THE 1911 (Xinhai) REVOLUTION

QUESTION:
Examine the various factors that played a vital role in the 1911 Revolution in China and
critically analyze its various interpretations.

INTRODUCTION:
In the face of foreign imperial and dynastic decline, there emerged two major political
movements in China, each representing a different approach to the problem. The first,
was a revolutionary reform led by Dr Sun Yat Sen who aimed to introduce sweeping
changes and completely overthrow the Manchu dynasty, establish a parliamentary
republic and constitutional government. The second was a progressive reform of 1898,
led by K'ang Yu-wei from which evolved Ch'ing reform, and aimed to introduce strictly
constitutional changes in the system. The Chinese revolutionaries slowly gained
increasing support from the young intellectuals in the face of discriminatory and
insincere Manchu endeavors. Eventually, the movement managed to replace the rustic
imperial institution with a republic. The Manchus who had entered China in 1644 as
conquerors had completely lost face before the Chinese republic. A desperate struggle
for survival was highlighted in an anti Chinese policy under the pretext of reform and
constitutionalism. Such a flagrant show of discrimination amidst rapid dynastic decline
only served to exacerbate opposition from the ruled.

BACKGROUND:
As far as Dr Sun Yat Sen was concerned, there were a few things worth noting. Socially
as well as geographically, Dr Sun Yat Sen's origin was opportune. Son of a peasant, he
was schooled by an uncle who had fought for the lost cause of the Taiping. He
approached China's problems from opposite social contexts, with antithetic
preconceptions and through different media. Basically, Dr Sun Yat Sen had built up the
entire structure of early Revolutionary movement. However, there were certain other
prevailing conditions that require attention. Jonathan Spence points out certain “reforms”
that further aggravated the social inequalities and furthered discontent.
1. The first dramatic gesture in the direction of constitutional reform was made by
the Empress Dowager Cixi in 1905, when she ordered a small study group and
officials to travel to Japan, Russia, USA, Britain, France, Germany and Italy, to
study their governments.
2. Other proposed reforms were to establish women schools, to develop an urban
police system, and, in particular, to re direct funds from local community
organizations to the needs of reforming local government and education.
3. Under the “law of avoidance”, Qing officials were barred from serving in their
own native provinces so they could not use their office to bolt their economic
interests back at home. However, local men appointed to local offices were able to
abuse and consolidate their power in their own communities.
4. Another example of ambiguity of reform was the abolition of the state
 examination system in 1905. On hand, this could be viewed as a greater
opportunity for the talented of varied groups, but in fact it was largely the sons of
the traditional elite groups who had the money and the ambition to enroll in the
new schools.
5. In late 1908, the court announced that full constitutional government would be
established over the next nine year period.
6. Sun's Three People Principles of Nationalism, Democracy and Socialism also had
a major impact and were accepted as the revolutionary philosophy. However, the
majority of the members focused only on the 1st two principles of nationalism and
democracy. This was because the China Revival Society and the Restoration
Society, both of which emphasized the overthrow of Manchus and the
establishment of a republic.

Jonathan Spence, after enumerating these various 'so called ' reforms, remarks, that these
suggest the 'frailty of proto democratic institutions and the difficulty of establishing them
in an unprepared context’. Members of the Confucian educated Chinese elite, whether
office holding, landholding, or involved in trade, enjoyed a natural dominance in the
countryside and the cities.

CAUSES OF 1911 REVOLUTION:

BUDGETRY DEFICIT:
The resulting budgetary deficit was so huge, that it had to be met by increased
agricultural taxes, a wide range of new duties on tea, wine, salt and tobacco; high transit
and custom dues, and special taxes on all real estate and land registration deals. Marie
Claire Bergere argues that in the economic sphere, the Chinese reaction to the western
aggression was quite adept, adroit and a successful effort to industrialize, the main aim
of the foreign powers in the opening up of the country was to promote the expansion of
trade. Eventually, the balance of trade was disrupted and China was forced to make up
her trade deficit in cash. From the western perspective, the tendency at this time was to
regard the Chinese market more as an outlet for manufactured items than a source of
supply for primary products, or local agricultural products for export.

