Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
P R O M O T I N G M E N TA L H E A LT H
identified as 1 of 2 themes with special significance.
E
ach Bright Futures visit addresses the
physical and mental health of the child therefore, highlights opportunities for pro-
or adolescent. Although consideration moting mental health in every child, begin-
of physical abnormalities or nutritional needs ning in this section and continuing to include
may come easily to the practitioner, proper specific suggestions in each of the visits.
and effective techniques to consider and Mental health can be compromised at
assess a child’s and family’s mental health are many critical times in development. The
not integral to the current standard of care. health care professional, therefore, is chal-
lenged to promote mental health in activities
that are aimed at prevention, risk assessment,
and diagnosis and to offer an array of appro-
priate interventions. Common risk factors for
child behavioral and mental health problems
include2:
• Genetic risk factors (eg, congenital
developmental disability)
• Chronic medical illness
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professionals often have limited access to score on the PSC suggests the need for fur-
professionals with appropriate training and ther evaluation.
skills to assist them with behavior screening, Screening does not provide a diagnosis for
treatment, and referral issues.11 a mental health disorder, however. Screening
Pediatric behavioral, developmental, and indicates the severity of symptoms, assesses
mental health issues are more common than the severity within a given time period, and
childhood cancers, cardiac problems, and provides a way to begin a conversation about
renal problems combined. However, research mental health issues. Health care profession-
has repeatedly shown that primary care als must be adept at identifying mental
physicians recognize less than 30% of chil- health concerns and determining whether
dren with substantial dysfunction.12 This lack they are leading to impaired functioning at
of recognition is due to the necessary brevity home, school, with peers, or in the communi-
of pediatric appointments and stigma associ- ty. Providing education to the patient and
ated with mental health concerns, which parent about mental health disorders, symp-
results in hesitancy to bring up subject areas toms, causes, and treatments is an important
where no “quick fix” exists. However, in first step to help the family take charge of its
some cases, the primary care practitioner can management if a disorder does exist, avoid
assess the child’s problem and provide appro- placing blame, and allow for reasonable
priate and successful intervention. In other expectations to be set.
instances, when a problem is identified out- Health care professionals also can improve
side of the realm of her expertise, the practi- access to high-quality care for mental health
The presence of a
tioner must be able to refer the family to disorders,17 although, before seeing the child
trusting relationship
experts who can provide a complete evalua- or adolescent or the parent, they should
between the child,
tion and treatment plan. The health care pro- decide whether to provide in-office treatment
adolescent, or parent
P R O M O T I N G M E N TA L H E A LT H
fessional should try to determine whether the or refer the patient. Training and past experi-
and the health care
nature of the problem falls within her areas ence will guide this decision, but time con-
professional often
of interest and expertise before offering inter- straints to provide ongoing management also
predicts a successful
ventions. are a consideration.18 The presence of a
treatment or referral
Existing screening tools can help the health trusting relationship between the child,
process.
care professional recognize possible mental adolescent, or parent and the health care
health concerns. For example, periodic professional often predicts a successful treat-
screening for maternal depression has been ment or referral process. Child health care
recommended and found to be feasible dur- professionals in primary care should assess
ing an infant health supervision visit.13,14 It is their ability to manage mild, moderate, and
important to consider autism spectrum disor- severe emotional problems with or without
ders (ASDs) for 15-month-old children in rou- consultation. The level of health care profes-
tine developmental surveillance; in addition, sional competence, clinical need, and avail-
specific screening tools are available and ability of mental health referral should help
appropriate for the 18 and 24 Month Visits.15 dictate the conditions for referral. Referral
One of the most efficient ways for health may be appropriate in the following situa-
care professionals to improve the recognition tions:
and treatment of psychosocial problems in
• Emotional dysfunction is evident in more
children and adolescents is by using a mental
than one of the 3 critical areas of the
health screening test, such as the 35-item
child’s or adolescent’s life—home,
Pediatric Symptom Checklist (PSC)3 or the
school, and peers.
more brief PSC-17,16 which can be completed
• The patient is acutely suicidal or has
in the waiting room by a parent. A positive
signs of psychosis. 79
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mothers of infants and can seriously impair • Lack of mouthing to explore objects
the baby’s emotional and even physical well- • Excessive irritability with difficulty in
being because of neglect of the infant’s calming
needs and lack of reinforcement to the • Sad or somber facial expression (evident
infant’s engagement cues. Parental substance by 3 months of age)
abuse can have similar effects. Health supervi- • Wariness (evident by 4 months of age;
sion for the child must, therefore, include precursor to fear, which is evident by 9
monitoring the emotional health of the par- months of age)
ents or primary caregivers. • Dysregulation in sleep
• Physical dysregulation (eg, vomiting or
Patterns of Attachment diarrhea)
• Poor weight gain
Attachment describes the process of interrela-
tion between a child and her parent, and is
central to healthy mental and emotional
development. Attachment is influenced by B OX 1
parental, child-related, and environmental Attachment Patterns
factors. Health care professionals can teach Secure attachment
parents the importance of the quality of their Parent: Is sensitive, responsive, and
interaction with their infant and the impact of
available
attachment on the development of the child’s
Child: Feels valued and worthwhile; has Health care profes-
sense of self-worth, comfort, and trust.
