UNIVERSITY OF GAZIANTEP

Electrical & Electronic Engineering

EEE0400- ORIENTATION ENGINEERING

ADATEL TELECOMMUNICATIONS AND ENGINEERING

SERVICES

MEHMET UGUR KEBIR

200961211

21.05.2015

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 CONTENTS

PREFACE………………………………...………………………………………………..…..4
1-CORPORATE PRESENTATION...……………………………………………………........5
2- OSI MODEL…….…………………………………………………………………………..6
2.1- The Application Layer….…………………………………………………………………6
2.2- The Presentation Layer …………….……………………………………………………..6
2.3- The Session Layer ……..……………………………………………………………….....6
2.4- The Transport Layer …………………………………………………………...................6
2.5- The Network Layer ………..………………………………………………………….…..6
2.6- The Data Link Layer ..……………………………………………………………….……6
2.7- Physical Layer………………………………………………………………………….....6
3- TRANSMISSION SYSTEM INFORMATION……………………………..……….……7
3.1- INDOOR PART……………..............................................................................................9
3.1.1- ACCESS MODULE MAGAZINE (AMM)………………………………………….....9
3.1.2- FAN UNIT (FAU)…………………………………………………………………..…10
3.1.3- NODE PROCESSOR UNIT (NPU)…………………………………………………...10
3.1.4- LINE TERMINATION UNIT (LTU)…………………………………………………12
3.1.5- MAGAZINE MODEM UNIT (MMU)………………………………………………..12
3.1.6- PSU DC/DC KIT…………………………………………………………………..…..13
3.2-OUTDOOR PART…………………………………………………………………….….14
3.2.1- RADIO UNIT (RAU)……………………………………………………………….…14
3.2.2- RADIO TYPES……………………………………………………………………..…15
3.2.3- RADIO TERMINALS………………………………………………………………....15
3.2.4- (1+1) PROTECTION…………………………………………………………………..17
4- TRAFFIC ROUTING…………………………………………………………….………..18
4.1- PROTECTION MECHANISMS………………………………………………………...19
4.2.- ETHERNET BRIDGE…………………………………………………………………..20
5- MINI-LINK-E CO-SITING………………………………………………………………..20
6- TRANSMIT POWER CONTROL………………………………………………………...21
6.1- RTPC MODE…………………………………………………………………………….21
6.2- ATPC MODE……………………………………………………………………………21
7- DATA COMMUNICATION NETWORK (DCN)………………………………………..22
7.1- IP SERVICES....................................................................................................................22
7.2- E1………………………………………………………………………………………...23
7.3- 2xE0……………………………………………………………………………………...23
7.4- IP ADDRESSING……………………………………………………………………….23
7.5-IP ROUTER………………………………………………………………………………24
8-ROUTING PROTOCOLS …………………………………………………………………24
8.1- CLASSFUL ROUTING PROTOCOLS ………………………………………………...24
8.2- ROUTED AND ROUTING PROTOCOLS …………………………………………….24
8.3- THERE ARE BROADLY THREE TYPES OF ROUTING PROTOCOLS…………….24
8.4- OSPF……………………………………………………………………………………..26
8.4.1- OSPF A LINK STATE ………………………………………………………………..26
8.4.1.1-Faster convergence …………………………………………………………………..26
8.4.1.2- Support for VLSM …………………………………………………………………..26
8.4.1.3- Network Reachability ……………………………………………………………….26
8.4.1.4- Metric ………………………………………………………………………………..26
8.4.1.5- Efficiency ……………………………………………………………………………26
8.4.2- OSPF AREA…………………………………………………………………………...26
8.4.3- OSPF ROUTE ………………………………………………………………………...26
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9- RADIO BASE STATION…………………………………………………………………27
9.1- RBS2000 SERIES……………………………………………………………….………28
9.2- RBS 3000 SERIES………………………………………………………………………28
9.3- RBS 6000 SERIES………………………………………………………………………29
10- ADAPTIVE MODULATION(QPSK, QAM)……………………………………………30
10.1-Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) …...……………………………………………………31
10.2-Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)…..……………………………………………………...31
10.3-Quadrature Phase Shifting Keying (QPSK)…..………………………………………...31
11- CONCLUSION…………………………………………………………………………...33
12- REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………...34

