Explorations in translational creativity:

Strategies for interpreting neologisms

Workshop paper

By Helge Niska, Stockholm University

1998-08-08
    Introduction / Abstract
1 Creativity in translation
1.1 What is translational creativity?
1.2 Descriptions of creativity
1.2.1 The creative process
1.2.2 The creative mind
1.2.3 Information theory
1.2.4 Decision making theories
1.2.4.1 Festinger’s Dissonance Theory
1.2.4.2 The Differentiation and Consolidation Theory (DCT)
1.3 Creativity-related models in translation research
1.3.1 Redundancy
1.3.2 Interpreting as a decision process
1.3.3 Mental processes in creative translation
1.3.4 Action frame of the translator
2 Strategies for interpreting neologisms
2.1 What is neologism?
2.2 Interpreting and neology
2.3 Interpreting strategies
2.3.1 Hypotheses
2.3.2 Omissions
2.3.2.1 Decision-making and re-evaluation
2.3.3 Culture-specific concepts
2.3.4 Neologisms
2.4 The interpreters’ use of the strategies
2.4.1 Preliminary study
2.4.2 Result
2.4.3 Comparison: Swedish community interpreters
2.5 Discussion
2.5.1 The interpreter as language planner
2.6 Conclusion
   References

 
 
 
 
 
 

Introduction / abstract
This two-part paper presents in an introductory and still incomplete way, various aspects of
creativity in relation to translation and interpreting, and attempts at exploring how the interpreters'
creativity manifests itself in the treatment of neologisms. One of the aims is to identify possible
research areas and approaches for future studies of the creative processes in interpreting, issues that
have so far not been subject to research to a very large extent.
After a brief account of the treatment of the concept of creativity in the literature on translation, in
the first part some psychological models of creativity and decision-making are presented, e.g.
Wallas' (1926) four stages of the creative process, and Festinger's (1957, 1964) cognitive
dissonance theory, and compared with some creativity-related research in the field of interpreting.
The second part of the paper uses interpreters' strategies for rendering neologisms as an example of
translational creativity. (The concept of strategy will be dealt with more thoroughly in a separate
paper.) Four basic strategies for the interpreting of neologies are outlined: 1. omission; 2. use of
existing term to denote "approximate" or "provisional" equivalent; 3. explanation of concept; 4.
neologisms (loans, loan-translations and word creation). A pilot survey has been conducted to test
the validity of these strategies, and the results are presented.
This study is carried out at the Department of Finnish, Stockholm University, and is part of a large,
joint research project "Translation and Interpreting - a Meeting between Languages and Cultures" at
the Universities of Stockholm and Uppsala, Sweden, financed by the Bank of Sweden Tercentenary
Foundation, Riksbankens Jubileumsfond (RJ).
Your comments and criticisms are most welcome! Please write to:
Helge Niska
Institute for Interpretation and Translation Studies
Stockholm University
S-106 91 Stockholm
Sweden
Tel. +46 8 162927. Fax: +46 8 161396.
E-mail Helge.Niska@tolk.su.se
WWW http://lisa.tolk.su.se/defhelge.html

1 Creativity in translation

1.1 What is translational creativity?

Creativity is a concept that has been written about extensively in the literature about translation.
Translation is often considered to be a creative activity. In 1995 the FIT journal "Babel" published
an article with the very title "Das Wesen des Übersetzens ist kreativ" [The Essence of Translation Is
Creative] (Gui 1995).
According to Gui translation is fundamentally creative for a number of reasons, e.g.:
- translation cannot merely transform an original text into a literal equivalent, but must successfully
convey the overall meaning of the original, including that text's surrounding cultural significance;
- translators have to form source-text ideas into the structure of the target language;
- the process of searching out a target-language counterpart to a difficult source-language word or
phrase is often creative.
Even technical translators must exercise some degree of creativity, and there is no fundamental
difference between the work of translators and that of painters or writers (Gui 1995).
The concept of translational creativity has so far escaped any unitary definition. Wilss (1995)
maintains that "the most competent translators possess a malleable and creative mind", which is part
of the translators' "translation intelligence". Not all translation tasks need the same amount of this
"intelligence" to be accomplished. To Wilss, translation is a "'re-creative' linguistic activity.
Translation is never a creatio ex nihilo, but the context-bound reproduction of a given text". He
continues:
 • "Nevertheless, translation creativity as a manifestation of translator behaviour does exist, and
it is, as any type of creativity, a dynamic notion. The dynamic aspect of translation creativity
reveals itself not in original text production, but in the skill to develop, in simultaneous
confrontation with a source text and a target code, decoding and encoding strategies." (Wilss
1996:166)
Neubert (1997) describes translational creativity as derived creativity, in that all translations are
derivable from a source text: "A translation is not created from nothing; it is woven from a semantic
pattern taken from another text, but the threads - the TL [target language] linguistic forms,
structures, syntactic sequences - are new" (1997:17). Translation involves a variety of creative
strategies to balance the derivative against the creative.
"In the course of achieving something new, mediators [translators and interpreters] have to resort to
novel ways of encoding an old message. They are forced to creativity because the means of the TL
are not identical with those of the SL [source language]. ... To arrive at an adequate TL version,
new resources have to be tapped. In these efforts, creativity plays a prominent role. Creative uses of
the target language are the result of the various problem-solving strategies applied to any piece of
SL text" (Neubert 1997:19.)
Under creativity Neubert subsumes an array of translational procedures, formally characterised as
transpositions and modulations, i.e. reorderings and recastings of SL features under the impact of
the envisaged new TL-text. Transpositions are primarily syntactical and modulations lexical, but
they occur mostly in unison. While many of these creative mechanisms are predetermined by
systemic constraints between the SL and the TL, finding a particular rendering that fits is rarely the
result of a one-to-one correspondence. It must either be chosen from various options or newly
created from scratch. (Neubert 1997:19.)
Nida (1996), in discussing the notion of a "fully adequate"translation, suggests that translation is
neither a science nor an independent discipline, but a creative technology with insights from several
disciplines.
Snell-Hornby (1995) points out that language norms give the translator an "infinitive creative
potential". The translator can make "creative extensions" of the norms; and Snell-Hornby
concludes: "The language norm is in fact supremely flexible, it offers potential for creativity within
the possibilities of the language system. This is of crucial importance for the translator, especially
the literary translator". (Snell-Hornby1995:121.)
But there are other norms than linguistic which play a role in the work of the translator and
interpreter, e.g. societal and professional norms of behaviour. Kovacic (1995) suggests that the
teaching of subtitling, a new professional area, cannot be based on existing norms. Instead it is the
purpose of training to give students sufficient knowledge about translation, language embedded in
culture, language functions in human communication, and social attitudes towards language and
language varieties. With this knowledge, students should be encouraged to think creatively about
subtitling, thus participating in the evolution of norms for subtitling.
An interesting aspect to creativity in translation is described by Uzawa(1997) from the area of
second language learning. 22 English as a second language students were asked to think aloud while
translating from their first language into English, and translations and think-aloud protocols were
analysed. Contrary to expectations, most subjects avoided translating literally when literal
translations did not make sense. They paid attention to problematic correspondences and applied
problem solving at both word and sentence levels. Results suggest that translation tasks enable
learners to use the target language generatively and creatively in order to make them aware of
correct correspondences in words and structures.
1.2 Descriptions of creativity