Health care professionals should observe a secure base; feels effective; feels able to sionals can teach par-
the attachment style and pattern during clini- explore and master, knowing that parent ents the importance
cal encounters with infants and parents. They is available; and becomes autonomous of the quality of their
P R O M O T I N G M E N TA L H E A LT H
should give anticipatory guidance to assist interaction with their
Insecure and avoidant attachment
families in enhancing secure development. infant and the impact
Parent: Is insensitive to child’s cues,
Three patterns of attachment have been of attachment on the
avoids contact, and rejects
described in infants and young children— development of the
Child: Feels no one is there for him; can- child’s sense of self-
secure attachment, insecure and avoidant
attachment, and insecure attachment charac- not rely on adults to get needs met; feels worth, comfort, and
terized by ambivalence and resistance (Box 1). he will be rejected if needs for attach- trust.
ment and closeness are shown and,
Challenges to the Development of therefore, asks for little to maintain
Mental Health some connection; and learns not to rec-
ognize his own need for closeness and
I N FA N T W E L L - B E I N G
Signs of possible problems in emotional well- connectedness
being in infants include the following: Insecure attachment characterized by
• Poor eye contact ambivalence and resistance
• Lack of brightening on seeing parent Parent: Shows inconsistent patterns of
• Lack of smiling with parent or other care; is unpredictable; may be excessively
engaging adult close or intrusive and then push away;
• Lack of vocalizations and seen frequently with depressed care-
• Not quieting with parent’s voice giver
• Not turning to sound of parent’s voice Child: Feels he should keep adult
• Extremely low activity level or tone engaged because he never knows when
he will get attention back; anxious; 81
If the infant appears to have problems with protective services are for child neglect, yet
emotional development, the health care pro- this often can go undetected because the
fessional should determine the degree to physical and emotional findings can be subtle.
which the parents may be experiencing Health care professionals should learn to
depression, post-traumatic stress disorder recognize infants who are being abused or
(PTSD), substance abuse, or domestic vio- are at risk for abuse by the mother, father, or
lence. A mental health professional or a child other member of the household. If abuse is
health care professional who is skilled in suspected, the health care professional should
developmental behavior should then evaluate ask direct questions in a respectful way to
the parent-child interaction. determine whether any kind of abuse might
be occurring. Any unexplained bruises or
C H I L D M A LT R E AT M E N T A N D N E G L E C T other signs of abuse should be thoroughly
Child maltreatment or abuse can occur in any investigated.
family. Without identification and interven- Abuse and neglect at this early stage have
tion, unchecked acute and chronic stressors long-term effects on brain development and
in a household can lead to child neglect or increase the likelihood of behavioral disorders
abuse. in the child. The earlier in life the child is sub-
Many factors are associated with child mal- jected to neglect or physical or emotional
treatment, including the following: abuse, and the longer the abuse continues,
• A child who is perceived by parents to the greater the risk to her emotional and
If abuse is suspected, be demanding or difficult to satisfy behavioral development. Recognizing the risk
the health care pro- • An infant who is diagnosed with a of maltreatment or abuse to the child’s
fessional should ask chronic illness or disability healthy physical and mental development is
direct questions in a • A family who is socially isolated, without as vital as recognizing a nutritional deficiency
P R O M O T I N G M E N TA L H E A LT H
respectful way to community support or toxin exposure. Physical and mental abuse
determine whether • Mental health issues with one or both during the first few years of a child’s life can
any kind of abuse parents that have not been diagnosed cause her to develop hypervigilance and fear.
might be occurring. and treated An infant who is under chronic stress can
• A parent with career difficulties, who respond with apathy, poor feeding, with-
may see the newborn as an impediment drawal, and failure to thrive. When the infant
or burden is under acute threat, the typical “fight”
response to stress can change from crying to
Infants and toddlers are at higher risk for temper tantrums, aggressive behaviors, or
abuse and neglect than older children. inattention and withdrawal. The child can
Children who are younger than 3 years become psychologically disengaged, leading
account for more than one third of all mal- to detachment and apathy. This response, in
treated children. Forty-one percent of fatally turn, has an impact on the child’s ability to
abused children are younger than 1 year.21 A form healthy trusting relationships with adults
disproportionate number of these children are and peers. Studies show that, as children get
in families that live in poverty and experience older, those who have been abused or neg-
familial disruption. Their families live in high- lected are more likely to perform poorly in
risk environments and frequently confront school, to commit crimes, and to experience
substance abuse, mental or physical illness, emotional problems, sexual problems, and
family violence, or inadequate living condi- alcohol or substance abuse.22
tions. More than half of reports to child
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P R O M O T I N G M E N TA L H E A LT H
ments regarding suspected child mistreat- and long-term disabil-
grief, chronic sorrow, and poor adjustment.
ment. Health care professionals are mandated ity in children who are
Normal behaviors for an infant, such as cry-
reporters and should err on the side of bring- physically abused.
ing, can be frustrating, especially for parents
who are sleep deprived, depressed, or experi- ing concerns to authorities who will then
encing other stresses. At times, most parents investigate the issues. It is best practice to
feel frustrated and confused if their infant share concerns with the family and to explain
exhibits any of the following: to the family the legal obligation to report. In
general, reporting without the family’s knowl-
• Cries and can be consoled only with edge is counterproductive because it can lead
constant holding or rocking the family to further distrust the health care
• Cries and is not consoled with holding, system.
rocking, or other parent efforts
C A R I N G F O R T H E FA M I LY FAC I N G I N FA N T
• Will not go to sleep easily, or awakens
I L L N E S S O R D E AT H
at the slightest sound and then will not
Caring for the parents and family of a sick or
return to sleep
disabled child challenges the support and cri-
• Stays awake for extended periods or is
sis intervention skills of the health care pro-
perceived to need constant attention
fessional. Advances in medical science mean
• Has feeding difficulties, such as
that an increased number of families are
– Spitting up after almost every feeding
experiencing preterm birth or prenatal diag-
or vomiting frequently
nosis of a significant health condition in the
– Poor oromotor skills, poor sucking, or
infant.
feed refusal, or takes more than 30 to
40 minutes for a feeding
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secure base of trust in his family, his growing themselves and the extent to which they feel
autonomy leads to new explorations and a valued by others.