FIGURES

Figure 1 A MINI-LINK TN configuration………………………………………………...…..7

Figure 2 Outdoor and indoor parts……………………………………………………………..8
Figure 3 Basic Node and Radio Terminals………………………………………………...…..9
Figure 4 AMMs…………………………………………………………………………….…10
Figure 5 FAU1………………………………………………………………..………………10
Figure 6-a NPUs………………………………………………………………………………11
Figure 6-b NPUs ………………………………………………………………………..……11
Figure 7-a LTUs with E1 interfaces …………………………………………………….……12
Figure 7-b MMUs……………………………………………………………………..……...13
Figure 7-c PSU DC/DC kit…………………………………………………………………...13
Figure 8-a RAUs and antennas in different installation alternatives…………….…………...14
Figure 8-b 0.2 m, 0.3 m and 0.6 m compact antennas integrated with RAU2…………..…...15
Figure 8-c……….. …………………………………………………………………………...16
Figure 8-d Radio link protection modes ……………...……………………………………...17
Figure 9-a Traffic routing …………...…………………..…………………………………...18
Figure 9-b MINI-LINK TN provides high availability through various protection Mechanisms…....19
Figure 10 Ethernet bridge ….………………………………………………………………...20
Figure 11 SMU2 ……………………………………………………………………………...21
Figure 12 Transmit power control …………………………………………………………...22
Figure 13 IP services ……………………………………………………….………………...23
Figure 14 Radio Base Station……………………………………………….………………...27
Figure 15 …………..……………………………………………………….………………...32

TABLES

Table1 : Quadrature Phase Shifting Keying (QPSK)…………………………………………31

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PREFACE

Adatel Telecommunications and Engineering Services on June 13th, 2000 as Regional

Partner in Adana; It has started serving in the telecommunications sector.

Started base station infrastructure, maintenance and business services with 17 staff
Adatel which is that company, today continues to developing operating areas and rapidly
growning up with 185 staff.

Our mission, which defines the reason for the existence of the Company, and which
value has been created for the customers is: To provide customer-focused integrated
communication solutions to our customers anywhere and anytime.

Our vision, which defines the future the Company wants to create and which is the
destination the Company aims to reach, is: To be the preferred communication operator
carrying to the future. 

Our values, which represent the set of beliefs which makes the Company unique; and the
cultural traits which define the character of the Company are as follows: Customer Focused,
Trustworthy, Innovative, Responsible and Dedicated.Our strength is Solidarity and Team
Spirit.

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1-CORPORATE PRESENTATION

Name: Adatel Telecommunication & Engineering

Activities:

 Business care
 Revision
 New Station Setup
 OG-AG Line installation
 Tower Erection
 F / O Line Facility
 EMR Measurement
 Documentation of TK
 Survey
 Infrastructure Equipment Supply

References:

Communication:

 Tel: (+90) 322 4297025 PBX (5 hat) Fax: (+90) 322 4297028
 Email: adatel@adatel.com.tr
 Address: Yeşiloba Mah Arslandamı İşmerkezi 3 Sok. No:9 Seyhan/ADANA

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2- OSI MODEL

The 7 layers of OSI model are;

2.1- The Application Layer: 

Application layer is responsible for identifying and establishing the availability of

desired communication partner and verifying sufficient resources exist for communication.
Some of the important application layer protocols are: WWW, SMTP, FTP, etc.

2.2- The Presentation Layer: 

This layer is responsible for presenting the data in standard formats. This layer is
responsible for data compression, decompression, encryption, and decryption. Some
Presentation Layer standards are: JPEG, MPEG, MIDI, PICT, Quick Time, TIFF.

2.3- The Session Layer: 

Session Layer is responsible for co-ordinating communication between systems/nodes.

The following are some of the session layer protocols and interfaces: a) Network File System
(NFS), SQL, RPC (Remote Procedure Call), X-Windows, ASP, DNA SCP.

2.4- The Transport Layer: 

The Transport Layer is responsible for multiplexing upper-layer applications, session

establishment, and tearing-down of virtual circuits. This layer is responsible for flow control,
to maintain data integrity. 

2.5- The Network Layer:

  There can be several paths to send a packet from a given source to a destination. The
primary responsibility of Network layer is to send packets from the source network to the
destination network using a pre-determined routing methods. Routers work at Network layer.

2.6- The Data Link Layer:

Data Link Layer is layer 2 of OSI reference model. This layer is divided into two sub-
layers: 
A. Logical Link Control (LLC) sub-layer.
B. Media Access Control (MAC) sub-layer.
The LLC sub-layer handles error control, flow control, framing, and MAC sub-layer
addressing.
The MAC sub-layer is the lower of the two sub-layers of the Data Link layer. MAC sub-layer
handles access to shared media, such a Token passing or Ethernet.

2.7- Physical Layer:

  The actual flow of signals take place through Physical layer. At Physical layer, the
interface between the DTE and DCE is determined. The following are some of the standard
interfaces are defined at Physical layer:

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EIA/TIA-232, EIA/TIA-49,V.24,V.35,X.21,G.703,HSSI (High Speed Serial Interface).

SONET defines interface standards at the physical layer of the OSI seven-layer model.
The standard defines a hierarchy of interface rates that allow data streams at different rates to
be multiplexed. SONET establishes Optical Carrier (OC) levels from 51.8 Mbps (OC-1) to
9.95 Gbps (OC-192).