Outside of translation theory, creativity has been subject to extensive theoretical and empirical
study, especially in psychology and related areas, e.g., management and decision making theories.
For the purpose of this paper, I would like to present a few ideas about creativity from the fields of
psychology, decision theory and communication theory/informatics.
1.2.1 The creative process
The creative process is described by Beardsley (1976) as "that stretch of mental and physical
activity between the incept and the final touch - between the thought "I may be on to something
here" and the thought "It’s finished"."
Wallas’ (1976; originally 1926) description of creative thinking, although derived from
introspection and scattered observation rather than systematic empirical research, has been widely
accepted by theorists and researchers of creativity. It is also used by Kussmaul (1993, 1995) in his
investigation of the translation process, see section 1.3.3.
Wallas has developed a model in four stages (the description is based on Ruth 1984 and Wallas
1976):
1. Preparation: the first stage in the process, where the problem is investigated, i.e. accumulating
knowledge about the problem to be solved, from memory and other sources;
2. Incubation: a resting phase where the problem is temporarily put aside, if the solution is not
found immediately;
3. Illumination: a stage where an idea of a solution comes to mind, as a "flash" or "click" as the
culmination of a successful train of association;
4. Verification: a stage where alternative solutions are tested and their usability is measured. It is
at this stage that the creative product is born.
In the following table, some well-known models of the creativity process are compared
(compilation by Ruth 1984; translated by the present author).
 
Rossman  Dewey  Wallas  Shouksmith 
(1913)  (1910)  (1926)  (1970)

The need or the The problem is Preparation  Creative

problem is perceived  association
perceived 

The problem is The problem is Incubation  Refinement

defined  localised and
defined 

Available Presentation of Illumination 

knowledge is proposals for
examined  solutions 

Solutions are Consequences are Verification 

shaped  weighted 
Solutions are Solution is
examined approved 
critically 

New ideas are

formulated 
New ideas are
tested and
approved 
1.2.2 The creative mind

To Rogers (1976), whose theory of creativity is directly related to his own work in clinical
psychotherapy, the creative process is
"the emergence in action of a novel relational product, growing out of the uniqueness of the
individual on the one hand, and the materials, events, people, or circumstances of his life on the
other."
Creative acts are not necessarily constructive, but the conditions, according to Rogers, which are
most closely associated with potentially constructive creative acts are
A. Openness to experience. This means, e.g.,
• "the ability to receive much conflicting information without forcing closure upon the situation.
It means what the general semanticist calls the "extensional orientation". ... The more the
individual has available to himself a sensitive awareness of all phases of his experience, the
more sure we can be that this creativity will be personally and socially constructive."
(Rogers 1976:300).
B. An internal locus of evaluation. If to the creative person the creative product
"has the "feel" of being "me in action," of being an actualization of potentialities in himself which
heretofore have not existed and are now emerging into existence, then it is satisfying and creative,
and no outside evaluation can change that fundamental fact" (Rogers 1976:301).
This does not mean that the creative person is oblivious to the judgements of others; but the basis of
evaluation lies within himself.
C. The ability to toy with elements and concepts. Associated with the openness and lack of rigidity
under A is
• "the ability to play spontaneously with ideas, colors, shapes, relationships - to juggle elements
into impossible juxtapositions, to shape wild hypotheses, to make the given problematic, to
express the ridiculous, to translate from one form to another, to transform into improbable
equivalents. ... It is as though out of the wasteful spawning of thousands of possibilities
there emerges one or two evolutionary forms with the qualities which give them a more
permanent value" (Rogers 1976:301).
Arthur Koestler (1976) has coined the term "bisociation" to make a distinction between the routine
skills of thinking "on a single plane", and the creative act, which always operates on more than one
plane. The criteria which distinguish bisociative "originality" from associative "routine" are
summed up in the following table (Koestler 1976:113):
 
Habit Originality
Association within Bisociation of independent matrices
the confines of a
given matrix

Guidance by pre- Guidance by sub-conscious

conscious or extra- processes normally under restraint
conscious processes

Dynamic Activation of regenerative potentials

equilibrium 
Rigid to flexible Super-flexibility (reculer pour mieux
variations on a sauter)
theme 

Repetitiveness  Novelty

Conservative  Destructive-Constructive
1.2.3 Information theory

According to information theorist Klaus Krippendorff (1986), creativity is

"The ability to see things from an unusual perspective and to produce from that insight a new
ORGANIZATION of familiar components, something that did not exist before, something original.
In as much as creative acts are less probable (see PROBABILITY) than CONVENTIONal and
routine ones, they provide more INFORMATION, sometimes so much that they exceed the level of
comprehensibility and are rejected for that reason."
Åstrand (1992) maintains that (according to information theory) entropy, i.e. disorder, is the basic
state of affairs. All of our human endeavour is directed towards getting a grip of this unorderliness,
to structure it, to extract information amidst the "noise" (cf. Shannon & Weaver 1949); or to bring
order into the disorder. We are continuously receiving impressions / signals / sensations from the
outer world via our senses; this sensory register in interaction with our former experiences and
knowledge of the world contributes to understanding.
It is the human self, the I, which stands so to say in the middle between two competing forces,
entropy (disorder) and order (which we achieve through knowledge). The human individual is able
to perceive the wholeness, get the whole picture so to say, and thus has the ability to evaluate the
results of this "competition" between entropy and order like Fig. 1 describes.
Fig. 1-1 The holistic Self (after Åstrand 1992)

To describe this in terms of creativity, the creative thought is born out of the tension between order
and disorder, as shown in Fig. 2.