beginning identity as a distinct and capable Mental health and behavioral concerns can
person. Within the context of a positive and coalesce around a particular behavioral symp-
supportive parent-child relationship, this tom in the child. The health care professional
new growth toward autonomy and self- will want to consider underlying child-based
determined initiative forms the basis for factors, which are described in more detail in
self-esteem, curiosity about the world, and later sections. In addition, physical, psycho-
self-confidence. Steady gains are made, as logical, and social issues of a parent can
well, in the capacity for self-control and more affect the child’s emerging sense of self in
effective regulation of strong emotions, relation to others, and must be considered in
including anger, sadness, and frustration. attempting to understand the origin of a
Maturation in emotional development, along child’s behavior. Important parental issues
with new communicative skills, sets the stage include the parents’ state of physical and
for dramatic growth in social understanding mental health, their temperament, their past
and behavior. Child care programs become and present stressors, and their experiences
the arenas for practice in social interaction as a child with their own parents.
and in learning to share with others and to
express needs and feelings. From home and Patterns of Attachment
child care experiences, the child develops
Patterns of attachment between child and
important early realizations regarding morality
parent can be observed in early childhood The range of “nor-
and fair play.
and are useful in predicting healthy mal” behavior is
The increasingly self-aware young child
development as well as predicting behavioral broad and highly
grapples with complex issues, such as gender
problems and disorders in the child.26 As inde- dependent on the
P R O M O T I N G M E N TA L H E A LT H
roles, peer or sibling competition, coopera-
pendence and autonomy take center stage match between the
tion, and the difference between right and
for the child, issues of caring, connectedness, child’s and the care-
wrong. The temperamental differences that
and trust become increasingly important for a giver’s styles.
were manifested in the feeding, sleeping, and
family. Health care professionals should seek
self-regulatory behaviors of the infant are
to understand the family’s perceptions of
transformed into the varied styles of coping
these issues from their personal and cultural
and adaptation that are demonstrated by
perspectives to effectively assess strengths
the young child. Some young children appear
and concerns for the child’s development.
to think before they act; others are impetu-
As the child’s world expands during this
ous. Some children are slow to warm up,
developmental stage, she will begin to inter-
whereas others are friendly and outgoing.
act regularly with other adults beyond her
Some accept limits and rules more easily than
parents, including aunts and uncles, grand-
others. The range of “normal” behavior is
parents, day care providers, and preschool
broad and highly dependent on the match
teachers. She will develop patterns of attach-
between the child’s and the caregiver’s styles.
ment with these adults as well. Secure and
Aggression, acting out, excessive risk taking,
loving attachment in these relationships can
and antisocial behaviors can appear at this
help ensure her healthy development.
time. Caregivers need to respond with a
variety of interventions that set constructive
limits and help children achieve self-discipline.
Ultimately, healthy social and emotional
development depend on how children view
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understanding their someone else who acts poorly. This can occur
tions, and the family’s responses to the
reactions to the even when the child is in a quality child care
behavior
child’s difficulties. environment if the program or caregiver isn’t
• Broader contextual circumstances,
a “good fit” for the child’s temperament or
including family stress, family change,
personality. Asking about the child’s environ-
cultural expectations and influences, and
ment or asking for the parent’s permission to
child care or preschool experiences
speak to the caregiver directly can lead to
• Depression in the child
enlightening discussions that may enable the
The health care professional can gain a health care professional to offer effective
detailed understanding of the child’s behavior guidance.
in a particular situation in an ABC Table 1 shows ways that certain domains
(Antecedents, Behavior, Consequences) of influence can contribute, individually or in
approach,27 which consists of asking the par- combination, to the development of
ents or other caregiver who saw what hap- behavioral problems and disorders in early
pened to explain in detail: childhood. By exploring these 4 domains of
• The antecedents, or the conditions and influence with the parent, the health care
circumstances in which the behavior professional can better understand the behav-
occurs (eg, biting mainly occurs at pre- ioral problem, recognize the strengths that
school when the child is asked to stop are inherent in the child, and assist the parent
playing) and other caregivers in making adjustments
• The behavior itself when needed. Parents have expressed
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eagerness for their child’s health care profes- care provider gives to these concerns facilitate
sionals to spend more time with them on the parents’ acceptance of a mental health
behavioral concerns.28 This approach to iden- referral when indicated.
tifying strengths, anticipating developmental Families from different cultures have differ-
challenges, and solving behavioral problems ing developmental and behavioral expecta-
will be extremely helpful in supporting and tions for their children. Begin any discussion
counseling families. This evaluation is best of these issues with a dialogue about what
done at the primary care level. Health care parents expect and why. Understanding these
professionals can then assess the efforts that expectations will help the health care profes-
parents make in response to guidance and sional provide effective and appropriate sup-
the effect of those efforts on the child to port to the parents.
determine the need for further mental health
referral. The time and attention the primary
TA B L E 1
Domains of Influence
Examples of Developmental/ Temperament and Family-Child Other Environmental
Behavioral Concerns Health Status Sensory Processing29 Interactions Influences
Bedtime struggles: Does the child’s capacity What is the influence of Has the family provided Is there a quiet room for
•Trouble getting the to calm herself and the child’s temperament, a predictable and sleeping that is free of
child to sleep transition into a sleep especially: developmentally television and sibling
•Difficulties with night state seem unusually •Biologic regularity? appropriate ritual for activities? (For families
waking delayed for that child’s •Adaptability? helping the child settle living in small spaces,
P R O M O T I N G M E N TA L H E A LT H
age? Are specific health •Reactivity to sensory into sleep? this may be unattainable.)
conditions involved? input? Does the family allow Are there any changes
Was there a recent illness? her to fall asleep or tensions in the family
on her own? Is the that are likely to be felt
child feeling insecure by the child, such as
because of lack of the mother returning to
adequate time with the work, a change in child
parent? What are the care, or a new sibling?
family’s expectations
regarding where the child
sleeps? Does the child
have a transitional object?