3-TRANSMISSION SYSTEM INFORMATION

MINI-LINK is the world's most deployed microwave transmission system. The MINI-
LINK TN product family is the latest addition, offering compact, scalable, and cost-effective
solutions. The system provides integrated traffic routing, PDH and SDH multiplexing as well
as protection mechanisms on link and network level. The software configurable traffic routing
minimizes the use of cables, improves network quality and facilitates control from a remote
location. With the high level of integration, rack space can be reduced by up to 70%
compared to traditional solutions. Configurations range from small end sites with one single
radio terminal to large hub sites where all the traffic from a number of southbound links is
aggregated into one link, microwave or optical, in the northbound direction.

The purpose of this description is to support the reader with detailed information on
included products with accessories, from technical and functional points of view.
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 A MINI-LINK TN Network Element (NE) can, from a hardware and installation point
of view, be divided into two parts:

• Indoor part

• Outdoor part

A-Basic Node

The Basic Node holds the system platform providing traffic and system control, such
as traffic routing, multiplexing, protection mechanisms and management functions. It also
provides traffic interfaces, PDH, SDH and Ethernet, for connection to network equipment
such as a radio base station, ADM or LAN. Finally, it includes indoor mechanical housing,
power distribution and cooling.

B-Radio Terminals

Each Radio Terminal provides microwave transmission from 2x2 to 32x2 Mbit/s,
operating within the 7 to 38 GHz frequency bands, utilizing C-QPSK and 16 QAM
modulation schemes. It can be configured as unprotected (1+0) or protected (1+1).

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3.1- INDOOR PART

The indoor part consists of an Access Module Magazine (AMM) with plug-in units
interconnected via a backplane. One plug-in unit occupies one slot in the AMM. The AMM
fits into standard 19" or metric racks and cabinets. The following text introduces the standard
indoor units and their main functions.

3.1.1- ACCESS MODULE MAGAZINE (AMM)

Houses the plug-in units and provides backplane interconnection of traffic, power and control
signals. The indoor part consists of an Access Module Magazine (AMM) with plug-in units.
This section describes the AMM types and their associated cooling and power supply
functions. Types of AMM are;

 AMM 2p

 AMM 6p

 AMM 20p

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3.1.2- FAN UNIT (FAU)

Provides cooling for the indoor part. FAU1 has an automatic fan speed control and
holds three internal fans. FAU1 has two –48 V DC connectors for redundant power supply.
Two connectors are also available for export of alarms to PFU1.

3.1.3- NODE PROCESSOR UNIT (NPU)

The NPU implements the system's main traffic and control functions. One NPU is
always required in the AMM. The NPU also provides E1, DCN and management interfaces.

The following NPUs are available:

 NPU2 (Fits in an AMM 2p)

 NPU 8x2 (Fits in an AMM 6p and 20p)

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The following summarizes the common functions of the NPUs:

• Traffic handling

• System control and supervision

• DCN handling

• SNMP Master Agent

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• 10BASE-T Ethernet interface for connection to a site LAN

• Storage and administration of inventory and configuration data

3.1.4- LINE TERMINATION UNIT (LTU)

A plug-in unit that provides PDH or SDH traffic interfaces. The following LTUs with
E1 interfaces are available:

 LTU 12x2 (Fits in an AMM 2p. For sites where the four E1 interfaces on the NPU2
are insufficient, the LTU 12x2 provides 12 additional E1 interfaces.)
 LTU 16x2 (Fits in an AMM 6p and AMM 20p. For sites where the eight E1 interfaces
on the NPU 8x2 are insufficient, the LTU 16x2 provides 16 additional E1 interfaces.)

3.1.5- MAGAZINE MODEM UNIT (MMU)

Magazine modem unit(MMU) modulate the signal from the Base band to IF band and
vice versa. Other hand, supply dc power to RAU. Also Determine the link modulation scheme
and bandwidth.

Both MMU 2H & 2D support modulation up to128 QAM . they also support adaptive
modulation (Lowering the modulation scheme to became more robust to against fading).

Only MMU 2H supports XPIC and MMU is also mandatory unit.

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3.1.6- PSU DC/DC KIT

The PSU DC/DC kit is used for AMM 6p or AMM 20p, converting +24 V DC to –48
V DC. It consists of a sub-rack, one or two Power Supply Units (PSU) and a FAU3. Two
PSUs are used for redundant power systems in AMM 20p.

The +24 V DC external power supply is connected to the PSU front.

The sub-rack provides two –48 V DC connectors for PFU connection. Two fused –48
V DC connectors for FAU1 connection are also available.

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3.2-OUTDOOR PART

3.2.1- RADIO UNIT (RAU)

The outdoor part is supplied for various frequency bands. It consists of an antenna, a
Radio Unit (RAU) and associated installation hardware. For protected (1+1) systems, two
RAUs and one or two antennas are used. When using one antenna, the two RAUs are
connected to the antenna using a power splitter.

The RAU and the antenna are easily installed on a wide range of support structures.
The RAU is fitted directly to the antenna as standard, integrated installation. The RAU and
the antenna can also be fitted separately and connected by a flexible waveguide. In all cases,
the antenna is easily aligned and the RAU can be disconnected and replaced without affecting
the antenna alignment.

