (,T,κ,x,t)
κ
D
∂
∂ =
uv
uc ∇uc
uv
1
nc
---- (uc + ∇uc ⋅ cv)
nc
= Σ
nc
Σ
dcv
dcv = rv – rc
rv rc
TRE ANALY I Ch
pter 17
olid Mesh De orm
tion
17-8 Version
4.12
• In pro lems cont
ining
luid-solid inter
ce, the user must ensure th
t luid
mesh motion is
ctiv
ted or
ll interior luid vertices, otherwise the solid
de orm
tion e ect will e limited to luid cells
dj
cent to the inter
ce.
• The mesh is moved
t the eginning o e
ch time step.
Ch
pter 18 OTHER MODELLING CAPABILITIE
He
t Tr
ns er in olid-Fluid ystems
Version 4.12 18-1
Ch
He
t Tr
ns er
in olid-Fluid ystems
TAR-CD is
le to solve pro lems involving the simult
neous, coupled he
t
tr
ns er within
luid
nd
n
djoining solid,
s outlined in Ch
pter 1. An ex
mple
pplic
tion, where it m
y e used to c
lcul
te tr
ns er o he
t etween the lui
ds
nd
tu e w
lls in
he
t exch
nger, is shown in Figure 18-1.
Figure 18-1 hell-
nd-tu e he
t exch
nger illustr
ting multi-dom
in
nd solid- l
uid
he
t tr
ns er e
tures
For this purpose, it is necess
ry to mesh the solid dom
in
nd to represent the
solid- luid inter
ce y cell sur
ces,
s shown in Figure 18-2.
Figure 18-2 Mesh
rr
ngement or solid- luid he
t tr
ns er
pplic
tions
The energy equ
tion or solids is
degener
te orm o the energy equ
tion or
luids
hell side
( luid A)
Tu e side ( luid B) Tu e w
ll
Fluid
olid
OTHER MODELLING CAPABILITIE Ch
pter 18
Multiple Dom
in Applic
tions
18-2
Version 4.12
(o t
ined y setting the velocity to zero)
nd this is re lected in its discreti
sed
counterp
rt. The only
ddition
l me
sures needed
re:
• To recognise th
t there is
step ch
nge in m
teri
l properties
cross
solid- luid inter

ce. This is e ected within TAR-CD y
ppropri
te
modi ic
tions to the interpol
tion pr
ctices.
• To ensure th
t the he
t lux is continuous
cross this inter
ce.
For the purposes o numeric
l solution, the energy equ
tion is solved over oth
dom
ins. All other tr
nsport equ
tions
re solved only within the luid. The
luid-solid therm
l coupling is tre
ted in
n e icient implicit
shion, or o
th
ste
dy-st
te
nd tr
nsient pro lems. TAR-CD c
n
lso e used or pro lems
involving he
t conduction only.
Note th
t the positioning o the solid- luid inter
ce is su ject to the ollowi
ng
constr
ints:
• B
les c
nnot e loc
ted
t such
n inter
ce
• The inter
ce should not coincide with cyclic ound
ries
The over
model involving this type o he
t tr
ns er i
s
descri ed in Ch
pter 3, “He
t Tr
ns er In olid-Fluid ystems” o the CCM User
Guide. Th
t description
lso includes cross-re erences to
ppropri
te p
rts o t
he
on-line Help system, cont
ining det
ils o the user input required
nd import
nt
points to e
r in mind when setting up pro lems o this kind.
Multiple Dom
in Applic
tions
The multiple dom
in solution c
p
ility o TAR-CD en
les simult
neous
c
lcul
tion o low oth within
nd
round the he
t exch
nger tu es shown in
Figure 18-1. In
ct, TAR-CD c
n h
ndle up to 99 sep
r
te dom
ins
simult
neously. All th
t is necess
ry is to mesh e
ch dom
in independently, whic
h
will then e tre
ted sep
r
tely in the low c
lcul
tions. However, the he
t tr
n
s er
c
lcul
tions in these circumst
nces c
n e ully coupled.
As mentioned in the section on“He
t Tr
ns er in olid-Fluid ystems”, the luid
nd solid dom
ins
re covered y
single,
ll-em r
cing mesh ut the low
c
lcul
tions proceed sep
r
tely in e
ch dom
in. Furthermore, e
ch dom
in h
s its
own m
teri
l properties, ound
ry conditions, etc. In c
ses involving inter-dom
in
he
t tr
ns er, the energy equ
tion is solved simult
neously
nd implicitly over
the
entire model.

The c
p
ility
lso exists or c
lcul
ting tr
nsient c
ses in which two or more
dom
ins m
y e connected
nd/or disconnected during the period considered. This
is
chieved y using the condition
l cell
tt
chment/det
chment procedure
(c . Ch
pter 16, “Condition
l Cell Att
chment/Det
chment”). Connected dom
ins
re c
lcul
ted simult
neously
nd implicitly.
The over
multiple dom
in model is descri ed in
Ch
pter 3, “Multi-Dom
in Property etting” o the CCM User Guide. Th
t
description
ppropri
te p
rts o the on-line H
elp
system, cont
ining det
ils o the user input required.
Ch
Multi-component Mixing
Version 4.12 18-3
Multi-component Mixing
ystems involving mixing o multiple species
re modelled in TAR-CD using the
‘
ddition
l sc
l
r’
cility. This
llows de inition o
ddition
l sc
l
r v
ri
les
whose typic
l use is to represent
the m
ss r
ction o p
rticul
r species in the
mixture. The sc
l
r v
ri
les c
n e:
• Ev
lu
ted in the s
me w
y
s other low v
ri
les, i.e. y solving
tr
nsport
equ
tion th
t
llows or convection, di usion
nd (option
l) source e ects
• Ev
lu
ted y
n intern
l (e.g.
lge r
ic) rel
tionship
• Ev
lu
ted y
user su routine
• Frozen to
const
nt v
lue throughout the low ield
c
l
r v
ri
les
re
lso cl
ssi ied
s
ctive or p
ssive, depending on whether
they
contri ute to the luid’s ulk physic
l properties. Expressions or
ll these
properties
re given in Ch
pter 1, “Thermophysic
l Properties”.
The over
model involving mixing o multiple species
is descri ed in the CCM User Guide (Ch
pter 15, “Multi-component Mixing”).
Th
t description
ppropri
te p
rts o the on-l
ine
Help system, cont
ining det
nd import
nt points
to

e
Buoy
ncy-driven Flows
nd N
tur
l Convection
To
n
lyse pro lems o this type, the user needs to speci y the in orm
tion need
ed
to
ssem le the pressure
nd gr
vity orces on the right-h
nd-side o the moment
um
equ
tion (see Equ
tion (1-2) on p
ge 1-1
nd Equ
tion (1-8) on p
ge 1-2 o the
Methodology volume). The working pressure in TAR-CD is the piezometric
pressure which c
n e written
s
(18-1)
where is the st
tic pressure
the re erence density
, ,
re the coordin
tes o the d
tum loc
tion, i.e. the point
t
which is me
sured
, ,
re the
cceler
tion components due to gr
vity
In pro lems involving n
tur
l or ree convection, redistri ution o energy is m
inly
due to the orce o gr
vity
cting on
luid o non-uni orm density
nd c
using
luid
motion. In mixed (i.e. ree
nd orced) convection, the import
nce o uoy
ncy
orces c
n e me
sured y the r
tio o Gr
sho to Reynolds num ers, i.e.
(18-2)
where
(18-3)
ppiezo = pst
t – ρ0[ gx (x – x0)+ g y( y – y0) + gz(z – z0)]
pstat
ρ0
x0 y0 z0
ρ0
gx g y gz
G
R 2
--------
G = g β l3 ρ2 ΔT ⁄ μ2
OTHER MODELLING
CAPABILITIES Chap e 18
Non-New onian Flows
18-4 Ve sion 4.12