Resistance to toilet Is the child What is the influence Is the parent’s approach Is toilet training being
training developmentally ready, of the child’s in sync with the child’s attempted during a
including showing temperament, especially: developmental status period of major change
interest? Is there any •Biologic regularity? and temperament? or high stress?
suspicion of painful •Reactivity to sensory Are there culturally What are the toileting
defecation or input? based expectations routines at child care/
constipation? •Distractibility? that are forming the preschool? Are they
parents’ expectations? compatible with home
Is there undue pressure routines?
or are there negative
reactions from parents and
others? Are there any signs
of fearfulness by the child?
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TA B L E 1 ( c o n t i n u e d )
TA B L E 1 ( c o n t i n u e d )
P R O M O T I N G M E N TA L H E A LT H
input can lead to attention span? from the parent? experiences, and
impulsive motor What is the quality of family health and
behaviors and craving the parent-child mental health conditions
of sensory stimulation. attachment? Is there should be explored.
Behavior is affection between the
disorganized, unfocused, parent and child or do
and diffuse. It can irritation and
be accompanied by frustration seem to
weaknesses in auditory predominate?
or visual-spatial
processing.30)
During the first half of the child’s second world around them. Children frequently com-
year, more specific deficits are often seen. pare themselves to others. During this time,
Red flags include: children may begin to notice the cultural dif-
ferences between their family and others as
• The child fails to orient to his name.
they begin to develop a cultural, racial, eth-
• The child shows impairment in joint
nic, or religious identity. Although they are
attention skills (ie, the child’s capacity to
initially egocentric, they become increasingly
follow a caregiver’s gaze or follow the
aware of other people’s feelings. Concrete
caregiver’s pointing, or the child’s own
thinking predominates; they are concerned
lack of showing and pointing).
primarily with the present and have limited
• The child does not seem to notice when
ability for abstract or future-oriented think-
parents and siblings enter or leave the
ing. This process evolves during the middle
room.
childhood years. As children approach adoles-
• The child makes little or no eye contact
cence, their capacity for abstract thought
and seems to be in his own world.
grows, they have the ability to think and act
• Parents complain that the child has a
beyond their own immediate needs, and they
“hearing problem” (ie, he does not
are better able to see the perspectives of
respond to speech directed at him).
other people.
• The child’s speech fails to develop as
Middle childhood also is an important time
expected.
for continued development of self-esteem
Because these signs
Because these signs of ASD are often diffi- and in the ongoing process of attachment.
of autism spectrum
cult to elicit in the context of the pediatric All children want to feel competent and
disorder are often
well visit, health care professionals must listen enjoy recognition for their achievements.
difficult to elicit in the
carefully to the observations of parents and Success at school and home is influenced by
P R O M O T I N G M E N TA L H E A LT H
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at home. These experiences can limit the connection to parents or guardians, connect-
child’s ability to continue development of self- edness is key to emotional well-being. The
esteem. The health care professional should Search Institute has identified family support
be aware of these developments and can (“high levels of love and support”) and posi-
support children and their families as they tive family communication as important com-
face the emerging challenges of greater inde- ponents of their 40 developmental assets.
pendence and the awareness of others’ (For more information on this topic, see the
needs, feelings, thoughts, and desires. Promoting Family Support theme.)
Children whose families are immigrants, The National Longitudinal Study of
and particularly those who live in linguistically Adolescent Health (AdHealth) has reported
isolated households (defined by the US that parent-family connectedness and per-
Census, Bureau of the Census as a household ceived school connectedness are protective
in which no one over the age of 14 speaks factors against every health risk behavior,
English very well33), may be taking on respon- except pregnancy.34 The physical presence of
sibilities far beyond those typical for this age. a parent at critical times, as well as time avail-
For example, children may serve as inter- ability, is associated with reduced risk behav-
preters for the parents in situations such as iors. Even more important are feelings of
interacting with social service agencies or warmth, love, and caring from parents.
keeping the electric company from turning
off the power. Health care professionals Challenges to the Development of
should assess children in these circumstances Mental Health Defined as a strong
to determine whether they may be experienc-
Middle childhood is often the time when positive connection to
ing excessive stress and, if so, work with fam-
mental health problems first present and it is parents or guardians,
ilies to identify community resources to
an essential time for parents to be doing all connectedness is key
P R O M O T I N G M E N TA L H E A LT H
assume the roles that the school-aged chil-
they can to promote positive social skills and to emotional well-
dren are filling.
reinforce desired behavior. The rate of identi- being.
Children with special health care needs are
no different with respect to their need to fication of psychosocial problems and mental
belong, anxiety about self-esteem, risk-taking health disorders within a primary care setting
behavior, and coming to terms with their is relatively low. Costello and Shugart35 re-
entrance into the expanding world outside of ported that pediatricians identify only 15% of
their family. However, their special health care their school-aged patients with significant
needs can present limitations or challenges to behavioral or emotional disorders. Lavigne et
a full participation in activities with their al36 found a lower detection rate of emotional
peers. Health care professionals should be and behavior problems in preschoolers by
aware of these issues and the risk for mental pediatricians as compared to problems identi-
health problems and should be prepared to fied by the Child Behavior Checklist and
respond when signs of distress emerge. confirmed by a child psychologist.