Fig. 1-2 The birth of creative thought (after Åstrand 1992).

1.2.4 Decision making theories

In the common models of creativity presented above, there is always a stage where the individual
has to make a decision whether to accept the outcome of the process or to continue it; this is done,
for example, in the verification stage in Wallas' model. Much of the decision making in translation
and interpreting is no doubt done on a "single plane", in an "associative, routine" way according to
Koestler (1976). But the more unfamiliar and new or difficult the decision is, the more elaboration
and creativity the process demands (Svenson 1992). On the most advanced level, the decision-
maker himself has to elicit or create the alternatives.
Before and after the decision is made, short term memory is used to handle the information about
the alternatives while the decision maker evaluates the alternatives. The information is given by the
senses (perception) and there may also be information available from long-term memory. This
consists of general knowledge as well as more specific memories that enable good decision-making
(Benthorn 1994).
1.2.4.1  Festinger’s Dissonance Theory

Both internal (in the decision-makers mind) and external events affect the decision maker, even
after the decision has been made. According to Festinger’s theory of cognitive dissonance (1957,
1964) a simultaneous presentation of two or more discording or disharmonising cognitions or ideas
result in a detrimental state of motivation, which the individual tries to avoid. The canonical way of
reacting to such cognitive conflicts is to try to reduce them, either by changing attitudes to things
involved in the conflict, by obtaining more information, or by reconstructing or reinterpreting the
information available (Wande 19 :110).
Thus, the pre-decision situation is generally regarded as one in which the person experiences
conflict. But the decision maker also has to justify the decision after it has been made. Pre-decision
evaluation processes can be characterised as impartial and objective (this view is criticised as
erroneous by Janis and Mann 1977), while post-decision evaluation is biased in favour of one
alternative - the one chosen. According to Festinger’s theory, in the post-decision phase dissonance
reduction processes begin which aim at increasing the differences between the chosen solution and
the one(s) rejected (Benthorn 1994).
1.2.4.2  The Differentiation and Consolidation Theory (DCT)

The Differentiation and Consolidation Theory of human decision making(DCT) (described by

Svenson 1992) postulates that before the decision is made there is a differentiation of the aspects of
the promising alternative and its competitors. The change is mostly in favour of the promising
alternative (Benthorn 1994:13). After the decision has been made, the decision maker continues the
differentiation process - now as a consolidation process- in order to prepare for and avoid future
threats to the prior decision. These post-decision processes may include, for example, increasing the
attractiveness of the chosen alternative and decreasing the attractiveness of the rejected alternative.

Probability is one of the attributes in DCT (cf. Chernov’s "probability prediction mechanism" in
section 1.3.1 below), and it also covers decision under risk (Benthorn 1994:15).

1.3 Creativity-related models in translation research

1.3.1 Redundancy

In communication and information theory redundancy is described as essential to combat noise, to

assure reliability and to maintain a communication channel. English writing is estimated to be 50 %
redundant which accounts for the ability of native speakers to detect and correct typing errors. The
amount of information actually transmitted is not increased. (Krippendorff 1986).
Interpreting researcher Chernov (1979, 1985) has pointed out that simultaneous interpreting is
impossible without redundancy, and it plays a significant role in his model for simultaneous
interpreting.
Chernov sees a strong correlation between language comprehension and the human ability to draw
conclusions, i.e. our ability to extract the implications of a message after having heard part of it,
through linguistic, cognitive, deictic (situational) and pragmatic inferences. According to Chernov,
in order for this process to succeed in the highly complex simultaneous interpreting situation, the
message must contain redundancy, the minimum level of which is higher than in written translation.
Another factor at work in this context is our innate ability to make predictions (our "probability
prediction mechanism") and adapt instantaneously to changes in our external environment.
Chernov has constructed a model for predicting probability in simultaneous interpreting, based on
an increased redundancy from the i) syllabic level to the ii) word level and on the levels of iii)
clause, iv) sentence, v) message, and vi) situation (communication). There is constant feedback and
interaction among the various levels.
Chernov distinguishes between two kinds of redundancy in simultaneous interpreting: objective and
subjective. Objective redundancy refers to language, i.e. to linguistic factors, while subjective
redundancy is constructed from the inferences made by the interpreter on the basis of his or her
knowledge of the source language, the situation, the person/people for whom s/he is interpreting,
the subject, the time, the speaker’s target group, intentions etc.
1.3.2 Interpreting as a decision process

In his article "Translation as a decision process" (1967:1171), Jirí Levý writes:

"From the point of view of the working situation of the translator at any moment of his work,
translating is a decision process - a series of consecutive situations - moves, as in a game -
situations imposing on the translator the necessity of choosing among a certain (and very often
exactly definable) number of alternatives."
With this quotation as a starting-point, Bistra Alexieva (1998) argues that Levý’s approach to
translating as a decision process is valid for all types of translating and interpreting, and she
develops a model for optimisation of decision making in consecutive interpreting, based on game
theory. The great variety of decision making (DM) moves in consecutive interpreting creates
conditions for the elaboration of a larger number of DM "games", and the greater the number of
choices, the higher the demand for ingenuity and resourcefulness on the part of the interpreter. One
can thus hardly expect a large number of strictly predetermined selections, and this enhances the
role of creativity in consecutive interpreting (Alexieva 1998:186-187).
Alessandra Riccardi (1998) asks the rhetorical question: Is the interpreter creative? Her answer is:
• "If the interpreting process is considered a problem-solving activity where the source text is
the problem and the target-text the solution, then it follows that it is the interpreting mode,
the fact that that interpreting is "on-line", that leads to a creative process. From a limited set
of cues or elements continuously unfolding, with no interruption or thinking longer than a
few seconds, the interpreter has to come to a correct conclusion or be able to anticipate the
message in such a way that he can organise his language output correctly. In doing so, s/he
is not simply repeating something said by somebody else, but also engaging in a creative or
productive process" (Riccardi 1998:172).
According to Riccardi’s studies, simultaneous interpreters use some strategies which are peculiar to
simultaneous interpreting, e.g. the strategy of "least commitment". This is a strategy that grants the
greatest number of possible solutions from the linguistic point of view, trying to avoid commitment
to a one-way solution. Some of its features are: avoiding to conclude sentences and instead
transform the following source text sentences to subordinate clauses, thereby making it easier to
make corrections; using various sentence restructuring strategies, e.g. chunking long sentences
containing embedded clauses into shorter target-text sentences, etc. (Riccardi 1998:178).
1.3.3 Mental processes in creative translation
To date, Paul Kussmaul seems to be the only translation scholar who has used a psychological
model of creativity experimentally. [Mackenzie (1998) uses the same models for a discussion about
translator training.] In an experiment, Kussmaul (1993; 1995) had a number of translators working
in small groups, and the whole procedure was recorded on tape and transcribed. On the basis of this
think-aloud protocol Kussmaul contended that the following steps or stages in the creative process,
described in psychological literature (cf. Wallas’ four stages described in section 1.2.1), were
indeed present in the translation process:
1. preparation (including text analysis, interpretation; involves "creative comprehension")
2. incubation (fluency of thinking, divergent thinking; involves emotions)
3. illumination (divergent production [See e.g. Guilford (1967)] ; shifts/transformations; cf. de
Bono’s "lateral thinking" [See e.g. Bono (1970)] )
4. evaluation (entails convergent thinking)
An interesting finding in Kussmaul’s protocols was that in the evaluation phase sometimes
innovative and very good solutions which had popped up in the illumination phase were abandoned
in the evaluation stage, and a more "conventional" solution was adopted. This may be a result of the
team-work: a compromise to suit all, which is a threat to creativity!
1.3.4 Action frame of the translator

The choice of creative strategies is dependent on both internal (relating to the individual interpreter)
and external factors. From a system-theoretic point of view Hanna Risku (1997) has identified a
number of factors which are crucial for the translation process and constitute the action frame of the
translator. (These are effects of personal, situational and systemic qualities, not strategies.)

1. person - problem solver: the translator with his/her cognitive, emotional and motivational
characteristics,

2. situation: socio-cultural and professional conditions, under which the translator accepts and
works on assignments,

3. task - goal - skopos: case specific and dynamic goal of the translation act from the translator’s
perspective,

4. system of the assignment and the target communication related to the original communication.

2 Strategies for interpreting neologisms

To use the words of Wilss (see section 1.1), translational creativity reveals itself in the skill to
"develop, in simultaneous confrontation with a source text and a target code, decoding and
encoding strategies" (Wilss 1996:166). We will now explore such strategies in an area of
interpreting which seemingly sets high demands on the interpreters’ creative ability: rendering of
neologisms and culture-specific terms.
2.1 What is neologism?
The lexicographic term "neologism" is in itself something of a neologism. For a long time
neologism was mainly seen as pathological or deviating - Webster’s Third New International
Dictionary (1966) describes neologism as "a meaningless word coined by a psychotic" - and such
linguistic standard works as Bloomfield´s Language or Lyons’ Semantics do not index the term.
[ Rey (1995:63)]
In 1975 French lexicographer and terminologist Alain Rey published his Essai de définition du
concept de néologisme, translated into English and printed in Rey (1995), where he gives a
thorough theoretical treatise of processes of lexical neology and lays a theoretical foundation for
systematic lexicological and terminological work in the area. Rey emphasises among other things
the social and pragmatic aspects of linguistic neology. He quotes fellow French lexicographer Louis
Guilbert (La créativité lexicale 1975): "The creation of a neologism cannot be dissociated from
individual creators who are integrated into a community and use it in discourse for expressing
themselves in a particular situation." (Rey 1995:66). Neologisms as a linguistic phenomenon can be
seen from different aspects: time (synchronic), geographical, social and communicative. Thus
neologism is
• "... a unit of the lexicon, a word, a word element or a phrase, whose meaning, or whose
signifier-signified relationship, presupposing an effective function in a specific model of
communication, was not previously materialised as a linguistic form in the immediately
preceding stage of the lexicon of the language. This novelty, which is observed in relation to
a precise and empirical definition of the lexicon, corresponds normally to a specific feeling
in speakers. According to the model of the lexicon chosen, the neologism will be perceived
as belonging to the language in general or only to one of its special usages; or as belonging
to a subject-specific usage which may be specialised or general." (Rey 1995:77)
There is thus no doubt that neologisms are tokens of a creative process as described by Rogers
(1976) (cf. section 1.2.2) as "a novel relational product, growing out of the uniqueness of the
individual on the one hand, and the materials, events, people, or circumstances of his life on the
other."
2.2 Interpreting and neology
Lexical neology manifests itself both in single words and compound words and phrases. Sometimes
these neologisms are very short-lived and do not even get lexicalised.
Neological / onomasiological needs according to Rey can be 1. subject related (thematic
onomasiology), 2. semantic (componential onomasiology) or 3. translation related. A need for
neologism may be language-internal, i.e. within one language area, or because of external pressure.
One example of the latter case is diffusion of technical innovations, e.g. computer terminology from
English to other languages (Rey 1995:79-90). This applies also to translation between the majority
language and linguistic minorities within a country ("indigenous" minorities or immigrant
languages). Here, it is often a question about social and cultural influence with subsequent
lexicological and terminological problems.
In interpreting situations I think it is possible to distinguish two main types of neologisms: on the
one hand source language terms and special language phrases used by the speaker, and on the other
hand the possible neologisms that the interpreter uses to translate either these "new" terms or other,
"old" terms which lack a direct equivalence in the target language.
The neologisms of the speaker can be either "accepted" neologies within the speaker’s discourse
community, to use the terminology of Foucault (1970), or spontaneous, idiosyncratic, created in the
heat of the moment: speaker’s creativity!
In interpreter training much time is used for work with this kind of terms. Even other linguists like
translators, technical writers, journalists, home language teachers etc. discuss terminological
questions with each other, and this often results in a kind of standardised translation of neologisms
and culture-specific terms.
The problem with this "home-made" terminology is that there are hardly any authoritative
organisations, e.g. language planning authorities, academies etc. who can advise and give directives
for terminological and lexicographic development work. Nevertheless, "unauthorised" glossaries
and dictionaries are continuously developed and distributed at seminars, interpreter training courses
etc.
If there is no authorised, recommended or generally accepted translation of a source language term,
the interpreter may have to resort to a temporary solution by creating ad hoc neologisms as a kind
of "substitute equivalent". Quite often the interpreter also supplements "officially recommended"
translations with an explication of the concept to make sure that the target language speaker really
understands. And sometimes even the interpreter can make a slip of the tongue... The neologisms of
the interpreter can thus be of the following types:
• standardised, authorised or generally accepted translations of neologisms
• more or less successful ex tempore / ad hoc-translations
• corrections or supplements of the speaker’s use of special terminology
• slips of the tongue, i.e. a kind of "pathological neologisms", see above.
2.3 Interpreting strategies