JAPANESE INFLUENCE:
The period from 1898- 1914 saw a major Japanese influence on the course of Chinese
history. Japan was the home base for anti- Qing revolutionaries. The Japanese stimulus
to modern education, militarism and constitutionalism in China, was a part of a broader
contribution to the rise of Chinese nationalism in general. Japan's influence in this brief
period was more direct, profound and far reaching than that of Britain in the 19th century.
Reason being that, Japan's geographical and cultural proximity to China was closer.
Also, it can be noted that, China, in that age was more eager to learn and Japan, more
eager to teach.
ROLE OF RAILWAYS:
• Many Chinese considered railways as disruptive to the harmony of nature and of
man
The foreign powers had made it clear that they would go ahead and build railways in
their areas of influence despite the protests of the Qing’s. In 1895, railway construction
had started in different parts of China; The Germans, in Shandong; the British in Yangzi
valley; the French from Hanoi to Kunming; the Russians in the Heilongjiang province;
the Japanese from North Korea to Mukden. These had become tools of economic
imperialism, preliminary to opening mines, extracting resources, and exploiting markets.
• However, a strong mood of nationalism had prevailed in China. The aim was to
raise money through local bonds so that the Chinese could buy back the railroad rights
made available to foreign investors and thus regain complete control over their own
transport system. The court therefore decided to buy out the rights to the railway lines
from their Chinese investors and to nationalize the whole system under Qing control. As
a reaction to this, the railway agitation of 1910 and 1911 protested on the grounds that
the Qing was selling out the nations resources to the foreigners.

ROLE OF SECRET SOCIETIES:

Anti Manchu sentiment never disappeared through the 268 year reign of the dynasty.
Although their activities did not result in the direct overthrow of the alien rule, the germ
of revolution was kept alive in underground organizations and secret societies. The
Revolt of the Three Feudatories, the activities of the Heaven and Earth Society, the
White Lotus Rebellion and the Taiping revolution all demonstrated the never ending
thread of nationalistic- racial protest.

FOREIGN INFLUENCE:
With the French, American and the Glorious Revolution (England), the ideas of liberty,
equality, democracy, human rights, independence and freedom swept through the minds
of the young Chinese having a profound impact on them. More so, the success of the
Italian and German unification's in 1870, prompted the Chinese to take similar action.

NEED FOR POLITICAL INNOVATION:

The monarchical institution of China, in the view of Dr Sun Yat Sen was responsible for
the succession of the imperial dynasties in China. Chinese history revolved around the
cycle of division, disorder, unification and despotism. In this process, the country and
the people mercilessly suffered and the historical pattern repeated itself periodically. To
break this cycle, it was necessary to replace the monarchical institutions with a federal
republic. In order to achieve this, Dr Sun Yat Sen felt, that the people should be engaged
in a National Revolution to bring about the downfall of the imperial system and the
Manchu dynasty.

ROLE OF EDUCATION
Immigrant Chinese and the westerners played a major role in education. For example,
Spence talks of how the Empress Dowager sent a study group of officials to travel to
Japan, Russia, USA, Britain, France, Germany and Italy, to study their governments.
Institutions were also started by missionaries and these were the centers through which
ideas of equality, liberty and brotherhood developed. Therefore, all these factors helped
Dr Sun Yat Sen to mobilize these section of people and money sources from the support
of various secret societies)in order to make it a more peaceful country.

ECONOMIC DEPLETION AND TAXATION BURDEN

The discontent of people was severely heightened by increased taxation stemming from
huge sums of war indemnity. With the introduction of various foreign banks, the process
of drain of wealth had begun. These introduced a systematic method of exploitation-
loans to people, government and industry, assigned to the clients at an obvious high
interest rate. New reforms of rail, education, industry and road required fund led to no
source of income, but only further burden.

ROLE OF MEDIA:
The press, newspapers & magazines fueled the spreading of revolutionary ideas and
literature. This became the medium of transmission of western thoughts and ideas; like
the social contract theory.

TRADITIONAL REASONS:
1. Overpopulation.
2. Inadequate resources.
3. Unbiased utilization of resources.
4. Unemployment.
5. Social degradation.
6. Inherent feudal attitude of China's society.
7. Natural calamities (Dynastic cycle).
8. Lack of funds.
9. No government support and disintegration of divine imperialist government; the
Manchu dynasty.