The basic function of the Radio Unit (RAU) is to generate and receive the RF signal
and convert it to/from the signal format in the radio cable, connecting the RAU and the
MMU. It can be combined with a wide range of antennas in integrated or separate installation.
The RAU connects to the antenna at the waveguide interface. Disconnection and replacement
of the RAU can be done without affecting the antenna alignment.

DC power to the RAU is supplied from the MMU through the radio cable.

The RAU is a weatherproof box painted light gray, with a handle for lifting and
hoisting. There are also two hooks and catches to guide it for easier handling, when fitting to
or removing from an integrated antenna. It comprises a cover, vertical frame, microwave sub-
unit, control circuit board and filter unit.
14
 The RAU is independent of traffic capacity. The operating frequency is determined by
the RAU only and is set on site using the LCT. Frequency channel arrangements are available
according to ITU-R and ETSI recommendations.

3.2.2- RADIO TYPES

An RAU is designated as RAUX Y F, for example RAU2 N 23. When ordering,

additional information about frequency sub-band and output power version is necessary. The
letters have the following significance:

 X indicates mechanical design 1 or 2

 Y indicates MMU compatibility as follows:

- "blank", for example RAU2 23, indicates compatibility with a C-QPSK MMU

- N, for example RAU2 N 23, indicates compatibility with a C-QPSK and 16 QAM MMU

 F indicates frequency band

3.2.3- RADIO TERMINALS

A Radio Terminal provides microwave transmission from 2x2 to 32x2 Mbit/s,

operating within the 7 to 38 GHz frequency bands, utilizing C-QPSK and 16 QAM
modulation schemes. It can be configured as unprotected (1+0) or protected (1+1).

15
An unprotected (1+0) Radio Terminal comprises:

• One RAU

• One Antenna

• One MMU

• One radio cable for interconnection

A protected (1+1) Radio Terminal comprises:

• Two RAUs

• Two antennas or one antenna with a power splitter

• Two MMUs

• Two radio cables for interconnection

Automatic switching can be in hot standby or in working standby (frequency

diversity). Receiver switching is hitless.

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3.2.4- (1+1) PROTECTION

A Radio Terminal can be configured for 1+1 protection. This configuration provides
propagation protection and equipment protection on the MMU, RAU and antenna.
Propagation protection may be used on radio links where fading due to meteorological and/or
ground conditions make it difficult to meet the required transmission quality.

Configurations for 1+1 protection can be in hot standby or working standby. In hot
standby mode, one transmitter is working while the other one, tuned to the same frequency is
in standby, not transmitting but ready to transmit if the active transmitter malfunctions. Both
RAUs receive signals. When using two antennas, they can be placed for space diversity with a
mutual distance where the impact of fading is reduced.

In working standby mode, both radio paths are active in parallel using different
frequencies, realizing frequency diversity. Using two different frequencies improves
availability, because the radio signals fade with little correlation to each other. Space diversity
can be implemented as for hot standby systems.

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4- TRAFFIC ROUTING

A microwave hub site’s main function is to collect traffic carried over microwave
radio links from many sites and to aggregate it into a higher capacity transmission link
through the access network towards the core network. The transmission link northbound may
be microwave or optical.

These hub sites have usually been realized by connecting individual microwave Radio
Terminals with cables through Digital Distribution Frames (DDF) and external cross-
connection equipment.

MINI-LINK TN provides a traffic routing function that facilitates the handling of

traffic aggregation. This function enables interconnection of all traffic connections going
through the NE. This means that an aggregation site can be realized using one AMM housing

several Radio Terminals with all the cross-connections done in the backplane.

Each plug-in unit connects nxE1 to the backplane, where the traffic is crossconnected
to another plug-in unit. The E1s are unstructured with independent timing.

One way of using this function at a large site is to cross-connect traffic from several
Radio Terminals to one LTU 155 (63xE1) for further connection to the core network.

At a smaller site, it is possible to collect traffic from several Radio Terminals with a
low traffic capacity into one with a higher traffic capacity.

The traffic routing function is controlled from the EEM, locally or remotely. Traffic
configuration can also be done using the SNMP interface.

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4.1- PROTECTION MECHANISMS

This section describes the protection mechanisms provided by the Basic Node. To ensure
high availability, MINI-LINK TN provides protection mechanisms on various layers in the
transmission network;

 Network layer protection using the 1+1 E1 SNCP mechanism provides protection for
the sub-network connection a-b in Figure 9. Network layer protection uses only signal
failure as switching criterion.
 Physical link layer protection using MSP (1+1) indicated by the link c between two
adjacent NEs 1 and 2 in Figure 9. Physical link layer protection uses both signal
failure and signal degradation as switching criteria.
 By routing the protected traffic in parallel through different physical units, equipment
protection can also be achieved. An example using two plug-in units is shown for the
NEs 1 and 2 in Figure 9.

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4.2.- ETHERNET BRIDGE

The NPU2 in AMM 2p provides Ethernet bridge functionality for MINI-LINK TN.
The Ethernet traffic is transported between two NEs in multiple E1s, over a single hop or
through a network.