In some situations, the health care profes-
Patterns of Attachment and Connection sional can be a screener and do a thorough
assessment to determine whether the child
The concept of “attachment” in infancy and really has a problem and to refer for a more
early childhood is more appropriately in-depth diagnostic evaluation if the screen-
described as “connectedness” as the child ing indicates a problem. (For more informa-
moves through middle childhood and tion on this topic, see Bright Futures in
adolescence. Defined as a strong positive Practice: Mental Health Toolkit.3) However,
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the reality is that only one half of families • Parents who are employed and are func-
identified as needing mental health assistance tioning well at home, at work, and in
will actually follow up to receive treatment. social relationships
The techniques that a health care professional
Increasing a child’s protective factors will
uses when making a referral can help break
help him develop resiliency in the face of
down the stigma of a mental health referral.
adversity. Resilient children understand that
A minimal delay between the onset of illness
they are not responsible for their parents’ dif-
and treatment likely leads to the best out-
ficulties and are able to move forward in the
come.
face of life’s challenges. The resilient child is
Attending to these issues may be especially
one who is socially competent, with problem-
important for those living in poverty, but
solving skills and a sense of autonomy, pur-
most studies have not addressed the influ-
pose, and future.40
ence of culture, race, and systemic issues on
In a child’s early years of elementary
outcomes. Few evidence-based treatments
school, adults need to do what they can to
have taken into account the child’s social
bolster his self-confidence because this is pro-
context.
tective against depressive symptoms. Self-
P R OT E C T I V E FAC TO R S esteem is instrumental in helping children
Research studies have revealed consistently avoid behaviors that risk health and safety. In
strong relationships between the number of many cases, the development of self-esteem
protective factors, or assets, present in young is dependent on the development of social
Children who report people’s lives and the extent to which their skills. However, schools do not typically teach
more assets are less mental and emotional development will be the development of social skills and appropri-
likely to engage in positive and successful. Children who report ate behavior in the school setting.
risky health behaviors. more assets are less likely to engage in risky Health care professionals can help parents
P R O M O T I N G M E N TA L H E A LT H
health behaviors.37 The fewer the number of teach their children that failure and mistakes
assets present, the greater the possibility that are an inevitable but, ultimately, useful part of
children will engage in risky behaviors. Key life. Problems with anxiety and depression
adults in the child’s life should promote a commonly develop in middle childhood, but
strength-based model that focuses on build- their prevalence increases remarkably in early
ing these assets. Although health care profes- adolescence. Early warning signs sometimes
sionals need to recognize deficits, they also can be identified in the elementary school
should be helping the family develop the years so that full-blown psychiatric disorders
strengths that can contribute to a positive are prevented.
environment for the child.38
L E A R N I N G D I S A B I L I T I E S A N D AT T E N T I O N -
Protective factors include39: D E F I C I T / H Y P E R AC T I V I T Y D I S O R D E R
• A warm and supportive relationship The early years of elementary school are fre-
between parents and children quently the time when learning problems and
• Positive self-esteem learning disabilities (LDs) or attention-
• Good coping skills deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) first pres-
• Positive peer relationships ent. A learning disability is defined as a dis-
• Interest in, and success at, school crepancy between the actual academic
• Healthy engagement with adults outside achievement of a student and that student’s
the home intellectual potential. However, an official
• An ability to articulate feelings diagnosis of an LD usually cannot be made
before the age of 7 years. Often, initial
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behavioral signs can mask the underlying child-onset bipolar disorder. Among prepu-
neurodevelopmental disturbance. The health bertal children and adolescents with bipolar
care professional should evaluate for any disorder, a second mental health diagnosis is
signs or symptoms of inattention, impulsivity, common, including ADHD (90% of children
lack of focus, or poor academic performance and 30% of adolescents), anxiety disorders
that are not consistent with the child’s poten- (33% of children and 12% of adolescents),
tial cognitive abilities and should be prepared and conduct disorder (22% of children and
to counsel and to make referrals for evalua- 18% of adolescents). Substance use also is
tions. Early identification and intervention can highly prevalent in this population.42,43
have long-term positive effects for children Frequently, a primary care provider is the
with learning disabilities. main source of care for children with mild
ADHD is one of the most commonly diag- and moderate depression. All children and
nosed mental disorders in children, affecting families need to be asked about feelings of
up to 3% to 6% of school-aged children.3 sadness, sleep problems, and loss of interest
When a child demonstrates overactivity, in activities. Depression can go undetected. A
impulsivity, and inattention that interfere with simple question, such as, “When is the last
his ability to learn, have fun, or have relation- time you had a really good time?”, is non-
ships, he should be evaluated for ADHD. threatening but gives much information to
Family and school skills should emphasize the interviewer. Empathetic responses from
learning impulse control, building self- the person who is conducting the interview
esteem, acquiring coping skills, and building are important. Depression screening tools and
Attention-deficit/
social skills. standardized instruments for behavior prob-
hyperactivity disorder
lems can be useful.3
ANXIETY DISORDERS is one of the most
Anxiety in childhood can be a normal feeling, Bipolar disorder can present in middle
commonly diagnosed
P R O M O T I N G M E N TA L H E A LT H
but it also can lead to the appearance of childhood, although it is more common in
mental disorders in
symptoms that are similar to ADHD and adolescence or young adulthood. Children
children, affecting up
depression. If usual coping strategies do not are more likely to present in a persistently irri-
to 3% to 6% of
work or if an anxiety disorder is causing table mood than in a euphoric mood.
school-aged children.
impairment in school or in relationships, Associated signs include aggressive and
these issues need to be assessed. Girls who uncontrollable outbursts and agitated behav-
are shy tend to be at increased risk for devel- ior that can resemble ADHD. Mood lability
oping anxiety disorders,41 and children who may be evident on the same day or over the
have experienced a recent trauma may meet course of days or weeks. Reckless behaviors,
criteria for PTSD. dangerous play, and inappropriate sexual
behaviors may be present.