HISTORIOGRAPHY:
Most historians have underlined the role of educational reforms in the 1911 Revolution.
They have stressed the importance on how these reforms in the educational sector
brought about a whole new world of ideas centering themes like liberty, equality and
freedom; which helped bringing down the dynastic rule.

Fairbank has argued that though some sharp fighting occurred in the Wuhan cities, the
1911 Revolution was singularly non violent. It was also inconclusive as its main aim
was purely negative; to get rid of the Manchu rule. 1911, though it marked the end of an
era, it was also significant as the beginning of a prolonged crisis of central power in the
world’s most ancient government.
Hsu argues that the Revolution and the republic had not brought the anticipated peace
and order, instead the republican period saw more and lawlessness than before. It
resembled the traditional disorder and chaos that always followed the fall of a dynasty.
Yet, Sun, had laid the foundation for progress, from which his disciples could carry on.
Chesenaux stresses the role of the politicized proletariat. Generally, a lot of strikes took
place in the work place of this proletariat class. This eventually had a long term effect,
as the nature of these protests and strikes were usually political, and not economic in
nature. They shared an anti imperialistic feeling.
M Wright underlined the role of the educational youth as well; calling them the most
vibrant force in the nation. Besides the educational elite, the migrant Chinese were also
able to experience freedom and modern ideas of a modern nation inclined with their
loyalty for the Chinese nationalists by sending money for the required purposes.
M.B Rankin argues, that the foreign experience of many youngsters from the gentry
background made them influence the countryside with ideas of romanticism, heroic self
sacrifice and revolutionary ideas. Rankin, in fact has even questioned, as to whether the
1911 'Revolution' deserves to be called a Revolution or not.
Finally, Harold Issac under-defines the role of capitalism in China. He says, that more
than capitalism, the final blow to the dynasty was from the reformist group under Dr Sun
Yat Sen. The Chinese society, according to him was on the brink of a political
breakdown and chaos as a result of Western expansion against the Chinese shore.

Marxist historians comment, that for the first time, a bourgeois class was seen in China,
as a result of foreign trade and treaty port system. Initially, being supporters of the
Westerners, they eventually switched sides, as they realized that the government would
not protect their industrial interests against foreign encroachment as native Chinese men.
Therefore, according to the Marxists, nationalist reformist groups were supported by the
bourgeoisie class, since the present government couldn't support them. Demanding a
change , this bourgeoisie class rooted for a strong central government that supported
change.

Chen Tiejian underlined the role of the native bourgeoisie as it was the only progressive
force that was relatively mature to start and lead a Revolution. Though it had its own
inherent weaknesses, M. Wright and several other historians have emphasized the role of
this class in the Revolution.
Imperialist writer P. H Kent, puts the Sichuan struggle something between the central
authority and provincial autonomy. The argument goes in the direction of how provincial
interest against the imperial authority in the railway crisis context.
Peter Zarrow points out, that society and polity didn't really change after the 1911
Revolution. It then turned into an era of warlords. The gentry class clung on to the
dynastic class which now did not exist. He classifies the interpretation of the 1911
Revolution in 3 broad categories:
1. The Revolutionaries Revolution. (Dr Sun Yat Sen and his group)
2. The Bourgeoisie Revolution.
3. The Urban Gentry Revolution

A) The Revolutionaries Revolution. (Dr Sun Yat Sen and his group):
Most mainstream historians underline the importance of the heroism of few leaders and
the role that educational reforms played. However, according to Zarrow, the Manchu
government fell because its own army was not willing to support it. Neither did the
gentry or the industrialists have any reason to support it.

B) The Bourgeoisie Revolution:

Chinese communist historians regard the 1911 movement as a revolution led by the
bourgeoisie, whose members were democratic and socialist in outlook. As far as if
nationalism is concerned, the communist theory is that it got rid of the Manchus, only to
capitulate to Western imperialism. Its democracy failed to reverse the absolutism of the
imperial regime. This semi impotence and partial failure are attributed to 2 main causes:
• The numerical weakness of the bourgeoisie and its lack of political maturity,
which made it incapable of choosing the right allies in the struggle and led it to rely on
the gentry rather than on the peasant masses.
• The deep hostility shown by the foreign powers towards the republican movement
and the aspirations of the bourgeoisie, whose expansion could only take place at the
expense of the imperialist powers with vested interests in China.