The Ethernet bridge can be used to:

• Connect two LANs or LAN clusters on remotely located sites.

• Connect a remote LAN segment to the backbone. The IP traffic from the remote
LAN is routed in the backbone to the appropriate termination point.

5- MINI-LINK-E CO-SITING

An SMU2 can be fitted in an AMM 6p or AMM 20p to interface MINI-LINK E

equipment on the same site. The following interfaces are provided:

• 1xE3 + 1xE1

• 1xE2 or 2xE2

• 2xE1

• 2xE0 (2x64 kbit/s) used for IP DCN

• O&M (V.24) access server

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 All the traffic capacities are multiplexed/demultiplexed to nxE1 for connection to the
TDM bus.

6- TRANSMIT POWER CONTROL

The radio transmit power can be controlled in Remote Transmit Power Control
(RTPC) or Automatic Transmit Power Control (ATPC) mode, selectable from the
management system including setting of associated parameters. In ATPC mode the transmit
power can be increased rapidly during fading conditions and allows the transmitter to operate
at less than the maximum power during normal path conditions. The normally low transmit
power allows more efficient use of the available spectrum while the high transmit power can
be used as input to path reliability calculations, such as fading margin and carrier-to-
interference ratio.

The transmitter can be turned on or off from the management system.

6.1- RTPC MODE

In RTPC mode the transmit power (Pout) ranges from a minimum level (Pfix min) to a
maximum level (Pmax). The desired value (Pset) can be set in 1 dB increments.

6.2- ATPC MODE

ATPC is used to automatically adjust the transmit power (Pout) in order to maintain
the received input level at the far-end terminal at a target value. The received input level is
compared with the target value, a deviation is calculated and sent to the near-end terminal to
be used as input for possible adjustment of the transmit power. ATPC varies the transmit
power, between a selected maximum level (PATPC max) and a hardware specific minimum
level (PATPC min).

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7- DATA COMMUNICATION NETWORK (DCN)

Data communications refers to the transmission of this digital data between two or
more computers and a computer network or data network is a telecommunications network
that allows computers to exchange data. The physical connection between networked
computing devices is established using either cable media or wireless media. The best-
known computer network is the Internet.

This tutorial should teach you basics of Data Communication and Computer Network
(DCN) and will also take you through various advance concepts related to Data
Communication and Computer Network.

7.1- IP SERVICES

The following standard external IP network services are supported:

• All clocks, used for example for time stamping alarms and events, can be
synchronized with a Network Time Protocol (NTP) server.

• File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is used as a file transfer mechanism for software
upgrade, and for backup and restore of system configuration.

• Domain Name System (DNS) enables the use of host names.

• Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) is used to allocate IP addresses in the

DCN. The NE has a DHCP relay agent for serving other equipment on the site LAN.

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7.2- E1

One unstructured E1 can be terminated for transport of DCN traffic. It can be a fixed
E1 connected to an NPU or LTU, an E1 transported in an STM-1 frame or an E1 transported
over a radio link. The E1 is terminated in a router in the other end in the operator’s O&M
network. This PPP channel has to be established manually.

7.3- 2xE0

The SMU2 provides 2xE0 (2x64 kbit/s) for DCN. The interface can be used for
connection to MINI-LINK E equipment or external equipment.

7.4- IP ADDRESSING

Numbered IP addresses are used for the Ethernet interface and IP interfaces configured
as ABR. All other IP interfaces should be set up with un-numbered IP addresses.

The IP interfaces with unnumbered IP address inherit the characteristics of the

Ethernet interface.

The use of unnumbered interfaces has several advantages:

• The use of IP addresses is limited. Using numbered interfaces for the PPP links
would normally require using one IP subnet with two addresses for each radio hop. For a
large aggregation site, this would imply a lot of addresses.

23
 • The planning of the IP addresses is simplified.

• The amount of configuration is reduced because only one IP address is configured

upon installation.

7.5-IP ROUTER

The IP router supports the following routing mechanisms:

• Open Short Path First (OSPF), which is normally used for routers within the MINI-LINK
domain.

• Static routing

There are two different ways to configure the IP router. The idea is that the most
common configurations are done using the EEM. When complex router configuration and
troubleshooting is required, a Command Line Interface (CLI) is used.

8-ROUTING PROTOCOLS

8.1- CLASSFUL ROUTING PROTOCOLS

RIP v1, IGRP are examples of classful routing protocols. It is important to know that
classful routing protocols do not exchange subnet information during routing information
exchanges. The summarization is always done automatically at major network boundaries.

Classless routing protocols: RIP v2, EIGRP, OSPF, BGP v4, and IS-IS are examples
of classless routing protocols. In classless routing protocols, subnet information is exchanged
during routing updates. This results in more efficient utilization of IP addresses. The
summarization in classless networks is manually controlled.
Maximum hop count supported by RIP is 15.