MOOD DISORDERS Further discussion of mood disorders can
A mood disorder, such as dysthymia or be found in Bright Futures in Practice: Mental
depression, can lead to dysfunction in multi- Health3 and in the Adolescence section of this
ple areas of a child’s emotional, social, and theme.
cognitive development. Mood disorders are
BU L LY I N G
characterized by disturbances in mood, symp-
toms of irritability and emptiness, and loss of Surveys indicate that as many as one half of
interest in usual activities. They can be all children are bullied at some time during
accompanied by reckless and destructive their school years, and at least 10% are bul-
behavior, somatic complaints, and poor social lied on a regular basis.44 Bullies come in all
and academic functioning.11 A portion of pre- shapes and sizes and ages. Children usually
pubertal children with mood disorders have become bullies because they are unhappy for
93
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some reason or do not know how to get reasons why the bullying is occurring and
along with other children. Often, children about possible solutions.
who bully grow up to become adult bullies. The following are suggestions for parents
Types of bullying include: and health care professionals in situations of
bullying45:
• Verbal: Name-calling (the most common
form of bullying) • Seek help from the child’s teacher or the
• Physical: Punching or pushing school guidance counselor. Most bully-
• Relational: Purposely leaving someone ing occurs on playgrounds, in lunch-
out of a game or group rooms, in bathrooms, on school buses,
• Extortion: Stealing someone’s money or or in unsupervised halls.
toys • Ask school administrators to find out
• Cyber-bullying: Using computers, the about programs that other schools and
Internet, or mobile phones to bully communities have used to help combat
others bullying, such as peer mediation, conflict
resolution, anger management training,
Bullying hurts everyone. Victims can be
and increased adult supervision.
physically or emotionally hurt. Witnesses also
• Ask what the child thinks should be
can become sad or scared by what they have
done. What has already been tried?
seen. A child who becomes withdrawn or
What worked and what did not? Health
depressed because of bullying should receive
care professionals can help the child
Responding in a posi-
professional help. Children who are bullied
assertively practice what to say to the
tive and accepting
experience real suffering that can interfere
bully so she will be prepared the next
manner and providing
with their social and emotional development,
time. The simple act of insisting that the
opportunities to talk
as well as their school performance. Some
bully leave her alone may have a surpris-
P R O M O T I N G M E N TA L H E A LT H
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• If it feels safe, try to stand up to the the child learn to resist the pressure for exper-
bully. This does not mean the child imentation. If talking within the family
should fight back or bully back. Instead, becomes a problem, a health care profession-
she can tell the bully that she does not al may be able to encourage the communica-
like it and that the bully should stop. tion.
Often, children who bully like to see
C O N D U C T D I S T U R BA N C E S
that they can make their target upset.
Conduct disturbances are characterized by
Otherwise, the child should try walking
negative or antisocial behaviors that range in
away to avoid the bully and seek help
severity from normal developmental varia-
from a teacher, coach, or other adult.
tions to significant mental health disorders.47
• A child who is being bullied online
Symptomatic behaviors of oppositional defi-
should not reply. Responding actually
ant disorder can include persistent temper
may make the bullying worse. Instead,
tantrums, arguing with adults, refusing to
she should tell a family member or
comply with reasonable adult requests, and
another trusted adult.
annoying others.48 Conduct disorders usually
E A R LY S U B S TA N C E U S E involve more serious patterns of aggression
Almost all children eventually will find them- toward others, destruction of property,
selves in a situation in which they must deceitfulness or theft, and serious violations
decide whether they will experiment with of rules.49
smoking, drugs, or alcohol. Health care
professionals should discuss these issues Promoting Mental Health and Emotional Positive and honest
with children before they reach adolescence. Well-Being: Adolescence—11 to 21 Years communication
Although the majority of children who exper- During adolescence, mental health is charac- between a parent and
iment with substances do not develop a terized by progression toward optimal current child is one of the
P R O M O T I N G M E N TA L H E A LT H
substance-use disorder, even occasional use and future capacity and motivation to cope best ways to prevent
can have serious consequences, such as an with stress and to be involved in personally substance use.
increased risk of health concerns, mistakes meaningful activities and interpersonal rela-
made due to impaired judgment, and motor tionships.50 The adolescent’s progression
vehicle crashes. Education about the impli- toward optimal functioning varies greatly
cations of substance use must begin in depending on individual personality. Thus,
middle childhood. Delaying initiation of health care professionals must identify normal
substance use may help future substance- ranges of development, rather than a speci-
related problems. fied outcome or end point.
Parents who smoke place their children at The development of emotional well-being
higher risk of smoking. Parents should think centers on the adolescent’s ability to effec-
about which behaviors they would like to tively cope with multiple stressors. This trait
model for their children. Positive role model- also is called psychological resilience. Effective
ing can be established by parents by not coping includes using problem-solving strate-
smoking cigarettes, banning smoking at gies for emotional management, being able
home, limiting alcohol, and active participa- to match strategies to specific situations, and
tion and monitoring of the attitudes and drawing on others as resources for social sup-
behaviors of their children. Positive and hon- port.50 Data supporting the strong effects of
est communication between a parent and resilience on reducing risk in general, and
child is one of the best ways to prevent sub- preventing violence in particular, come from a
stance use. Promotion of self-esteem and variety of sources.51-53 Cross-sectional data
avoidance of overly critical feedback can help
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from Vermont show a striking negative corre- teachers, and mental health professionals.
lation between the presence of protective Sociocultural differences are a significant fac-
factors and a variety of risk behaviors.38 tor in evaluating an adolescent’s emotional
National longitudinal data from the AdHealth well-being. Appropriate social norms within a
study demonstrate a similar, powerful effect majority culture may not be shared by youth
of protective factors on subsequent violence.51 outside that culture. Youth from culturally
Finally, a school-based program that focused diverse families also may experience conflicts
on teaching adolescents positive social devel- between values and expectations at home
opment was demonstrably more effective and those that arise from the mainstream cul-
than a more standard risk-reduction curricu- ture and peers from other backgrounds.
lum.52 The development of resilience is a
primary goal of successful adolescent devel- Patterns of Attachment and Connection
opment53 and can be encouraged by a variety
Connectedness with parents, legal guardians,
of counseling suggestions. Young people
and family remains a critical component of
should be encouraged to engage in pro-
the healthy development of adolescents.