If heabove a io excee s uni y, i is easonable o assume ha he flow is o
mina e
by buoyancy fo ces. Al e na ively, if he a io is ve y small, buoyancy fo ces m
ay
be igno e .
In na ual convec
ion p oblems he s eng h of buoyancy-in
uce flow
can be
measu e by he Rayleigh numbe , which is he p o uc of he P an l an G ashof
numbe s:
(18-4)
whe e
(18-5)
Rayleigh numbe s less han108 usually in ica e lamina flow, wi h onse of
u bulence
occu ing ove he ange 108 < Ra <1010.
I is no unusual fo buoyancy-
iven
flows wi h high G ashof numbe
(i.e. G > 109) o be na u ally uns able. In such cases, a conve ge s ea y-s a
e
solu ion canno be ob aine an he use shoul op fo he ansien app oach.
The
ime s eps shoul be calcula e f om
(18-6)

an
(18-7)
whe e — empea u e ange wihin he solu ion omain

— cha ac e is ic lengh base on he is ance be ween he
maximum- an minimum- empe a u e boun a ies
β — volumetric therm
l exp
nsion coe icient
N — the Brunt V
iss
l
requency
The over
uoy
ncy-driven low ield is descri ed in t
he
CCM User Guide (Ch
pter 3, “Buoy
ncy-driven Flows
nd N
tur
l Convection”).
Th
t description
ppropri
te p
rts o the on-l
ine
Help system, cont
ining det
nd import
nt points
to
e
Non-Newtoni
n Flows
The viscous eh
viour o most luids is descri ed y tokes’ l
w o viscosity
nd
such luids
re c
lled Newtoni
n. However, quite
ew import
nt luids do not o
ey
this l
w
nd
re there ore re erred to
s non-Newtoni
n. These include:
• Polymer solutions
• Blood
TAR-CD c
n
n
lyse lows o such luids, using either uilt-in or user-supplied
rel
tionships. The uilt-in rel
tionship currently implemented is the so-c
lled
R
= Pr Gr
Pr = μcp ⁄ k
G ΔT
l
= -------
Δt 1
β g G
---------------- 1N
= = ----
ΔT
l
Ch
Compressi le Flows
Version 4.12 18-5
power l
w o viscosity,
lso known
s the Ostw
ld-de W
ele model. According to
this, the viscosity is given y
(18-8)
where m, n — model p
r
meters
— the second inv
ri
nt o the r
te o str
in tensor, de ined in
Ch
pter 1, “Constitutive rel
tions”
Depending on the v
lue o n the luid is ch
r
cterised
s:
• Pseudopl
stic or she
r thinning — (n < 1)

n — (n = 1,
• Newtoni m = μ)
• Dila an o shea hickening
— (n > 1)
The ove all p ocess
of se ing up non-New onian flows is esc ibe in he CCM
Use Gui e (Chap e 3, “Non-New onian Flow”). That description a so inc udes
cross-references to appropriate parts of the on- ine He p system, containing det
ai s
of the user input required and important points to bear in mind when setting up
prob ems of this kind.
Compressib e F ows
STAR-CD’s compressib e f ow option shou d be used in cases where the f uid f ow
cannot be treated as incompressib e. This occurs in steady f ows when the ( oca
)
Mach number is greater than about 0.2 or 0.3 and in transient f ows when the
pressure variations due to pressure waves are not neg igib e compared to the
average pressure. This situation occurs in many practica app ications, e.g.
mode ing of:
• F ow past aircraft
• Supersonic nozz es
• Turbomachinery
The user is advised to consu t references [5.1] and [5.2] for more detai s on th
e
theory of compressib e f ow.
A so ution a gorithms emp oyed in STAR-CD are app icab e to both
incompressib e and compressib e f ows (steady-state and transient). In the atte
r
cases they embrace the fu range of f ow speeds, from subsonic through transoni
c
to supersonic and beyond. Shock waves are hand ed by the shock-capturing
technique, i.e. they are a owed to form natura y anywhere within the grid.
In such ca cu ations, there arise issues of numerica stabi ity and accuracy
specifica y connected with compressibi ity effects, especia y in the transonic
and
supersonic regimes. Particu ar effort has been devoted in these regards to tai o
ring
the discretisation practices and so ution a gorithms to ensure stabi ity and acc
uracy.
However, the former cannot be guaranteed and the atter, as in a shock-capturi
ng
methods, re ies on the use of higher-order discretisation in conjunction with
adequate oca grid reso ution to reso ve shocks to the required degree.
Accuracy and stabi ity are c ose y tied to the eva uation of the f uid density a
t the
ce faces (amongst other factors). The defau t practice in STAR-CD is to eva ua
te
μ m IIS
n – 1
2
-----------
=
IIS
OTHER MODELLING
Chap e 18
CAPABILITIES

Local Flui Injec ion/Ex ac ion
18-6 Ve sion 4.12
hese as weigh e means of he neighbou ing no al values, which is p efe able f
om
he accuacy poin of view. Howeve , his may lea oins abili ies, especially
u ing
s a -up an pa icula ly if he ini ial
con i ions supplie
a e somewha

a bi
a y ( he efo e, i is always wo hwhile o use he bes possible es ima e
of he
ial con i ions). Fo such ci cums ances, an op ional blen wi h upwin weigh
ini
e
in e pola ion is p ovi e , which is mo es able, bu less accu a e. I is
ecommen e ha wheneve use of his me ho is equi e , he calcula ions shoul

eve o he efaul cene scheme af e he s a -up phase isfinishe .
The ove all p ocess of se ing up comp essible flows is esc ibe in he CCM
Use Gui e (Chap e 3, “Comp essible Flow”). That description a so inc udes
cross-references to appropriate parts of the on- ine He p system, containing det
ai s
of the user input required and important points to bear in mind when setting up
prob ems of this kind.
Loca F uid Injection/Extraction
This faci ity provides an a ternative and convenient means of introducing or
removing f uid mass from the ca cu ation domain. Its effect is simi ar to that o
f an
in et or fixed f ow out et condition but without having to dec are an actua bou
ndary
adjacent to the ce s concerned. Thus, in ets and out ets of very sma aperture
can
be mode ed without needing to use a oca y-refined mesh. However, the injected
f uid wi quick y disperse and the reso ution of the physica process wi be p
oor if
the oca mesh is too coarse.
Loca injection/extraction can be used anywhere within the mesh, at individua
ce s or c usters thereof. Distributed re eases of f uid over arge vo umes can
a so be
effective y mode ed using this feature.
The injection/extraction process is mode ed as an additiona source/sink term
in the finite vo ume equation for the ce (s) in question. The term is of the fo
rm
(18-9)
where is the mass f ow rate of the injected/extracted stream
per unit vo ume
and φ is the v
lue o velocity, temper
ture, etc.
scri ed to the stre
m. In gener

l:
• It is necess
ry to provide,
t the selected cell(s),
term or every FV
equ
tion solved. This is currently done vi
user coding. An ex
mple is
provided in the user su routine listings o Ch
pter 16 in the CCM User Guide.
• For the c
se o luid injection, the user must provide
ll the required φ v
lues
or the incoming stre
m. Note th
t or the continuity equ
tion, whose
equiv
lent in TAR-CD is the pressure equ
tion, φ = 1.
• For the c
se o luid extr
ction, TAR-CD
utom
tic
lly t
kes the φ v
lues to
e those prev
iling
t the selected cell(s).
Cle
rly, this tre
tment only provides resolution o
n injected/extr
cted stre
m

t
the level o the size
nd num er o cells chosen or its introduction. Thus, i
high

ccur
cy is required
n
ppropri
tely ine mesh must e employed.
The over
ll process o setting up c
ses involving luid injection or extr
ction
is
descri ed in the CCM User Guide (Ch
pter 3, “Fluid Injection”). Th
t description

ppropri
te p
rts o the on-line Help system,
cont
ining det
nd import
nt points to e
r in mi
nd
sφ
sφ = m˙ ″′ φ
m˙ ″′
sφ
Ch
Aero
coustic An
lysis
Version 4.12 18-7
when setting up pro lems o this kind.
Aero
coustic An
lysis
TAR-CD provides
n
ero
coustic
n
lysis
cility th
t en
les prediction o th
e
loc
tion
nd strength o
coustic sound sources. At present, this c
p
ility is
limited
to ste
dy, incompressi le lows domin
ted y loc
l she
r e ects,
s in the c
se
o
low
round solid odies or she
r lows in ch
nnels.
To per orm the
n
lysis,
it is necess
ry to ev
lu
te the tur ulent sound sources
present in incompressi le she
r lows. An
coustic model known
s the Lilley
equ
tion is derived rom continuity
nd momentum equ
tions or this purpose
[18.1]:
(18-10)
where
is the speed o sound, the stress tensor
nd
represents the e ects o entropy
luctu
tions
nd luid viscosity.
The entropy
luctu
tion is sm
ll or pro lems without he
t tr
ns er or com ustion;
lso visc
ous
e ects
re negligi le or
high Reynolds num er low. It is there ore usu
l to
neglect these terms rom the right-h
nd side. This le
ds to the ollowing equ
ti
on:
(18-11)
where
(18-12)

nd is the re erence pressure.
The right-h
nd side o Equ
tion (18-11) is the source term to e ev
lu
ted [18.1
].