There is a lot of literature within translation studies about strategies for the translation of
problematic terms and concepts. On the basis of, for example, a compilation by Williams (1990) we
identified (Niska & Fröili 1992) the following strategies for the translation of source language terms
(Swedish, Norwegian) into immigrant languages in dictionaries for interpreters produced in Norway
and Sweden:

1. equivalent or at least "near equivalent"/"translation equivalent", when available;

2. loan translation - e.g. SV "folkhögskola" - EN "folk high school";

3. translation of explanation of concept - e.g. FR "le baccalauréat" - EN "the French secondary

school leaving examination";

4. direct loan - foreign language terms are taken over "as is" or slightly modified, e.g. SV "know-
how"; FI "skintografia"; DE "computer".

5. neologism, i.e. forming a new term or giving an old word a new meaning - e.g. SV "tillnärmning"
[approximation]; SV "dator" [computer]; FI "tutka" [radar].

6. combination strategies, i.e. combining two or even three of the previous strategies.

• An example of translation triplets can be found in the Finnish version of the "Interpreters’
dictionary": SV EKG, elektrokardiogram - FI "EKG, elektrokardiogrammi;
sydän(sähkö)käyrä; ‘sydänfilmi’." The first term is a transfer, accommodated to Finnish
morphology, then comes a loan translation ["heart(electro)diagram"] and finally a laymens’
expression ["heart film"].
The interpreter who is in the middle of an ongoing communicative act does not have time for long
analyses and processes. The communicative function always has the highest priority, i.e. the
"message" has to reach home. It is quite possible that the interpreter even resorts from time to time
to strategies that are not considered quite comme il faut by orthodox theorists or interpreter
colleagues. Tentatively, I would like to suggest the following main strategies for the translation of
terms which do not exist in the target language and/or which are perceived as neologisms by the
interpreter
1. Omission (the term is not translated. It may be translated at a later stage.)
2. Use of "approximate" or "provisional" equivalent
3. Explanation of concept (hypothesis: more usual in consecutive than simultaneous interpreting)
4. Neologism:
a) loan translation ("literal" translation of source language term)
b) direct loans / transfer (source language term is used as is or with some modification to make it fit
into the target language phonology/morphology
c) coining of new word (hypothesis: unusual in interpreting; more usual in written translation).
Obviously, when needed all strategies can be combined or supplemented with other strategies. NB
by "strategy" is meant only conscious choices, not e.g. unintentional omissions, "pathological
neologisms". This does not necessarily mean that the interpreter is actually conscious that s/he is
using a certain strategy in the situation itself. Interpreting entails a lot of "automatic processing"; cf.
Gile (1997).
2.3.1 Hypotheses
All the above strategies can naturally be combined or supplemented by other strategies. They are
not presented in any order of preference, but it is probable that the interpreter uses the omission
strategy more often under time pressure, e.g. in simultaneous interpreting, than in consecutive
interpreting. Secondly, one can assume that coinage of new terms, i.e. morphological term
formation according to strategy 4c, has the lowest priority. It is after all in the interest of the
interpreter that the parties understand him/her, and this probably leads to a certain "conservatism"
among interpreters.
The strategies presented mainly concern interpreting between spoken languages. In sign language
interpreting the preferences may be different; there may also be creative strategies involved which
are specific to that modality of language use.
In conference interpreting the interpreter is usually not a subject expert, and his/her creative abilities
are often put to test, especially when it comes to special terminology. However, since the
conference participants are subject experts, the subject knowledge of the interpreter is often of less
importance. In other types of interpreting the terminological problems are of another character.
Within court interpreting and other forms of community interpreting participants are often talking
about things that are unknown to one of the parties. Because of greater educational, social, and even
cultural and linguistic differences between the interlocutors, the interpreter plays a more decisive
role for the outcome of the encounter. One can assume that this also shows in the interpreting
techniques that are used.
2.3.2 Omissions

Omissions are not always to be seen as "errors"; often they are highly conscious choices at times
when the interpreter has to convey the basic information and there is no time to interpret all details.
But at times the speaker uses expressions which the interpreter does not immediately understand -
often because the speaker has expressed himself ambiguously or unclearly - or which the interpreter
cannot translate right away. The missing term can often be translated later, when the interpreter has
found an adequate translation.

In the training of conference interpreters quite a lot of time is spent on teaching techniques for
handling such situations, e.g. by using a superordinate concept, e.g. "flowers" for "dandelions",
another expression with approximately the same meaning, a "nonce" word like "thing", "measure",
"the person" etc. depending on the situation etc. (cf. Makarova 1994:207-210).

Sometimes the interpreter does not have this opportunity. In the next example the interpreter has a
problem with the Swedish term "matrilinjal" (= EN matrilineal), which the speaker introduces -
with some problem. At first the interpreter does not interpret the term at all, but the next time the
speaker uses it, the interpreter introduces (and uses twice) the non-existing word "*matriaalinen"
(EN approx. *matrial) and the last time the speaker uses the term, the interpreter decides to choose
the existing word "matriarkaalinen" (= EN matriarchal), but which is also wrong. To use the table
above, the interpreter goes from strategy 1 (omission) to strategy 2 (near equivalent) via strategy 4c
(coining of new term).