social paid or volunteer community activities
Most school-aged children and youth contin-
to develop mastery of a particular skill or
ue to spend time with their parents and
activity, thus becoming more independent
maintain strong bonds with their parents. The
in responsible ways. The adolescent should
risk of psychological problems and delinquen-
experience these activities as autonomous
cy are higher in youth who are disconnected
and self-initiated. In fact, Maton54 found that
Most adolescents from their parents.57 Studies document
adolescents’ life satisfaction and self-esteem
have at least one visit reduced risk-taking behavior among youth
were predicted by their level of meaningful
per year with their who report a close relationship with their par-
activities independent of the social support
health care profes- ents.51 Adolescents and their parents have to
P R O M O T I N G M E N TA L H E A LT H
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interfere with other activities. Even less overt Some prevention programs in mental
disorders, such as LDs or difficulties in peer health care can strengthen protective factors,
relationships, often will manifest as a de- such as social skills, problem-solving skills,
pressed mood at home, tension with siblings, and social support, and reduce the conse-
or low self-esteem. Health care professionals quence of risk factors, psychiatric symptoms,
should know the symptoms of common and substance use. Unfortunately, few studies
mental health disorders in this population, are examining the impact of prevention pro-
as well as risk factors for suicide, and should grams on the incidence of new mental health
ask about these symptoms during an office cases, in part because of the large number of
visit whenever appropriate.55,56 subjects that are needed to ensure scientifi-
cally reliable findings.59
TA B L E 2
P R O M O T I N G M E N TA L H E A LT H
meaningful activities • Behaviors and activities are experienced as autonomous
• Self-directed involvement
Perspective of interested parties • Perspectives of the adolescent, parents, teachers, and, if
needed, the mental health care provider
• Adolescent’s subjective sense of well-being
• Adolescent’s behavioral stability, predictability, and
conformity to social rules
Developmental factors • Prior developmental milestones and issues
• Variations in adolescent’s cognitive, affective, social, and
biologic development
• Cohort differences in events and social context that
affect positive mental health
Sociocultural factors • Differences in values affect optimal development and
functioning
• Differences in perceived threats to positive mental
health and the risk of maladjustment
• Cultural protective factors, such as religion and values
Adapted from Compas BE. Promoting positive mental health during adolescence. In: Millstein SG, Peterson AC,
Nightingale EO, eds. Promoting the Health of Adolescents: New Directions for the Twenty-First Century. New
York, NY: Oxford University Press; 1993:159-179.
97
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98
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P R O M O T I N G M E N TA L H E A LT H
cence as they are in middle childhood. These on an adolescent’s
adolescents should not rely solely on an ado-
behaviors include persistent fits of temper, promise to not harm
lescent’s promise to not harm herself, and
arguing with adults, refusing to comply with herself, and should
should involve parents and other caretakers in
reasonable adult requests, and annoying oth- involve parents and
monitoring suicidal thoughts and gestures.
ers,48 aggression toward others, destruction other caretakers in
Parents should be advised to remove firearms
of property, deceitfulness or theft, and seri- monitoring suicidal
and ammunition from the home.73 Of impor-
ous violations of rules.49 Substance use, inter- thoughts and ges-
tance, suicide risk seems highest at the begin-
personal aggression, and other problem tures. Parents should
ning of a depressive episode, so expeditious
behaviors also tend to occur in adolescents be advised to remove
treatment or referral is crucial.56 Although no
with these disorders.70 firearms and ammuni-
evidence-based data indicate that psychiatric
tion from the home.
hospitalization prevents immediate or eventu-
al suicide, the clinical consensus is that imme-
diate hospitalization is a critical component in
preventing adult and adolescent patients who
are suicidal from committing suicide.55
S U B S TA N C E U S E A N D A BU S E
Use or misuse of alcohol, tobacco, and other
drugs is a significant health concern during
adolescence.74,75 Children of parents who
abuse substances are particularly vulnerable
to health or social problems.76 Significant
changes in drug awareness take place
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between the ages of 12 and 13 years, and cigarettes were 14 times more likely to try
substance use most often begins between marijuana and 18 times more likely to report
grades 7 and 10.77 By late adolescence, access that most of their friends smoke marijuana.
to substances and independence from par- Drug misuse and dependence are major
ents contribute to the risk for substance factors in adolescent deaths because they
abuse or dependence.78 A survey by the contribute to motor vehicle crashes, homi-
National Center on Addiction and Substance cides, and suicides. Adolescents are at
Abuse at Columbia University79 also has increased risk for unprotected sexual activity
revealed a troubling connection between and interpersonal violence while under the
adolescents who smoke cigarettes and influence of alcohol or other drugs. Other
marijuana use. Adolescents who smoked substances, such as smokeless tobacco or
B OX 2
Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System
Since 1991, the CDC has conducted a biannual national survey of 9th- to 12th-grade high-
school students. Adolescents who are in school complete the YRBSS. The actual prevalence
of substance use among the general adolescent population, which includes high-school
dropouts, is probably higher than that reflected in the YRBSS. Findings from the 2005
YRBSS72 are listed below.
Alcohol
• 25.6% of students first drank alcohol (other than a few sips) before the age of 13 years.
• 74.3% of students had 1 or more drinks of alcohol in their lifetime.
P R O M O T I N G M E N TA L H E A LT H
• 25.5% reported episodic heavy drinking (ie, 5 or more drinks of alcohol on 1 or more
occasions during the previous 30 days).
• 28.5% of these high-school students had ridden with a driver who had been drinking.
Tobacco use
• More than 50% of high-school students (54.3%) had ever tried cigarette smoking.
• 16% of students had first smoked a whole cigarette before the age of 13 years.
• 23% of students reported current cigarette use (ie, use cigarettes on 1 or more of the
preceding 30 days).