This term c
n e exp
nded
s ollows:
(18-13)
D
Dt
------ D2II
Dt
----------- ∂
∂xi
-------
2 ∂II
∂xi
– ------- 2
∂v j
∂xi
------- ∂
∂xi
-------
2 ∂II
∂xi
⎝ ------- ⎠
+ ⎛ ⎞ 2
∂v j
∂xi
-------
∂vk
∂x j
--------
∂vi
∂xk
= – -------- + ψ
τijk
ψ 2
∂v j
∂xi
------- ∂
∂x j
-------1ρ
---
∂τik
∂xk
---------
D
D
------ ∂
∂xi
-------1ρ
---
∂τij
∂x j
–-------- D2
D 2
-------- 1
Cp
------
DS
D
= + -------
D
D
------
D2II
D
----------- ∂
∂xi
------- a2 ∂II
∂xi
– ------- 2
∂v j
∂xi
------- ∂
∂xi
------- a2 ∂II
∂xi
⎝ ------- ⎠
+ ⎛ ⎞ 2
∂v j
∂xi
-------
∂vk
∂x j
--------
∂vi
∂xk
= – --------
II
cv
cp
---- p
p0
= ln -----
p0
2
∂v j
∂xi
-------
∂vk
∂x j
--------
∂vi
∂xk
– -------- 2
∂v j
∂xi
-------
∂vk
∂x j
--------
∂vi
∂xk
– -------- 2
∂v j′
∂xi
---------
∂vk′
∂x j
---------
∂vi′
∂xk
– --------- – 6
∂v j
∂xi
-------
∂vk
∂x j
--------
∂vi′
∂xk
= ---------
}} }
A B C
– 6
∂v j′
∂xi
---------
∂vk′
∂x j
---------
∂vi
∂xk
--------
}C
OTHER MODELLING
CAPABILITIES Chap e 18
Ae oacous ic Analysis
18-8 Ve sion 4.12
whe eA ep esen s he meanflow shapechange, B he fluc ua ion sou ce e m
(fluc ua ion noise), an C he in e ac ion be ween he mean shea flow an he
fluc ua ions (shea noise sou ce).
To evalua
e
his e m,one nees bo h mean veloci ies an veloci
y fluc
ua ions.
A s ea y-s ae calcula ion of he Reynol s-ave
age Navie S okes
equaions
(RANS) p ovi es only
mean veloci
ies plus u bulence
leng
h an veloci
y scales.

The veloci y fluc ua ions a e he efo e ob aine f om he RANS solu ion fo hes
e
scalesusing he Syn he ic Tu bulence
by K aichnan [18.2]
me ho evelope an
Ka wei e al. [18.3]. This me ho assumes ha he u bulence is iso opic; he
efo e
i is p u en o use a u bulence mo el ha is consis en wi h his assump ion
an
also p ovi es he flow fiel is ibu ion of bo h k an ε.
Syth ti turbul
Th turbul t v lo ity fi ld a b s as a flu tuatig tim sigal ompos d o
f N
basi wav s:
(18-14)
wh r is th amplitud , th wav umb r v tor, th ov tiv
v lo ity, th phas shift b tw bas wav s, th turbul t fr qu y ad
th ori tatio of th bas wav .
Th vo Karma rgy sp trum for isotropi , homog ous turbul is us d
h r ad th param t rs d d for this rgy sp trum ar d t rmi d by th
RANS al ulatios of k ad ε. To fid th amplitud of a h wav , th rgy
sp trum is divid d as show i Figur 18-3 b low:
Figur 18-3 E rgy sp trum subdivisio
Th amplitud is th al ulat d from
(18-15)
v (x, t) vˆ′ os α
n [ ⋅ (x – tVk) + ψn + ωn t] n
n = 1
n N =
Σ =
vˆn′ α
n Vψ n ωn
n
α
E(α,t)
Δαn
E(αn)
vˆn′ 2 E αn ( ) Δαn
= ⋅
Ch
Aero
coustic An
lysis
Version 4.12 18-9
The su division o the energy spectrum is c
rried out in
log
rithmic m
nner,
s
ollows:
(18-16)
where
(18-17)
nd
(18-18)
A ph
se shi t, , is
dded to ensure th
t
ll
sic w
ves
re not in ph
se. Also,
the
orient

tion o the vector is c
lcul
ted in such
w
y
s to o t
in
n isotropic
eh
viour.
In order to compute the synthetic tur ulence velocity,
num er o user-de ined
p
r
meters
re These
re:
needed.
• N — the num er o
sic w
ves (or the num er o points or requency
discretis
tion).
To m
int
in st
tistic
l independency, the num er o
sic
w
ves should
e
pproxim
tely 400-500.
• A tur ulence timesc
le threshold — i the k/ε ratio at a giv ll is small r
tha this thr shold, th ll will b skipp d ad its ois sour t rm will b
s t to 0.
• A r lativ turbul ki ti rgy thr shold — if th ratio k/kmax (wh r
kmax is th maximum valu of k i th solutio domai) at a giv ll is
small r tha this thr shold, th ll will b skipp d ad its ois sour t rm
will b s t to 0.
• A ov rg rit rio for th rgy sp trum — this is us d to d t rmi
th ov rg of th it rativ m thod us d to al ulat th sp trum. Th
small r th valu , th mor a urat th al ulatio but th mor xp siv it
b om s i t rms of CPU tim .
Sour t rm al ulatio
Oly quasi-st ady flows ar osid r d h r . Th r for , th t rms d p dig o
tim i th pr vious quatios may b igor d ad os qu tly sour t rms bas
d
o th m a flow (i. . t rms A ad C i Equatio (18-13)) may also b x lud d.
This l av s th flu tuatig sour t rm, B, whi h is valuat d as follows:
(18-19)
αn αL
αd
αL
⎝------⎠
⎛ ⎞
n – 1
N – 1
-------------
= n = 1, …, N
αL 2π ε
k3 ⁄ 2 = ----------
αD
ε
ν3
⎝-----⎠
⎛ ⎞
14
--
=
ψn
en
B 2
∂v j′
∂xi
---------