Original Translation of Interpretation Translation of

original interpretation
...han beskriver --- he describes ...hän kuvaa tätä ...he describes
den the prehellenistic prehellenististä this prehellenistic
prehellenistiska world // which ai_ maailmaa / ti_ world / a
världen // som ju was a world / eh maailmaa / eeh world / eh
va en värld / eeh a matria_ jossa / maailma / where / a world /
en matria_ matrilineal world kuten te tiedätte / as you know / or
matrilinjal värld / / a world a tai ainakin / at least / so we
en värld en matriar_a world / kuvitellaan näin / believe / there
matriar_ en which as you siinä palvettiin / they worshipped /
värld / som ni vet / know / as we eeh suurta eh the great
som man tror / believe / jumalatartanta /  goddess /
dyrkade den stora worshipped the
gudinnan / ...  great goddess / 
......men de gick på ... but it followed ....mutta kaikki ... but everything
den matrilinjala the matrilineal kulki tässä followed the
linjen och / och line and / the matriaalisella matrial line and /
mannen flyttade ju man moved to linjalla ja / eeh ja eh and the man
till kvinnans hem / the woman’s mies muutti moved to the
allt de här som ni house / all this naisen kotiin ja woman’s house
säkert känner till that you probably niin edelleen / and so on / eh it
å / å de e ju know and / and eeh se tämä this world does
etnografiska fakta these are maailmahan on still exist / in
att / att den ethnographic edelleenkin some areas /
matrilinjala eeh / facts that / that olemassa /
världen den finns the matrilineal tietyillä alueilla / 
ju fortfarande kvar eh / world it still
på sina håll  does exist in
some places / 
... på ... in the second ... kaksi eeh / ... in the second
tvåtusentalet // millennium // tuhatta luvulla / eh / millennium /
kom / eeh dom came / eh the ensimmäiset the first eh /
första / stammarna first / tribes / eeh / heimot / tribes / came /
/ norrifrån å from the north tulivat / from the north
österifrån // som and from the east pohjoisesta ja and from the
eeh eeh började / // which eh eh idästä / ja nämä / east / and these /
överta den started to / take ottivat haltuunsa took over this
matrilinjala over the tämän prehellenistic
grekiska matrilineal prehellenistisen matrial
prehellenistiska / greek matriaalisen world // ...
världen / ...  prehellenistic maailman // ... 
world / ...
....stadier i ... stages in the ....vaiheista jossa .... stages where
övergången från transition from siirrytään they change from
modergudinnan å the mother äitijumalasta / the mother god /
till dom manliga goddess and to miesjumaliin / ja to male gods /
gudarna å från the male gods koko tästä and from the
hela den and from all of matriarkaalisest whole
organisationsform this form of a eeh matriarchal
som e / de organisation järjestelmästä / system / to this
matrilinjala / which is / the tähän patriarchal
systemet till de matrilineal / patriarkaaliseen system /
patri_ / p_ system to the järjestelmään / 
patrikala / patri_ /
patriarkala /  p_patrichal / 
Fig. 2-1 The term "matrilineal" in different guises. (After Niska 1998)

• Note, in the first utterance, the interpreter's *jumalatartanta instead of jumalatarta = partitive
singular of jumalatar "goddess". Probably this neologism is due to "cognitive overload": the
interpreter processes the unclear utterance of the speaker and the normal self-correcting
mechanism is disabled. Also *palvettiin instead of palvottiin "was/were worshipped".
2.3.2.1  Decision-making and re-evaluation

Interestingly, the interpreter uses the incorrect translation *matrial twice, which would imply a type
of post-decision consolidation described in Bentham (1994) (cf. section 1.2.4). During the post-
decision phase, internal and external changes can force the decision maker to re-evaluate a decision.
Such a re-evaluation can be experienced as a threat by the decision-maker, and post-decision
processes may start which increase the attractiveness of the chosen alternative and decrease the
attractiveness of the rejected alternative. This "spreading apart" process occurs since conflict is
unpleasant (cf. Festinger 1964).
Apparently, however, in the example above the interpreter is not overwhelmed by the attractiveness
of the alternative she chose. This possibly shows already in the fact that she omits the term once
again the third time the speaker uses it, but quite definitely a revaluation has taken place before the
last utterance, where the interpreter introduces a completely new translation.
2.3.3 Culture-specific concepts

For culture-specific terms or other concepts that are missing or lack a direct equivalence in the other
language, the interpreter may need to give an explanation in order for the message to be understood.
Terms that have to do with government services, social security, and other "community" related
terms are notorious stumbling-blocks to community interpreters. In the following passage from an
interpreted encounter between a Swedish doctor and his (ex-) Soviet patient, the patient talks about
a special Soviet meaning of "disability" which is not known in Sweden. The interpreter (Ivana) feels
that she has to insert an explanatory "footnote" in the middle of the interpretation. In the marked
portion of the utterance (between the asterisks), she lowers her voice, topicalises the word
"disability" by stressing it and lifts her gaze from her notes and looks straight at the doctor (Dan).
Thereby she shows that the utterance is her own, not the patient's. (Wadensjö 1992:250)
 
Ivana:  [. . .] jo jag skulle alltså lägga till följande, att hennes
12.  situation är mycket allvarlig och det kan jag bedöma e:::
korrekt. alltså hon måste - hon känner sig så pass dålig att
hon måste till och med byta jobb, hon är egentligen
pedagog, men hon sku- måste alltså byta till ett lättare
jobb, och det var dessutom tal om invaliditet. e::: *här
måste jag förklara att i Sovjet så är det flera grader
av invaliditet, det vill säga
[. . .] yes, that is I would like to add the following, that
her situation is very serious and this I can judge er:::
correctly. that is she has to - she feels bad to such an
extent that she even had to change her job, actually she
is a teacher, but she was- that is had to change to an
easier job. and moreover there was discussions about
disability eh::: *here I have to explain that in the USSR
there are several degrees of disability, that is

Dan:  mm
13.  mm
Ivana:  ett slags förtidspensionering, då man får ett-
14.  ersättning från staten och slipper då vissa svårare
jobb.* alltså det var tal om hennes invaliditet. alltså hon
skulle invalidiseras. inte behöva... arbeta men det - det
enda som stoppade oss den här gången det - det är den
sovjetiska byråkratin den byråkratiska... 
a kind of disability pension, when you get a-
compensation from the state and are let off from more
difficult jobs* that is there were discussions about her
disability. that is she was about to be disabled. not have
to... to work but the- the only thing that stopped us this
time it- it is the Soviet bureaucracy. the bureaucratic...