8.2- ROUTED AND ROUTING PROTOCOLS

Routing protocols job is to maintain routing tables and route packets appropriately.
Examples of routing protocols are RIP, IGRP, EIGRP, OSPF. Routers can support multiple
independent routing protocols and can update and maintain routing tables for each protocol
independently. Routed protocols are used to transport user traffic from source node to
destination node. Examples of routed protocols are IP, IPX, and AppleTalk.

8.3- THERE ARE BROADLY THREE TYPES OF ROUTING PROTOCOLS

Distance Vector (Number of hops) - Distance vector routing determines the direction
(vector) and distance to any link in the internetwork. Typically, the smaller the metric, the
better the path. EX: Examples of distance vector protocols are RIP and IGRP. Distance vector
routing is useful for smaller networks. The limitation is that any route which is greater than 15
hops is considered unreachable. Distance vector protocols listen to second hand information
to learn routing tables whereas, Link state protocols build routing tables from first hand
24
information. Routers with distance vector protocols send its entire routing table to each of its
adjacent neighbors. 

Link State Routing: Link State algorithms are also known as Shortest Path First (SPF)
algorithms. SPF generates the exact topology of the entire network for route computation, by
listening to the first hand information. Link State protocols take bandwidth into account using
a cost metric. Link State protocols only send updates when a change occurs, which makes
them more efficient for larger networks. Bandwidth and delay are the most widely used
metrics when using Link-State protocols. EX: OSPF and NLSP.

Benefits of Link State protocols: 

1. Allows for a larger scalable network

2. Reduces convergence time
3. Allows “supernetting”
The metric limit for link-state protocols is 65,533 

Balanced Hybrid - Balanced Hybrid combines some aspects of Link State and
Distance Vector routing protocols. Balanced Hybrid uses distance vectors with more accurate
metrics to determine the best paths to destination networks. Ex: EIGRP

Distance vector protocol depends only on Hop count to determine the nearest next hop
for forwarding a packet. One obvious disadvantage is that, if you have a destination connected
through two hops via T1 lines, and if the same destination is also connected through a single
hop through a 64KBPS line, RIP assumes that the link through 64KBPS is the best path! 

RIP (and IGRP) always summarizes routing information by major network numbers.
This is called classful routing.

RIP, RIP2, and IGRP use distance vector algorithms. 

RIP2 transmits the subnet mask with each route. This feature allows VLSM (Variable Length
Subnet Masks) by passing the mask along with each route so that the subnet is exactly
defined.

IP RIP based networks send the complete routing table during update. The default
update interval is 30 seconds. IGRP update packet is sent every 90 seconds by default.

Default administrative distances some important routing protocols are as below: 

Route Source Default Distance 
Directly connect Interface 0
Static Route 1
IGRP 100
RIP 120
Unknown 255
An administrative distance of 0 represents highest trustworthiness of the route.
An administrative distance of 255 represents the lowest trustworthiness of the route.

The port numbers used by different programs are as below:

I. FTP: Port #21
II. Telnet: Port #23
III. SMTP: Port #25

25
IV. SNMP: Port #161
It is important to know that FTP, Telnet, SMTP uses TCP; whereas TFTP, SNMP use UDP.

MAC sub layer address to allow communication on a multi-access medium such as

Ethernet. Reverse ARP (RARP) is used to obtain an IP address using an RARP broadcast.
RARP can be used to boot diskless workstations over a network.

8.4- OSPF

8.4.1- OSPF A LINK STATE

That technology that uses Dijkstra algorithm to compute routing information. It has
the following advantages over Distance Vector protocols such as RIP:

8.4.1.1-Faster convergence: OSPF network converges faster because routing changes are
flooded immediately and computer in parallel.

8.4.1.2- Support for VLSM: OSPF supports VLSM. However, please note that RIP version2
also supports VLSM.

8.4.1.3- Network Reachability: RIP networks are limited to 15 hops. Therefore, networks
with more than 15 hops can not be reached by RIP by normal means. On the other hand,
OSPF has practically no reachability limitation.

8.4.1.4- Metric: RIP uses only hop count for making routing decisions. This may lead to
severe problems in some cases, for example, that a route is nearer but is very slow compared
to another route with plenty of bandwidth available. OSPF uses "cost" metric to choose best
path. Cisco uses "bandwidth" as metric to choose best route.

8.4.1.5- Efficiency: RIP uses routing updates every 30 seconds. OSPF multicasts link-state
updates and sends the updates only when there is a change in the network.

8.4.2- OSPF AREA

That is a collection of networks and routers that have the same area
identification.OSPF process identifier is locally significant. Two neighboring router interfaces
can have same or different process ids. It is required to identify a unique instance of OSPF
database.

8.4.3- OSPF ROUTE

OSPF keeps up to six equal-cost route entries in the routing table for load
balancing.Further, OSPF uses Dijkstra algorithm to calculate lowest cost route. The algorithm
adds up the total costs between the local router and each destination network. The lowest cost
route is always preferred when there are multiple paths to a given destination.