∂v ′
∂x j
---------
∂vi′

∂x
= – --------
OTHER MODELLING CAPABILITIES Chapter 18
Aeroacoustic Analsis
18-10 Version 4.12
A description of the wa the aeroacoustic analsis feature is implemented in
STAR-CD is given in the CCM User Guide (Chapter 15, “Aeroacoustic Analsis”).
That description also includes cross-references to appropriate parts of the on-l
ine
Help sstem, containing details of the user input required.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Version 4.12 1
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Lift’, Proj t R port III-4, BRITE/EuRam BE-4322.
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migratio of sigl bubbl s i simpl sh ar flows’, Ch m. Eg. S i ,
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16 V rsio 4.12
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So i ty of Am ri a, 89(1), pp. 52-62.
INDEX
V rsio 4.12 1
A
absorptio o ffi i t 9-12
absorptivity, surfa 9-6
a ura y
i ompr ssibl flow 18-6
i movig m sh s 16-4
t mporal 4-4, 7-1, 7-5
a ousti s. S a roa ousti s
add d-mass for . S for , virtual mass
adiabati oditios, lo al 10-9
a roa ousti s
basi quatios 18-7
sour t rm 18-9
syth ti turbul 18-8
agglom ratio 12-1
air raft, flow past 18-5
AMG solutio m thod. S solv r, alg brai multigrid
agular v lo ity 16-1
Arrh ius xpr ssio 10-4
asp t ratio 5-9
atomisatio mod ls 12-21 to 12-29
Huh 12-21
dropl t siz distributio 12-23
ozzl turbul ad its d ay 12-21
surfa wav growth 12-22
Modifi d MPI (MPI-2) 12-28
MPI (MPI-1) 12-25
R itz-Diwakar 12-25
autoigitio 11-12, 11-21 to 11-25, 11-26
‘four-st p’ mod l 11-23 to 11-25
‘Sh ll’ mod l 11-21 to 11-23
doubl -d lay mod l 11-37
ko k mod llig 11-12 to 11-14
with th ECFM-3Z mod l 11-31
axial ad trifugal pumps 16-1
axis
of rotatio 16-3
ori tatio 16-2
axisymm tri flow. S flow, axisymm tri 5-8
B
ba kgroud i rt sp i s 10-5
baffl 5-1
odu tig 9-7
imp rm abl 3-10
p rm abl 3-10
porous 12-40
porous. S porous, baffl
surfa 5-8, 9-5
traspar t 9-4
baffl s 3-10
h at trasf r 3-11
porous 3-11
b am
rgy 9-11
of radiatio 9-3, 9-13
tra ig 9-13
tra kig 9-1, 9-4
b ta fu tio 10-8
bla k-body
missio flux 9-5
missiv pow r 9-10, 9-12
bl dig fa tor γ 4-7
bl ndin f
ctor ζ 6-9
blood 18-4
body forc . S forc , body
boundary
lay r 6-1
t rnal th rmal 5-8
turbul nt 6-7
motion 3-7
r gion groups 16-3
sliding 16-2, 16-4
surfac 3-1
t mp ratur 9-5
valu
of scalar quantity 5-2, 5-6
of turbul nc quantity 5-6, 6-12
of v locity 5-2, 6-12
boundary conditions
cyclic 3-9, 5-1, 5-8 to 5-10
anticyclic 5-9
partially cyclic 5-9
for cavitating flow 14-11
for laminar flam l t mod l 10-11 to 10-12
for multi-fluid flows 14-7
for multi-phas flow. S dropl t, ‘boundary’
conditions
fr -str am 5-1, 5-10
inl t 5-1, 5-3
d nsity 5-3
mass flow 5-3
turbul nc 6-12
non-r fl cting 5-1, 5-7
outflow 5-3, 5-5
partitioning 5-5
rat 5-5
sup rsonic 5-5
transi nt 5-5
outl t 5-1, 5-5
inflow 5-5
pr scrib d flu 5-2
pr scrib d mass fraction 5-2
pr scrib d surfac r action 5-2
pr scrib d t mp ratur 5-2
pr ssur 5-1, 5-6 to 5-7
total 5-6
radial quilibrium 5-1, 5-6
Ri mann 5-2, 5-11
stagnation 5-1, 5-3 to 5-4
INDEX
Ind
2 V rsion 4.12
symm try 5-8
transi nt transmissiv 5-2, 5-11
transmissiv 5-1, 5-10
wall 5-1, 5-8
no-slip 6-1
slip 5-8
bubbl 12-1, 12-6, 12-7
collaps 14-10
growth 14-8
shap 14-8
si 14-8
buoyancy 1-2
driv n flow 18-3 to 18-4
forc 18-3, 18-4
in turbul nt flow 2-9, 2-13
C
carbonac ous particl s. S soot mod lling
catalyst surfac 8-2
cavitating flow 14-8 to 14-11
cavitation
vapour volum fraction 14-9
cavitation in no l s 12-17 to 12-21
c ll
addition/r moval 16-7
asp ct ratio 5-9
attachm nt 16-7, 16-8, 18-2
c ntr 5-6
-c ntr d nodal valu s 4-1, 4-6, 8-4
conn ctivity 16-5
d tachm nt 16-8, 18-2
fac
boundary 5-2, 5-6
mast r 3-8, 3-9
slav 3-8
v locity
local 5-5
provisional 7-4
int rfac 16-5
lay r, addition and r moval 3-8, 16-7
mast r 3-8, 3-9
polyh dral 3-1
poor quality 3-15
poor quality r m diation 4-9
slav 3-8, 3-9
surfac 4-2
volum 4-2
c tan numb r 11-23
chann l flow 8-6
char burnout 10-33
ch mical
r action. S r action, ch mical
sp ci s quation. S cons rvation quations, sp ci s
sp ci s. S sp ci s
CO l v ls, ov rpr diction of 10-9
coal combustion 10-31
char burnout 10-33
constant rat mod l 10-33
first-ord r combin d rat mod l 10-33
half-ord r combin d rat mod l 10-35
d volatilisation 10-31
constant rat mod l 10-31
singl -st p mod l 10-32
two-comp ting-st ps mod l 10-32
gas ous combustion10-35
t nd d ddy br a -up (EBU) mod l 10-35
mi d-is-burnt (MIB) mod l 10-35
coal sc nc 12-1
co ffici nt
surfac t nsion 14-6
combin d tim scal . S r action, mod l
combustion
diffusion/non-homog n ous 10-1, 10-5, 10-7
EGR syst ms 11-25
partially pr mi d 11-14
pr mi d/homog n ous 10-1, 10-4, 11-1
S also r action and coal combustion
compr ssibility 2-10, 2-13, 18-5
compr ssibl flow 18-5 to 18-6
subsonic 5-3
sup rsonic 5-3, 5-10
transi nt 5-11
compr ssion l v l 4-7
cond nsation 14-8
to liquid films 15-6
conduction 1-6
through walls 5-2
conductivity
anisotropic 1-6
isotropic 1-6
th rmal 1-5, 1-10
cons rvation quations
continuity. S cons rvation quations, mass
nthalpy
ch mico-th rmal 1-3
for ECFM mod l 11-29
for solids 18-1
in liquid films 15-6
radiating m dia sourc t rm 9-11, 9-13
discr tis d 9-14
th rmal 1-4
total 1-4
for laminar flam l t mod l 10-10 to 10-11
Lagrangian multi-phas flow. S Lagrangian multiphas
flow
mass 1-1, 4-1
discr tis d 4-8
for liquid films 15-1
r sidual 7-8
mom ntum 1-1, 4-1
c ll fac 7-3
discr tis d 7-2
for liquid films 15-2
Ind
V rsion 4.12 3
porous m dia 8-1
rothalpy 1-5
spac 16-4
sp ci s 1-6, 10-2
for ECFM mod l 11-28
solving 7-6
trac rs (ECFM mod l) 11-29
volum fraction 14-2
consumption rat of fu l 10-5, 10-7, 11-10
contact angl ff ct on films 15-2
continuous phas 12-1
continuum surfac forc (CSF) mod l 14-5
control volum s 4-1
conv ction
diff r ncing sch m s 4-6 to 4-9
ff cts of 4-8
finit volum formulation 4-6
flu. S flu, conv ctiv
surfac r sistanc 5-8
coordinat
fram , rotating 12-3
syst m, global Cart sian 1-1
coupling
in Lagrangian multi-phas flow 12-45
th rmal, fluid/solid 18-2
via d nsity 7-6
via turbul nt viscosity 7-6
Courant numb r 11-3, 11-4, 12-43, 16-7
cyclic boundary pair 5-8 to 5-9
D
data structur 4-1
d nsity
calculation of 7-6
quations. S quations of stat
flam ar a
in CFM-ITNFS mod l 11-4
in ECFM mod l 11-27
fluid 1-7 to 1-8
in cavitating flows 14-9
in combustion probl ms 7-6, 10-2, 10-15
in Lagrangian multi-phas flow 12-5
in multi-fluid flows 14-3
inl t 5-3
r f r nc 1-1
sup rsonic flow 18-5
und r-r laation 7-5
di s l ngin spray inj ctors 12-10
di s l ngin s 11-1
diff r ncing sch m s
bl nd d 4-7
c ntral 4-7, 5-9
high-r solution int rfac -capturing (HRIC) 14-7
lin ar upwind 4-7
MARS 4-7
upwind 4-6
diffusion
co ffici nt 10-3
ff cts of 4-8
finit volum formulation 4-2 to 4-3
flu. S flu, diffusiv
in porous m dia 8-2
num rical 4-5
r action syst m 10-5
t rm 4-3
through walls 5-2
v locity corr ction 10-16
diffusivity
h at. S th rmal, diffusivity
mass. S mass, diffusivity
of mitur s 1-12
of vapour 12-7
discr t
ordinat m thod. S radiation
phas 12-5
transf r m thod. S radiation
discr tisation
cavitating flow 14-11
d p nd nc on solution algorithm 4-3
finit volum 4-1 to 4-3
high r-ord r 18-5
high-ord r 4-7 to 4-8
Lagrangian multi-phas flow 12-42 to 12-44
multi-fluid flows 14-7
radiation 9-13
spatial flu 4-5
sp ci s transport 10-37
tim 4-3
1st ord r 4-3
implicit (Eul r) 4-3
thr -l v l (quadratic bac ward) 4-4, 14-7
with multi-dim nsional limit rs 4-8
disp rs d phas 12-1
S also Lagrangian multi-phas flow and Eul rian
multi-phas flow
disp rsion, num rical 4-5, 4-7
dissipation
rat . S turbul nc , dissipation rat
tim scal 2-13, 10-6
viscous 2-10
distanc , normal dim nsionl ss. S n ar-wall
drag
co ffici nt 6-12, 12-2, 12-6
forc 12-2
dropl t 12-1 to 12-2, 12-7
‘boundary’ conditions 12-16
inl ts
atomisation mod ls. S atomisation mod ls
no l flow mod ls. S no l mod ls
walls 12-30
boiling mod l 12-14, 12-38
h at transf r 12-15
mass transf r 12-15
Ind
4 V rsion 4.12
boiling
t mp ratur 12-14
br a -up mod ls
Hsiang-Fa th 12-10
Pilch-Erdman
12-8
bag br a -up 12-9
bag-and-stam n br a -up 12-9
sh t stripping 12-9
vibrational br a -up 12-9
wav cr ststripping 12-9
R it -Diwa
ar 12-7
bag br a -up 12-7