• During the 30 days preceding the survey, 8% of students had used smokeless tobacco
and 14% had smoked cigars.
Marijuana
• 38.4% of the high-school students reported having used marijuana, with 9.9% having
tried the drug before the age of 13 years.
Cocaine
• 7.6% of students had ever used cocaine (eg, powder, “crack,” or “freebase”).
• 3.4% of students had used cocaine on 1 or more of the preceding 30 days.
Inhalants, heroin, methamphetamines, and nonprescription steroids
• Reported lifetime use was 12.4% for inhalants (eg, sniffing glue, breathing the contents
of aerosol cans, or inhaling paints or sprays to get high, referred to as “huffing”).
100 • 2.4% of students reported using heroin.
• 6.3% of students reported using Ecstasy.
Bright F U T U R E S
anabolic steroids, also can lead to acute or other drug use and that “anti-tobacco mes-
chronic health problems. sages . . . be included in health promotion
Adolescents decide to use a specific drug counseling for children, adolescents, and
based on its perceived risk versus benefit and young adults based on the proven efficacy of
its perceived social approval versus disap- risk reduction from avoiding tobacco use.”
proval, as well as its availability in the com- The CRAFFT is one brief screening tool that is
munity. One study found that since the illicit appropriate for use in the adolescent primary
drug epidemic originally blossomed in the care setting.86 This screening is essential for all
1960s, many new substances have come adolescents, including those with special
onto the national scene, while only a few health care needs. Although there may be a
have receded from it.80 Because the health tendency to skip screening for children with
care professional may not be fully aware of all special health care needs because of their
the illicit drugs available81, she should talk chronic illness or developmental difference,
with adolescents about the drugs of choice in doing so is inconsistent with the approach of
their region. Data from the YRBSS also may the medical home.
provide valuable insights into the substance- The health care professional’s screening, in
using behaviors of adolescents (Box 2). combination with community prevention
efforts, are important despite barriers that
Screening and Intervention
include limited time, low self-efficacy, and lack
Major transitions, such as puberty, moving,
of reimbursement, as well as the lack of evi-
parental divorce, and school changes (eg,
dence that screening makes a difference.87-92
entering middle school), are associated with Major transitions,
Success in treating a substance abuse
increased risk for adolescent substance use.82 such as puberty, mov-
problem is more likely if treatment is begun
Adolescents, particularly those aged 12 and ing, parental divorce,
early. Early substance use has been correlated
13 years, should be asked whether they or and school changes
P R O M O T I N G M E N TA L H E A LT H
with an increased risk of abuse and depend-
their friends have ever tried, or are using, (eg, entering middle
ence in adulthood.93 The onset of early drink-
tobacco, alcohol, or other drugs. The health school), are associat-
ing has been associated with increased risk of
care professional should give anticipatory ed with increased risk
alcohol-related health and social problems in
guidance as part of routine health mainte- for adolescent sub-
adults, including dependence later in life, fre-
nance.83-85 stance use.
quent heavy drinking, unintentional injuries
The USPSTF66 recommends that all adoles-
while under the influence, and motor vehicle
cents be screened for tobacco, alcohol, and
101
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crashes.94 Table 3 and Figure 1 illustrate 2 nents that teach resistance skills and engage
models for a continuum of drug use through youth in positive activities have been success-
stages. ful.98 Involving families and communities and
Addiction could be viewed as a synonym reinforcing school lessons with a clear, consis-
for alcohol or drug dependence95 as defined tent social message that adolescent alcohol,
by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of tobacco, and other drug use is harmful, unac-
Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition.96 Alcohol or ceptable, and illegal strengthens prevention
drug dependence is also a less stigmatizing efforts.99
term for adolescents. The National Institute on Drug Abuse82 has
highlighted evidence-based examples of
Prevention and Protective Factors
effective prevention that targeted risk and
Prevention programs have been designed for
protective factors of drug abuse for the indi-
diverse target audiences in different settings.
vidual, family, and community. Based on its
The content of prevention programs varies
review of the research literature, it identified
from didactic information about alcohol,
the following family protective factors:
tobacco, and other drugs to skills develop-
ment for drug resistance or refusal. The pre- • A strong bond between children and
vention message needs to be consistent and their families
from multiple sources (ie, in the home, at • Parental involvement in a child’s life
school, in the community, and from the • Supportive parenting
medical home).82,97 School-based smoking • Clear limits and consistent enforcement
prevention programs with multiple compo- of discipline
TA B L E 3
P R O M O T I N G M E N TA L H E A LT H
102
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Outside the family setting, the most salient In 1997, Simantov et al100 conducted a
protective factors were identified as follows: cross-sectional, school-based survey of stu-
dents in grades 5 through 12. Adolescents
• Age-appropriate parental monitoring
who reported “connectedness” to their par-
(eg, curfews, adult supervision, knowing
ents were least likely to engage in high-risk
the child’s friends, and enforcing house-
behaviors. Another protective factor was par-
hold rules)
ticipation in extracurricular activities, such as
• Success in academics and involvement
exercise or after-school sports clubs. However,
in extracurricular activities
the positive impact of extracurricular activity
• Strong bonds with prosocial institutions,
was on lowering smoking, not on the risk of
such as school and religious institutions,
drinking.
and acceptance of conventional norms
against drug abuse82
FIGURE 1
P R O M O T I N G M E N TA L H E A LT H
Experimental Dependency
use (tolerance, withdrawal)
Regular Abuse
(“social”) use (continued use
despite harm)
Problem use
(adverse consequences)
Problem Stage
Source: Knight JR. Substance use, abuse, and dependence. In: Levine MD, Carey WB, Crocker AC, eds.
Developmental-Behavioral Pediatrics. 3rd ed. Philadelphia, PA: WB Saunders; 1999.101
103
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