Marie Claire Bergere talks of economic incentive for the foreign powers as one of the
industrializing factors in China. She talks of how the supply of cheap labor and
availability of raw material at a low price was an attractive offer to the entrepreneurs
who sought to increase their profits. According to her, the Chinese tried to take part in
this development; but when it came to industrial expansion, collaboration gave way to
direct competition in which the Chinese entrepreneur, handicapped from the outset by
the absence of any effective tariff protection, had little chance of success. This
industrialization process implied the erection of the necessary buildings, a provision for
a means of transport and communication. Therefore, an overall growth of urban
development led to the destruction of ancient buildings and erection of new structures.
This development, (rather changes) according to Bergere had very minute effects on
Chinese economic life as a whole, in which traditional methods of agriculture remained
a predominant feature. She argues that the commercial exploitation of primary products
such as silk, cotton and tea and the supply for manufactured goods for the domestic
market were on a very small scale that they ranked as secondary features of the Chinese
economy.
Albert Feurwerker points out that the existence of treaty ports made little difference to
the lives/methods of production, in areas where new channels of trade were being
developed. By no means, could the decline of the handicrafts industry and certain other
sectors be generalized. On the contrary, the industrialization of spinning and a
mechanized consumer based marked stimulated handicraft production.
G. William Skinner propounds the ‘false modernization’ theory where the requirements
of foreign trade and the new demand have intensified this trade, but its pattern still
followed the old models. Only big cities and areas immediately surrounding them had
been affected by the introduction of modern transport and communications. Apart from
these, there was no such change in the market structure during the first years of the 20th
century. A number of markets increased under the growing influence and stimulus of
foreign trade.
Joseph Esherick argues that even if there is a question as to whether it deserves to be
called a Revolution or not, it did end millenia of imperial rule. The monarchy was
replaced by a republic, even if was not like the republic, the Chinese and the Western
advocates would have liked to be. The abolition of the examinations destroyed the
traditional criterion for gentry status. The establishment of Chambers of Commerce
allowed and even encouraged merchant participation in the political process. The
constitutional reforms institutionalized the power of local elites to an unprecedented
degree.

C) The Urban Gentry Revolution:

The third school categorically say that the local elite feared local violence and wanted to
make sure that the radical element did not claim power. They wanted preservation of
their rights and the provincial leaders wanted cession from the center.

CONCLUSION!!:
The Japanese provided their support for the 1911 Revolution. Provisional government
was started under Dr Sun Yat Sen, with Nanking as its capital. Delegates form 13
provinces lent their support to Dr Sun Yat Sen to start a republic in China. Subsequently,
he became the president of The Young Republic of China. The 1911 Revolution was a
great success in bringing down a dynastic rule in China that lasted 2100 years.
In the early years of Republic of China, the intellectuals in China and the participants of
the Revolution were excited by the revolution's success in overthrowing the Manchu
Dynasty, and they had high hopes for the revolution. However, because democracy had
been only partially realized after the 1911 Revolution, people began to develop different
perspectives. After the 1920s, the two dominant parties - the Nationalist Party and the
Communist Party- evaluated the 1911 Revolution quite differently. The Nationalist Party
recognized Sun Yat-Sen as the Father of the Nation and as the leader who led the 1911
Revolution to success. They had a high opinion of the 1911 Revolution, viewing the
1911 Revolution as the starting point of the modern history of China, and as the key
element that enabled China to develop into a democratic and modern nation. On the
other hand, the Communist Party thought that the 1911 Revolution merely overthrew the
totalitarian rule of the Qing Dynasty. It did not oppose imperialism or feudalism because
the bourgeois class was thought to be compromising and feeble, and therefore it did not
create a truly republican system. Land had not been redistributed equally, and a
transformation of society had not been achieved. The revolution ended up yielding to the
Western powers, and it compromised with Yuan Shikai, who represented the old regime.
At the same time however, they recognized that, if viewed as a first stage of reform, the
1911 Revolution had achieved much and had set the stage for further revolutions.