OSPF determines the router ID using the following criteria:

1. Use the address configured by the ospf router-id command 

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2. Use the highest numbered IP address of a loopback interface 

3. Use the highest IP address of any physical interface

 4. If no interface exists, set the router-ID to 0.0.0.0

If no OSPF router ID is explicitly configured, OSPF computes the router-ID based on the
items 2, 3, and 4 and restarts OSPF (if the process is enabled and router-ID has changed).

 5. When two or more routers are contending to be a DR (designated Router) on a network
segment, the router with the highest OSPF priority will become the DR for that segment. The
same process is repeated for the BDR. In case of a tie, the router with the highest RID will
win. The default for the interface OSPF priority is one. Remember that the DR and BDR
concepts are per multiaccess segment. Setting the ospf priority on an interface is performed
using the ip ospf priority <value> interface command.A priority value of zero indicates an
interface which is not to be elected as DR or BDR. The state of the interface with priority zero
will be DROTHER.

9- RADIO BASE STATION

Radio Base Station (RBS) is the commercial name given to the family of Base Stations
developed by Ericsson, typically constituting a sizable part of the Radio Access Network
(RAN). Radio Base Station is also the generic name to be used instead of BTS (Base
Transceiver Station ) which are typically denoting GSM-era radio base station technology.
For other vendors, specific equipment names are used such as Huawei DBS (Huawei
DBS3900 for example) or NSN Flexi base stations.

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9.1- RBS2000 SERIES

A legacy version of the RBS is the RBS2000 which usually has a combination or subset
of these hardware cards:

 Power Supply Unit (PSU)

 Distribution Switch Unit (DXU)
 Internal Distribution Module (IDM)
 Double Transceiver Unit (dTRU)
 Configuration Switch Unit (CXU)
 Combining and Distribution Unit (CDU)
 AC or DC Connection Unit (ACCU/DCCU)
 Fan Control Unit (FCU)
 DC filter

RBS 2000 family offers RBS solutions for virtually all needs. It is characterized by its
excellent performance, small footprint and flexible usage.

Important new functional enhancements like EDGE and AMR are possible to
introduce with a minimum impact. The RBS 2000 family comprises of both outdoor and
indoor RBS versions as well as Micro RBS and Main Remote.

The RBS 2000 family's comprehensive range of radio base stations with superior radio
performance and unique features provides cost effective coverage and capacity from urban to
rural as well as for in-building radio applications.

9.2- RBS 3000 SERIES

To capture the major growth opportunity in mobile broadband, 3G networks must

offer enriched services with greater mobility, while maintaining competitive pricing.

Ericsson's RBS 3000 series meets these challenges. Ericsson's superior radio
performance, dynamic network configuration, low power consumption, simplified site
operation and maintenance and a smooth evolution pathway are key factors in lowering
capital expenditures (CAPEX) and operational expenditures (OPEX).

The RBS 3000 family of WCDMA base stations meets all mobile broadband needs,
today and tomorrow.

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 • performs all system-level diagnostics;

• provides system timing via the transmission interface source;

• controls power and processes calls, encodes and decodes WCDMA;

• handles softer handovers. Some advantages of the main-remote concept are

• easy and rapid installation—the main unit and remote radio unit can be placed
several kilometers apart, which means that the RBS can be installed practically
anywhere;

• the main units and RRU can be handcarried to a rooftop;

• macro coverage from wideband transceiver unit (wTRU) and mini RBS solutions;

• greatly reduced power consumption (compared to the macro RBS).

9.3- RBS 6000 SERIES

The RBS 6000 is a no-compromise, energy efficient compact site solution that
supports GSM/EDGE, WCDMA/HSPA and LTE in a single package.

The RBS 6000 is build with a state of the art technology and at the same time provides
backwards compatibility with the highly successful RBS 2000 and RBS 3000 product lines.

Base stations delivered since 2001 are LTE capable. We call this a revolutionary
evolution.

As a multi-standard base station, the RBS 6000 offers many options that make choices
simpler while providing greater freedom of choice.

Cost-effective deployment and development of new, high-speed mobile broadband

services, mobile TV and web applications requires a smart solution that provides a
performance leap.

The RBS 6000 family not only ensures a smooth transition to new technology and
functionality minimizing OPEX, but also reduces environmental impact.

The RBS6000 cabinet usually uses these cards to achieve function:

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 DXB Distribution Switch Board,
 DXU Distribution Switch Unit,
 IXU Interface and Switching Unit
 DUG cards for GSM (GERAN) aka "Digital Unit GSM"
 DUW cards for UMTS (UTRAN)
 DUL cards for LTE (eUTRAN)
 DUS cards for combined GSM, UMTS and LTE service
 ECU Energy Control Unit,
 RUG Radio Unit GSM,
 RUS Radio Unit all Standards,
 RRUS Remote Radio Unit all Standards,
 TCB Transceiver Control Board
 BDM Battery Distribution Module
 BFU Battery Fuse Unit
 CDU Combining and Distribution Unit,
 CXU Configuration Switch Unit,
 FCU Fan Control Unit,
 PDU Power Distribution Unit,
 PSU Power Supply Unit,
 RXU Receiver Unit,
 SAU Support Alarm Unit,
 SCU Support Control Unit,
 TMA_CM, TXU Transmitter Unit

10- ADAPTIVE MODULATION(QPSK, QAM)

Techniques described include quadrature phase shift keying (QPSK) and quadrature
amplitude modulation (QAM) and how these techniques can be used to increase the capacity
and speed of a wireless network. These modulation techniques are the basis of
communications for systems like cable modems, DSL modems, CDMA, 3G, Wi-Fi* (IEEE
802.11) and WiMAX* (IEEE 802.16).