Fig. 2-2 Explanatory footnote in interpreting (after Wadensjö 992:248-9) [English version =
original translation.]

The use of "disability" for a kind of early retirement pension that the patient talks about is not
known in Sweden. To avoid misunderstandings, the interpreter chooses, besides using the word
"disability" as an approximate equivalent according to strategy 2, to give an extra explanation to
give the actual meaning of the term (strategy 3). The phrase "she was going to be disabled. not have
to ... work" will thus hopefully be understood correctly.

2.3.4 Neologisms

Neologisms can be either loan words in the form of direct loans and loan translations, or newly
coined terms, either morphologically new words or by giving existing words a new semantic
content.
For the individual, some words may be unknown without necessarily being neologisms. A special
term that the interpreter does not understand is not automatically a neologism. It is part of the
linguistic competence and general knowledge of the interpreter that s/he is able to determine
whether a term is "new" or just unknown to him-/herself.
In the following example the interpreter (T) is evidently uncertain about the correct term in Swedish
and decides to "test" a word by making a loan translation and combine it with an explanation. (P1 =
patient)

120 P1. Eh ¿Le puedo hacer una pregunta a él que él debe saber bien; alguna vez lo conversamos de
que acá hay bancos de organos, existen?
121 T. ¿Preguntas eso? (P1 nods.) All right. I would like to ask a question, maybe you know. We
were once talking about if there are such, eh, what could you call them, organ banks, that is where
you can give your organs for transplantation, do they have those here? 

Fig. 2-3 Are there organ banks? (After Englund Dimitrova 1991:67) [English translation by the
present author.]
In the language of linguistic minorities / immigrants direct loans, i.e. direct transfer of a word more
or less unchanged from the majority language to the minority language, are probably a very usual
form of neologism. In their training, interpreters learn to shun such word; they are often seen by
language planners and other purists as "careless" or "bad" language. One may therefore assume that
interpreters actively try to use the more or less established translations that are available for source
language terms that are missing in the other language. However, there will probably develop a kind
of "grey zone" where one chooses to use a direct loan to make communication smoother. Here are
some comments from interpreters, collected during the work on this paper (cf. Appendix 1):
• "Very high frequency of this strategy among court interpreters again, during simultaneous, not
very common in consecutive, but I've heard it". (Court interpreter, USA)
• "...minority groups tend to use direct loans, whereas professional interpreters/purists do not.
However, I have been in situations where the non-English speaker is totally incapable of
understanding proper language, that the interpreter will use a direct loan simply to facilitate
communication/understanding between parties." (Court interpreter, USA) "Sometimes the
correct term is so much longer than in the source language that a direct loan is more suitable
- especially in the case of terms a client is likely to have encountered first in the source
language. An example might be "probation" in English, which is liberta vigilita in Italian
and becomes very long in certain cases when the probation service/ officers/ pre-sentencing
reports etc. are concerned. This can make use of the correct term/an explanation followed by
a direct loan the most effective choice. On other occasions a direct loan might be unsuitable
because it has false friend associations in the target language, making a neologism
preferable." (Court interpreter, England)
To the question about whether coinage of wholly new words occurs in interpreting situation, one
interpreter answers:
"As I always have my share of work cut out for me in interpreting, I leave the coining to the
language academies. (e.g. Arab Academic Centers in Cairo, Damascus, Baghdad, and Rabat, where
new Arabic words are coined.)" (Court interpreter, USA)
It would also be impractical from a communicative point of view, if the interpreters would construct
terms during interpretation that the interlocutors would not understand. On the other hand, many
interpreters are engaged in terminological work, including creation of new terms, which are then
disseminated by interpreters and others within the different language groups.
2.4 The interpreters’ use of the strategies
2.4.1 Preliminary study
The interpreting strategies that I have presented above are based on both theoretical considerations
and analyses of authentic interpreting situations. To check the adequacy of the strategies, to see if
they are really used and to what extent, I made a preliminary study at the beginning of January
1998.
The study consisted of a survey in two parts, first a "free form" part where the interpreters gave
their comments on the strategies, and after that a short survey with multiple choice questions where
the interpreters rated their preferences for the different strategies.
In the first part of the study, I sent out a letter to the Internet mailing lists Lantra-l (translation and
interpreting), Linguist (all areas of linguistics), translat (translation studies), Terps-l (sign language
interpreting) and Courtinterp-l (court interpreting), where I presented "my" strategies and asked for
comments. Within a few days I received about a dozen replies and comments - and in addition to
that, some of the comments had started small discussion "threads" on Lantra-l, the most active of
the groups.
The comments are in appendix 1.
On the basis of the comments I removed the last strategy, coining of a new word. My initial
hypothesis that this is not a feasible alternative was corroborated by the comments I received. This
left me with the following five strategies:
1. omission
2. near equivalent
3. explanation
4. loan translation
5. direct loan
I published a simple questionnaire on a Web page and sent another letter to the above-mentioned
mailing-lists, where I presented the questions, the alternative answers and the URL of the Web
page.
This time, I narrowed the target group to court interpreters. Within about 10 days a total of 30
people had responded to the survey. All answers were anonymous, but the e-mail addresses of
respondents were automatically registered. Almost all respondents were court interpreters active on
the mailing lists mentioned, most of them living in USA or Canada.
The questionnaire of the court interpreter survey is in appendix 2.
2.4.2 Result

The Web questionnaire was answered by a total of 30 persons. The result is as follows:

It is clear that the strategies 1. omission and 5. direct loan are the least popular strategies. The
strategies that the interpreters prefer are 3. explanation and 2. approximate equivalent.