stripping br a -up 12-8
collision d t ction 12-14
collision fr qu ncy 12-12
drag co ffici nt 12-6
n rgy balanc 12-4
fi ld 12-2
h at transf r co ffici nt 12-6
initial si distributions 12-29
normal distribution 12-30
Rosin-Ramml r 12-30
int r-dropl t collisions 12-11
bouncing 12-12
c ll clust ring and sp d up 12-11
coal sc nc 12-12
collision and coal sc nc tim scal s 12-13
constraints 12-11
s paration 12-12
mass 12-2, 12-4
mass transf r co ffici nt 12-6
multicompon nt 12-41
mulsifi d mitur s 12-41
miscibl mitur s 12-41
numb rd nsity 12-14
O’Rour mod l. S dropl t, int r-dropl t collisions
position v ctor 12-2
R ynolds numb r 12-2, 12-6, 12-8
singl -compon nt 12-6
sp cific h at 12-4
stabl diam t r 12-7 to 12-10
t mp ratur 12-4
turbul nt disp rsion 12-15
ddy lif tim 12-15
int raction tim 12-15
transit tim 12-16
v locity 12-2 to 12-3
volum 12-2
wall adh r nc
h at transf r 12-40
mass transf r 12-38
during boiling 12-39
wall collision
Bai’s mod l 12-33
post-imping m nt charact ristics 12-36
r gim transition crit ria 12-34
instantan ous vaporation 12-31
MPI mod l 12-31
fragm ntation 12-33
splashing 12-31
p rf ct r bound 12-30
duct flow. S flow, duct 5-8
duct d fans 16-1
E
Ec rt numb r 1-4
ddy br a -up (EBU) mod l. S r action mod ls
missivity 9-5, 9-12
solar 9-7
n rgy
activation 10-4
balanc for dropl ts 12-4
cons rvation quation. S cons rvation quations,
nthalpy
flu 1-6
radiant
9-4
sin 1-6
porous m dia 8-2
sourc 1-3, 1-6
porous m dia 8-2
sp cific int rnal 1-3, 1-6
static int rnal 1-15
total radiant 9-3
turbul nc . S turbul nc , n rgy
nthalpy
boundary condition on 5-1
ch mico-th rmal 1-3
fluctuations 1-6
static 1-3
th rmal 1-4
total 1-4
transport for PPDF sch m 10-15
nthalpy-t mp ratur r lation 1-15
quations of stat 1-8
quival nc ratio φ 11-2
Ergun equ
tion 13-6
error
splitting 7-5 to 7-6
tempor
l
pproxim
tion 4-4
trunc
tion 4-5, 7-5
Euleri
n multiph
se low 13-1 to 13-21
conserv
tion equ
tions 13-1 to 13-4
energy 13-2
m
ss 13-2
momentum
13-2
tur ulence 13-3
energy tr
ns er 13-14 to 13-15
oiling 13-14
intern
l orces 13-9
kinetic theory stress tensor 13-10
solid pressure orce 13-9
inter-ph
se
dr
gcoe
icient 13-5
or u les 13-6
Index
Version 4.12 5
or spheric
l p
rticles 13-6
dr
g orce 13-5
high p
rticle lo
ding 13-6
he
t tr
ns er 13-3, 13-14
li t orce 13-7
m
ss tr
ns er 13-12
momentum tr
ns er 13-2, 13-3, 13-4
virtu
lm
ss orce 13-7
w
ll lu ric
tion orce 13-8
interph
si
l
re
density 13-12
m
ss tr
ns er 13-12 to 13-14
oiling 13-12
second
ry 13-13
ph
se length sc
le 13-12
tur ulence models 13-15 to 13-16
high Re k-ε 13-15
r spos fu tio 13-16
Issa orr latio 13-16
wall boudary oditios 13-17 to 13-21
boilig h at/mass trasf r 13-19
fix d h at flux 13-19
fix d t mp ratur 13-18
o-slip 13-18
wall o ffi i ts 13-17
wall fu tios 13-20
vaporatio 14-8
from liquid films 15-6
xpasio o ffi i t. S th rmal, volum tri xpasio
o ffi i t
xtra tio, of fluid 18-6
F
fa -bas d data stru tur 4-1
FASTRAC 9-1
b ams l avig th losur 9-9
diffus solar radiatio 9-8
it ral boudari s 9-5
umb r of b ams 9-4
fibrous mat rials 8-1
Fi k’s law 1-5
film strippig
dg br ak-up mod l 15-9
wav istability mod l 15-7
fiit volum (FV) m thod 4-1
flam
ar a d sity
i CFM-ITNFS mod l 11-4
i ECFM mod l 11-27
k r l
AKTIM 11-36
stadard mod l 11-6
sp d
lamiar (ECFM mod l) 11-28
turbul t/lamiar ratio (W ll r mod l) 11-9
ustrai d lamiar 11-2
str t h 11-4, 11-5
flow
axisymm tri 5-8, 16-2
buoya y-driv 18-3 to 18-4
turbul i 18-4
h mi ally r a tig 1-3, 10-1 to 10-37
ompr ssibl . S ompr ssibl flow
disp rs d multi-phas . S Lagragia multi-phas
flow
du t 5-8, 6-13
fr surfa 5-1
fully d v lop d 5-8
i ompr ssibl 5-3
ivis id 5-8
lamiar 1-1
multi- ompo t 18-3
multi-phas . S Lagragia multi-phas flow ad
Eul ria multi-phas flow
ar-wall 5-8
plaar two-dim sioal 5-8
subsoi . S ompr ssibl flow, subsoi

sup rso i . S ompr ssibl flow, sup rsoi

tra so i 18-5
turbul t 1-1 to 1-2
h mi ally r a tig 10-1
mod ls. S turbul mod ls
multi-phas 12-2, 12-15
two-dim sioal 5-8
fluid
ba kgroud 1-9
dilatat 1-2
xtra tio 18-6
immis ibl 14-1
ij tio 18-6
mixtur 1-6 to 1-7
multipl str ams 18-2
N wtoia 1-1 to 1-2
o-N wtoia 1-1 to 1-2, 18-4
ps udoplasti 1-2
sh ar-thi k ig. S fluid, dilatat
sh ar-thiig. S fluid, ps udoplasti
flux
boudary 5-2
oditio 9-7
ov tiv 4-5
diffusiv 1-3, 1-5, 4-5, 6-8
turbul t 1-6
h at. S h at, flux
mass. S mass, flux
radiat 9-5 to 9-6, 9-13
sp i s 5-2, 10-36
for
add d-mass. S for , virtual mass
body 1-2, 12-3
buoya y 18-3, 18-4
trifugal 16-1 to 16-2
Coriolis 16-1 to 16-2
drag 12-2
Id x
6 V rsio 4.12
pr ssur 6-11, 12-2
rotatioal 1-3
sh ar 6-11
surfa t sio 12-7, 12-26
total 6-11
virtual mass 12-3
Fouri r’s law 1-5
fri tio fa tor 12-19
G
gas
bubbl . S bubbl
ostat
mixtur 12-7
uiv rsal 1-8, 10-4
law, id al 1-8, 10-15
GDI gi s 11-14
gradi t of v lo ity. S v lo ity, gradi t
Grashof umb r 18-3, 18-4
gravity 1-1, 1-2, 12-3, 18-3
grid. S m sh
H
h at
diffusivity 8-2
dissipatio 1-6
x hag rs 8-1
flux
baffl 3-11
radiativ 9-12
surfa 12-4, 12-40
wall 6-8
g ratio 1-6
loss i PPDF r a tios 10-15
mol ular diffusioal flux of 1-5
of formatio 1-3, 1-15, 10-3
trasf r
o ffi i t 6-5, 12-6
odu tiv 1-6, 3-11, 18-2
dropl t surfa 12-4
quatio. S os rvatio quatios, thalpy