Modulation is the process by which a carrier wave is able to carry the message or
digital signal (series of ones and zeroes). There are three basic methods to this: amplitude,
frequency and phase shift keying. Higher orders of modulation allow us to encode more bits
per symbol or period (time).

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10.1-Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

Amplitude shift keying (ASK) involves increasing the amplitude (power) of the wave
in step with the digital signal (in other words, low = 0, high = 1) and is used in AM radio.

10.2-Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

Frequency shift keying (FSK) changes the frequency in step with the digital signal.
Systems that use this modulation (broadcast FM radio) tend to be more resilient to noise since
noise usually changes the amplitude of the signal. In Figure 1, different bits are represented by
different frequencies which can then be detected by a receiver.

10.3-Quadrature Phase Shifting Keying (QPSK)

QPSK adds two more phases: 90 and 270 degrees. Now two symbols per bit can be
transmitted. Each symbol’s phase is compared relative to the previous symbol; so, if there is
no phase shift (0 degrees), the bits “00” are represented. If there is a phase shift of 180
degrees, the bits “11” are represented.

Adaptive Modulation Different order modulations allow you to send more bits per
symbol and thus achieve higher throughputs or better spectral efficiencies. However, it must
also be noted that when using a modulation technique such as 64-QAM, better signal-to-noise
ratios (SNRs) are needed to overcome any interference and maintain a certain bit error ratio
(BER). The use of adaptive modulation allows a wireless system to choose the highest order
modulation depending on the channel conditions.

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 In Figure 15, you can see a general estimate of the channel conditions needed for
different modulation techniques. As you increase your range, you step down to lower
modulations (in other words, BPSK), but as you are closer you can utilize higher order
modulations like QAM for increased throughput. In addition, adaptive modulation allows the
system to overcome fading and other interference.

Both QAM and QPSK are modulation techniques used in IEEE 802.11 (Wi-Fi*), IEEE
802.16 (WiMAX*) and 3G (WCDMA/HSDPA) wireless technologies. The modulated signals
are then demodulated at the receiver where the original digital message can be recovered. The
use of adaptive modulation allows wireless technologies to optimize throughput, yielding
higher throughputs while also covering long distances.

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11- CONCLUSION

With EDGE Evolution higher data rates and improved coverage will be introduced,
further strengthening GSM/EDGE as being an attractive mobile broadband solution and
complement to HSPA.

EDGE is delivering high bit-rates and spectrum efficiency for GSM operators around
the world, and is becoming a standard capability of GSM and WCDMA phones. In effect,
EDGE enables 3G applications over current GSM networks, and provides seamless services
with 3G.

For GSM operators around the world, this makes the business case for EDGE even
stronger than it is today – whether or not they have access to 4G spectrum.

I'm quite satisfied because I have knowledge and experience about GSM acquired
during the period of the intern's.

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12- REFERENCES

 http://www.radio-electronics.com/info/cellulartelecomms/gsm-edge/modulation-slot-
burst-air-interface.php
 https://tr.scribd.com/doc/159580442/RBS-3000-Commissioning-Procedure-doc
 http://www.ericsson.com/res/thecompany/docs/publications/ericsson_review/2000/200
0035.pdf
 http://www.e-netsource.com/ericsson-rbs-products_119.html
 http://www.motorolasolutions.com/content/dam/msi/docs/business/solutions/business_
solutions/mission_critical_communications/lte_for_government_and_public_safety/_d
ocuments/_static_files/rbs_6000_series_product_spec_sheet_1104-1.pdf
 http://www.ericsson.com/ourportfolio/products/rbs-6402?
nav=productcatagory006%7Cfgb_101_0516%7Cfgb_101_0518
 http://www.gsma.com/publicpolicy/faq/base-station-or-radio-base-station-rbs
 http://www.slideshare.net/ramkumarsharma/ccna-notes-17121846
 http://www.ericsson.com/us/ourportfolio/products/microwave-networks
 http://www.slideshare.net/AhmedNabieh/routing-over-ericsson-mini-link
 https://supportforums.cisco.com/discussion/10378506/radio-transmit-power-control-
tpc-settings-power-threshold
 http://sagittar.com/blog/2015/01/microwave-radio-solutions-an-introduction/
 https://tr.scribd.com/doc/160996711/Mini-link-Tn-Overview

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