2.4.3 Comparison: Swedish community interpreters

To further test the strategies and get a stronger basis for future research, we translated the survey
into Swedish and presented it to a group of 34 community interpreters participating at a training
course at Åsa Community College in January 1998.

In the following we show the results of that survey, and to show the differences and similarities
between the earlier court interpreter survey and the Swedish one, we have combined the two results
in the same graphs.

In order to make the tendencies clearer, we have reduced the number of alternatives for each
strategy. The alternatives never/almost never and seldom have been combined to seldom, the
alternative occasionally has been retained, and the alternatives often and almost always/always have
been combined to the alternative often.
åsa = community interpreters at the Åsa community college

court = court interpreters of the WWW survey

Strategy 1, omission: The results are just about equal; omission is the least popular alternative both
among court interpreters and the Swedish community interpreters. No one has reported using this
strategy more than "occasionally".

When it comes to strategy 2, approximate equivalent, there is a slight difference in preference, in

that the Swedish interpreters avoid this strategy to a somewhat higher extent than the court
interpreters.
For strategy 3, explanation, the answers show a considerable difference between the Swedish
community interpreter and the court interpreters. The latter report to a much higher extent that they
prefer this strategy.

Strategy 4, loan translation - here one can again see a rather clear tendency; this time it is the court
interpreters who avoid this strategy much more than the Swedish interpreters do.
Finally strategy 5, direct loan. This strategy is quite controversial among the "Internet interpreters"
according to the comments from the preliminary study. It is interesting to see that the Swedish
community interpreters as opposed to the court interpreters seem to use direct loans to a rather high
degree.

2.5 Discussion

Naturally, a survey like this does not necessarily reveal the actual behaviour of interpreters - that
has to be studied in real-life interpreting sessions - but rather shows the attitudes and ideals of
individual interpreters, related to norms within society and the peer group. But attitudes and norms
are important factors for the shaping of interpreting strategies.
There are some interesting differences in the results of the court interpreter survey and the survey of
community interpreters. One factor that may have been crucial is the apparent difference in
professionalism between the groups: the court interpreters were probably highly motivated, active
professionals - their activity on the Internet mailing-lists gives proof of that - whereas the
interpreters at the Swedish training course were mostly relatively new in the profession, and some
were in fact attending their first training course ever.
Another influential factor may be the lexicographic tradition in the linguistic / cultural area from
where the interpreter comes. According to Bahumaid (1992) and Didaoui (1996) "arabisation" in
the form of loan translation, direct loan or transliteration is the most usual way of introducing
foreign, normally English or French, terms in Standard Arabic. Other languages, e.g. French and
lately the "new" languages in former Yugoslavia, have a more puristic tradition and prefer the
creation of new terms. It is possible that these different backgrounds may show in the interpreters'
attitudes towards different interpreting strategies when it comes to neologisms.
Another aspect that would be interesting to explore is the possible impact of interpreters’
personalities on their ability or aptitude as term creators, cf. section 1.2.2. Personality tests and
special tests of creativity are available, but very few such tests have to our knowledge been made on
interpreters and translators. Such examples are Henderson’s (1985) comparison of extroversion and
introversion in interpreters versus translators and Cauti’s (1988) investigation of creativity in left-
handed versus right-handed translators and interpreters.
In any case, from the interpreters’ comments to the questionnaire (cf. section 2.3.4) it seems clear
that at least more experienced interpreters have a rather nondogmatic and flexible attitude towards
the norms or conventions regarding what is considered "correct" interpreting of neologisms. The
communicative function seems to be of overriding importance:
 • .".. I have been in situations where the non-English speaker is totally incapable of
understanding proper language, that the interpreter will use a direct loan simply to facilitate
communication/ understanding between parties." "Sometimes the correct term is so much
longer than in the source language that a direct loan is more suitable."
2.5.1 The interpreter as language planner

Although interpreters usually do not like to "invent" words in the interpreting situation itself, many
of them have been active in producing glossaries and dictionaries both for their own use and for the
communities involved. It would not be far-fetched to use the great interest and the linguistic
creativity of interpreters in lexicographic work, e.g. in the creation and dissemination of new
terminology.
What is the attitude of interpreters towards official and "quasi-official" terminology in e.g.
immigrant/minority languages which have been developed and recommended by authorities,
organisations etc. and to what extent do the interpreters use these terms in their work? In other
words, to what extent can interpreters be used as assistants or agents for spreading standardised or
newly created terms? And what education do interpreters have for that task? These and other
questions which are related to the terminological aspects of creativity are explored in a separate
study (Niska forthcoming b.)
Banhamida (1989) made a study of francophone translators and interpreters, living outside France,
as adopters and agents of planned lexical innovations promoted by the French government. One of
the research questions was whether there are relationships between sociocultural, sociolinguistic,
and socioprofessional variables and (a) adoption, (b) variable adoption, or (c) rejection of planned
innovations. Indicators of the sociolinguistic profile of individuals were found to be good predictors
of adoptive usage. While the majority of respondents are members of the group which believes
translators and interpreters should be active agents of diffusion, missing data on this item suggest
that it is controversial. Mother-tongue French and years of experience were good discriminators of
group membership.
Benhamida suggests that translators and interpreters, schools training them, and terminological
organisations could be powerful agents of diffusion of planned lexical innovations primarily
through their many links with francophones world-wide. Evidence of some of the difficulties in
implementing the planning of an international language by a national government, such as loyalty to
regional sources of authority or client demands, was found in the data analysis.
2.6 Conclusion

As mentioned above, a strategy survey like the one reported does not show the actual behaviour but
merely the attitudes and ideals of individual interpreters, related to prevailing professional norms.
But attitudes and norms are important in the shaping of interpreting strategies. They are also
important factors in the decision-making processes taking part before and after interpreting
assignments.
The list of strategies in this survey is tentative, very general and incomplete, not taking into account
every possible situation where interpreters work. Further research in this area - including a
comparison between simultaneous and consecutive interpreting, and taking into account sign
language interpreting- would help to refine the theoretical basis and the method itself.

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