i porous m dia 8-7
i solid/fluid syst ms 18-1
i solids 1-6
it r-str am 18-2
radiativ . S radiatio, h at trasf r
wall 5-8
ho y omb stru tur s 8-1, 8-6
hydro arbo radi als 10-21
I
id al gas law. S gas, law, id al
igitio 10-2, 10-20, 11-1 to 11-2
AKTIM mod l 11-26, 11-35 to 11-37
ll 11-8
for CFM-ITNFS mod l 11-6 to 11-8
for ECFM mod l 11-26, 11-30
for ECFM-3Z mod l 11-26
for Maguss mod l 11-12
for W ll r mod l 11-10 to 11-11
S also autoigitio
impli it (Eul r) s h m . S dis r tisatio, tim
ij tio fluid 18-6 to 18-7
il t. S boudary oditios, il t
istability, um ri al 4-5, 5-7, 7-5
S also stability, um ri al
it rfa
fluid-fluid 14-1
solid/fluid 9-5, 9-7, 9-8, 18-1 to 18-2
it rpolatio, upwid-w ight d 18-6
it ratio
out r 7-5
loop 7-5
it rativ
al ulatio 7-2
m thod 7-4
ITNFS fu tio 11-5, 11-27
K
ki ti s. S r a tio, mod l, ki ti ally otroll d ad

r a tio , mod l, hybrid
ko k mod llig. S autoigitio
L
Lagragia multi-phas flow 12-1 to 12-46
arri r fluid quatios 12-45
os rvatio quatios
otiuous phas 12-5
dis r tisatio 12-43
disp rs d phas 12-2 to 12-5
ouplig 12-45
dis r tisatio 12-42 to 12-44
dropl t ‘boudary’ oditios. S dropl t
dropl t boilig. S dropl t
dropl t br ak-up. S dropl t
i porous m dia 12-40
it r-dropl t ollisios. S dropl t
it rphas
h at trasf r 12-4, 12-6
mass trasf r 12-1, 12-4, 12-6
mom tum trasf r 12-2, 12-6
sour t rms 12-5
itraphas
h at trasf r 12-12
mass trasf r 12-12
mom tum trasf r 12-12
um ri al solutio 12-44
lamiar flam l t 10-10
lamiar flow. S flow, lamiar
Id x
V rsio 4.12 7
Lapla umb r 12-33
lat t h at of phas hag 12-4
law of th wall distributio
t mp ratur 6-4
turbul param t rs 6-5
v lo ity 6-3
l adig r a tat 10-4 to 10-5
L ard-Jo s param t rs 1-10
lift o ffi i t 6-12
Lill y quatio 18-7
liquid dropl t. S dropl t
liquid films
boilig mod l 15-10
ota t agl ff t 15-2
thalpy os rvatio quatio 15-6
film strippig 15-7
from dropl t adh r 12-30
i Bai’s mod l 12-34
mass od satio/ vaporatio 15-6
mass os rvatio quatio 15-1
mom tum os rvatio quatio 15-2
um ri al pro dur 15-12
pr ssur distributio 15-2
solv r impl m tatio 15-12
lumi s 10-28
M
Ma h umb r 18-5
Maragoi ov tio 14-5
mass
os rvatio quatio. S os rvatio quatios

o s rvatio , i rotati g syst ms 16-3
diffusivity 1-7, 8-2
S also sp i s, diffusivity
dropl t. S dropl t, mass
flow, ij t d 18-6
flux 5-3
ll fa 4-6, 4-6 to 4-8, 7-5
il t 5-3
outl t 5-5
rotatig m sh 16-3
wall 6-8, 10-36
fra tio 1-3, 1-6 to 1-15, 10-7, 10-37
wall fu tio distributio 6-8
mol ular diffusioal flux of 1-5
sour 1-1
trasf r
o ffi i t 6-5, 12-6
it rphas . S Lagragia multi-phas flow,
it rphas
w ight d av rag 1-9
Mathur formula 1-10
m ltig ad solidifi atio 14-11 to 14-14
ma ro-porosity 14-14
um ri al impl m tatio 14-14
physi al mod l 14-12
m sh
arbitrary it rfa s 3-9
otiuity 3-9
dis otiuous. S m sh, multi-blo k
distortio 16-5
mb dd d. S m sh, r fi m t

x lusio 16-8
g ratio 3-12
importig data 3-12
i lusio 16-8
morphig 3-12
motio 3-7, 16-4
multi-blo k 3-5, 3-9
optios 3-8
polyh dral 3-1, 3-3, 3-8
quality 4-1
r fi m t 3-4, 3-8
r asos for 4-5
r solutio i SI gi simulatios 11-3
rotatio
global 16-1
r giowis 16-2
r lativ 16-2
slidig 3-6, 16-4 to 16-7
arbitrary it rfa 16-7
r gular it rfa 16-5
t trah dral 3-3
trimm d 3-2
ustru tur d 3-1
mi romixig
tim s al 10-6
turbul t 10-5
mix d-is-burt mod l 10-35
mixig l gth 6-13
mixig v ss ls 16-1
mixtur
fra tio 10-5, 10-35, 11-14
for lamiar flam l t mod l 10-13
m a 10-8
varia 10-8
gas ostat 12-7
gas ous prop rti s 1-9 to 1-15
liquid prop rti s 1-15 to 1-17
mass trasf r 1-6
mod llig 18-3
mol ular
diffusioal flux
h at. S h at, mol ular diffusioal flux of
mass. S mass, mol ular diffusioal flux of
w ight 10-4
mom tum
os rvatio quatio. S os rvatio quatios,

mom tum
flux 6-7
outl t 5-5
sik 8-1, 8-3 to 8-4
sour ompo ts 1-1
Id x
8 V rsio 4.12
sour fi ld 1-2 to 1-3
movig-boudary probl ms 3-8, 16-4
multi-fluid flow 14-1 to 14-7
multipl domai flows 18-2
N
atural ov tio 18-3 to 18-4
Navi r-Stok s quatios. S os rvatio quatios
ar-wall
ll 6-1, 6-7
dim siol ss ormal dista 6-2, 6-7
lay r (NWL) 6-1
t mp ratur 6-4
v lo ity 6-3
itrog
atmosph ri 10-21
fu l 10-21
o-w ttig wall ota t 14-6
ormalisatio fa tor 7-8
NOx formatio 10-21
fu l 10-27
prompt 10-26
r du ig 11-25
th rmal 10-21
flam l t library mod llig 10-25
mod l limitatios 10-25
turbul - h mistry it ra tio 10-23
ozzl mod ls 12-17 to 12-21
ff tiv 12-17
modifi d MPI (MPI-2) 12-18
r quir m ts for avitatio 12-18
MPI (MPI-1) 12-17
Nuss lt umb r, h at trasf r 12-5, 12-6, 12-40, 13-14
O
Oh sorg umb r 12-8
op rator splittig 7-1 to 7-4
ordiat , dis r t 9-14
os illatios 4-5
Ostwald-d Wa l vis osity mod l. S pow r law
vis osity mod l
outflow. S boudary oditios, outflow
outl t. S boudary oditios, outl t
P
pa k d b ds 8-5
par l, omputatioal 12-2, 12-16, 12-44
parti l s
disp rs d phas 12-1
impa t o walls 12-30
i Eul ria multiphas flows 13-1 to 13-14
multi ompo t 12-41
of oal 10-36
of soot 10-28
pat h. S radiatio, pat h
p rturbatios i dropl t atomisatio 12-21
phas shift 18-9
PISO algorithm 4-3, 7-1 to 7-6
1st orr tor 7-4
additioal orr tor 7-4
pr di tor 7-4
pol s 5-2
polym r solutios 18-4
polyomial r latioships for mixtur prop rti s 1-14
porous
baffl 3-11, 8-3 to 8-4, 12-40
h at trasf r 8-3
th rmal r sista 8-3
m dia 8-1 to 8-8
ojugat h at trasf r 8-7
Lagragia multi-phas flow 12-40
limitatios 8-4
pr ssur drop 8-3
pow r law vis osity mod l 1-2, 18-5
Pradtl umb r
buoya y 18-4
burt gas 11-5
otiuous phas 13-14
h at trasf r 12-6
mol ular 6-5
turbul t 2-4
pr mix d syst ms 10-4
pr ssur
boudary. S boudary oditios
al ulatio 7-1, 7-5
distributio i liquid films 15-2
drop
a ross baffl s 3-11
a ross porous m dia 8-3
virom tal 5-6
quatio i PISO 7-3 to 7-5
for 6-11
gradi t 5-6, 7-2
pi zom tri 1-1, 18-3
saturatio 12-4
stagatio 5-4
stati 1-1
total 5-6
wav 5-10, 18-5
trasi t 5-11
produ tio tim s al 2-13
prop ll rs 16-5
ps udo trasi t approa h 7-5
ud r-r laxatio 7-7
R
radiatio
absorptivity 9-6
Id x
V rsio 4.12 9
b ams. S b am
bla k body 9-10, 9-12
boudary tr atm t 9-4
s ap boudari s 9-5
i t ral boudari s 9-5

radiatio boudari s 9-5
solid boudari s 9-5
oal parti l s 10-36
dis r t ordiat s m thod 9-12 to 9-13
dis r t trasf r m thod 9-2 to 9-11, 9-13
dis r tisatio 9-13
missivity 9-5, 9-12
FASTRAC. S FASTRAC
flux 9-2
ouplig 9-13
i id t 9-6
t h at 9-6
solar 9-7
total 9-5
total wall h at 9-6
fr qu y 9-7
from parti l s 9-10
gr y m dia 9-12
h at flux 9-12
h at trasf r 9-6
i parti ipatig m dia 9-9 to 9-13
dis r t ordiat m thod 9-12
dis r t trasf r m thod 9-10
it sity 9-10
fi ld quatios 9-13
um ri al impl m tatio
dis r t ordiat s 9-13
dis r t trasf r 9-13
parti l absorptio o ffi i t 9-10
pat h 9-2 to 9-7
d fiig 9-5
r fl tivity 9-5, 9-12
r fra tio 9-9
s att rig 9-10, 9-12
solar 9-1, 9-7 to 9-8
diffus 9-8
missivity 9-7
it sity 9-7
r fl tivity 9-8
wall traspar y 9-7
sp ular 9-4
surfa x hag 9-1 to 9-8
through baffl s 9-9
through solid ll lay rs 9-9
through traspar t solids 9-8
traspar t body
baffl s 9-4
solids 9-10
radi als, i igitio 11-12
radiosity 9-5
radius v tor 1-3
radom walk t hiqu 12-2
Raoult’s law 15-7
rat
o ffi i t 10-37
quatio 10-4 to 10-7
rat - otrollig o tratio 10-6
Rayl igh
quatio 14-10
umb r 18-4
Rayl igh-Pl ss t quatio 14-10
r a tio
hai 11-21
doth rmi 10-3
doth rmi . S rgy, sour
xoth rmi 10-3
xoth rmi . S rgy, sour

h t rog ous 5-2
igitio. S igitio
irr v rsibl 10-3
m haism 10-1, 10-16
NOx formatio. S NOx formatio
rat 10-1, 10-3 to 10-7
oditio upo xpo t 10-4
sigl -st p irr v rsibl 10-5
soot mod llig. S soot mod llig
surfa 10-36
r a tio mod ls
ombi d tim s al 10-7
ompl x h mistry 10-15
ddy-br ak up r a tio 10-20
Ladau-T ll r r a tio 10-20
um ri al m thods 10-17
poit- oupl d m thod 10-17
tim -split m thod 10-17
pr ssur -d p d t fall-off r a tio 10-19
Lid ma form 10-19
SRI from 10-20
Tro form 10-19
stadard Arrh ius 10-18
thr -body r a tio 10-18
for di s l gi s 11-19 to 11-25
ECFM-3Z 11-26, 11-30 to 11-32
ECFM-CLEH 11-26, 11-32 to 11-35
lamiar-ad-turbul t hara t risti -tim
ombustio 11-19 to 11-21
Maguss 11-19
for SI gi s 11-1 to 11-19
CFM-ITNFS 11-4 to 11-8
ECFM 11-27 to 11-30
ECFM-3Z 11-26, 11-30 to 11-32
ECFM-CLEH 11-26, 11-32 to 11-35
G- quatio 11-14
Maguss 11-11 to 11-12
W ll r 1 & 2- quatio 11-8 to 11-11
W ll r 3- quatio 11-14
hybrid 10-6, 10-7
ki ti ally otroll d 10-3
diffusio/o-homog ous 10-5
Id x
10 V rsio 4.12
pr mix d/homog ous 10-4
Maguss 10-5
PPDF multi-fu l 10-14
PPDF o-adiabati 10-15
PPDF sigl -fu l
quilibrium 10-9
lamiar flam l ts 10-9
turbul - otroll d ddy br ak-up (EBU) 10-5
limitatios 10-6
r f r
d sity. S d sity, r f r
sp ifi h at. S sp ifi h at, r f r
t mp ratur . S t mp ratur , r f r
r fi m t, mb dd d. S m sh, r fi m t
solar 9-8
r fra tio 9-9
r gr ss variabl 11-8, 11-11, 11-12
r lativ
m sh rotatio 16-2
motio 16-4 to 16-5
rotatioal motio 3-6
b tw adja t m sh r gios 16-2
r s ar h o ta umb r (RON) 11-13
r sidual 7-8
ormalis d sum 7-8
pr ssur 7-8
turbul dissipatio rat 7-9
r sista
ov tiv surfa 5-8
distribut d 8-1, 16-4
o ffi i ts 8-4 to 8-7
isotropi 8-5
orthotropi 8-1, 8-6
wall 5-2
r sista o ffi i t 8-4 to 8-7
r spos fu tio 13-16
r stitutio o ffi i t 13-11
R yolds
umb r
dropl t 12-6, 12-8
i buoya y probl ms 18-3
str ss 1-2, 2-4
RON umb r 11-14
rotatig syst ms
domai ouplig
boudary-wis 16-3
r gio-wis 16-3
global rotatio 16-1
mass os rvatio 16-3
r giowis rotatio 16-1
xpli it m thod 16-2
impli it m thod 16-3
rotatio
r lativ motio 3-6
sp d 16-2
v tor 1-3
rothalpy 1-5
h mi o-th rmal 1-5
th rmal 1-5
S
saturatio pr ssur . S pr ssur , saturatio
s alar
boudary valu of 5-2, 5-6
dissipatio rat 10-10
g ri 1-17
multi-dim sioal limit rs 4-8
variabl 18-3
S hmidt umb r
flam ar a d sity 11-7
mass trasf r 12-7
mol ular 6-5
turbul t 2-4, 10-5, 10-8
sh ar for 6-11
sh ar-thi k ig fluid. S fluid, dilatat
sh ar-thiig fluid. S fluid, ps udoplasti
Sh rwood umb r, mass trasf r 12-7, 12-39
sho k wav 5-10, 18-5
sho k- apturig t hiqu 18-5
SIMPLE algorithm 4-3, 7-1 to 7-2, 7-6, 12-45
slidig boudary. S boudary, slidig
slip fa tor 12-40
solid
parti l 12-6
r a tio produ t 10-36
traspar t 9-10
solutio
m thod i rotatig syst ms
xpli it 16-2
impli it 16-3
solutio algorithms
ompl tio t st 7-8
dis r tisatio s h m d p d 4-3
ud r-r laxatio 7-2, 7-5 to 7-8
S also PISO algorithm ad SIMPLE algorithm
solv r
alg brai multigrid (AMG) 7-9
ojugat gradi t (CG) 7-9
soot mod llig 10-28
flam l t library m thod 10-29
for adva d ICE mod ls 11-26
m thod of mom ts 10-30
PDF 10-30
sour
a roa ousti 18-9
h mi al r a tio 10-37
disp rs d-phas -r lat d 12-5, 12-45
rgy. S rgy, sour
fi it volum formulatio 4-2

h at r l as /absorptio 10-3
ij tio 18-6
Lagragia mom tum 12-44
Id x
V rsio 4.12 11
mass. S mass, sour
um ri al r pr s tatio 7-3
radiatio 9-11
rotatig syst ms 16-1
th rmal thalpy 10-3
volum tri 14-5, 14-10
spa os rvatio law 16-4
Spaldig trasf r umb r 15-6
spark igitio (SI) gi s 11-1
spark plug 11-1
sp i s
h mi al 10-1 to 10-2
os rvatio/trasport quatio. S os rvatio

quatio s, sp i s
osumptio of 10-37
diffusivity 1-7
S also mass, diffusivity
dis r tisatio 10-37
flux 6-8
mass fra tio 1-7, 10-37
sp ifi h at
dropl t 12-4
i multi-fluid flows 14-5
m a 1-15
ostat-pr ssur 1-3
ostat-volum 1-3
of a solid 1-6
of mixtur s 1-9
ratio of 5-4
r f r 1-3
spray ij tio 12-17
stability
um ri al 2-34, 4-5, 10-37, 16-3, 16-7, 16-8, 18-5
S also istability, um ri al
r lat d tim st p r stri tio. S tim , st p, stability
r stri tio
start-up phas 18-6
st ady-stat al ulatio
PISO 7-5
SIMPLE 7-6
ud r-r laxatio 7-6
St fa-Boltzma ostat 9-5
Stok s’ law 13-7
strai rat 10-10
hara t risti 10-12
t sor 1-2, 18-5
str ss
R yolds. S R yolds, str ss
t sor ompo t 1-1
str ss aalysis
basi quatios 17-1
boudary oditios 17-2
ostitutiv laws 17-3
solid m sh d formatio 17-7
Strouhal umb r 12-32
sub- y lig 12-45
sublay r r sista fa tor 6-4
sup rfi ial v lo ity 8-1
sup rsoi ozzl s 18-5
surfa
absorptivity 9-6
arbitrary m sh it rfa 3-9
missivity 9-5, 9-12
solar 9-7
fr 5-8
ota t agl 14-6
gr y Lamb rt typ 9-2
pat h. S radiatio, pat h 9-5
r a tio 10-36
solar 9-8
r sista , ov tiv 5-8
slip 5-1, 5-8
t sio 14-5
o ffi i t 12-8, 14-5
for 12-7
mod l 14-5
Suth rlad quatio 1-9
symm try axis 5-2, 5-8, 5-9
syth ti turbul m thod 18-8
T
t mp ratur
boilig 12-14
bulk m a 6-5
riti al 12-14
dropl t 12-4
quatio. S os rvatio quatios, thalpy

i j tio 18-6
L id frost 12-31, 12-39
ar-wall 6-4
o-dim sioal 10-24
r f r 1-8
stagatio 5-4
uburt gas 11-2, 11-3
wall 5-8, 9-7, 9-13
wall fu tio distributio 6-8
t sor otatio 1-1
th rmal
diffusio 1-13
o ffi i t 1-7
ratio 1-7
r sista 5-2, 5-8
volum tri xpasio o ffi i t 1-8
th rmophysi al prop rti s 1-7 to 1-17
al ulatio of 7-6
thr -l v l (quadrati ba kward) s h m S
dis r tisatio, tim
tim
oal burout 10-33
oal d volatilisatio 10-31
d rivativ t rm 7-5
ddy turov r 11-20

I d x
12 V rsio 4.12
parall l omputatio 7-9
s al
h mi al 10-7
ombi d 10-7
dissipatio 10-6
dropl t br ak-up 12-8 to 12-10
dropl t ollisio 12-13
mass r laxatio 12-4
mi romixig 10-6
mom tum r laxatio 12-4, 12-16
produ tio 2-13
r a tio 10-7
th rmal r laxatio 12-5
turbul 10-7
st p
omputatioal 7-1
igitio 11-11
i movig m sh s 16-7
i SI gi simulatios 11-3
optimisig 4-4
ps udo 7-7
stability r stri tio 4-4, 7-5
tol ra , us r-sp ifi d 7-8
torqu ov rt rs 16-1
trasi t al ulatio, PISO 7-2
trasmissivity 9-4
trasport quatios. S os rvatio quatios

turboma hi ry 16-1, 18-5
turbul
at stagatio boudari s 5-4
at wall boudari s 6-1
dissipatio rat 2-1, 6-12
Eddy Vis osity mod ls
k-ω 2-17
n gy 2-1, 6-12
g n ation 2-10
in buoyancy-d iv n flos 18-4
in po ous m dia 8-2
in acting flo 10-1, 10-6
int nsity
at stagnation bounda i s 5-4
in po ous m dia 8-2
lativ
6-12
l ngt scal 6-13
at stagnation bounda i s 5-4
in po ous m dia 8-2
n a -all gion 2-15, 2-20
tim scal 10-7
all-no mal tu bul nc int nsity 2-16
bul nc mod ls
tu
c oic of 2-2
DES mod ls 2-26 to 2-31
bl nding function 2-30
k-ε mod l 2-30
k-ω SST mod ls 2-29
ov vi 2-4
Spala t-Allma as mod l 2-26
ddy viscosity mod ls 2-4
k-ε
2-1
C n 2-13
coupling
7-6
ig R n a -all t atm nt 6-5
yb id n a -all t atm nt 6-10
inl t conditions 6-12
lo R n a -all t atm nt 6-8
R alizabl 2-10
RNG 2-12
Sp zial ig R 2-12
standa d ig R 2-9

standa dlo R 2-14
Suga ig R 2-12
Suga lo R 2-15
k-l 2-8
k-ω2-2
ig R n a -all t atm nt 6-5

lo R n a -all t atm nt 6-8
SST 2-19
standa d 2-18
lin a mod ls 2-4
non-lin a
cubic 2-7
quad atic 2-5
ov vi 2-1
p sc ib d viscosity 2-8
Spala t-Allma as 2-8
standa d n a -all t atm nt 6-9
to-lay mod ls 2-20, 6-1
LES mod ls 2-32 to 2-34
disc tisation 2-34
n gy quation
2-34
filt idt 2-34
inl t conditions 6-13
n a -all t atm nt 6-10
ov vi 2-3
Smago insky mod l 2-32
sp ay atomisation ff ct on Sub-g id k
mod l 2-33
Sub-g id k mod l 2-33
ov vi of 2-1
R ynolds st ss mod ls 2-21 to 2-26
conv ction 2-21
diffusion 2-21
ddy viscosity ypot sis 2-22
g n alis d g adi nt diffusion
ypot sis 2-22
dissipation 2-22
k-ε quations 2-25 to 2-26
ov vi 2-3
p ssu -st ain t m 2-23
C aft mod l 2-24
Gibson-Laund mod l 2-23
Sp zial -Sa ka -Gatski mod l 2-24
Ind x
V sion 4.12 13
p oduction 2-22
summa y of 2-35
tu bul nt flo. S flo, tu bul nt and tu bul nc
U
und - laxation. S solution algo it ms, und laxation
upst am conditions 5-4
V
vapou 14-8
diffusivity 12-7
va iabl
p og ss 10-14
scala 18-3
v cto
otation. S otation, v cto
su fac 4-2
v locity 4-2
angula 12-3, 16-1, 16-2
bounda
y valu of 5-2
c a act istic 8-2
coo dinat f am 16-4
di ction cosin 5-4
d opl t. S d opl t, v locity
ns mbl av ag 1-1 to 1-2
g adi nt 1-1
inj ction 12-17, 18-6
inl t 5-3
n a -all 6-3
nodal 7-3 to 7-4
outl t 5-5
p ofil assumption 6-3 to 6-4
lativ
4-2
synt tic tu bul nc 18-9
all. S all, v locity
vi facto s 9-1, 9-3 to 9-4
viscosity
in Lag angian multi-p as flo 12-5

in multi-fluid flo s 14-4
mol cula 1-2, 1-9
non-N tonian 18-4
po la mod l. S po la viscosity mod l
tu bul nt 2-1, 2-4, 2-9, 2-10
disc t p as 13-15
tu bul nt kin matic 2-8
volum
d opl t. S d opl t, volum
f action 12-5, 14-2
t ansition 13-7
po osity χ 8-1
vo Karma
ostat 6-3, 11-5
rgy sp trum 18-8
W
wall
boudary oditios. S boudary oditios, wall
for s 6-11 to 6-12
fu tios
Ag lb rg r 6-11
hybrid 6-9
law of th wall 6-3
o- quilibrium 6-6
um ri al tr atm t 6-7 to 6-8
stadard 6-2 to 6-6
hydrodyami ally smooth 6-3
impa t 12-30
imp rm abl 5-8
ar-wall lay r. S ar-wall lay r
o-adiabati 10-15
opaqu 9-7
radiat flux 9-5
sh ar str ss 6-3, 6-7, 6-9
solar h atig 9-7
t mp ratur 5-2, 9-7, 9-13
th rmal r sista 5-2
traspar t 9-7
v lo ity 6-3, 6-7
wav
br akig 14-1
o-br akig 14-1
sho k 18-5
th ory 5-11
wav growth th ory 12-21
wav istability 15-7
W b r umb r 12-7, 12-8, 12-13, 12-31, 12-33, 12-38
w ight, mol ular 10-4
w ttig wall ota t 14-6
Wilk formula 1-9
Z
Z ldovi h m haism 10-21

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METHODOLOGY

STAR-CD VERSION 4.12

nd liquid ilm simul

long with some guidelines on their use (given, or ex

mount o second-order upwinding o the scheme without

nd th UD ch m for th k-ε turbul nc mod l qu

pplied etween the w

nd di icult to provide or intern

unction o (super ici

use ul guideline is to choose species whose r

------ = – (Kv1 + Kv2) C

ngle. The user should e

s the time t2 when the l

d n ity Σ i olv d in ord r to v

projected into the me

r olv d for th unmix d fu l

llow for th vi cou ff ct .

nd is used to determine the upper limit or the initi

long the liquid core where stripping

nd μ he ynamic viscosi y of he liqui fuel.

12-40 V r ion 4.12

For tur ulent multiph

nd/or pr ur or oth r flow condition . Mor d t

solid- luid inter

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